POETIC DEVICES

What is a figure of speech? (poetic Devices)

Definition
A figure of speech is a literary device in which language is used in an unusual—or "figured"—
way in order to produce a stylistic effect. Figures of speech can be broken into two main groups:
figures of speech that play with the ordinary meaning of words (such as metaphor, simile,
and hyperbole), and figures of speech that play with the ordinary arrangement or pattern in
which words are written (such as alliteration, ellipsis, and antithesis).
Some additional key details about figures of speech:

The ancient Greeks and Romans exhaustively listed, defined, and categorized figures of speech
in order to better understand how to effectively use language. The names of most figures of
speech derive from the original Greek or Latin.

Figures of speech that play with the meaning of words are called tropes, while figures of speech
that play with the order or pattern of words are called schemes.

Figures of speech can take many forms. A figure of speech can involve a single word, a phrase,
an omission of a word or phrase, a repetition of words or sounds, or specific sentence structures.

Figures of Speech vs. Figurative Language

There's a lot of confusion about the difference between the terms "figures of speech" and
"figurative language." Most of the confusion stems from the fact that different people often use
"figurative language" to mean slightly different things. The two most common (and most
acceptable) definitions of figurative language are:

Figurative language refers to any language that contains figures of

speech. According to this definition, figurative language and figures of speech are not
quite the same thing, but it's pretty darn close. The only difference is that figures of
speech refer to each specific type of a figure of speech, while figurative language
refers more generally to any language that contains any kind of figures of speech.
Figurative language refers to words or expressions that have non-literal meanings:
This definition associates figurative language only with the category of figures of
speech called tropes (which are figures of speech that play with the literal meaning of
words). So according to this definition, figurative language would be any language that
contains tropes, but not language that contains the figures of speech called schemes.

Why Do Writers Use Figures of Speech?

Figures of speech is a category that encompasses a broad variety of literary terms, so it's difficult
to give one answer to this question. Writers use different figures of speech to achieve different
effects.

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Schemes (figures of speech that manipulate sound, syntax, and word order) can make language
more beautiful, persuasive, or memorable. Writers can use schemes to draw attention to an
important passage, to create a sound that mirrors (or contrasts with) the meaning of words, or to
give language a rhythm that draws the reader in. As schemes tend to work through sound and
rhythm, they generally produce a visceral effect, or an effect felt in the body—broadly speaking,
schemes are more sensory than intellectual.
In contrast, writers use tropes to grab the reader intellectually by adding complexity or ambiguity
to an otherwise simple word or phrase. Tropes can ask the reader to make a comparison between
two unlike things, they can impose human qualities on nonhumans, and they can mean the
opposite of what they say. Tropes engage the intellect because the reader has to be alert to the
fact that tropes do not use language at face value—a trope never means what it literally says.
All figures of speech help a writer to communicate ideas that are difficult to say in words or that
are more effectively communicated non-verbally. This could be by repeating harsh consonants to
create a scary atmosphere, or by using a metaphor to impose the qualities of something concrete
(say, a rose) onto something more difficult to define (say, love). In general, figures of speech
attempt to bring out a reader's emotion and to capture their attention by making language more
colorful, surprising, and complex.
Figures of Speech, Tropes, and Schemes
The oldest and still most common way to organize figures of speech is to split them into two
main groups: tropes and schemes.

Tropes are figures of speech that involve a deviation from the expected and literal
meaning of words.

Schemes are figures of speech that involve a deviation from the typical mechanics of a sentence,
such as the order, pattern, or arrangement of words.
The scheme/trope classification system is by no means the only way to organize figures of
speech. But it is the most common method, and is both simple and structured enough to help you
understand figures of speech.

Tropes
Generally, a trope uses comparison, association, or wordplay to play with the literal meaning of
words or to layer another meaning on top of a word's literal meaning. Some of the most
commonly used tropes are explained briefly below, though you can get even more detail on each
from its specific.
Metaphor: A metaphor is a figure of speech that makes a comparison between two unrelated
things by stating that one thing is another thing, even though this isn't literally true. For example,
if someone says "it's raining cats and dogs," this obviously doesn't literally mean what it says—
it's a metaphor that makes a comparison between the weight of "cats and dogs" and heavy rain.
Metaphors are tropes because their effect relies not on the mechanics of the sentence, but rather
on the association created by the use of the phrase "cats and dogs" in a non-literal manner. Other
examples: Love is a battlefield.

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Bob is a couch potato. Baby, you’re a firework, I am titanium. He is a tiger etc

Simile: 

A simile, like a metaphor, makes a comparison between two unrelated things. However, instead
of stating that one thing is  another thing (as in metaphor), a simile states that one thing
is like another thing. To stick with cats and dogs, an example of a simile would be to say "they
fought like cats and dogs.

She is beautiful like a flower but she stings as a bee

My faith is firm as the rock
He fought in the battle field like a lion

Personification
Definition

Personification is a figure of speech in which an idea or thing is given human attributes and/or
feelings or is spoken of as if it were human. Personification is a common form of metaphor in
that human characteristics are attributed to nonhuman things. This allows writers to create life
and motion within inanimate objects, animals, and even abstract ideas by assigning them
recognizable human behaviors and emotions.

Personification is a literary device found often in children’s literature. This is an effective use of
figurative language because personification relies on imagination for understanding. Of course,
readers know at a logical level that nonhuman things cannot feel, behave, or think like humans.
However, personifying nonhuman things can be an interesting, creative, and effective way for a
writer to illustrate a concept or make a point.

Common Examples of Personification

Here are some examples of personification that may be found in everyday expression:

My alarm yelled at me this morning.

I like onions, but they don’t like me.

The sign on the door insulted my intelligence.

My phone is not cooperating with me today.

That bus is driving too fast.

However, the mail is running unusually slow this week.

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I wanted to get money, but the ATM died.

The sunflowers hung their heads.

The school bell called us from outside.

This advertisement speaks to me.

Can you see that star winking at you?

Books reach out to kids.

My heart danced when he walked in the room.

The hair on my arms stood after the performance.

Her eyes are not smiling at us.

Apostrophe
Apostrophe - when a character in a literary work speaks to an object, an idea, or someone who
doesn't exist as if it is a living person. This is done to produce dramatic effect and to show the
importance of the object or idea.
Examples of Apostrophe:
1. Oh, rose, how sweet you smell and how bright you look!
2. Car, please get me to work today.
3. Oh, trees, how majestic you are as you throw down your golden leaves.
4. Dear love, please don't shoot me with your Cupid's bow.
Examples of Apostrophe from Literature and Song
1. Feet, don't fail me now.
2. Is this a dagger which I see before me, the handle toward my hand? Come, let me clutch thee!
I have thee not, yet I see thee still! Macbeth
3. Out, out, damned spot. Macbeth
4. Oh, Christmas tree, oh, Christmas tree, how lovely are your branches.
5. Twinkle, twinkle, little star, how I wonder what you are.

IRONY

As a literary device, irony is a contrast or absurdity between expectations for a situation and
what reality is. This can be a difference between the surface meaning of something that is said

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and the underlying meaning. It can also be a difference between what might be expected to
happen and what actually occurs. Examples are;

Telling a quiet group, “don’t everybody speak all at once”

Telling a rude customer to “have a nice day”
Walking into an empty theater and asking, “it’s too crowded”
Stating during a thunderstorm, “beautiful weather we’re having”
An authority figure stepping into the room saying, “don’t bother to stand or anything”
A comedian telling an unresponsive audience, “you all are a great crowd”
Describing someone who says foolish things a “genius”
Delivering bad news by saying, “the good news is”
Entering a child’s messy room and saying “nice place you have here”

The definition of irony can further be divided into three main types: verbal, dramatic, and
situational. We describe these types in detail below.

Types of Irony

Verbal Irony

Verbal irony takes place when the speaker says something in sharp contrast to his or her actual
meaning. The speaker often makes a statement that seems very direct, yet indicates that the
opposite is in fact true, or what the speaker really means. Looking at Alanis Morrissette’s
“Ironic” again, the one true instance of irony comes when the man whose plane is going down
says, “Well, isn’t this nice.” Clearly, the plane crash is anything but nice, and thus this utterance
conveys the opposite of the man’s true feelings. Unlike dramatic and situational irony, verbal
irony is always intentional on the part of the speaker.

Verbal irony can also consist of “ironic similes”, which are comparisons in which the two things
are not alike at all. For example, “as soft as sandpaper” or “as warm as ice.” These similes mean
that the thing in question is actually not soft or warm at all. The author Daniel Handler (who
writes with the pen name Lemony Snicket) takes ironic similes to an extreme by qualifying them
so they actually become real comparisons. For example: “Today was a very cold and bitter day,
as cold and bitter as a cup of hot chocolate, if the cup of hot chocolate had vinegar added to it
and were placed in a refrigerator for several hours.”

Dramatic Irony

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Dramatic irony occurs when the audience has more information than one or more characters in a
work of literature. This literary device originated in Greek tragedy and often leads to tragic
outcomes. For example, in Shakespeare’s Othello, the audience is aware that Othello’s best
friend Iago is villainous and attempting to bring Othello down. The audience is also aware that
Desdemona has been faithful, though Othello doesn’t know this. The audience can foresee the
imminent disaster.

Situational Irony

Situational irony consists of a situation in which the outcome is very different from what was
expected. There are contradictions and contrasts present in cases of situational irony. For
example, in The Wonderful Wizard of Oz, the citizens of the Emerald City assume that Oz is
great and all-powerful, yet the man behind the curtain is revealed to be an old man with no
special powers.

Examples are; A fire station that burns down.

Winner of a spelling bee failing a spelling test
“Sending a Christmas card to someone who is Jewish
Leaving a car wash at the beginning of a downpour
A dentist needing a root canal
Going on a blind date with someone who is visually impaired
A police station being burglarized
Purchasing a roll of stamps a day before the price to send a letter increases

IMAGERY
Definition of Imagery
As a literary device, imagery consists of descriptive language that can function as a way for the
reader to better imagine the world of the piece of literature and also add symbolism to the work.
Imagery draws on the five senses, namely the details of taste, touch, sight, smell, and sound.
Imagery can also pertain to details about movement or a sense of a body in motion (kinesthetic
imagery) or the emotions or sensations of a person, such as fear or hunger (organic imagery or
subjective imagery). Using imagery helps the reader develop a more fully realized understanding
of the imaginary world that the author has created.
 Common Examples of Imagery

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 We use imagery in everyday speech to convey our meaning. Here are some examples of
imagery from each of the five senses:
 Taste: The familiar tang of his grandmother’s cranberry sauce reminded him of his youth.
 Sound: The concert was so loud that her ears rang for days afterward.
 Sight: The sunset was the most gorgeous they’d ever seen; the clouds were edged with
pink and gold.
 Smell: After eating the curry, his breath reeked of garlic.
 Touch: The tree bark was rough against her skin.

Antithesis
Antithesis is the term used to refer to an author's use of two contrasting or opposite terms
in a sentence for effect. The two terms are set near each other to enhance or highlight the
contrast in opposite meaning.
 Sometimes, characters in literary works are the antithesis of each other. The two
characters are shown as opposites in order to highlight the good qualities of one and the
evil qualities of the other.
 Examples of Antithesis:
 1. When he became the first man to walk on the moon, Neil Armstrong said that it was a
"small step for man, but a giant leap for mankind."
 2. "It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the
age of foolishness." Charles Dickens, A Tale of Two Cities
 4. "To err is human; to forgive, divine." Alexander Pope
 5. The poem "Fire and Ice" by Robert Frost sets up a contrast between the terms "fire"
and "ice".
 6. "And let my liver rather heat with wine than my heart cool with mortifying groans.
"The Merchant of Venice, Shakespeare

Oxymoron: An oxymoron pairs contradictory words in order to express new or complex

meanings. In the phrase "parting is such sweet sorrow" from Romeo and Juliet, "sweet sorrow"
is an oxymoron that captures the complex and simultaneous feelings of pain and pleasure
associated with passionate love. Oxymorons are tropes because their effect comes from a
combination of the two words that goes beyond the literal meanings of those words.

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Hyperbole: A hyperbole is an intentional exaggeration of the truth, used to emphasize the
importance of something or to create a comic effect. An example of a hyperbole is to say that a
backpack "weighs a ton." No backpack literally weighs a ton, but to say "my backpack weighs
ten pounds" doesn't effectively communicate how burdensome a heavy backpack feels. Once
again, this is a trope because its effect comes from understanding that the words mean something
different from what they literally say. Common examples are;

 I’m so hungry I could eat a horse.

 2. She’s as old as the hills.
 3. I walked a million miles to get here.
 4. She can hear a pin drop a mile away.
 5. I died of embarrassment.
 7. She’s as tall as a beanpole.
 8. It’s raining cats and dogs.
 9. His brain’s the size of a pea.
 10. New York is the city that never sleeps.
 11. I have a ton of papers to grade.
 12. That runner’s faster than the speed of lightning.
 13. My parents are going to kill me when they find out.
 14. That was the easiest quiz in the world.
 15. I’m dying of starvation, when’s dinner?
 16. That documentary went on forever.
 17. Our car cost us an arm and a leg.
 18. It’s so hot you could fry an egg on the sidewalk.
 19. She was so mad she was spitting bullets.
 20. She’s so sweet you could get a cavity from talking to her.

Pun

Definition

Pun is a figure of speech in which a word or phrase is repeated within a sentence, but the word
or phrase means something different each time it appears. Or Pun is playing upon words. A
famous example of Pun is Benjamin Franklin's statement that: "We must all hang together, or
assuredly we shall all hang separately." In this example, the first time "hang" appears it means
"stay" or "stand," while the second time it refers to being "hanged."

 Her cat is near the computer to keep an eye on the mouse.

 When my algebra teacher retired, he wasn’t ready for the aftermath.
 Some bunny loves you.

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  Now that I have graph paper, I guess it’s time to plot something.
 Make like a tree and leave.
 This candy cane is in mint condition.
 My librarian is a great bookkeeper.
 This vacuum sucks.
 I like archery, but it’s hard to see the point.
 It’s easy to like musicians because they are very upbeat.
 If you stand by the window, I’ll help you out.
 The population of Ireland is always Dublin.
 It’s difficult for crabs to share because they are shellfish.
 Hand me that newspaper so we don’t have crosswords.

SYMBOLISM

Definition of Symbolism

When used as a literary device, symbolism means to imbue objects with a certain meaning that is
different from their original meaning or function. Other literary devices, such as metaphor,
allegory, and allusion, aid in the development of symbolism. Authors use symbolism to tie
certain things that may initially seem unimportant to more universal themes. The symbols then
represent these grander ideas or qualities. For instance, an author may use a particular color that
on its own is nothing more than a color, but hints at a deeper meaning.

Common Examples of Symbolism

We use symbols all the time in everyday life. Many people own things that have special meaning
for them, such as a gift from a loved one that represents that bond. Companies use symbols as
shorthand to represent their brand, and sports teams name themselves after fearsome animals and
people to invoke power (for example, the Detroit Lions and Minnesota Vikings, respectively).
There are also cultural symbols, such as a dove representing peace. Here are more examples of
symbolism from common life:

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Wedding rings and engagement rings: Wedding and engagement rings are worn to symbolize a
lasting union that a couple has entered into.

The American flag: The thirteen red and white stripes on the American flag symbolize the
original thirteen colonies, while the fifty stars are a symbol for the fifty states.

The five Olympic rings: The primary symbol of the Olympics is the image of five interlocking
rings. This symbol was created in 1912, and the six colors—the blue, green, black, yellow, and
red rings on a white background—were meant to be a combination of all of the colors on the
flags of the participating countries at the time. The rings now are sometimes thought to represent
the five participating regions of the world—Europe, Asia, Africa, Australia and Oceania, and the
Americas—though no color represents any specific region.

McDonald’s Golden Arches: McDonald’s is one of the largest companies in the world, with over
35,000 fast-food restaurants in 119 countries. The “golden arches”, which look like the letter
“M”, are a symbol for the company. This symbol is recognizable across the world.

Alliteration: 

In alliteration, the same sound repeats in a group of words, such as the “b” sound in:
“Bob brought the box of bricks to the basement.” Alliteration uses repetition to create a musical
effect that helps phrases to stand out from the language around them.
 A good cook could cook as much cookies as a good cook who could cook cookies.
 Black bug bit a big black bear. But where is the big black bear that the big black bug bit?
 Sheep should sleep in a shed.
 I saw a saw that could out saw any other saw I ever saw.
 A big bug bit the little beetle but the little beetle bit the big bug back.
 Show Shawn Sharon's shabby shoes.
 The big, bad bear scared all the baby bunnies by the bushes.
 Shut the shutters before the banging sound makes you shudder.
 Go and gather the green leaves on the grass.
 Please put away your paints and practice the piano.
 Round and round she ran until she realized she was running round and round.

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  I had to hurry home where grandma was waiting for her waffles.
 The boy buzzed around as busy as a bee.
 Garry grumpily gathered the garbage.
 Those lazy lizards are lying like lumps in the leaves.
 Paula planted the pretty pink poppies in the pot.
 Kim came to help us cut out a colorful kite for Chris.

Assonance: 

A scheme in which vowel sounds repeat in nearby words, such as the "ee" sound in the proverb:
"the squeaky wheel gets the grease." Assonance is a literary device in which the repetition of
similar vowel sounds takes place in two or more words in proximity to each other within a line of
poetry or prose. Assonance most often refers to the repetition of internal vowel sounds in words
that do not end the same. For example, “he fell asleep under the cherry tree” is a phrase that
features assonance with the repetition of the long “e” vowel, despite the fact that the words
containing this vowel do not end in perfect rhymes. T Like alliteration, assonance uses repeated
sounds to create a musical effect in which words echo one another—it's a scheme because this
effect is achieved through repetition of words with certain sounds, not by playing with the
meaning of words.

 Son of a gun
 The cat is out of the bag
 Dumb luck
 After awhile, crocodile
 Chips and dip
 Cock of the walk
 Goodnight, sleep tight, don’t let the bedbugs bite
 Stranger danger
 Winner, winner, chicken dinner
 Motion of the ocean
 Keep your eyes on the prize
 Lean, mean, fighting machine
 Wild child
 Surf and turf

Metonymy
This Greek word means, ’name change’

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Metonymy is a figure of speech that replaces the name of one thing with the name of something else
closely associated with it, e.g. the bottle for alcoholic drink, the press for journalism, skirt for woman,
Mozart for Mozart’s music, the Oval Office for the US presidency. A well-known metonymic saying is

The pen is mightier than the sword (i.e. Writing is more powerful than warfare).

 A word used in such metonymic expressions is sometimes called a metonym. An important kind
of metonymy is synecdoche, in which the name of a part is substituted for that of a whole (e.g.
hand for worker), or vice versa. Common examples are ”The Stage” for the theatrical profession;
’The Crown’ for the monarchy; ’The Bench’ for the judiciary; ’Dante’ for his works.

Onomatopoeia

 This Greek word means, ’name-making’, which reflects the sense and includes the formation and
use of words to imitate sounds. For example: dong, crackle, moo, pop, whiz, whoosh, zoom. It is
very common in verse and fairly common in prose and is found in many literatures at all times.

Examples are:
 Ticktock, ticktock… the sound of the clock was all that could be heard in the hospital
waiting room.
 I ordered online proofreading services with the click of a mouse.
 I knew we had finally left the city when I could hear the gentle moo of the cows in the
field.
 Quack, quack went the ducks as we threw them our stale bread.
 Zip! My dress was fastened and I was finally ready for the wedding.
 It was lovely to wake up to the tweet of the birds outside my bedroom window.
 “Compliments to the chef,” roared the giant as he let out a huge belch.
 My teeth were chattering as we waited in the freezing cold for the bus to arrive.
 I could hear their buzzing, so I knew there was a bee’s nest around here somewhere.

Allegory
Definition:

An allegory suggests a hidden meaning via the use of metaphoric examples. An allegory is a
device where the meaning of a greater, often abstract moral or political concept is conveyed with
the aid of more material objects or ideas being used as an example.

Example:

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Faith is like a stony uphill climb: a single stumble might send you sprawling but belief and
steadfastness will see you to the very top.

Allusion
Definition:

An allusion is a figure of speech whereby the author refers to a subject matter such as a place,
event, or literary work by way of a passing reference. It is up to the reader to make a connection
to the subject being mentioned.

Example:

It’s no wonder everyone refers to Mary as another Mother Teresa in the making; she loves to
help and care after people everywhere, from the streets to her own friends. In the example the
author uses the mention of Mother Teresa to indicate the sort of qualities that Mary has.

Amplification

Definition:

Amplification refers to a literary practice wherein the writer embellishes the sentence by adding
more information to it in order to increase its worth and understandability. When a plain sentence
is too abrupt and fails to convey the full implications desired, amplification comes into play
when the writer adds more to the structure to give it more meaning.

Example:

Original sentence: “The thesis paper was difficult.” After amplification: “The thesis paper was
difficult: it required extensive research, data collection, sample surveys, interviews and a lot of
fieldwork.”

Anagram

Definition:

Anagrams are an extremely popular form of literary device wherein the writer jumbles up parts
of the word to create a new word. From the syllables of a phrase to the individual letters of a
word, any fraction can be jumbled to create a new form. Anagram is a form of wordplay that
allows the writer to infuse mystery and a little interactive fun in the writing so that the reader can
decipher the actual word on their own and discover a depth of meaning to the writing.

Example:

An anagram for “debit card” is “bad credit”. As you can see, both phrases use the same letters.
By mixing the letters a bit of humor is created.

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Analogy

Definition:

An analogy is a literary device that helps to establish a relationship based on similarities between
two concepts or ideas. By using an analogy we can convey a new idea by using the blueprint of
an old one as a basis for understanding. With a mental linkage between the two, one can create
understanding regarding the new concept in a simple and succinct manner.

Example:

In the same way as one cannot have the rainbow without the rain, one cannot achieve success
and riches without hard work.

Anastrophe

Definition:

Anastrophe is a form of literary device wherein the order of the noun and the adjective in the
sentence is exchanged. In standard parlance and writing the adjective comes before the noun but
when one is employing an anastrophe the noun is followed by the adjective. This reversed order
creates a dramatic impact and lends weight to the description offered by the adjective.

Example:

He spoke of times past and future, and dreamt of things to be.

Asyndeton
Definition:
Asyndeton refers to a practice in literature whereby the author purposely leaves out conjunctions
in the sentence, while maintaining the grammatical accuracy of the phrase. Asyndeton as a
literary tool helps in shortening up the implied meaning of the entire phrase and presenting it in a
succinct form. This compact version helps in creating an immediate impact whereby the reader is
instantly attuned to what the writer is trying to convey. Use of this literary device helps in
creating a strong impact and such sentences have greater recall worth since the idea is presented
in a nutshell.

Example:
1. Read, Write, Learn.
2. Watch, Absorb, Understand.
3. Reduce, Reuse, Recycle.

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Cacophony
Definition:
A cacophony in literature refers to the use of words and phrases that imply strong, harsh sounds
within the phrase. These words have jarring and dissonant sounds that create a disturbing,
objectionable atmosphere.

Example:
His fingers rapped and pounded the door, and his foot thumped against the yellowing wood.

Caesura
Definition:
This literary device involves creating a fracture of sorts within a sentence where the two separate
parts are distinguishable from one another yet intrinsically linked to one another. The purpose of
using a caesura is to create a dramatic pause, which has a strong impact. The pause helps to add
an emotional, often theatrical touch to the sentence and conveys a depth of sent iment in a short
phrase.

Example:
Mozart- oh how your music makes me soar!

Circumlocution
Definition:
Circumlocution is a form of writing where the writer uses exaggeratedly long and complex
sentences in order to convey a meaning that could have otherwise been conveyed through a
shorter, much simpler sentence. Circumlocution involves stating an idea or a view in an indirect
manner that leaves the reader guessing and grasping at the actual meaning.

Example:
Instead of writing “At 8 pm he arrived by car for the dinner party.” the author writes, “Around 3
hours after sunset, it was winter at the time, the man arrived in a combustion engine driven piece
of technology with four wheels to join other bipedal creatures in the ingestion of somewhat large
quantities of food and drink while having discourse around a large wooden mesa designed for
such a purpose”.

Example:
John tried hard to convince himself that his Hollywood dreams were worth the struggle but his
parents, and his inner voice of reason, failed to agree.

Connotation
Definition:
Connotations are the associations people make with words that go beyond the literal or
dictionary definition. Many words have connotations that create emotions or feelings in the
reader.

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Example:
And once again, the autumn leaves were falling.

This phrase uses ‘autumn’ to signify something coming to an end.

Consonance
Definition:
Consonance refers to repetition of sounds in quick succession produced by consonants within a
sentence or phrase. The repetitive sound is often found at the end of a word. Consonance is the
opposite of assonance, which implies repetitive usage of vowel sounds.

Example:
He struck a streak of bad luck.

Denotation
Definition:
Denotation refers to the use of the dictionary definition or literal meaning of a word.

Example:
They built a house.

In the above sentence, house is meant literally as in a building where a family lives. If the word
“home” was used instead in the above sentence in place of “house”, the meaning would not be so
literal as there are many emotions associated with the word “home” beyond simply the structure
where people live.

Ambiguity Definition
Ambiguity Definition

Ambiguity, or fallacy of ambiguity, is a word, phrase, or statement which contains more than one
meaning. Ambiguous words or statements lead to vagueness and confusion, and shape the basis
for instances of unintentional humor.

For instance, it is ambiguous to say “I rode a black horse in red pajamas,” because it may lead us
to think the horse was wearing red pajamas. The sentence becomes clear when it is restructured
as, “Wearing red pajamas, I rode a black horse.”

Similarly, same words with different meanings can cause ambiguity, such as in, “John took off
his trousers by the bank.” It is funny if we confuse one meaning of “bank,” which is a building,
to another meaning, which is “an edge of a river.” Context usually resolves any ambiguity in
such cases.

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2 .ELEMENTS OF POETRY

Poetry is composed of various elements which form its structure and meaning. Unlike
prose, the content of a piece follows a flow that can create a great impact on the  writing
template . From its rhythm to the lines of your poem, every poet must learn about these
elements in order to create a piece that’s worth remembering.

Line
It’s not hard to understand what a line is in poetry. It’s similar to a sentence, except that
writers aren’t obliged to use periods to end each line. This functions as a natural pause to
signal a break in the flow. In most cases, this is considered to be a tool that controls the
rhythm of your piece. Remember, the way you break up these lines can greatly impact  the
overall essence of the poem.

Stanza
Stanzas are basically the equivalent of a paragraph in an essay or short story. This is
composed of a series of lines that are grouped together to form the structure of a poem.
These lines may vary depending on the type of poem being crafted. For instance, a poem
with a stanza comprised of two lines is called a couplet, while three-line stanzas refer to a
tercet. Other examples include quatrain (4 lines), quintain also known as quintet (5 lines),
sestet (6 lines), septet (7 lines), octave (8 lines). Quatrain is considered to be one the most
popular of all, considering how easy it is to group rhyming words in such structure.

Rhythm
Rhythm and rhyme refer to two different concepts, wherein rhythm can include rhyme but
does not need to. Including similar sounding words or sounds to make each line of your
piece match is an excellent way to make your poem memorable for your audience.
However, there are also a number of well-crafted poems out there that do not have rhyme.
These type of poems are often more difficult to craft, as they do not rely on rhyme to make
it colorful.

The following example follows an AABB rhyme scheme:

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And so our start was touch of dawn,
with amber hue, for I was drawn
to eyes so welcoming and warm
I never guessed you’d do me harm.

– Cinder Girl by Geraldine Taylor

To make a poem rhythmic without the use of rhyme, you can add a recurring pattern of
syllables into a single line. The best way to determine whether or not this rhythmic meter
exists is to read the poem aloud, and then pay close attention to the stressed and unstressed
syllables included. There are various poems that do not contain rhyming words, but do
make use of consonance and assonance examples  to add rhythm.

Theme
What’s a poem without a theme? This element is the general idea that a poet wants his or
her readers to grasp. This could be anything from a story to a thought that is being
portrayed in the poem. Without such, it would be difficult for readers to understand the
overall purpose and message that a poet wishes to convey.

Conflict
Definition:
It is a literary device used for expressing a resistance. The protagonist of the story finds in
achieving his aims or dreams. The conflict is a discord that can have external aggressors or can
even arise from within the self. It can occur when the subject is battling his inner discord, at odds
with his surroundings or it may be pitted against others in the story.

Diction
Definition:
Diction is the distinctive tone or tenor of an author’s writings. Diction is not just a writer’s
choice of words it can include the mood, attitude, dialect and style of writing. Diction is usually
judged with reference to the prevailing standards of proper writing and speech and is seen as the
mark of quality of the writing. It is also understood as the selection of certain words or phrases
that become peculiar to a writer.

Flashback
Definition:
Flashback is a literary device wherein the author depicts the occurrence of specific events to the

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reader, which have taken place before the present time the narration is following, or events that
have happened before the events that are currently unfolding in the story.

Foreshadowing
Definition:
The literary device foreshadowing refers to the use of words or phrases that set the stage for the
story to unfold. It gives the reader a hint of something that is going to happen without revealing
the story or spoiling the suspense. Foreshadowing is used to suggest an upcoming outcome to the
story.

Tone
Definition:
The tone of a literary work is the perspective or attitude that the author adopts with regards to a
specific character, place or development. Tone can portray a variety of emotions ranging from
solemn, grave, and critical to witty, wry and humorous. Tone helps the reader ascertain the
writer’s feelings towards a particular topic and this in turn influences the reader’s understanding
of the story.

Prologue
Definition:
A prologue can be understood to be a sort of introduction to a story that usually sets the tone for
the story and acts as a bit of a backgrounder or a “sneak peek” into the story. Prologues are
typically a narrative ‘spoken’ by one of the characters and not from the part of the author.

Nemesis
Definition:
In literature, the use of a nemesis refers to a situation of poetic justice wherein the positive
characters are rewarded and the negative characters are penalized. The word also sometimes
refers to the character or medium by which this justice is brought about as Nemesis was the
patron goddess of vengeance according to classical mythology.

Plot
Definition:
The plot usually refers to the sequence of events and happenings that make up a story. There is
usually a pattern, unintended or intentional, that threads the plot together. The plot basically
refers to the main outcome and order of the story. There is another kind of plot in literature as
well; it refers to the conflict or clash occurring as a part of the story. The conflict usually follows

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3 regular formats: a) characters in conflict with one another b) characters in conflict with their
surroundings and c) characters in conflict with themselves.

Example:
Many date movies follow a similar simple plot. Boy meets girl, boy loses girl, boy wins girl back
in the end.

Setting
Definition:
In literature, the word ‘setting’ is used to identify and establish the time, place and mood of the
events of the story. It basically helps in establishing where and when and under what
circumstances the story is taking place.

Point of View

Definition:

Point of view is the manner in which a story is narrated or depicted and who it is that tells the
story. Simply put, the point of view determines the angle and perception of the story unfolding,
and thus influences the tone in which the story takes place. The point of view is instrumental in
manipulating the reader’s understanding of the narrative. In a way, the point of view can allow or
withhold the reader access into the greater reaches of the story.

Two of the most common point of view techniques are the first person, wherein the story is told
by the narrator from his or her standpoint and the third person wherein the narrator does not
figure in the events of the story and tells the story by referring to all characters and places in the
third person with third person pronouns and proper nouns.

Suspense
Definition:
Suspense is the intense feeling that an audience goes through while waiting for the outcome of
certain events. It basically leaves the reader holding their breath and wanting more information.
The amount of intensity in a suspenseful moment is why it is hard to put a book down. Without
suspense, a reader would lose interest quickly in any story because there is nothing that is
making the reader ask, “What’s going to happen next?” In writing, there has to be a series of
events that leads to a climax that captivates the audience and makes them tense and anxious to
know what is going to happen.

Character
All stories need certain necessary elements. Without these elements, literary works often fail to
make sense. For instance, one of the essential elements of every story is a plot with a series of
events. Another important element is a character. A character can be any person, a figure, an

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inanimate object, or animal. There are different types of characters, and each serves its unique
function in a story or a piece of literature.

Characterization
Definition:
Characterization in literature refers the step by step process wherein an author introduces and
then describes a character. The character can be described directly by the author or indirectly
through the actions, thoughts, and speech of the character.

Parallelism
Parallelism is a grammatical and rhetorical term for creating a sense of linguistic balance by
repeating elements within a sentence, over the course of several sentences, or in a longer work
or speech.

In grammar, it refers to ensuring agreement in elements like number, verb tense, and adjective
types. Maintaining this balance keeps writing clean, concise, and comprehensible. The
rhetorical definition involves using this balance as a device to make speeches and works of
literature more impactful.

Examples

You may recognize some of these common sayings, all of which contain parallelism:

 “What you see is what you get.”

 “Easy come, easy go.”
 “Nothing ventured, nothing gained.”
 “If you can’t beat ‘em, join ‘em.”

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POETRY AND KINDS OF POETRY
Definitions of Poetry
The word ’Poetry’ has been derived from the Greek word ‘poetes’ which means, doer, creator. Different
critics have defined poetry in different ways but no definition covers the soul of this literary genre. It is a
comprehensive term which can be taken to cover any kind of metrical composition. However, it is usually
employed with reservations, and often in contradistinction to verse. For example, we should describe
Shakespeare’s sonnets as poetry, and the wittily ingenious creations of Ogden Nash as verse; though both
are in verse. We speak of light verse’ rather than ’light poetry’. The implications are that poetry is a
superior form of creation; not necessarily, therefore, more serious. Aristophanes, Chaucer, Ben Jonson,
Donne, Marvell, Pope and Auden, to name a few have all written witty and humorous poems.

Wordsworth, a believer in the personal view of art, says;

”All good poetry is the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings by a man....who has also thought long
and deeply. Our thoughts are the representatives of all our past feelings. ” This leads to the famous
saying that ”Poetry takes its origin from emotions recollected in tranquility. ”

According to Virgil:

Poetry is as charming to our ear as sleep to the weary.

Keats speaks of poetry as under:

If poetry comes not as naturally as leaves to a tree, it had better not come at all.

Horace goes to the extent:

Poets were the first teachers of mankind.

According to Aristotle:

”Poetry is finer and more philosophical than history; for Poetry expresses the universal, and history
only the particular.

While Carlyle is of the opinion:

Poetry is the musical thought.

Mathew Arnold calls it a mode of expression:

”Poetry is simply the most beautiful, impressive, and widely effective mode of saying things.”

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S. T. Coleridge says:

”Prose-words in their best order: poetry-the best words in

their best order. ”

Pure poetry touches the universal longing for a perfect world, which Yeats describes in ”The Lake
oflnnisfree”-

Kinds of Poetry
Generally, poetry is divided into two, subjective and objective poetry. Subjective poetry suggests that
the poet is primarily concerned with conveying personal experience and feeling - as an autobiography.
Subjectivity is considered by many competent critics to be the ultimate test of lyric as distinguished from
epic, ballad, or purely narrative poetry, and whether or not it is wise to make subjectivity the final court of
appeal; its presence in all the finest lyrical verses cannot be denied.

For example, a lyrical poetry is subdivided into the Elegy, the Ode and the Sonnet. But the objective
poetry, on the contrary, suggests that the poet is outside the artistic work. He stands detached and
expels himself out the work.

Impersonal or objective poetry may be divided into narrative and dramatic poetry. Narrative poetry is
further divided into the Ballad, the Epic, Metrical Romance and the Idyll.

Different Forms of Poetry

The division of poetry takes place from the point of view of the poet’s preservation of his material. The
distinction is simple:

In dramatic poetry, the poet lets the characters of the story speak their own words

2. In lyric poetry, the poet speaks his own moods, thoughts and aspirations.

3. In narrative poetry, the poet tells a story as if he had been a watcher, but not participant, in the events.

4. An epic is a lon g narrative poem dealing with heroic event, usually with supernatural elements and
participation in the action.

5. And didactic poetry that which teaches or points a moral was once popular and is still encountered. It
is regarded at best as a low flight of poetry.

SUBJECTIVE POETRY

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1. LYRIC

The Lyric: Introduction

Lyric has been as a song to be sung with the accompaniment of a lyre (lyra), a stringed musical
instrument. A song is still called a lyric but we also use the term loosely to describe a particular kind of
poem in order to distinguish it from narrative or dramatic verse of any kind.

A lyric is usually fairly short, not often longer than fifty or sixty lines, and often only between a dozen/12
and thirty lines; and it usually expresses the feelings and thoughts of a single speaker in a personal and
subjective fashion.

The range and variety of lyric verse is immense/huge, and lyric poetry, which is to be found in most
literatures, comprises the bulk of all poetry. Chaucer, the father of English poetry, made his contributions
to lyric poetry. Chaucer is not usually thought of as a lyric poet at all, yet in all his writings there is
present the sense of music. Before Chaucer, lyric was cultivated and developed by the Anglo-Saxon
writers. Anglo-Saxon lyrics are uniformly elegiac in tone and religious in temper, and can be classed
among laments, real and imaginary.

”From rainbow clouds there, flow not

Drops so bright to see,

As from thy presence showers a rain of melody”.

Keats is also a musical artist in words, and lines like,

Charm d magic casement opening on the foam

Of perilous seas in faery lands forlorn.

Forlorn! the very ward is like a bell

To toll me back from these to my sole self

exhibit the greatness of the poet.

ELEGY
Literally speaking, ’elegy has been derived from Greek, meaning, ’lament’.

In Classical literature an elegy was any poem with subjects: death, war, love and similar themes. The
elegy was also used for epitaphs and commemorative verses, and very often there was a mourning strain
in them. In the 16 century, an elegy has come to mean a poem of mourning for an individual, or a lament
for some tragic event.

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 In 16th century, Donne wrote Elegies. His Picture, and Elegie. On his Mistris. Later the term came to be
applied more and more to a serious meditative poem, the kind that Coleridge was hinting at when he
spoke of elegy as the form of poetry ’natural to a reflective mind’. English literature is especially rich in
this kind of poetry, motif with the qualities of the lyric and which, at times, is closely akin to the lament
and the dirge.

Pastoral Elegy
The major elegies belong to pastoral elegy, the origins of which are to be found in the pastoral laments of
three Sicilian poets: Theocritus, Moschus and Bion influenced Milton’s Lycidas, Shelley’s Adonais and
Matthew Arnold’s Thyrsis’, and Bion’s Lament for Adonis, on which Shelley partly modelled his
Adonais. Spenser was one of the earliest English poets to use for elegy what are known as the pastoral
conventions; namely in Astrophil, an elegy for Sir Philip Sidney. It is a minor work but important in the
history of the genre. Spenser also wrote Daphnaid.

The conventions of pastoral elegy are approximately as follows:

(a) The scene is pastoral. The poet and the person he mourns are represented as shepherds,

(b) The poet begins with an invocation to the Muses and refers to diverse mythological characters during
the poem

(c) Nature is involved in mourning the shepherd’s death. Nature feels the wound, so to speak

(d) The poet inquires of the guardians of the dead shepherd where they were? when death came

(e) There is a procession of mourners

(f) The poet reflects on divine justice and contemporary evils

(h) At the end there is a renewal of hope and joy, with the idea expressed that death is the beginning
of life.

ODE
Literally, ’ode’ is a Greek word meaning, ’song’. An ode is expected to show an unusually free flow of
feeling and imagery. It is often in the form of an address, elevated in tone and style.

Sir Ednrand Gosse defines it as: Any strain of enthusiastic and exalted lyrical verse, directed to a fixed
purpose, and dealing progressively with one dignified theme. ”

Features of an Ode

The main features are an elaborate stanza-structure, a marked formality and state lines in tone and style

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(which make it ceremonious), and lofty sentiments and thoughts. In short, an ode is rather a grand poem;

a full-dress poem.

Kinds of Odes
We can distinguish two basic kinds: the public ODE and the private ODE.

The public is used for ceremonial occasions, like funerals, birthdays, state events;

The private often celebrates rather intense, personal, and subjective occasions;

It is inclined to be meditative, reflective. Tennyson’s Ode on the Death of the Duke of Wellington is an
example of the former;

Keats’s Ode to a Nightingale, an example of the latter.

Ode is further divided in two categories:

1. Pindaric Ode

2. Horatian Ode

1. Pindaric Ode

Pindar: the greatest lyric ancient poet is the father of this kind of ode. Ben Jonson was the first to write
one in the Pindaric tradition; namely, Ode to Sir Lucius Cary and Sir H. Morison,

2. Horatian Ode

This kind of ode has been named after Horace who imitated Pindar, but with great modifications Andrew
Marvell wrote his Horatian Ode upon Cromwell’s Return from Ireland, and Abraham Cowley published
his so-called Pindaric Odes, dispensing with the strophic arrangement. His stanzas were free and varied;
so are the lines and meters. This flexibility had much influence on later writers, including Dryden. His
four main contributions to the form all come into the Pindaric and public phylum and are among the finest
odes in our language. They are: Threnodia Augustalis; Ode to the Memory of Mrs. Anne KiHigrew; Song
for St Cerilia’s Day; and Alexander’s Feast. One would have expected Milton to favour the ode form, but
he never described any of his poems as such. However, his Ode on the Morning of Christ’s Nativity is all
that one would expect of an ode. Its more famous examples are Wordsworth’s ’Ode to Buty’ and Shelly’
Ode to the West Wind.

SONNET

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Literally, ’Sonnet’ means ’sound’ or a short song.

It is short lyric comprising fourteen lines. The term sonnet is derived from the Italian word sonetto, both
meaning little song. By the thirteenth century, it had come to signify a poem of fourteen lines following a
strict rhyme scheme and logical structure.

The conventions associated with the sonnet have changed during its history. Traditionally, English poets
usually use iambic pentameter when writing sonnets.

The three basic sonnet forms are as under:

(a) The Petrarchan, which comprises an octave rhyming abbaabba and a sestet, rhyming cdecde

or cdcdcd, or in any combination except a rhyming couplet;

(b) The Spenserian of three quatrains and a couplet, rhyming abab, bcbc, cdcd, ee;

(c) The Shakespearean, again with three quatrains and a couplet, rhyming abab, cdcd, efef, gg.

The sonnet was introduced into English by Thomas Wyatt in the early 16th century. His sonnets and those
of his contemporary the Earl of Surrey were chiefly translations from the Italian of Petrarch and the
French of Ronsard and others.

Sir Philip Sidney’s sequence Astrophel and Stella started a tremendous vogue for sonnet sequences: the
next two decades saw sonnet sequences by William Shakespeare, Edmund Spenser, Michael Drayton,
Samuel Daniel, Fulke Greville, William Drummond of Hawthornden, and many others. These sonnets
were all essentially inspired by the Petrarchan tradition, and generally treat of the poet’s love for some
woman; the exception is Shakespeare’s sequence. In the 17th century, the sonnet was adapted to other
purposes, with John Donne and George Herbert writing religious sonnets, and John Milton using the
sonnet as a general meditative poem. Both the Shakespearean and Petrarchan rhyme schemes were
popular throughout this period, as well as many variants. ’

Sonnet in England

Soon after the introduction of the Italian sonnet, English poets began to develop a fully native
form. These poets included Sir Philip Sidney, Michael Drayton, Samuel Daniel and William
Shakespeare. The form is often named after Shakespeare, not because he was the first to write in
this form but because he became its most famous practitioner. The form consists of three
quatrains and a couplet. The couplet generally introduced an unexpected sharp thematic or
imagistic”turn”. The usual rhyme scheme was a-b-a-b, cd-c-d, e-f-e-f, g-g.

The sonnet came into the English language via Sir Thomas Wyatt and the Earl of Surrey early in the 16th
century and it was the Petrarchan form which they imported. However, it was not until the last decade of
the 16th c. that the sonnet was finally established in England. Surrey established the rhyming scheme of
abab, cdcd, efef, gg and it was this form that was most used in England in the later

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The first major sonnet cycle was Astrophil and Stella, written by Sir Philip Sidney and printed in 1591.
There followed in rapid succession Daniel’s Delia, Lodge’s Pbillis, Constable’s Diana, Drayton’s Idea’s
Mirror and Spenser’s Amoretti. There were many other sequences of lesser note.

Petrarchan Sonnet
The Petrarchan sonnet consisted of two quatrains to which were added two tersest. The earliest sonnets
are attributed to Giacomo da Lentino of the Sicilian School. But the form may have been invented by
another poet at the court of the Emperor Frederick II in Sicily. At any rate, throughout the later Middle
Ages, the form was used by all the Italian lyric poets, notably Guinicelli, Cavalcanti and Dante. They
usually used it for love poetry and more particularly for that semi-Platonic and semi-religious devotion to
the Lady or Donna which subsequently became a cliche of love poetry. It was Petrarch, more than
anyone, who established the sonnet as one of the major poetic forms.

The Spenserian Sonnet

A variant on the English form is the Spenserian sonnet, named after Edmund Spenser in which the rhyme
scheme is a-b-a-b, b-c-b-c, c-d-c-d, e-e. In a Spenserian sonnet there does not appear to be a requirement
that the initial octave sets up a problem which the closing sestet answers as is the case with a
Shakespearean sonnet. Instead, the form is treated as three quatrains connected by the interlocking rhyme
scheme and followed by a couplet. The linked rhymes of his quatrains suggest the linked rhymes of such
Italian forms as terza rima. This example is taken from Amoretti:

Shakespeare’s sonnets
The greatest sequence of all was Shakespeare’s sonnets, not printed until 1609, but some had circulated in
manuscript for at least eleven years before. He wrote 154 sonnets, from which illustrate the form:

OBJECTIVE POETRY

The subject matter of objective poetry is supplied by external objects like deeds, happenings,
things that are around us. As far as the objective poetry is concerned the poet functions as an
observer and describes what he has seen or heard.

In objective poetry the poet focuses his attention on the object that appeals to one of the five
senses. The objective poetry is older and is a product of uncivilized races. The epic and drama
can be considered the forms of objective poetry.

Ballad
The word derives from Latin and Italian ballare to dance. Fundamentally a ballad is a song that tells a
story and originally was a musical accompaniment to a dance.

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It is a form of verse to be sung or recited and characterized by its presentation of a dramatic or exciting
episode in simple narrative form.

We can distinguish certain basic characteristics common to large numbers of ballads:

 the beginning is often abrupt;

 the language is simple;
 the theme is often tragic (though there are a number of comic ballads);
 there is often a refrain (a line repeated at the end of a stanza or part).
 ballad usually deals with a single episode;
 the events leading to the crisis/ emergency are related quickly;
 there is minimal detail of surroundings;
 there is a strong dramatic element;
 there is considerable intensity and closeness in the narration;
 the narrator is impersonal;
 Imagery is sparse and simple.

Kinds of Ballad
We may distinguish further between two basic kinds of ballad;

The folk or traditional ballad and

The literary ballad.

The former is anonymous and is transmitted from singer to singer by word of mouth. It thus belongs to
oral tradition. In this manner ballads have been passed down from generation to generation over centuries.
Inevitably, this has led to many variations of one particular story. The folk ballad has tended to flourish
among illiterate or semi-literate peoples in rural environments, and is still a living tradition in northern
Greece, in parts of the central Balkans and in Sicily. Faroese and Icelandic ballads continue to add to the
corpus of traditional ballads.

The letter kind of ballad is not anonymous and is written down by a poet as he composes it. These
considerations apart, ballads of both traditions have distinct similarities.

THE EPIC
An epic is a long narrative poem dealing with heroic achievements and eternal/ever living human
problems in a style marked with seriousness, earnestness and dignity.

An epic is a long narrative poem, on a grand scale, about the deeds of warriors and heroes.

It is a polygonal, heroic story incorporating myth, legend, folk tale and history. Epics are often of
national significance in the sense that they embody the history and aspirations of a nation in a lofty or
grandiose manner.

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 Characteristics of an Epic
There are several characteristics of an epic , which distinguishes it from other forms of poetry .
They are discussed below:

 The first and foremost characteristic of an epic is its bulky size . An epic is an extensive
and prolonged narrative in verse. Usually, every single epic has been broken down in to multiple
books.
 Another essential feature of an epic is the fact that it dwells upon the achievements of a
historical or traditional hero, or a person of national or international significance. Every epic
extolls the velour, deeds, bravery, character and personality of a person, who is having incredible
physical and mental traits.
 Exaggeration is also an important part of an epic. The poet uses hyperbole to reveal the
prowess of a hero. He doesn’t think twice to use exaggeration to make an impression on the
audience.
 Supernaturalism is a must-have feature of an every epic. Without having to use
supernatural elements, no epic would certainly produce awe and wonder. There are certainly
gods, demons, angels, fairies, and use of supernatural forces like natural catastrophes in every
epic. Milton’s Paradise Lost, Homer’s Iliad, Beowulf and Spenser’s Faerie Queen are replete
with supernatural elements.
 Morality is a key characteristic of an epic. The poet’s foremost purpose in writing an epic
is to give a moral lesson to his readers. For instance, Johan Milton’s Paradise Lost is a perfect
example in this regard. The poet wants to justify the ways of God to man through the story of
Adam. This is the most didactic theme of the epic.
 The theme of each epic is sublime, elegant and having universal significance. It may not
be an insignificant theme, which is only limited to the personality or the locality of the poet. It
deals with the entire humanity .Thus; John Milton’s Paradise Lost is a great example in this
regard. The theme of this epic is certainly of great importance and deals with entire humanity.
It’s them is to justify the ways of God to man.
 Invocation to the Muse is another important quality of an epic. The poet, at the very
beginning of the epic, seeks the help of the Muse while writing his epic. Look at the beginning
lines of the Iliad, Odyssey and Paradise Lost.
 The diction of every epic is lofty, grand and elegant. No trivial, common or colloquial
language is used in epic. The poet tries to use sublime words to describe the events.
 Use of Epic Simile is another feature of an epic. Epic simile is a far-fetched comparison
between two objects, which runs through many lines to describe the valour, bravery and gigantic
stature of the hero. It is also called Homeric simile.

Basically, there are two kinds of epic:

(a) Primary - also known as oral or primitive/ancient;

(b) secondary - also known as literary.

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The first belongs to the oral tradition and is thus composed orally and recited; only much later, in some
cases, is it written down.

The second is written down at the start.

In category (a) we may place, for example, Gilgamesh, Iliad and Odyssey, Beowulf, the Lays of the Elder
Edda and the epic cycles of the South Slavs.

In category (b) we may put Virgil’s Aeneid, Lucan’s Pharsalia, the anonymous Song of Rolnad,
Camoen’s Os Lusiadas. Tasso’s Gerusalemme.

Importantly, comes the question of the hero and the main characters of the epic. The hero of the epic
poetry should be a man of immaculate/perfect and pure character endowed with noble and great feelings.
Supernatural characters and supernatural machinery can also be introduced it epic poetry and has been
employed with dexterity by the classical epic poets. Milton’s ’Paradise Lost’ is based or classical
conventions established by Virgil. Its theme is the fall of man, and the poet makes it clear in the opening
lines:

Folk Epic

Folk epic is an ancient epic, which was originally in oral form. With the passage of time, one
author or many authors tried to preserve them in the form of writing. Thus, nobody happens to
know about the exact authorship of the folk epics. The folk epic is different from the art epic or
literary epic in the simplest sense that the former is based on a particular mythology, while the
latter is based on the ideas of the author. In art epic, the poet invents the story, while the folk epic
is the product of the mythology of the locality. The folk epic is basically in oral form, while the
art or literary epic is in written form. The author of the literary epic is a well-known personality,
while the author of the folk epic may be a common man.

Literary Epic
Literary epic is usually known as art epic. It is an epic, which imitates the conventions of the folk
epic, but gives it a written shape. It is absolutely opposite to the folk epic. They were written
unlike the folk epics, which came all the way down to us through oral tradition. The literary
epics tend to be more polished, coherent, and compact in structure and style when contrasted
with the folk epics. Literary epics are the result of the genius of the poet. That is why; they have
great significance from literary point of view.

THE MOCK-EPIC
The mock epic is a poetic form which uses the epic structure but on a miniature/miner scale and has a
subject that is mean or unimportant. The purpose of a mock-heroic or mock-epic poem is satirical. A
work in verse which employs the lofty manner, the high and serious tone and the supernatural machinery

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of epic to treat of an unimportant subject and theme in such a way as to make both subject and theme
ridiculous. Almost a case of breaking a butterfly upon a wheel. By extension the epic mode is also
mocked but this is a secondary consideration.

The acknowledged masterpiece in this genre is Pope’s The Rape of the Lock which he himself describes
as an Heroic comical poem. His subject is the estrangement between two families resulting from Lord
Petre’s snipping off a lock of Miss Arabella Fermor’s hair.

PROSODY
(Rules of Versification)
Prosody may be defined as the systematic study of versification, covering the principles of meter,
rhythm, rhyme, and stanza forms; or a particular system of versification.

In linguistics, the term is applied to patterns of stress and intonation in ordinary speech.

Prosody in the literary sense is also known as metrics.

Most English meter is classified according to the same system as Classical meter with an important
difference. English is an accentual language, and therefore beats and off beats (stressed and unstressed
syllables) take the place of the long and short syllables of classical systems. In most English verse, the
meter can be considered as a sort of backbeat, against which natural speech rhythms vary expressively.
The most common characteristic feet of English verse are the iamb in two ”syllables.

The number of metrical systems in English is not agreed. The major four types are:

 Accentual verse,
 Accentual-syllabic verse,
 Syllabic verse
 Quantitative verse.

Accentual verse focuses on the number of stresses in a line, while ignoring the number of off beats and
syllables;

Accentual-syllabic verse focuses on regulating both the number of stresses and the total number of
syllables in a line;

Syllabic verse only counts the number of syllables in a line;

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 Quantitative verse regulates the patterns of long and short syllables; this sort of verse is often
considered strange to English.

The most frequently encountered line of English verse is the iambic pentameter, in which the metrical
norm is five iambic feet per line, though metrical substitution is common and rhythmic variations
practically inexhaustible John Milton’s Paradise Lost, most sonnets, and much else besides in English are
written in iambic pentameter. Lines of unrhymed iambic pentameter are commonly known as blank
verse. Blank verse in the English language is most famously represented in the plays of William
Shakespeare, although it is also notable in the work of Tennyson

A rhymed pair of lines of iambic pentameter makes a heroic couplet, a verse form which was
used so often in eighteenth century that it is now used mostly for humorous effect.

Another important meter in English is the ballad meter, also called the ”common meter”, which
is a four line stanza, with two pairs of a line of iambic tetrameter followed by a line of iambic
trimeter; the rhymes usually fall on the lines of trimeter, although in many instances the
tetrameter also rhymes. This is the meter of most of the Border and Scots or English ballads. It
is called the ”common meter” in hymnody (as it is the most common of the named hymn
meters used to pair lyrics with melodies) and provides the meter for a great many hymns, such
as Amazing Grace:

Amazing Grace! how sweet the sound

That saved a wretch like me;

I once was lost, but now am found;

Was blind, but now I see.

In poetry, a stanza is a unit within a larger poem. The term ’stanza’ means ”room” in Italian. In
modern poetry, the term is often equivalent with strophe; in popular vocal music, a stanza is
typically referred to as a ”verse”. In computer science, a stanza is a block or subsection of a
human-readable configuration file for computer software.

In traditional English-language poems, stanzas can be identified and grouped together because
they share a rhyme scheme or a fixed number of lines (as in distich/couplet,

tercet, quatrain,cinquain sestet).

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1. Rhythm
Literally, ’Rhythm’ means ’flowing’.

Rhythm may be defined as a more or less regularly patterned flow of sound or movement. It is
communicated by stressed and unstressed syllables. It may be defined as:

The successive rise and fall of sounds, in pitch, stress, or speed; when used of words, depending on
accents, pauses, or durational quantities.

A rhythm is produced by a series of recurrences; the returns and departures of the seasons, the
repetitions of an engine’s stroke, and the beats of the heart, A rhythm may be produced by the
recurrence of a sound (the throb of a drum, a telephone’s busy signal), but rhythm and sound
are not identical. Rhythms affect us powerfully. A totally deaf man at a parade can sense
rhythm from the motions of the marchers’ arms and feet, from the shaking of the pavement as
they tramp. Rhythms inhere in the motions of the moon and stars, even though when they
move we hear no sound.

METER

Meter is the pattern of measured sound units recurring more or less regularly in lines of verse.
Poetry may be composed according to one of four principal metrical systems:

(i) in quantitative metre, used in Greek and Latin, the pattern is a sequence of long and
short syllables counted in groups known as feet (see foot, quantitative verse);

(ii) in syllabic metre, as in French and Japanese, the pattern comprises a fixed number
of syllables in the line (see syllabic verse);

(iii) in accentual metre (or ’strong-stress metre’), found in Old English and in later
English popular verse, the pattern is a regular number of stressed syllables in the line
or group of lines, regardless of the number of unstressed syllables (see accentual
verse); ^ (iv) in accentual-syllabic metre, the pattern consists of a regular number of
stressed syllables appropriately arranged within a fixed total number of syllables in
the line (with permissible variations including feminine endings), both stressed and
unstressed syllables being counted.

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Metrical line is still often expressed in terms of the number of feet it contains:

 a di-meter has two feet,

 a trimeter has three,
 a tetrameter has four,
 a pentameter has five,
 a hexameter has six,
 and a heptameter has seven feet.

A simpler and often more accurate method of description is to refer to lines in either accentual or
accentual-syllabic metre according to the number of stressed syllables.

RHYME
Literally, Rhyme’ means series. It has two functions: firstly, it echoes/resounds sound.

Secondly, it helps in the actual structure of the verse.

The poetry of some languages does not use rhyme at all (that of classical Latin, for instance), and often
English poetry does not.

But when the man in the street thinks of poetry as having a jingle, he is, after all, touching on a root
characteristic. Long before he can speak, the baby in his crib plays delightedly with sounds, and such
lolling, as it is called, prepares him for speech; and primitive people and children are fascinated by
intricate sound patterns (of which rhyme, as we shall see, is only one possibility). Making sense isn’t
necessarily important to the fascinated primitive or child. In fact, children seem to enjoy most of all the
glitter and play of sound in the most extravagant nonsense verse.

4. BLANK VERSE AND FREE VERSE

Blank verse, means simply unrhymed verse. Any line pattern, if unrhymed, is blank verse. Heroic blank
verse is unrhymed five-foot iambic poetry or verse. Most of Shakespeare is written in heroic blank verse.
Heroic couples, beloved of Dryden and Pope, are pairs of five-foot iambic lines rhymed with each other;

Free verse may be rhymed or unrhymed, although it is usually unrhymed, since rhyming is an even more
unnatural convention of poetry than metre; and the poet who has abandoned formal metre will hardly,
as a rule, still use the device of rhyming.

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