CalculusHandbook PDF

Math Handbook
of Formulas, Processes and Tricks
(www.mathguy.us)
Calculus

Prepared by: Earl L. Whitney, FSA, MAAA
Version 4.8
March 26, 2020

Copyright 2008‐20, Earl Whitney, Reno NV. All Rights Reserved
Note to Students
This Calculus Handbook was developed primarily through work with a number of AP Calculus
classes, so it contains what most students need to prepare for the AP Calculus Exam (AB or BC)
or a first‐year college Calculus course. In addition, a number of more advanced topics have
been added to the handbook to whet the student’s appetite for higher level study.
It is important to note that some of the tips and tricks noted in this handbook, while generating
valid solutions, may not be acceptable to the College Board or to the student’s instructor. The
student should always check with their instructor to determine if a particular technique that
they find useful is acceptable.
Why Make this Handbook?
One of my main purposes for writing this handbook is to encourage the student to wonder, to
ask “what about … ?” or “what if … ?” I find that students are so busy today that they don’t
have the time, or don’t take the time, to find the beauty and majesty that exists within
Mathematics. And, it is there, just below the surface. So be curious and seek it out.
The answers to all of the questions below are inside this handbook, but are seldom taught.
 What is oscillating behavior and how does it affect a limit?
 Is there a generalized rule for the derivative of a product of multiple functions?
 What’s the partial derivative shortcut to implicit differentiation?
 What are the hyperbolic functions and how do they relate to the trigonometric
functions?
 When can I simplify a difficult definite integral by breaking it into its even and odd
components?
 What is Vector Calculus?
Additionally, ask yourself:
 Why … ? Always ask “why?”
 Can I come up with a simpler method of doing things than I am being taught?
 What problems can I come up with to stump my friends?
Those who approach math in this manner will be tomorrow’s leaders. Are you one of them?
Please feel free to contact me at [email protected] if you have any comments.
Thank you and best wishes!
Cover art by Rebecca Williams,
Earl
Twitter handle: @jolteonkitty
Version 4.8 Page 2 of 236 March 26, 2020

Calculus Handbook
Table of Contents
Page Description
Chapter 1: Functions and Limits
8 Functions
10 Continuity Examples
11 Limits
12 Techniques for Finding Limits
14 Indeterminate Forms
16 When Limits Fail to Exist
Chapter 2: Differentiation
17 Definition, Basic Rules, Product Rule
18 Quotient, Chain and Power Rules; Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
19 Trigonometric and Inverse Trigonometric Functions
23 Generalized Product Rule
25 Inverse Function Rule
26 Partial Differentiation
27 Implicit Differentiation
30 Logarithmic Differentiation
Chapter 3: Applications of Derivatives
31 Maxima and Minima (i.e., Extrema)
33 Inflection Points
34 Special Case: Extrema and Inflection Points of Polynomials
35 Key Points on f(x), f'(x) and f''(x)
38 Curve Sketching
43 Determining the Shape of a Curve Based On Its Derivatives
44 Rolles's Theorem and the Mean Value Theorem (MVT)
45 Related Rates
48 Kinematics (Particle Motion)
50 Differentials
51 Curvature
52 Newton's Method
Chapter 4: Integration
54 Indefinite Integration (Antiderivatives)
55 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
55 Trigonometric Functions
58 Inverse Trigonometric Functions
60 Selecting the Right Function for an Intergral

Calculus Handbook
Table of Contents
Page Description
Chapter 5: Techniques of Integration
61 u ‐Substitution
63 Integration by Partial Fractions
66 Integration by Parts
70 Integration by Parts ‐ Tabular Method
71 Integration by Trigonometric Substitution
72 Impossible Integrals
Chapter 6: Hyperbolic Functions
73 Definitions
74 Identities
75 Relationship to Trigonometric Functions
76 Inverse Hyperbolic Functions
77 Graphs of Hyperbolic Functions and Their Inverses
78 Derivatives
79 Integrals
Chapter 7: Definite Integrals
81 Riemann Sums
86 Rules of Definite Integration
86 Fundamental Theorems of Calculus
88 Properties of Definite Integrals
89 Solving Definite Integrals with Directed Line Segments
90 u ‐Subsitution
92 Special Techniques for Evaluation
94 Derivative of an Integral
Chapter 8: Applications of Integration
95 Area Under a Curve
96 Area Between Curves
97 Area in Polar Form
99 Areas of Limacons
101 Arc Length
104 Comparison of Formulas for Rectangular, Polar and Parametric Forms
105 Area of a Surface of Revolution
106 Volumes of Solids of Revolution
Chapter 9: Improper Integrals
112 Definite Integrals with Infinite Limits of Integration
113 Definite Integrals with Discontinuous Integrands

Calculus Handbook
Table of Contents
Page Description
Chapter 10: Differential Equations
114 Definitions
115 Separable First Order Differential Equations
117 Slope Fields
118 Logistic Function
119 Numerical Methods
Chapter 11: Vector Calculus
123 Introduction
123 Special Unit Vectors
123 Vector Components
124 Properties of Vectors
125 Dot Product
126 Cross Product
128 Triple Products
130 Gradient
131 Divergence
132 Curl
133 Laplacian
Chapter 12: Sequences
134 Definitions and Types of Sequences
135 More Definitions and Theorems
136 Limits (Convergence and Divergence)
137 Basic Recursive Sequence Theory
Chapter 13: Series
141 Introduction
142 Key Properties
142 n‐th Term Convergence Theorems
142 Power Series
143 Telescoping Series
144 Geometric Series
145 Estimating the Value of Series with Positive Terms
146 Riemann Zeta Function (p ‐Series)
150 Bernoulli Numbers
152 Convergence Tests
157 Alternating Series
159 Radius and Interval of Convergence of Power Series
162 Summary of Convergence/Divergence Tests

Calculus Handbook
Table of Contents
Page Description
Chapter 14: Taylor and MacLaurin Series
163 Taylor Series
163 MacLaurin Series
165 LaGrange Remainder
Chapter 15: Miscellaneous Cool Stuff
166 e
167 Derivation of Euler's Formula
169 Logarithms of Negative Real Numbers and Complex Numbers
170 What Is i i
171 z
Derivative of e to a Complex Power (e )
172 Derivatives of a Circle
173 Derivatives of a Ellipse
174 Derivatives of a Hyperbola
175 Derivative of: (x+y)3=x3+y3
176 Inflection Points of the PDF of the Normal Distribution
Appendices
177 Appendix A: Key Definitions
197 Appendix B: Key Theorems
201 Appendix C: List of Key Derivatives and Integrals
208 Appendix D: Key Functions and Their Derivatives
212 Appendix E: Geometry and Trigonometry Formulas
217 Appendix F: Polar and Parametric Equations
228 Appendix G: Interesting Series
229 Index
Useful Websites
Mathguy.us – Developed specifically for math students from Middle School to College, based
on the author's extensive experience in professional mathematics in a business setting and in
math tutoring. Contains free downloadable handbooks, PC Apps, sample tests, and more.
www.mathguy.us
Wolfram Math World – A premier site for mathematics on the Web. This site contains
definitions, explanations and examples for elementary and advanced math topics.
mathworld.wolfram.com

Calculus Handbook
Table of Contents
Schaum’s Outlines
An important student resource for any high school math student is a Schaum’s Outline. Each
book in this series provides explanations of the various topics in the course and a substantial
number of problems for the student to try. Many of the problems are worked out in the
book, so the student can see how they can be solved.
Schaum’s Outlines are available at Amazon.com, Barnes & Noble and other booksellers.
Other Useful Books

Chapter 1 Functions and Limits
Functions

Definitions
 Expression: A meaningful arrangement of mathematical values, variables and
operations.
 Relation: An expression that defines a connection between a set of inputs and a set of
outputs. The set of inputs is called the Domain of the relation. The set of outputs is
called the Range of the relation.
 Function: A relation in which each element in the domain corresponds to exactly one
element in the range.
 One‐to‐One Function: A function in which each element in the range is produced by
exactly one element in the domain.
 Continuity: A function, 𝑓, is continuous at 𝑥 𝑎 iff:
o 𝑓 𝑎 is defined,
Note: lim 𝑓 𝑥 exists if and only if:
o lim 𝑓 𝑥 exists, and →
→
lim 𝑓 𝑥 lim 𝑓 𝑥 .
o lim 𝑓 𝑥 𝑓 𝑎 → →
→
o If 𝑥 𝑎 is an endpoint, then the limit need only exist from the left or the right.

Continuity Rules
If 𝑓 𝑥 and 𝑔 𝑥 are continuous functions at a point 𝑥 , 𝑦 , and if 𝑐 is a constant, then the
following are also true at 𝑥 , 𝑦 :
 𝑓 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 is continuous. Addition
 𝑓 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 is continuous. Subtraction
 𝑐 ∙ 𝑓 𝑥 is continuous. Scalar Multiplication
 𝑓 𝑥 ∙ 𝑔 𝑥 is continuous. Multiplication
 is continuous if 𝑔 𝑥 0. Division
 𝑓 𝑥 is continuous if 𝑓 𝑥 exists. Exponents
 𝑓 𝑥 is continuous if 𝑓 𝑥 exists. Roots
Note: All polynomial functions are continuous on the interval ∞, ∞ .

Types of Discontinuities
A Discontinuity occurs at a location where the graph of a relation or function is not connected.
 Removable Discontinuity. A discontinuity that can be
“repaired” by adding a single point to the graph.
Typically, this will show up as a hole in a graph. In the
𝒙𝟑 𝟏
function 𝒇 𝒙 , a removable discontinuity
𝒙 𝟏
exists at 𝑥 1.
Mathematically, a removable discontinuity is a point at
which the limit of 𝑓 𝑥 at 𝑐 exists but does not equal
𝑓 𝑐 . That is,
lim 𝑓 𝑥 lim 𝑓 𝑥 𝑓 𝑐
→ →
Note: a removable discontinuity exists at 𝑥 𝑐 whether or not 𝑓 𝑐 exists.
 Essential Discontinuity. A discontinuity that is not removable. Mathematically, an
essential discontinuity is a point at which the limit of 𝑓 𝑥 at 𝑐 does not exist. This
includes:
o Jump Discontinuity. A discontinuity at
which the limit from the left does not equal
the limit from the right. That is,
lim 𝑓 𝑥 lim 𝑓 𝑥
→ →
𝒙𝟑 𝟏
In the function 𝒇 𝒙 , a jump
𝟒 𝒙 𝟏
discontinuity exists at 𝑥 1.

o Infinite Discontinuity. These occur at vertical
asymptotes.
𝟏
In the function 𝒇 𝒙 , infinite
𝒙𝟐 𝟓𝒙 𝟔
discontinuities exist at 𝑥 3, 2 .


Continuity Examples

Case 1
Jump Discontinuity
Not continuous
Limit does not exist
5 may or may not exist (it does not exist in the
graph shown)

Case 2
Removable Discontinuity
Not continuous
Limit exists
5 does not exist
Case 3
Removable Discontinuity
Not continuous
Limit exists
5 exists but does not equal the limit
Case 4
No Discontinuity
Continuous
Limit exists
5 exists and is equal the limit

Limits
Definitions
Formal Definition: Let be a function defined on an open interval containing , except possibly at
, and let be a real number. Then, the statement:
lim

→
means that for each 0, there exists a 0 such that:
0 | | implies | | .

Written using math symbols: ∀ 0 ∃ 0 ∋ 0 | | ⇒ | | .
Informal Definition: The limit is the value that a function approaches as the value of the
input variable approaches the desired value .
Limits may exist approaching from either the left lim

or the right lim
.
→ →
If the limits from the left and right are the same (e.g., they are both equal to ), then the limit
exists at and we say lim
.
→

Limit Rules
Assuming that each of the requisite limits exist, the following rules apply:
 lim
lim
lim
Addition of Limits
→ → →
 lim
lim
lim
Subtraction of Limits
→ → →
 lim
∙ ∙ lim
Scalar Multiplication
→ →
 lim
∙ lim
∙ lim
Multiplication of Limits
→ → →

 lim

→
Division of Limits
→
→
 lim
lim
Powers
→ →
 lim
lim
Roots
→ →
Also, assuming that each of the requisite limits exists, the typical properties of addition and
multiplication (e.g., commutative property, associative property, distributive property, inverse
property, etc.) apply to limits.

Techniques for Finding Limits
Substitution
The easiest method, when it works, for determining a limit is substitution. Using this method,
simply substitute the value of into the limit expression to see if it can be calculated directly.
Example 1.1:
2 3 2
lim

→ 2 3 2

Simplification
When substitution fails, other methods must be considered. With rational functions (and some
others), simplification may produce a satisfactory solution.
Example 1.2:
25 5 5
lim
lim
5
→ 5 → 5
Rationalization
Rationalizing a portion of the limit expression is often useful in situations where a limit is
indeterminate. In the example below the limit expression has the indeterminate form
∞ ∞ . Other indeterminate forms are discussed later in this chapter.
Example 1.3:
lim
8
→
First, notice that this limit is taken to ∞, which can often cause confusion. So, let’s
modify it so that we are taking the limit to ∞. We do this using the substitution .
lim
8 lim
8
→ →
Next, let’s rationalize the expression in the limit by multiplying by a name for one, using its
conjugate.
(cont’d)

8 8
lim
8 lim
∙
→ → 1 8
8 8
lim
lim

→ 8 → 8
8 8 8
lim
lim
4
→ 8 → 8 1 √1
1 1
L’Hospital’s Rule
If and are differentiable functions and 0 near and if:
lim 0 and lim 0 lim ∞ and lim ∞

→ → → →
′
Then,
→ → ′
Note: L’Hospital’s rule can be repeated as many times as necessary as long as the result of each
step is an indeterminate form. If a step produces a form that is not indeterminate, the limit
should be calculated at that point.
Example 1.4:
d
sin sin cos 1
lim dx
lim
lim

→ → → 1 1
Example 1.5:
d
dx 1 1
lim
lim

→ 1 → d 3 3∙1
1
dx
Example 1.6: (involving successive applications of L’Hospital’s Rule)
3 2 1 9 2 18 18
lim
lim
lim
lim

→ 4 5 2 → 12 10 → 24 10 → 24


Indeterminate Forms of Limits
The following table presents some types of indeterminate forms that may be encountered and
suggested methods for evaluating limits in those forms.
Form Steps to Determine the Limit
0 ∞
or Use L’Hospital’s Rule
0 ∞
For either of these forms:
0 ∙ ∞
∞ ∞ 1. Convert to or
2. Use L’Hospital’s Rule
For any of these forms:
0
∞ 1. Take of the term or write the term in exponential form *
2. Convert to or
1
3. Use L’Hospital’s Rule
∙
* For , convert to: ∙ or

Example 1.7: Form ∙ ∞ L’Hospital’s Rule
1
lim lim lim
→ → → →
Example 1.8: Form ∞ ∞

1 sin
lim
→ ⁄ → ⁄ cos cos

1 sin cos
lim lim
→ ⁄ cos → ⁄ sin



Example 1.9: Form 𝟎𝟎
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒙𝒙 let: 𝑦 lim 𝑥

𝒙→𝟎 →
ln 𝑥 𝑥
ln 𝑦 lim 𝑥 ln 𝑥 lim lim
→ → 𝑥 → 𝑥
lim 𝑥 0
→
Then, since ln 𝑦 0, we get 𝑦 𝑒 𝟏
Example 1.10: Form ∞𝟎
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒙𝟏/𝒙 let: 𝑦 lim 𝑥 /

𝒙→ →
ln 𝑥 𝑥 1
ln 𝑦 lim lim lim 0
→ 𝑥 → 1 → 𝑥
Then, since ln 𝑦 0, we get 𝑦 𝑒 𝟏

Example 1.11: Form 𝟏
𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒙
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝟏 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟒𝒙 let: 𝑦 lim 1 sin 4𝑥
𝒙→𝟎 →
ln 1 sin 4𝑥
ln 𝑦 lim cot 𝑥 ∙ ln 1 sin 4𝑥 lim
→ → tan 𝑥
4 cos 4𝑥 4∙1
ln 𝑦 lim 1 sin 4𝑥 1 0 4
→ sec 𝑥 1
Then, since ln 𝑦 4, we get 𝑦 𝒆𝟒


When Limits Fail to Exist
There are several circumstances when limits fail to exist:
 When taken separately, limits from the
left and right are different. This
generally occurs at a jump discontinuity.
| |
In the graph of , a jump
discontinuity exists at 0, so
| |
lim
does not exist.
→

 Oscillating behavior at the limit point. Consider the function , as → 0. In
any neighborhood δ around 0,
the value of the function varies from
1 to 1. Therefore,
1
lim
cos does not exist.
→
This function is also discontinuous at
0, though it is difficult to see
this on the graph.

 Unbounded behavior at the limit point. Typically, this will happen at a vertical
asymptote.
In the graph of | |, an infinite discontinuity
exists at 0 because the logarithms of positive real
numbers that approach zero become large negative
numbers without bound. Therefore,
ln| | does not exist.
lim
→
Note: in this case, we may write: lim ln| | ∞

→


Chapter 2 Differentiation

Basic Rules of Differentiation
Definition of a Derivative
lim
lim

→ →
Note: In these rules, is a constant, and and are functions differentiable in .
Basic Derivative Rules
0 ∙ ∙
1

The Product, Quotient and Chain Rules are shown in Leibnitz, Lagrange, and differential forms.
Product Rule (two terms)
∙ ∙ ∙
∙ ∙ ∙ ′
Product Rule (three terms)
∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙
∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ′


Quotient Rule
∙ ∙

∙ ∙

Chain Rule
∙
∙ ′ , where: ∘
∙
Power Rule
∙ ∙
Exponential and Logarithmic Functions 0, 1
∙ ln ∙ ln ∙
1 1
ln ln ∙
1 1
log log ∙
ln ln


Derivatives of Special Functions

Trigonometric and Inverse Trigonometric Functions
Trigonometric Functions
sin cos sin cos ∙
cos sin cos sin ∙
tan sec tan sec ∙
cot csc cot csc ∙
sec sec tan sec sec tan ∙
csc csc cot csc csc cot ∙
Inverse Trigonometric Functions (Basic Formulas)
1 1 Angle in
sin sin ∙
√1 √1 Q I or Q IV
1 1 Angle in
cos cos ∙
√1 √1 Q I or Q II
1 1 Angle in
tan tan ∙
1 1 Q I or Q IV
1 1 Angle in
cot cot ∙
1 1 Q I or Q II
1 1 Angle in
sec sec ∙
| | √ 1 | |√ 1 Q I or Q II
1 1 Angle in
csc csc ∙
| | √ 1 | |√ 1 Q I or Q IV


Development of Basic Inverse Trig Derivatives
Inverse Sine
If sin , then sin . Take the derivative of both sides of this
equation, and consider the result in conjunction with the triangle at right.
sin
cos 1
1 1

cos √1

Inverse Tangent
If tan , then tan . Take the derivative of both sides of this
tan
sec 1
1 1 1
cos
sec √1 1

Inverse Secant
If sec , then sec . Take the derivative of both sides of this
sec
sec tan 1
1 cos 1 √ 1 | | 1

sec tan sin | | √ 1 | |√ 1
Note the use of the absolute value sign in this derivative. This occurs because the
function is defined only in quadrants 1 and 2, and the sine function is always positive in these
two quadrants. The student may verify that the slope of the function is always positive.


Graphs of Inverse Trig Functions
Graphs of the Inverse Trigonometric (IT) Functions over their principal ranges are provided
below. Asymptotes are shown as dotted lines.
Notice the following about these graphs:

 The graphs of sin , tan , sec have positive slopes over their
entire domains. So, their derivatives are always positive.
 The graphs of cos , cot , csc have negative slopes over their

entire domains. So, their derivatives are always negative.
 Each IT function has a principal range of length radians, i.e., two
quadrants. In one of these quadrants, the corresponding trigonometric
function value is negative, and in the other it is positive. For example,
cos has range 0, , Quadrants I and II. In Quadrant I, cos is
positive and in Quadrant II, cos is negative.

 At each ‐value, cofunction pairs
(e.g., sin and cos ) have
slopes with opposite values, i.e.,
the same absolute value but one
slope is positive while the other
slope is negative.
 Cofunction pairs (e.g., sin
and cos ) are reflections of
each other over the horizontal
line that contains their
intersection.
 There is not universal agreement
on the principal range of cot .
Some sources, including the TI
nSpire and a number of Calculus
textbooks, set the range to 0, ,
as shown on this page. Others,
including Wolfram MathWorld
and the US National Institute of
Standards and Technology, set
the range to , .


Generalized Inverse Trig Derivatives
Derivatives
Note that “ ” is defined to be positive in these formulas in order to meet the domain
restrictions of inverse Trigonometric functions.
1 1 Angle in
sin sin ∙
√ √ Q I or Q IV
1 1 Angle in
cos cos ∙
√ √ Q I or Q II
Angle in
tan tan ∙
Q I or Q IV
Angle in
cot cot ∙
Q I or Q II
Angle in
sec sec ∙
| | √ | |√ Q I or Q II
Angle in
csc csc ∙
| | √ | |√ Q I or Q IV

Sample Developments of Generalized Formulas from Basic Formulas
1 1 1 1
sin ∙
√
1 1 ∙ √
1 1 1 1 1
tan ∙
1
1 1 1
sec ∙
| | | | √
1 ∙ √


Generalized Product Rule

Product Rule (three terms)
∙
Product Rule (four terms)
∙ ∙

Generalized Product Rule (n terms) In words:
1. Take the derivative of each
∙ function in the product.
2. Multiply it by all of the other
functions in the product.
3. Add all of the resulting terms.
Example 2.1: Product Rule (six terms) – from Generalized Product Rule


Generalized Product Rule

Example
In words:
Generalized Product Rule (n terms) 1. Take the derivative of each

function in the product.
2. Multiply it by all of the other
∙ functions in the product.
3. Add all of the resulting terms.

Example 2.2: Find the derivative of: ∙ ∙ ∙
Let:
Then, build the derivative based on the four components of the function:
Original Derivative of Original Remaining Functions

Function Term Function Term
∙ ∙
∙ ∙
∙ ∙
∙ ∙
The resulting derivative is:
′ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ +
∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙


Inverse Function Rule
The Inverse Function Rule states the following:
If and are inverse functions and 0, then
To understand what this means, it may be best to look at what it says graphically and create an
Inverse Function Diagram.
Example 2.3: Let 3. Find the slope of at the point 7, 2 .
To solve this, let’s look at the graph of
and its inverse √ .
The figure at right shows these two plots, along with the
axis of reflection and the lines tangent to the two curves
at the desired points.
Notice the following:
 , so
 , so
 (the answer)
An Inverse Function Diagram (IFD) organizes this information as follows:

IFD for Example 2.3 General IFD

⇔ ⇔


Partial Differentiation
Partial differentiation is differentiation with respect to a single variable, with all other variables
being treated as constants.
Example 2.4: Consider the function , 2 3 .
Full derivative: Partial derivative: Partial derivative:
2 3 2 3 2 3

2 3 2 3

Notice in the partial derivative panels above, that the “off‐variable” is treated as a constant.
 In the left‐hand panel, the derivative is taken in its normal manner, including using the
product rule on the ‐term.
 In the middle panel, which takes the partial derivative with respect to , is considered
to be the coefficient of in the ‐term. In the same panel, the 3 term is considered
to be a constant, so its partial derivative with respect to is 0.
 In the right‐hand panel, which takes the partial derivative with respect to , is
considered to be the coefficient of in the ‐term. In the same panel, the 2 term is
considered to be a constant, so its partial derivative with respect to is 0.
Partial derivatives provide measures of rates of change in the direction of the variable. So, for a
3‐dimensional curve, provides the rate of change in the ‐direction and provides the
rate of change in the ‐direction. Partial derivatives are especially useful in physics and
engineering.
Example 2.5: Let . Then,


Implicit Differentiation
Implicit differentiation is typically used when it is too difficult to differentiate a function
directly. The entire expression is differentiated with respect to one of the variables in the
expression, and algebra is used to simplify the expression for the desired derivative.
Example 2.6: Find for the ellipse 36.
We could begin by manipulating the equation to obtain a value for :
.
However, this is a fairly ugly expression for , and the process of developing is also

ugly. It is many times easier to differentiate implicitly as follows:
1. Start with the given equation: 36
2. Multiply both sides by 36 to
get rid of the denominators: 9 4 1296
3. Differentiate with respect to : 18 8 ∙ 0
4. Subtract 18 : 8 ∙ 18
5. Divide by 8 :
6. Sometimes you will want to
substitute in the value of

to get the expression solely in
terms of :
( 12)

The result is still ugly and, in fact, it must be ugly. However, the algebra required to get
the result may be cleaner and easier using implicit differentiation. In some cases, it is
either extremely difficult or impossible to develop an expression for in terms of
because the variables are so intertwined; see the example on the next page.


Implicit Differentiation (cont’d)
Example 2.7: Find for the equation: ∙ sin ∙ cos 0.
Manipulating this equation to find as a function of is out of the question. So, we use

implicit differentiation as follows:
1. Start with the given equation: ∙ ∙ 0
2. Differentiate with respect to using the product rule and the chain rule:
∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ 0
3. Simplify:
∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ 0
4. Combine like terms and simplify:
∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ 0
∙ cos cos ∙ sin ∙ sin 0
∙ cos cos ∙ ∙ sin sin
∙
(as long as: ∙ cos cos 0
∙
That’s as good as we can do. Notice that the derivative is a function of both and .

Even though we cannot develop an expression for as a function of , we can still
calculate a derivative of the function in terms of and . Viva implicit differentiation!


Implicit Differentiation (cont’d)
Implicit Differentiation Using Partial Derivatives
Let , . Then, the following formula is often a shortcut to calculating .
Let’s re‐do the examples from the previous pages using the partial derivative method.
Example 2.8: Find for the ellipse 36.
Let: . Then,
Example 2.9: Find for the equation: ∙ sin ∙ cos 0.
Let: . Then,
Contrast the work required here with the lengthy efforts required to calculate these results on
the two prior pages.
So, implicit differentiation using partial derivatives can be fast and, because fewer steps are
involved, improve accuracy. Just be careful how you handle each variable. This method is
different and takes some getting used to.


Logarithmic Differentiation
Logarithmic differentiation is typically used when functions exist in both the base and the
exponent of an exponential expression. Without this approach, the differentiation of the
function would be much more difficult. The process involves several steps, as follows:
1. If possible, put the function in the form:
2. Take natural logarithms of both sides of the expression.
3. Take the derivatives of both sides of the expression.
4. Solve for .

Example 2.10: Calculate the derivative of the general case , where and are
functions of , and are differentiable at .
1. Original equation
2. Take natural logarithms of both sides
3. Simplify right side ∙
4. Take derivatives of both sides
∙ ∙
5. Apply Product Rule and Chain Rule to
∙ ∙ ∙
right side
6. Multiply both sides by
∙ ∙
7. Substitute value of
∙ ∙
8. Simplify
∙

Chapter 3 Applications of Differentiation
Maxima and Minima
Relative Extrema
Relative maxima and minima (also called relative extrema) may exist wherever the derivative of
a function is either equal to zero or undefined. However, these conditions are not sufficient to
establish that an extreme exists; we must also have a change in the direction of the curve, i.e.,
from increasing to decreasing or from decreasing to increasing.
Note: relative extrema cannot exist at the endpoints of a closed interval.
First Derivative Test
If
 a function, , is continuous on the open interval , , and
 is a critical number ∈ , (i.e., is either zero or does not exist),
 is differentiable on the open interval , , except possibly at c,
Then
 If changes from positive to negative at , then is a relative maximum.
 If changes from negative to positive at , then is a relative minimum.
The conclusions of this theorem are summarized in the table below:
First Sign of left Sign of Type of

Derivative Extreme
of right of
Case 1 None
0
Case 2 or Minimum
Case 3 does None
not exist.
Case 4 Maximum

Illustration of
First Derivative Test
for Cases 1 to 4:


Second Derivative Test
If
 a function, 𝑓, is continuous on the open interval 𝑎, 𝑏 , and
 𝑐 ∈ 𝑎, 𝑏 , and
 𝑓 𝑐 0 and 𝑓′ 𝑐 exists,
Then
 If 𝑓 𝑐 0, then 𝑓 𝑐 is a relative maximum.
 If 𝑓 𝑐 0, then 𝑓 𝑐 is a relative minimum.
The conclusions of the theorem are summarized in the table below:
First Second Type of

Derivative Derivative Extreme In the event that the second
derivative is zero or does not exist
Case 1 0 Maximum (Case 3), we cannot conclude
0
whether or not an extreme exists.
Case 2 or 0 Minimum In this case, it may be a good idea
does to use the First Derivative Test at
Case 3 0 or Test Fails
not exist. the point in question.
does not exist

Absolute Extrema
Absolute extrema (also called “global extrema” or simply “extrema”) are the highest or lowest
values of the function on the interval in question. If a function is continuous, its absolute
extrema exist at the locations of either its relative extrema or the endpoints of the interval.
Note that if an interval is open, the endpoint does not exist and so it cannot be an absolute
extreme. This means that in some cases, a function will not have an absolute maximum or
minimum on the interval in question. Discontinuities in a function can also cause a function to
not have a relative maximum or minimum.
A function may have 0, 1 or multiple absolute maxima
and/or absolute minima on an interval. In the illustration to
the right, the function has:
 Two absolute minima, at 1, 1 and 2, 1 .
 No absolute maximum (due to the discontinuity).
 One relative maximum, at 0, 3 .
 One relative minimum – The point located at 2, 1
is both a relative minimum and an absolute
minimum.

Inflection Points
Definition
An inflection point is a location on a curve where concavity changes from upward to downward
or from downward to upward.
At an inflection point, ′ 0 or ′ does not exist.
However, it is not necessarily true that if ′ 0, then there is an inflection point at .
Testing for an Inflection Point
To find the inflection points of a curve in a specified interval,
 Determine all ‐values ( ) for which ′ 0 or ′ does not exist.
 Consider only ‐values where the function has a tangent line.
 Test the sign of ′ to the left and to the right of .
 If the sign of ′ changes from positive to negative or from negative to positive at
, then , is an inflection point of the function.

Second Sign of Sign of Inflection
Derivative left of right of Point?
Case 1 No
0
Case 2 or Yes
Case 3 does No

Case 4 not exist Yes

Note: inflection points cannot exist at the endpoints of a closed interval.
Concavity
A function, , is concave upward on an interval if ’ is increasing
on the interval, i.e., if 0.
A function, , is concave downward on an interval if ’ is
decreasing on the interval, i.e., if 0.
Concavity changes at inflection points, from upward to downward or
from downward to upward. In the illustration at right, an inflection
point exists at the point 2, 3 .

Special Case: Extrema and Inflection Points of Polynomials
For a polynomial, , critical values of exist at all ‐values for which 0. However,

critical values do not necessarily produce extrema. Possible inflection points exist at all ‐
values for which 0. However, not all of these ‐values produce inflection points.
To find the extrema and inflection points of a polynomial we can look at the factored forms of
and , respectively. Every polynomial can be factored into linear terms with real
roots and quadratic terms with complex roots as follows:
∙ … ∙ ∙ …
where, k is a scalar (constant), each is a real root of , each exponent is an integer, and
each is a quadratic term with complex roots.
Extrema
The exponents ( ) of the linear factors of determine the existence of extrema.
 An odd exponent on a linear term of indicates that crosses the ‐axis at the
root of the term, so has an extreme at that root. Further analysis is required to
determine whether the extreme is a maximum or a minimum.
 An even exponent on a linear term of indicates that bounces off the ‐axis
at the root of the term, so does not have an extreme at that root.
Example 3.1: Consider 3 2 √3 √3 4 7 .
The original polynomial, , has critical values for each term: 3, 2, √3, √3, 4, 7 .
However, extrema exist only for the terms with odd exponents: 3, √3, √3, 7 .
Inflection Points (PI)
The exponents ( ) of the linear factors of determine the existence of inflection points.
 An odd exponent on a linear term of indicates that has an inflection point at
the root of that term.
 An even exponent on a linear term of indicates that does not have an
inflection point at the root of that term.
Example 3.2: Consider 3 2 √3 √3 4 7 .
Inflection points exist only for the terms with odd exponents: 3, √3, √3, 7 .

Key Points on , and – Alauria Diagram
An Alauria Diagram shows a single curve as , or on a single page. The

purpose of the diagram is to answer the question: If the given curve is , or ,
where are the key points on the graph.
If the curve represents :
 ’s ‐intercepts (green and one yellow)
exist where the curve touches the x‐axis.
 Relative maxima and minima (yellow) exist at the
tops and bottoms of humps.
 Inflection points (orange) exist where concavity
changes from up to down or from down to up.

If the curve represents ′ (1st derivative):
 ’s ‐intercepts cannot be seen.
 Relative maxima and minima of (yellow)
exist where the curve crosses the ‐axis. If the
curve bounces off the ‐axis, there is no extreme
at that location.
 Inflection points of (orange) exist at the
tops and bottoms of humps.

If the curve represents ′′ (2nd derivative):
 ’s ‐intercepts cannot be seen.
 Relative maxima and minima of cannot
be seen.
 Inflection points of (orange) exist where
the curve crosses the ‐axis. If the curve
bounces off the ‐axis, there is no inflection
point at that location.

Key Points on , and
The graphs below show , or for the same 5th degree polynomial function. The

dotted blue vertical line identifies one location of an extreme (there are four, but only one is
illustrated) The dashed dark red vertical line identifies one location of a point of inflection
(there are three, but only one is illustrated).

In a graph of :

 Relative extrema exist at the tops and

bottom of humps.

 Inflection points exist at locations where
concavity changes from up to down or from
down to up.

In a graph of ′ :

 Relative extrema of exist where the
curve crosses the ‐axis. If the curve
bounces off the ‐axis, there is no extreme
at that location.

 Inflection points of exist at the tops
and bottoms of humps.

In a graph of ′′ :
 Relative extrema of cannot be seen.
 Inflection points of exist where the
curve crosses the ‐axis. If the curve
bounces off the ‐axis, there is no
inflection point at that location.


What Does the Graph of ′ Tell Us about ?

⁄
Short answer: a lot! Consider the graph of the derivative of when ∙
on the interval , .
Increasing vs. Decreasing
We can tell if is increasing or decreasing based on whether is positive or negative.

Critical values exist where is zero or does not exist. Relative maxima and minima exist at
critical values if the graph of crosses the ‐axis. See the graph and chart below. Note
that critical values, relative maxima and relative minima do not exist at endpoints of an interval.
Increasing vs. Decreasing
Increasing Decreasing
Positive Negative
All items in a column occur simultaneously.

Concavity
We can tell if is concave up or concave down based on whether is increasing or

decreasing. Inflection Points exist at the extrema of , i.e. at the top and bottom of any
humps on the graph of . See the graph and chart below. Note that inflection points do
not exist at endpoints of an interval.

Concavity
Concave up Concave down
Positive Negative
All items in a column occur simultaneously.

Curve Sketching

Curve Sketching is much easier with the tools of Calculus. In particular, the calculation of
derivatives allows the student to identify critical values (relative maxima and minima) and
inflection points for a curve. A curve can then be broken into intervals for which the various
characteristics (e.g., increasing or decreasing, concave up or down) can be determined.

The acronym DIACIDE may help the student recall the things that should be considered in
sketching curves.

DIACIDE:
 Derivatives: generally, the student should develop the first and second derivatives of
the curve, and evaluate those derivatives at each key value (e.g., critical points,
inflection points) of .
 Intercepts: to the extent possible, the student should develop both ‐ and ‐intercepts

for the curve. ‐intercepts occur where 0. ‐ intercepts occur at 0.
 Asymptotes: vertical asymptotes should be identified so that the curve can be split into
continuous sub‐segments. Vertical asymptotes occur at values of where the curve
approaches ∞ or ∞; does not exist at these values of . Horizontal
asymptotes are covered below under the category “End Behavior.”
 Critical Values: relative maxima and minima are locations where the curve changes
from increasing to decreasing or from decreasing to increasing. They occur at “critical”
‐values, where 0 or where does not exist.
 Concavity: concavity is determined by the value of the second derivative:
′ 0 implies downward concavity
′ 0 implies upward concavity
 Inflection Points: an inflection point is a location on the curve where concavity changes
from upward to downward or from downward to upward. At an inflection point,
′ 0 or where ′ does not exist.
 Domain: the domain of a function is the set of all x‐values for which a y‐value exists. If
the domain of a function is other than “all real numbers,” care should be taken to graph
only those values of the function included in the domain.
 End Behavior: end behavior is the behavior of a curve on the left and the right, i.e., as
tends toward ∞ and ∞. The curve may increase or decrease unbounded at its ends,
or it may tend toward a horizontal asymptote.

Example 3.3: Sketch the graph of f (x) = x3 – 5x2 + 3x + 6.
DIACIDE: Derivatives, Intercepts, Asymptotes, Critical Values, Concavity, Inflection Points,

Domain, End Behavior
Derivatives: – 5 3 6
Note the two C’s.
3 10 3
6 10
Intercepts: Use synthetic division to find: 2, so: 2 ∙ 3 3

√
Then, use the quadratic formula to find: 0.791, 3.791
‐intercepts, then, are: 0.791, 2, 3.791
‐intercepts: 0 6
Asymptotes: None for a polynomial
Critical Values: 3 10 3 0 at ,3
Critical Points are: . 333, 6.481 , 3, 3
. 333 0, so . 333, 6.481 is a relative
maximum
3 0, so 3, 3 is a relative minimum
Concavity: 0 for 1.667 (concave downward)

0 for 1.667 (concave upward)
Inflection Points: 6 10 0 at ~ 1.667

Inflection Point is: 1.667, 1.741
Domain: All real values of for a polynomial
End Behavior: Positive lead coefficient on a cubic equation implies that:
lim
∞, and
→
lim
∞
→


, ∙
Example 3.4: Sketch the graph of
DIACIDE:
∙ ∙ ∙
Derivatives:
Intercepts: ‐intercept where sin 0, so, ∙ , with being any integer

‐intercept at 0 0
Asymptotes: No vertical asymptotes. Horizontal asymptote at 0.
Critical Values: 0 where cos sin . Critical Points exist at ∙ , ∈

. 707, 3.224 is a relative maximum; 3.927, 0.139 is a relative minimum
There are an infinite number of relative maxima and minima, alternating at ‐
values that are apart.
Concavity: The function is concave up where cos 0, i.e., Quadrants II and III

and is concave down where cos 0, i.e., Quadrants I and IV.
Inflection Points: 0 where cos 0
Inflection Points exist at: ∙ , ∈
Domain: All real values of
End Behavior: lim
does not exist, as the function oscillates up and down with each
→
period
lim
0
→


Example 3.5: Sketch the graph of
DIACIDE:
∙
Derivatives:
Intercepts: ‐intercept where 4 0, so, Plot these intercepts

on the graph.
‐intercept at
Asymptotes: Vertical asymptotes where: 9 0, so .

Horizontal asymptote at: Plot the asymptotes
2 2 on the graph.
4 4
lim
2 lim
2 1
→ 9 → 9
Critical Values: 0 where 0; so 0 0

Plot the critical
Since 0 0, , is a relative maximum
values on the graph.
Concavity: The concavity of the various intervals are shown in the table on the next page
Inflection Points: 0 where 3 0 If there are inflection points,

Therefore, there are no real inflection points plot them on the graph.
Domain: All real values of , except at the vertical asymptotes

So, the domain is: All Real 3, 3
2 4
End Behavior: lim
2 1
→ 9 These imply the existence of a
2 4 horizontal asymptote at 1.
lim
2 1
→ 9


Example 3.5 (cont’d)
In some cases, it is useful to set up a table of intervals which are defined by the key values
identified in green above: , , . The key values are made up of:
 Vertical asymptotes
 Relative maxima and minima
 Inflection Points
‐values Graph Characteristics
∞, 3 curve increasing, concave up
3 undefined undefined undefined vertical asymptote
3, 0 curve increasing, concave down
0 . 444 0 relative maximum
0, 3 curve decreasing, concave down
3 undefined undefined undefined vertical asymptote
3, ∞ curve decreasing, concave up


Determining the Shape of a Curve Based On Its Derivatives

The possible shapes of a curve, based on its first and second derivatives are:

Increasing function Decreasing function Increasing function Decreasing function

0 0 0 0
Concave up Concave up Concave down Concave down

0 0 0 0
So, given a differentiable function with first and second derivatives identified, we need only
match the shapes above to the intervals of the function and then join them together. If we are
given points on the curve, we must also fit the shape through the given points.
Example 3.6: Suppose we want to determine the approximate shape of the curve of the
differentiable function defined by the following table.
1 3 3 3 5 5 5 7
f '( x ) Positive 0 Negative Negative Negative
f "( x ) Negative Negative Negative 0 Positive
Curve Flat –
Point of
Shape Relative Inflection
Maximum
To get the shape of the function over the given interval, join the shapes for each subinterval
together as shown at right.

Note: If we are given points on the curve, we must also

stretch or compress the various parts of the resulting
shape to fit through the given points.

3 5

Rolle’s Theorem and the Mean Value Theorem

Rolle’s Theorem Mean Value Theorem (MVT)

If If
1. is continuous on , . 1. is continuous on , .
2. is differentiable in , . 2. is differentiable in , .
3. .
Then Then
There is at least one value in , There is at least one value in ,
such that 0.
such that .

Conclusion in Words: There is at least one Conclusion in Words: There is at least one
point in , with a horizontal tangent point in , where the slope of the
line. tangent line has the same slope as the
secant line over , .
Note: If the conditions for Rolle’s Theorem are satisfied, then either Rolle’s Theorem or the MVT
can be applied.
 Rolle’s Theorem concludes that there is a value such that: 0
 The MVT concludes that there is a value such that: 0
 These two conclusions are identical.


Related Rates
Related Rates Problems
To solve problems that involve rates of change of two or more related variables, each with
respect to a third variable, we must take derivatives with respect to the third variable (often,
time) and remember to use the chain rule at each step. There are numerous methods that can
be used to solve these problems; one that students have found particularly helpful is described
and illustrated below.
The General‐Specific Method
This method breaks up the solution into the General and Specific Cases described in the
problem, as follows:
The General Case
 Deal with all variables in the abstract, without any numbers substituted for the
variables.
 Set up any formulas required to solve the problem (e.g., volume of a cone).
 Take any derivatives (based on the above formulas) required to solve the problem.
The Specific Case
 Record any values of variables for the specific situation described in the problem.
 Calculate any additional values required based on those provided in the problem (e.g.,
the length of the third side of a right triangle).
 After any derivatives are developed in the General Case, substitute values for the
variables in the derivative equation.
 Derive the solution to the problem by solving the resulting equation.
Notes:
 For some problems, you may need to draw a picture of the situation described in the
problem. In these problems, you should draw a picture for the General Case and a
second picture for the Specific Case. See Example 3.9, below.
 In the examples that follow, the General Case is shown on the left and the Specific Case
is shown on the right.

Example 3.7: The volume of a cylinder is changing by 48 cm3 per second when the radius of the
cylinder is 2 cm. If the height is twice the radius, find the rate of change of the radius when r =
2 cm. Note: .
General Case Specific Case
Information given:
We are asked to find :
2 48 2
2 2
Substitute values into the equation
Take the derivatives of derived in the General Case:
both sides with respect to t:
6
6
48 6 ∙2 ∙
After this part is done, move to the

Do some algebra to calculate:
Specific Case.

cm/sec

Example 3.8: The SA of a sphere is changing by 36 cm2 per second when the radius of the
cylinder is 3 cm. Find the rate of change of the radius when r = 3 cm. Note: 4 .
We are asked to find : Information given:
4 36 3

Take the derivatives of Substitute values into the equation
both sides with respect to t: derived in the General Case:
8 8
After this part is done, move to the 36 8 ∙3∙
Specific Case.
cm/sec


Example 3.9: A ladder 25 feet long is leaning against the wall of a house. The base of the
ladder is pulled away from the wall at a rate of 2 feet per second. How fast is the top of the
ladder moving down the wall when its base is 7 feet from the wall?


We are asked to find Information given:

Based on the drawing: 25 7 25
625 Calculate: 24

Take the derivatives of 2
both sides with respect to t:
Substitute values into the equation
2 ∙ 2 ∙ 0 derived in the General Case:

After this part is done, move to the
2 ∙ 2 ∙ 0
Specific Case.
2 ∙ 7 ∙ 2 2 ∙ 24 ∙ 0


.

Example 3.10: The radius r of a circle is increasing at a rate of 3 cm/minute. Find the rate of
change of the area when the circumference 12 cm.
We are asked to find : Information given:
2 12 3
Take the derivatives of Substitute values into the equation
both sides with respect to t: derived in the General Case:
2 2
After this part is done, move to the ∙ 12 ∙ 3

Specific Case.

Kinematics (Particle Motion)
Position
Position is the location of a particle at a point in time. It is typically represented by the
functions or .

Displacement
Displacement is a measure of the difference between a particle’s starting point and its ending
point. It may be either positive or negative. A formula for displacement is:
∆ , where is the position at any point in time, and is the starting position.

Distance
Distance is a measure of the total movement of a particle; it is always a positive value. Total
distance is the sum of the absolute values of the displacements of a particle in its various
directions.
Example 3.11: A particle moves from 0 to 6 to 2.
 Displacement 2 0 2 units
 Distance sum of absolute values of individual displacements
|6 0| |2 6| 10 units

Velocity
Velocity measures the rate of change in position. Instantaneous velocity is generally shown
using the variable and average velocity is generally shown as ̅ . Velocity may also be shown
as a vector , which has both magnitude and direction. The following formulas apply to
velocity:
Instantaneous velocity: (i.e, the derivative of the position function)
Velocity at time : (where, is initial velocity and is a constant acceleration)

∆
Average velocity: ̅
∆
Velocity may be either positive or negative.


Speed
Speed, like velocity, measures the rate of change in position. However, unlike velocity, speed is
always positive (it does not have direction). Instantaneous speed is the absolute value of
velocity | | at a point in time. Average speed is based on distance instead of displacement. The
following formulas apply to speed:
Instantaneous speed: | | (i.e, the absolute value of the velocity function)

Average speed:

A note about speed:
 Speed is increasing when velocity and acceleration have the same sign (either or ).
 Speed is decreasing when velocity and acceleration have different signs (one , one ).

Acceleration
Acceleration measures the rate of change in velocity. Instantaneous acceleration is generally
shown using the variable and average acceleration is generally shown as . Acceleration may
also be shown as a vector , which has both magnitude and direction. The following formulas
apply to acceleration:
Instantaneous acceleration:
∆
Average acceleration:
∆

Moving Among Functions
The following diagram describes how to move back and forth among the position, velocity and
acceleration functions. (Note: integration is handled in a subsequent chapter.)


Differentials
Finding the Tangent Line
Most problems that use differential to find the tangent line deal with three issues:
 Developing the equation of a tangent line at a point on a curve
 Estimating the value of a function using the tangent line.
 Estimating the change in the values of a function between two points, using the
tangent line.
In each case, the tangent line is involved, so let’s take a look at it. The key equation is:
∙
How does this equation come about? Let’s look at a curve and find the equation of the tangent
line to that curve, in the general case. See the diagram below:
 Let our point on the curve be , .
 The slope of the tangent line at , is .
 Use the point‐slope form of a line to calculate the
equation of the line:

⇒ ∙
 Add to both sides of the equation to obtain the
form shown above

Let’s take a closer look at the pieces of the equation:
First, define your anchor, , and calculate

and . Substitute these into the equation is also shown as ∆ . It is the

and you are well on your way to a solution to difference between the x‐value you are
the problem.
evaluating and your anchor to the curve,
which is the tangent point , .

∙

This is the “change part”. So, when you are
asked about the change in between two
points or the potential error in measuring
something, this is the part to focus on.

Curvature
Curvature is the rate of change of the direction of a curve at a

point, P (i.e., how fast the curve is turning at point P).
Direction is based on , the angle between the x‐axis and the
tangent to the curve at P. The rate of change is taken with
respect to , the length of an arbitrary arc on the curve near
point P. We use the Greek letter kappa, , for the measure of
curvature.
This is illustrated for the function ln 4 3 at right.
Δ
lim

→ Δ
This results in the following equations for :
or
1 1
Polar Form: Let be a function in polar form. Then, the polar form of curvature is
given by:
2 ′ ′′
⁄
where, ,
′
The Osculating Circle of a curve at Point P is the circle which is:

 Tangent to the curve at point P.
 Lies on the concave side of the curve at point P.
 Has the same curvature as the curve at point P.
The Radius of Curvature of a curve at Point P is the

radius of the osculating circle at point P.
| |
The Center of Curvature of a curve at Point P is the

center of the osculating circle at Point P.


Newton’s Method
Sometimes it is difficult or impossible to find the exact roots of an
equation. In such cases, approximate values may be found using
numerical methods. Newton’s Method is a popular approach for
determining roots this way, primarily because it is simple and
easily programmed for use with a computer.
Newton’s Method
Use the following steps to identify a root of a function
using Newton’s Method.
1. Select an estimate of the root you are looking for. Call this estimate . It may be
useful to graph the function for this purpose.
2. Use the differential formula (see above) to refine your estimate of the root:
∙
We want an estimate of when 0. Setting 0, the differential formula can be
manipulated algebraically to get:
Let this value of be our next estimate, , of the value of the root we seek. Then,
3. Repeat the process to get subsequent values of , i.e.,
4. Continue Step 3 until the sequence converges; that is, until successive estimates
round to the same value based on a predetermined level of accuracy.
When Newton’s Method Diverges
Newton’s Method diverges under certain conditions. That is, for some functions and/or
starting values, successive values of may not exist, may fluctuate back and forth between
values, or may grow further and further away from the initial estimate of the root. When this
occurs, you may want to select a different starting value of and try again. However, the
student should be aware that there are situations where Newton’s Method fails altogether.

Example 3.12: Estimate the root of near to six decimal places.
Let’s graph the function. In the graph, it is
clear that there is a root close to . So,
we are hopeful that Newton’s Method will
converge quickly.
We begin with the following:
 5
 cos
 ∙ cos sin
Now, let’s develop successive values of . Note: Microsoft Excel is useful for this purpose.
cos 5 0.099643
5 5 5.1172
∙ cos 5 sin 5 0.8502
.
cos 5.1172
5.1172 .
5.123764
∙ cos 5.1172 sin 5.1172
.
cos 5.123764
5.123764 .
5.123787
∙ cos 5.123764 sin 5.123764
.
cos 5.123787
5.123787 .
.
∙ cos 5.123787 sin 5.123787
At this point, we stop the process because when rounded to six decimals. The sequence
of { } appears to have converged to 5.123787, which is our solution. If you like, you can use
a modern graphing calculator to verify that this is in fact a good estimate of the desired root of
.
Note: While the use of modern handheld graphing calculators makes Newton’s Method
unnecessary in the Calculus classroom, its use in mathematical computer applications is
essential. It is very useful in Microsoft Excel, Visual Basic, Python, Java and other applications in
which the determination of a root is automated.


Chapter 4 Integration
Rules of Indefinite Integration
Note: the rules presented in this chapter omit the “ C ” term that must be added to all
indefinite integrals in order to save space and avoid clutter. Please remember to add the
“ C ” term on all work you perform with indefinite integrals.
Basic Rules
Integration by Parts
Power Rule
1 1
∙ 1 ln| |
1
1 1
ln ln
ln ln


Integrals of Special Functions
Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

ln ln
1 1
ln| | ln| |
ln ln ln ln
1 1
ln ln ln ln
ln ln
sin cos
cos sin
tan ln |sec | ln |cos | sec tan
cot ln |csc | ln |sin | csc cot
sec ln |sec tan | sec tan sec
csc ln |csc cot | csc cot csc

Derivations of the Integrals of Trigonometric Functions
sin
tan
cos
Let: cos so that: sin Then,
1
tan ln| | ln| cos |
cos
cot
sin
Let: sin so that: cos Then,
1
cot ln| | ln| sin |
Multiply the numerator and denominator by: sec tan

Then,
sec tan sec sec tan

sec sec ∙
sec tan sec tan
Let: sec tan so that: sec tan sec
Then,
1
sec ln| | ln| sec tan |

Derivations of the Integrals of Trig Functions (cont’d)
Multiply the numerator and denominator by: csc cot

Then,
csc cot csc csc cot

csc csc ∙
csc cot csc cot
Let: csc cot so that: csc tan csc
Then,
1
csc ln| | ln| csc cot |

Integration Involving Inverse Trig Functions
Key Formulas:
Base Formulas General Formulas
1 1
sin sin
√1 √
1 1 1
tan tan
1
1 1 1 | |
sec | | sec
√ 1 √

About Inverse Trig Functions
As an example, sin asks the question, what angle (in radians) has a sine value of ? So,
√
sin sin sin
It is important, for these purposes, to understand the quadrants in which each inverse Trig
function is defined, as shown in the following charts.

Ranges of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Function Gives a Result In:

sin
2 2
cos 0

tan
2 2
Solutions to problems involving inverse Trig functions may be expressed
multiple ways. For example, in the triangle at right with sides , and ,
the measure of angle A can be expressed as follows:
∠A sin tan sec
Some calculators will never give results using the sec function, preferring to use the tan
function instead; the answers are equivalent. For example, sec |2 | tan √4 1.

Indefinite Integrals of Inverse Trigonometric Functions
Inverse Trigonometric Functions
sin sin 1
cos cos 1
1
tan tan ln 1
2
1
cot cot ln 1
2
sec sec ln 1 sec ∈ 0,

2
sec ln 1 sec ∈ ,
2
csc csc ln 1 csc ∈ 0,

2
csc ln 1 csc ∈ ,0
2
Involving Inverse Trigonometric Functions
1 1
sin sin
√1 √
1 1 1
tan tan
1
1 1 1 | |
sec | | sec
√ 1 √



Selecting the Right Function for an Integral
Form Function Integral
1 1
sin sin
√ √
1 1 1
tan tan
1 1 1 | |
sec sec
√ √
1 1
sinh * ln
√ √
1 1
cosh * ln
√ √

1
tanh *
1 1
ln
1 2
coth *

1 1 1 √
sech * ln
√ √ | |
1 1 1 √
csch * ln
√ √ | |

* This is an inverse hyperbolic function. For more information, see Chapter 6. Note that you do
not need to know about inverse hyperbolic functions to use the formulas on this page.

Chapter 5 Techniques of Integration
–Substitution
Often, an integrand will contain a function within a function. For example, in the integral
√
, we have the function √ within the ln function. When this happens, it is often

useful to substitute another variable for the internal function. Typically the variable u is used to
represent the inner function, so the process is called –substitution.
The typical process used for –substitution is described in steps below. When trying this
approach, note the following:
 –substitution will work for all integrals, even ones that look ripe for it, though it does
work often.
 If one attempted substitution does not work, the student should try another one. It
takes practice to train the eye to identify what functions work well in this process.
 It is possible that the student will be faced with an integral than simply cannot be
integrated by any elementary method (e.g., ).
Process
Following are the steps for the general solution to an integral using –substitution.
1. Set a portion of the integrand equal to a new variable, e.g., . Look to the rest of the
integrand in deciding what to set equal to . You will need to have in the integrand
as well, if this technique is to find success.
2. Find in terms of .
3. Rearrange the integrand so that the integral exists in terms of instead of .
4. Perform the integration.
5. Substitute the expression for back into the result of the integration.
6. If you are uncomfortable with the result, integrate it to see if you get the integrand as a
result. If so, you have achieved your goal. And, don’t forget the for an indefinite
integration.
√
Example 5.1: Find:

1
ln √ ln 1 1
2 ln ln
2
1

1 1 1
∙
2 2 2


Example 5.2: Find:
1 ln
1 ln
1

1
1 ln
1

3

Example 5.3: Find: Recall: sin with sin
√ √

√9
1

3 1 3

3
1
1 1
3
3
1
3

sin

Example 5.4: Find: Recall: tan with tan

1
1

1
1
tan
1


Partial Fractions
Partial Fractions
Every rational function of the form 𝑅 𝑥 can be expressed as a sum of fractions with
linear and quadratic forms in their denominators. For example:
𝑥 2𝑥 3𝑥 4 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑏 𝑥 𝑐 𝑏 𝑥 𝑐

𝑥 4 𝑥 2𝑥 4 𝑥 4 𝑥 4 𝑥 4 𝑥 2𝑥 4 𝑥 2𝑥 4
Our task is to determine the appropriate fractions, including the values of the 𝑎’s, 𝑏’s and 𝑐’s,
so we can integrate the function. The result of integration tends to contain a number of natural
logarithm terms and inverse tangent terms, as well as others.
The following process can be used to determine the set of fractions (including the 𝑎’s, 𝑏’s and
𝑐’s) whose sum is equal to 𝑅 𝑥 .
Process
1. If 𝑁 𝑥 has the same degree or higher degree than 𝐷 𝑥 , divide 𝑁 𝑥 by 𝐷 𝑥 to obtain

the non‐fractional (polynomial) component of the rational function. Proceed in the next
steps with the fractional component of the rational function.
Example 5.5: 𝑅 𝑥 𝑥 4 .
Since it is easy to integrate the polynomial portion of this result, (i.e., 𝑥 4), it remains
to integrate the fractional portion (i.e., ) .
2. To determine the denominators of the fractions on the right side of the equal sign, we
must first factor the denominator of 𝑅 𝑥 , i.e., 𝐷 𝑥 .
Note that every polynomial can be expressed as the product of linear terms and
quadratic terms, so that:
𝐷 𝑥 𝑘 𝑥 𝑟 𝑥 𝑟 … 𝑥 𝑟 ∙ 𝑥 𝑝 𝑥 𝑞 𝑥 𝑝 𝑥 𝑞 … 𝑥 𝑝 𝑥 𝑞
Where 𝑘 is the lead coefficient, the 𝑥 𝑟 terms are the linear factors and the 𝑥 𝑝𝑥
𝑞 are the quadratic terms of 𝐷 𝑥 .


3. Every rational function can be expressed as the sum of fractions of the following types:
or
Where the exponents in the denominators, 𝑠 and 𝑡, take all values from 1 to the
multiplicity of the factor in 𝐷 𝑥 .
Examples 5.6 – 5.8:
2𝑥 5𝑥 3 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎

𝑥 2 𝑥 2 𝑥 2 𝑥 2
𝑥 𝑥 6𝑥 2 𝑏 𝑥 𝑐 𝑏 𝑥 𝑐

𝑥 3𝑥 7 𝑥 3𝑥 7 𝑥 3𝑥 7
𝑥 2𝑥 3𝑥 4 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑏 𝑥 𝑐

𝑥 1 𝑥 3 𝑥 4𝑥 1 𝑥 1 𝑥 1 𝑥 3 𝑥 4𝑥 1
We must solve for the values of the 𝑎’s, 𝑏’s and 𝑐’s. This is accomplished by obtaining a
common denominator and then equating the coefficients of each term in the
numerator. This will generate a number of equations with the same number of
unknown values of 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐.
Example 5.6a (using the first expression above):
2𝑥 5𝑥 3 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎

𝑥 2 𝑥 2 𝑥 2 𝑥 2
𝑎 𝑥 2 𝑎 𝑥 2 𝑎 𝑎 𝑥 2 𝑎 𝑥 2 𝑎

𝑥 2 𝑥 2 𝑥 2 𝑥 2
Equating the numerators, then,
2𝑥 5𝑥 3 𝑎 𝑥 4𝑎 𝑎 𝑥 4𝑎 2𝑎 𝑎
So that:
𝑎 2 𝑎 2
We solve these
4𝑎 𝑎 5 equations to obtain: 𝑎 3
4𝑎 2𝑎 𝑎 3 𝑎 5
Finally concluding that:
2𝑥 5𝑥 3 2 3 5 2 3 5

𝑥 2 𝑥 2 𝑥 2 𝑥 2 𝑥 2 𝑥 2 𝑥 2

4. The final step is to integrate the resulting fractions.
Example 5.6b (continuing from Step 3):
2𝑥 5𝑥 3 2 3 5
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 2 𝑥 2 𝑥 2 𝑥 2
3 5
2 ln|𝑥 2| 2

𝑥 2 2 𝑥 2


General
From the product rule of derivatives we have:

Rearranging terms we get:

Finally, integrating both sides gives us:
This last formula is the one for integration by parts and is extremely useful in solving integrals.
When performing an integration by parts, first define and .
L I A T E
When integrating by parts, students often struggle with how to break up the original integrand
into and . LIATE is an acronym that is often used to determine which part of the integrand
should become . Here’s how it works: let be the function from the original integrand that
shows up first on the list below.
 Logarithmic functions (e.g., ln )
 Inverse trigonometric functions (e.g., tan )
 Algebraic functions (e.g., 2)
 Trigonometric functions (e.g., cos )
 Exponential functions (e.g., )
In general, we want to let be a function whose derivative is both relatively simple and

compatible with . Logarithmic and inverse trigonometric functions appear first in the list
because their derivatives are algebraic; so if is algebraic, is algebraic and an integration
with “weird” functions is transformed into one that is completely algebraic. Note that the
LIATE approach does not always work, but in many cases it can be helpful.

Example 5.9: Find cos (note: ignore the until the end)
cos sin cos sin Let:

cos sin
sin cos sin
sin cos
sin cos 1 cos
sin cos 1 cos
cos sin cos cos
2 cos sin cos
1
cos sin cos
2
Example 5.9A: Find cos without using integration by parts
Let’s use the Trig identity: cos
1 cos 2
cos
2
1
1 cos 2
2
1 1
sin 2
2 2
Next, recall that sin 2 2 sin cos . So,
1 1
cos ∙ 2 sin cos
2 2
1
sin cos
2


Example 5.10: Find ln
ln ln Let: ln
1

ln 1
ln

Example 5.11: Find
Let:
2
2
2
Let:

2

2

2 2

Example 5.12: Find tan
Let: tan
tan tan 2

1 1

1 1 1
tan 2
2 1 2
1 2
tan ln 1
2


Example 5.13: The Gamma Function is defined by the following definite integral:
Γ
In this context, is a constant and is the variable in the integrand.
Let:
Γ 1

∞ 1

0
1
lim
0
→
0 Γ
So, we obtain one of the key properties of the Gamma Function:

Next, let’s compute: Γ 1
∞
Γ 1 0 1
0

Now for something especially cool. Based on these two results, we have the following:
Γ 1 1
Γ 2 1 ∙ Γ 1 1 ∙ 1 1 1!
Γ 3 2 ∙ Γ 2 2 ∙ 1 2 2!
Γ 4 3 ∙ Γ 3 3 ∙ 2 6 3!
Γ 5 4 ∙ Γ 4 4 ∙ 6 24 4!
…

!


Integration by Parts – Tabular Method
If the use of Integration by Parts results in another integral that must be solved using
integration by parts, the Tabular Method can be used to simplify repeating the process and
save time. This method is particularly useful when one of the terms of the integrand is a
polynomial.
Description of the Method
Create a table like the one below, starting with the ‐ and ‐substitutions to be used in the
initial integration by parts. Start the ‐column one line higher than the ‐column.
 In the ‐column, take consecutive derivatives until the derivative equals zero.
 In the ‐column, take consecutive integrals until the derivative column equals zero.
 In the sign column, begin with a sign and alternate and – signs.
 Multiply the sign and the expressions in the ‐ and columns to obtain each term of
the solution.
 Add all of the terms obtained as described above to obtain the complete solution.
Example 5.14: Tabular Method to determine
Terms Sign , , … , , , , …
sin 2
1
, cos 2
2
1
, 3 take sin 2 take
4
consecutive consecutive
1
, 6 derivatives cos 2 integrals
8
1
, 6 sin 2
16
Solution:
1 1 1 1
sin 2 cos 2 3 sin 2 6 cos 2 6 sin 2
2 4 8 16
1 3 3 3
cos 2 sin 2 cos 2 sin 2
2 4 4 8

Trigonometric Substitution
Certain integrands are best handled with a trigonometric substitution. Three common forms
are shown in the table below:
Integral Contains this Form Try this Substitution
tan
sec
sin or cos
Why are these helpful? Quite simply because they eliminate what is often the most difficult
part of the problem – the square root sign. Let’s look at each of the substitutions in the table.
 Using the substitution tan , we have:
tan tan 1 sec sec
 Using the substitution sec , we have:
sec sec 1 tan tan
 Using the substitution sin , we have:
sin 1 sin cos cos
 Using the substitution cos , we have:
cos 1 cos sin sin
Example 5.15:

√ 16 Let: 4 tan

4 sec 4 sec

4 tan 4 tan 16
4 sec

4 tan ∙ 4 sec
1 sec 1
csc
4 tan 4
1 1 √ 16 4
ln|csc cot | ln
4 4

Impossible Integrals
Some expressions are impossible to integrate using elementary methods. Examples are
provided below.
Error Function
This integral may be encountered in exercises related to the normal probability
distribution. It is important enough that tables of value associated with its
definite integral form have been developed.
erf
Other Functions with Tables of Values
A number of other integrals are important enough to have tables of values developed for them:
Function Name Indefinite Form Definite Form

1 1
Logarithmic Integral
ln ln
sin sin
Sine Integral
cos cos
Cosine Integral
Exponential Integral
Other Impossible Integrals
1 1 1
sin , cos , tan , sin √ , √ sin , sin
, , , ln ln , ln sin ,
ln
Many more functions that cannot be integrated using elementary methods can be found at:
https://owlcation.com/stem/List‐of‐Functions‐You‐Cannot‐Integrate‐No‐Antiderivatives

Chapter 6 Hyperbolic Functions
Hyperbolic Functions
Definitions

Geometric Representation
The illustration at right provides a geometric
representation of a value "z" and its hyperbolic
function values relative to the unit hyperbola.
The hyperbolic cosine " cosh ", is the equation

of the Catenary, the shape of hanging chain that is
supported at both ends.
Many of the properties of hyperbolic functions bear a
striking resemblance to the corresponding properties
of trigonometric functions (see next page).
Graphs of Hyperbolic Functions


Hyperbolic Function Identities
Comparison of Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Identities
Hyperbolic Function Identity Trigonometric Function Identity
sinh sinh sin sin
cosh cosh cos cos
tanh tanh tan tan

cosh sinh 1 sin cos 1
sech 1 tanh sec 1 tan
csch coth 1 csc 1 cot

sinh sinh cosh cosh sinh sin sin cos cos sin
sinh sinh cosh cosh sinh sin sin cos cos sin
sinh 2 2 sinh cosh sin 2 2 sin cos
cosh cosh cosh sinh sinh cos cos cos sin sin
cosh cosh cosh sinh sinh cos cos cos sin sin
cosh 2 cosh sinh cos 2 cos sin
tanh tanh tan tan

tanh tan
1 tanh tanh 1 tan tan
tanh tanh tan tan

tanh tan
1 tanh tanh 1 tan tan

1 cosh 2 1 cos 2
sinh sin
2 2
1 cosh 2 1 cos 2
cosh cos
2 2


Hyperbolic Function Identities
Relationship between Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
sinh sin
From these two relationships, the other four may be determined.
cosh cos
sinh
tanh tan
cosh
cosh
coth cot
sinh
1
sech sec
cosh
1
csch csc
sinh
Series Expansions
Appendix G provides series expansions for the trigonometric functions sin and cos . Those

are repeated here, along with the series expansions for the corresponding hyperbolic functions
sinh and cosh .
sin ⋯ cos 1 ⋯
3! 5! 7! 2! 4! 6!
sinh ⋯ cosh 1 ⋯
3! 5! 7! 2! 4! 6!
It is possible to develop series expansions for the other four hyperbolic functions, but they
involve the more esoteric Bernoulli numbers and Euler numbers. Instead, the student may wish
to develop values for the other four hyperbolic functions from the expansions of sinh and
cosh .
…
! ! !
Example 6.1: tanh
…
! ! !

Inverse Hyperbolic Functions
Logarithmic Forms of Inverse Hyperbolic Functions
Function Function
Principal Values Domain Range
sinh ln 1 ∞, ∞ ∞, ∞
cosh ln 1 1, ∞ 0, ∞
1 1
tanh ln 1, 1 ∞, ∞
2 1
1 1 1
coth tanh ln ∞, 1 ∪ 1, ∞ ∞, ∞
2 1
1 1 √1
sech cosh ln 0, 1 0, ∞
1 1 √1
csch sinh ln ∞, ∞ ∞, ∞
| |
Graphs of Inverse Hyperbolic Functions


Graphs of Hyperbolic Functions and Their Inverses


Derivatives of Hyperbolic Functions and Their Inverses
sinh cosh sinh cosh ∙
cosh sinh cosh sinh ∙
tanh sech tanh sech ∙
coth csch coth csch ∙
sech sech tanh sech sech tanh ∙
csch csch coth csch csch coth ∙
Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

1 1
sinh sinh ∙
√ 1 √ 1
1 1
cosh cosh ∙
√ 1 √ 1
1 1
tanh tanh ∙
1 1
1 1
coth coth ∙
1 1
1 1
sech sech ∙
√1 √1
1 1
csch csch ∙
| | √1 | | √1


Integrals of Hyperbolic Functions and Their Inverses
Hyperbolic Functions Be careful with these integrals. A couple of

them have inverse trigonometric functions in
sinh cosh the formulas. These are highlighted in blue.
cosh sinh
tanh ln cosh sech tanh
coth ln|sinh | csch coth
sech 2 tan sech tanh sech
csch ln tanh csch coth coth

2
Inverse Hyperbolic Functions Note: the integration

rules presented in this
sinh sinh 1 chapter omit the “ ”
term that must be
cosh cosh 1 added to all indefinite
integrals in order to save
1 space and avoid clutter.
tanh tanh ln 1
2 Please remember to add
1 the “ ” term on all
coth coth ln 1 work you perform with
2
indefinite integrals.
sech sech sin
csch csch sinh if 0
csch sinh if 0


Other Integrals Relating to Hyperbolic Functions
1 1
sinh ln
√ √
1 1
cosh ln
√ √

1 1
tanh
1 1
ln
1 1 2
coth

1 1 | | 1 1 √
sech ln
√ √ | |
1 1 | | 1 1 √
csch ln
√ √ | |
Note: The results above are shown without their constant term ( ). When more than one
result is shown, the results may differ by a constant, meaning that the constants in the formulas
may be different.
Example 6.2: From the first row above:
1 1
sinh and ln
√ √
From earlier in this chapter, we know that the logarithmic form of sinh is:
sinh ln 1
Then:
1
sinh ln 1
√
√
ln ln ln
So we see that ln and so the formulas both work, but have different constant
terms.

Chapter 7 Definite Integrals
Definite Integrals as Riemann Sums
Riemann Sum
A Riemann Sum is the sum of the areas of a set of rectangles that can be used to approximate
the area under the curve over a closed interval.
Note: the term “under the curve” is generally used to refer to the area between a curve and the
𝑥‐axis. Some of this area may not be strictly under the curve if the curve is below the 𝑥‐axis.
Consider a closed interval 𝑎, 𝑏 on 𝑥 that is partitioned into 𝑛 sub‐intervals of lengths
∆𝑥 , ∆𝑥 , ∆𝑥 , … ∆𝑥 . Let 𝑥 ∗ be any value of 𝑥 on the 𝑖‐th sub‐interval. Then, the Riemann
Sum is given by:

𝑆 𝑓 𝑥 ∗ ∙ ∆𝑥

A graphical representation of a Riemann sum
on the interval 2, 5 is provided at right.
Note that the area under the curve from
𝑥 𝑎 to 𝑥 𝑏 is:

lim 𝑓 𝑥 ∗ ∙ ∆𝑥 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
∆ →

The largest ∆𝑥 is called the mesh size of the partition. A typical Riemann Sum is developed
with all ∆𝑥 the same (i.e., constant mesh size), but this is not required. The resulting definite
integral, 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 is called the Riemann Integral of 𝑓 𝑥 on the interval 𝑎, 𝑏 .
With constant mesh size, the Riemann Integral of 𝑓 𝑥 on the interval 𝑎, 𝑏 can be expressed:
lim 𝑓 𝑥𝑖∗ ∙ ∆𝑥 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑛→∞
𝑖
where,
interval length
∆𝑥 .
number of subintervals

Methods for Calculating Riemann Sums
Riemann Sums are often calculated using equal sub‐intervals over the interval specified. Below
are examples of 4 commonly used approaches. Although some methods provide better
answers than others under various conditions, the limits under each method as max ∆𝑥 → 0
are the same, and are equal to the integral they are intended to approximate.
x  x  dx . Using n  3 , estimate the area under the curve.
8
Example 7.1: Given: 𝑓 𝑥  2
2
𝟖 𝟐
∆𝒙 𝟐. The three intervals in question are: 𝟐, 𝟒 , 𝟒, 𝟔 , 𝟔, 𝟖 . Then,
𝟑
𝐴 𝑓 𝑥 ∙ ∆𝒙𝒊 ∆𝒙 ∙ 𝑓 𝑥
Left‐Endpoint Rectangles (use rectangles with left endpoints on the curve)

𝑳 𝟐∙ 𝑓 2 𝑓 4 𝑓 6 𝟐∙ 2 12 30 𝟖𝟖 units2
Right‐Endpoint Rectangles (use rectangles with right endpoints on the curve)

𝑹 𝟐∙ 𝑓 4 𝑓 6 𝑓 8 𝟐 ∙ 12 30 56 𝟏𝟗𝟔 units2
Trapezoid Rule (use trapezoids with all endpoints on the curve) Note: the actual value of

the area under the curve is:
𝑳 𝑹 𝟖𝟖 𝟏𝟗𝟔
𝑻 𝟏𝟒𝟐 units2
𝟐 𝟐
𝑥 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 138
Midpoint Rule (use rectangles with midpoints on the curve)
𝑴 𝟐∙ 𝑓 3 𝑓 5 𝑓 7 𝟐∙ 6 20 42 𝟏𝟑𝟔 units2

Riemann Sums of Tables Using the TI‐84

Consider the following problem:
Use a right Riemann Sum to approximate the area under the curve on the interval 2, 13 .
𝑥 2 4 5.5 8 9.2 10.3 11.8 13

𝑓 𝑥 4 ‐1 ‐2 1 5 11 13 9
There are eight columns and, therefore, seven intervals in the table. The formula for the
required Riemann Sum, then, is:
𝐴 𝑓 𝑥 ∙ ∆𝑥
where the ∆𝑥 are the widths of the intervals and the 𝑓 𝑥 are the values of the function at

the right side of each interval (because we are calculating a right Riemann Sum).
The student can calculate this directly as:
𝐴 1 4 2 2 5.5 4 1 8 .5.5 5 9.2 8 11 10.3 9.2 13 11.8 10.3 9 13 11.8 𝟒𝟓. 𝟗
Alternatively, the student can use the TI‐84 calculator as follows:
Step 1: STAT – EDIT – L1 – enter the values of ∆𝑥 in the column for L1.
Step 2: STAT – EDIT – L2 – enter the appropriate values of𝑓 𝑥 in the column for L2.
Step 3: 2ND – QUIT – this will take you back to the TI‐84’s home screen.
Step 3: L1 x L2 STO> L3 – this will put the product of columns L1 and L2 in column L3.
Note that L3 will contain the areas of each of the rectangles in the Riemann Sum.
Step 4: 2ND – LIST – MATH – SUM( – L3 – this will add the values in column L3, giving the
value of 𝐴, which, for this problem, matches the sum of 𝟒𝟓. 𝟗 shown above.
Note: entering L1, L2 or L3 requires use of the 2ND key.
The student can review the contents of the lists L1, L2, and L3 using
STAT – EDIT. For this problem, the display will look something like
the image at right. The advantages of this are:
 It allows the student to check their work quickly.
 If the student is asked for some other kind of Riemann Sum, a
portion of the required input is already in the TI‐84.
Each student should use whichever method of calculating Riemann Sums works best for them.

Riemann Integrals with Constant Mesh Size

With constant mesh size, the Riemann Integral of 𝑓 𝑥 on the interval 𝑎, 𝑏 can be expressed:
𝑛→∞
𝑖
where,
interval length
∆𝑥 .
number of intervals
A formula for a right‐endpoint Riemann Sum with 𝑛 sub‐intervals, then, can be developed
using:
𝑥𝑖∗ right endpoint left endpoint 𝑖 ∙ ∆𝑥, 𝑖 1, 2, … , 𝑛
𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Example 7.2: Provide the exact value of by expressing it as the limit of a Riemann sum.
Start with the definition of a Riemann Sum with constant mesh size (see above):
𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 lim 𝑓 𝑥𝑖∗ ∙ ∆𝑥
𝑛→∞
𝑖
Using 𝑛 sub‐intervals and a right‐endpoint Riemann Sum,
4 2 2
∆𝑥
𝑛 𝑛
𝑥∗ 2 𝑖 2 , 𝑖 1, 2, … , 𝑛
2𝑖 2𝑖 8𝑖 4𝑖
𝑓 𝑥∗ 𝑓 2 2 4
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
So,
𝒏
2𝑖 2 𝟖𝒊 𝟒𝒊𝟐 𝟐
𝑥 𝑑𝑥 lim 2 ∙ 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝟒 𝟐
∙
→ 𝑛 𝑛 𝒏→ 𝒏 𝒏 𝒏
𝒊 𝟏

Riemann Sum Methods – Over‐ or Under‐Estimates

Left and Right Endpoint Methods
Over‐ or Under‐estimates for the Left and Right Endpoint Methods depend on whether a
function is increasing or decreasing over the interval used.
Over‐ or Under‐ Over‐ or Under‐
Method Method
Estimate Estimate
Left Endpoint Under Left Endpoint Over

Right Endpoint Over Right Endpoint Under

Midpoint and Trapezoid Methods
Over‐ or Under‐estimates for the Midpoint and Trapezoidal Methods depend on whether a
function is concave up or concave down over the interval used.
Concave Up Concave Down
Over‐ or Under‐ Over‐ or Under‐
Method Method
Estimate Estimate
Midpoint Under Midpoint Over

Trapezoidal Over Trapezoidal Under


Rules of Definite Integration
First Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

If 𝑓 𝑥 is a continuous function on 𝑎, 𝑏 , and 𝐹 𝑥 is any antiderivative of 𝑓 𝑥 , then
𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝐹 𝑏 𝐹 𝑎
Second Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

If 𝑓 𝑥 is a continuous function on 𝑎, 𝑏 , then for every 𝑥 ∈ 𝑎, 𝑏
𝑑
𝑓 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑓 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
Chain Rule of Definite Integration

If 𝑓 𝑥 is a continuous function on 𝑎, 𝑏 , then for every 𝑥 ∈ 𝑎, 𝑏
𝑑 𝑑
𝑓 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑓 𝑔 𝑥 ∙ 𝑔 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Mean Value Theorem for Integrals

If 𝑓 𝑥 is a continuous function on 𝑎, 𝑏 , then there is a value 𝑐 ∈ 𝑎, 𝑏 , such that
𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑏 𝑎 ∙𝑓 𝑐
The value 𝑓 𝑐 is called the Average Value of the function 𝑓 𝑥 on the interval 𝑎, 𝑏 . A

formula for the average value is:
1
Average Value 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑏 𝑎

Average Rate of Change vs. Average Value

Average Rate of Change Average Value
Math Level Algebra 1 Integral Calculus
Requirement 𝑓 𝑥 is continuous on 𝑎, 𝑏 𝑓 𝑥 is continuous on 𝑎, 𝑏
Description Slope of the secant line Height of the rectangle with

connecting the endpoints of area equal to the area under
the curve on the interval 𝑎, 𝑏 the curve on the interval 𝑎, 𝑏
Formula 𝑓 𝑏 𝑓 𝑎 1
𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑏 𝑎 𝑏 𝑎
Illustration Average rate of change of Average value of

𝑓 𝑥 𝑥 over the interval 𝑓 𝑥 𝑥 on the interval
1, 5 . 1, 5 .
1 1 1 1
5 1 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 1.722
6 6 1
5 1 5 1 6

Properties of Definite Integrals

Same Upper and Lower Limits
𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 0 If the upper and lower limits of the integral
are the same, its value is zero.
Reversed Limits
Reversing the limits of an integral negates
𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 its value.
Multiplication by a Scalar
The integral of the product of a scalar
𝑘 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑘∙ 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 and a function is the product of the
scalar and the integral of the function.
Telescoping Limits
The integral over the interval 𝑎, 𝑏 is equal to
𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 the integral over the interval 𝑎, 𝑐 , plus the
integral over the interval 𝑐, 𝑏 .
Sum or Difference
The integral of a sum (or difference) of
functions is the sum (or difference) of
𝑓 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 the integrals of the functions.
Linear Combination
The integral of a linear
combination of functions is
𝑘∙𝑓 𝑥 𝑚∙𝑔 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑘∙ 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑚∙ 𝑔 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 the linear combination of the
integrals of the functions.


Solving Definite Integrals with Directed Line Segments
A common problem in elementary Calculus is to use the values of definite integrals of a given
function 𝑓 𝑥 over two or more intervals to obtain the value of a definite integral of 𝑓 𝑥 over
a related interval. The illustration below shows how directed line segments can be used to
simplify the calculations required for this kind of problem.
Example 7.3: Given that 3𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 84 and 5𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 75, find 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥.
Step 1: Remove any scalar multipliers by dividing the values given by the scalar multipliers.
Divide: 3𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 84 by 3 to get 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 28.
Divide: 5𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 75 by 5 to get 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 15.
Step 2: Draw directed line segments for each of the definite integrals in the problem. Label
each segment with its magnitude. The starting
and ending points of each segment reflect the
limits in the integral. Known values are shown
in blue and the target value is in green.
Notice that the first segment stretches over
the interval 3, 8 and has magnitude 28, reflecting 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 28. The other segments
are constructed similarly. We want to find the magnitude of the third (green) segment.
We could subtract the second segment from the first to obtain the solution segment. Its
magnitude would be: 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 28 15 4𝟑. If we do this, we are done; we have
our solution. Alternatively, we could take a more fluid approach to this problem as in Step 3.
Step 3 (if desired): Reorient segments as
needed so we can follow the known directed
segments from the beginning to the end of the
interval required for the solution (i.e., from
𝑥 3 to 𝑥 4).
If we reorient the middle segment so it is pointing to the left, the magnitude of the new second
segment becomes 15, reflecting the fact that we are moving to the left instead of to the right.
Using Calculus, this reflects the fact that 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 15. We are now able to
get to 𝑥 4 by following the known segments in the directions shown. Then, we simply add
the magnitudes of the known segments to get our solution: 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 28 15 4𝟑.

Definite Integrals – 𝒖‐Substitution

𝒖‐substitution may be used in the evaluation of definite integrals as well as indefinite integrals
(note: using 𝑢‐substitution with indefinite integrals is covered in Chapter 5). The process with
definite integrals is slightly different and may even be a bit easier.
Process
Following are the steps for the general solution to a definite integral using 𝑢–substitution.
1. Set a portion of the integrand equal to a new variable, e.g., 𝑢. Look to the rest of the
integrand in deciding what to set equal to 𝑢. You will need to have 𝑑𝑢 in the integrand
as well, if this technique is to find success.
2. Find 𝑑𝑢 in terms of 𝑑𝑥.
3. Rearrange the integrand so that the integral exists in terms of 𝑢 instead of 𝑥.
4. Perform the integration.
5. Evaluate the values of the limits of integration in terms of the new variable and
substitute these into the definite integral in terms of u.
6. Evaluate the result.
Note that by calculating the limits of integration in terms of the new variable, 𝑢, we are able to
avoid the step where we must substitute the expression for 𝑢 back into the result of the
integration. This saves time and reduces the likelihood of error in the calculation.
Example 7.4: Evaluate:
2 𝑑𝑥
2𝑥 1 𝑢 2𝑥 1
𝑑𝑢 2 𝑑𝑥
1
2 𝑑𝑥
2𝑥 1 𝑥 0 ⇒ 𝑢 1
𝑥 1 ⇒ 𝑢 3
𝑢 𝑑𝑢
1 1 1 1 1 1 𝟐
𝑢 1
3 𝑢 3 1 3 3 𝟑

⁄
Example 7.5: Evaluate: sin 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
⁄
sin 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑢 2𝑥
𝑑𝑢 2 𝑑𝑥
⁄
1
sin 2𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 𝜋 𝜋
2 𝑥
4
⇒ 𝑢
2

𝜋 𝑥 𝜋 ⇒ 𝑢 2𝜋
1 2
sin 𝑢 𝑑𝑢
2 2𝜋
𝜋⁄ 𝜋⁄
1 2 1 2 1 𝟏
cos 𝑢 cos 𝑢 0 1
2 2𝜋 2 2𝜋 2 𝟐

⁄
Example 7.6: Evaluate: tan 𝑥 sec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
For trig functions other than sine and cosine, we need to make sure the denominators of the
functions are not zero within our interval. If they are zero, the function is not continuous on the
interval and so the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus does not apply.
For the current problem, we need to make sure cos 𝑥 0 over the interval 0, in order to use

the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus. Since cos 𝑥 0 at 𝑥 , in this neighborhood, we
are okay to proceed.
⁄ 𝑢 tan 𝑥
tan 𝑥 sec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 sec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜋
1 1 1 𝟏 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑢 1
𝑢 𝑑𝑢 𝑢 1 2
02 4
2 0 2 𝟐 𝑥 0 ⇒ 𝑢 0
ALTERNATIVE APPROACH: setting 𝑢 sec 𝑥
⁄ 𝑢 sec 𝑥
tan 𝑥 sec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑢 sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
⁄ 𝜋
𝑥 ⇒ 𝑢 √2
sec 𝑥 sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 4
𝑥 0 ⇒ 𝑢 1
√2 1 √2 1 2 𝟏
𝑢 𝑑𝑢 𝑢 √2 12
2 1 2 𝟐

Definite Integrals – Special Techniques

Sometimes it is difficult or impossible to take an antiderivative of an integrand. In such cases, it
may still be possible to evaluate a definite integral, but special techniques and creativity may be
required. This section presents a few techniques that the student may find helpful.
Even and Odd Functions
The following technique can sometimes be used to solve a definite integral that has limits that are
additive inverses (i.e, 𝑎 and 𝑎).
Every function can be split into even and odd components. The even and odd components of a given
function, 𝑓 𝑥 , are:
𝑓 𝑥 𝑓 𝑥 𝑓 𝑥 𝑓 𝑥
𝑓 𝑥 𝑓 𝑥
2 2
Notice that:
 𝑓 𝑥 𝑓 𝑥 , so that 𝑓 𝑥 is an even function.
 𝑓 𝑥 𝑓 𝑥 , so that 𝑓 𝑥 is an odd function.
 𝑓 𝑥 𝑓 𝑥 𝑓 𝑥
Further recall that, for an odd function with limits that are additive inverses, any negative areas “under”
the curve are exactly offset by corresponding positive areas under the curve. That is:
𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 0
Additionally, for an even function with limits that are additive inverses, the area under the curve to the
left of the 𝑦‐axis is the same as the area under the curve to the right of the 𝑦‐axis. That is:
𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Therefore, we have:
𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑓 𝑥 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
And, finally, substituting from the above equations:
𝒂 𝒂
𝒇 𝒙 𝒅𝒙 𝟐 𝒇𝐞𝐯𝐞𝐧 𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝒂 𝟎
Let’s look at an example of how this can be used to evaluate a difficult definite integral on the next page.

𝝅
𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙
Example 7.7: Evaluate 𝒅𝒙
𝝅 𝟏 𝒆𝒙 cos(x)
𝟐
f(x) =
1 + ex
First, define: 𝑓 𝑥 .
Notice that there are no singularities for this integral. That is, there
are no points between the limits (i.e., 𝑥 ) at which
𝑓 𝑥 does not exist. So we may proceed in a normal fashion.
Next, let’s look at the even and odd components of 𝑓 𝑥 .
𝑓 𝑥 𝑓 𝑥 1 cos 𝑥 cos 𝑥
𝑓 𝑥
2 2 1 𝑒 1 𝑒
Noting that cos 𝑥 cos 𝑥, we get:

1 cos 𝑥 cos 𝑥 cos 𝑥 1 1 cos(x)
𝑓 𝑥 feven(x) =
2 1 𝑒 1 𝑒 2 1 𝑒 1 𝑒 2
cos 𝑥 1 𝑒 1 𝑒

2 1 𝑒 1 𝑒
cos 𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑒 cos 𝑥

2 2 𝑒 𝑒 2
The odd component of 𝑓 𝑥 is (note: this work is not necessary to evaluate the integral):
𝑓 𝑥 𝑓 𝑥 1 cos 𝑥 cos 𝑥
𝑓 𝑥
2 2 1 𝑒 1 𝑒

1 cos 𝑥
2 1 𝑒
cos 𝑥
1 𝑒
cos 𝑥
2
1
1 𝑒
1
1 𝑒
fodd(x) =
cos(x)
2  e-x - ex
2 + e-x + ex 
cos 𝑥 1 𝑒 1 𝑒

2 1 𝑒 1 𝑒
cos 𝑥 𝑒 𝑒

2 2 𝑒 𝑒
Since the value of the odd component of the definite integral is zero, we need only evaluate the
even component of the definite integral using the formula on the previous page:
𝝅
𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 cos 𝑥 𝜋 𝜋
𝒅𝒙 2 𝑑𝑥 sin 𝑥 2 sin sin 0 1 0 𝟏
𝝅 𝟏 𝒆𝒙 2 0 2
𝟐


Derivative of an Integral
The Second Fundamental Theorem of Calculus states that if 𝑓 𝑥 is a continuous function on
the interval 𝑎, 𝑏 , then for every 𝑥 ∈ 𝑎, 𝑏 , 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑓 𝑥 . Essentially, this is a
statement that integration and differentiation are inverses. But, there is more. If the upper
limit is a function of 𝑥, say 𝑢 𝑥 , then we must apply the chain rule to get:
𝑑 𝑑𝑢
𝑓 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑓 𝑢 ∙
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Note that 𝑎 is a constant and 𝑢 is a function in 𝑥. Also note that the value of the constant 𝑎 is
irrelevant in this expression, as long as 𝑓 𝑥 is continuous on the required interval.
If both of the limits in the integral are functions of 𝑥, we can take advantage of a property of
definite integrals to develop a solution. Let 𝑢 and 𝑣 both be functions in 𝑥, and let 𝑎 be an
arbitrary constant in the interval where 𝑓 𝑥 is continuous. Then,
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
𝑓 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑓 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑓 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
So,
𝑑 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
𝑓 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑓 𝑢 ∙ 𝑓 𝑣 ∙
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Example 7.8:
𝑑
𝑡 𝑑𝑡 3 sin 2𝑥 ∙ 6 cos 2𝑥 𝟓𝟒 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝟐𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝒙
𝑑𝑥
Example 7.9:
𝑑 𝟐
𝑒 𝑑𝑡 𝑒 ∙ sec 𝑥 𝑒 ∙ 2𝑥 𝒆𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐 𝒙 𝟐𝒙𝒆𝒙
𝑑𝑥

Chapter 8 Applications of Integration
Area Under a Curve
The area under a curve can be calculated directly by integrating the curve over the desired
interval. Note the following:
 The area “under” a curve is actually the area between the axis and the curve. In this
sense, the word “under” may be a bit of a misnomer.
 The area under a curve may be positive (if above the ‐axis) or negative (if below the
‐axis).
⁄
Example 8.1: Find the area under the curve 2 on the
interval 1, 1 .
3 1
2 2
4 1
3 3
∙ 1 2∙1 ∙ 1 2∙ 1
4 4
5 11
4 4

Example 8.2: Find the area under the curve 4 sec tan on the interval , .
4 sec tan 4 sec 3

3 Negative Positive
Area Area
4 3 4 4
0
cos 1 1
3 2 2
Note: this interesting result means that the negative area
under the curve of 4 sec tan on the interval
, 0 is exactly offset exactly by the positive area above
the curve on the interval 0, .

Area Between Curves
The area between two curves is the difference of the areas under the curves. It is always
positive, so if the curves switch position in terms of which one is superior (on top or to the
right), the integration must take that into account.
Example 8.3: Find the area of the region is bounded by the ‐axis and the curves sin and

cos (i.e., inside the green lines in the illustration).
First, we must find the point of intersection in Quadrant 1.
sin cos at , so our interval of integration is 0,

Next, consider which curve is superior to the other (i.e., which one is
higher if the form of the equations is , or more to the right if
the form of the equations is ). The other curve is inferior. The
inferior curve is subtracted from the superior curve in the integrand.
On the interval 0, , cos is the higher of the two curves.
Finally, calculate the area by integrating the difference between the curves.
cos sin sin cos 4 sin cos sin 0 cos 0

0 4 4
√2 √2
0 1 √
2 2

Example 8.4: Find the area of the region between and
1 on the interval 1, 1 (i.e., inside the green lines in
the illustration).
On the interval 1, 1 , the highest curve is .
Calculate the area by integrating the difference between the curves.
1 1
1 1

3 1
1 1 1 1 2
1 1 2
3 3 3


Area in Polar Form
Area in Polar Form is given by:
1
Let: Then,
2
Why?
The diagram at right illustrates the reason that we use the above formula
for area. The integral adds all of the slices (see the color slices in the
diagram) inside the curve in question. Each slice is a sector of a circle
with radius and angle (an infinitesimally small angle). The area of a
single slice, then, is times the area of the circle containing it. That is:
1
∙
2 2
Integrating this over the desired interval of results in the above formula for area.
Example 8.5: Find the area in the first quadrant inside the lemniscate 4 sin 2 shown in

the above diagram.
First, we need to determine the limits of integration. Consider that the loop in Quadrant 1
begins and ends at locations where 0. So, we need to find two values of the variable
that make 0. We do this by setting 0 in the equation of the lemniscate.
0 4 sin 2 , which occurs when sin 2 0, which occurs at 0, , , ,…
For our limits of integration, we will use 0 and because these two values define the loop in
Quadrant 1. We can check this by evaluating for a value in the interval 0, and making
sure the resulting point is in Quadrant 1. Let’s find when .

⇒ 4 sin 2 ∙ 4∙1 4 ⇒ 2 (in Quadrant 1)
The area of the lemniscate above in Quadrant 1, then, is calculated as:
1 1 2
4 sin 2 2 sin 2 cos 2
2 2 0

Example 8.6: Calculate the area of the general lemniscate of the form sin 2 .
Note that the area of the entire lemniscate is double that of the loop in Quadrant 1. Then,
1 1 2
2 sin 2 sin 2 cos 2
2 2 0
Example 8.7: Find the area within the inner loop of the limaçon 1 2 cos .
First, we need to determine the limits of integration. Consider that
the loop begins and ends at locations where 0. So, we need
to find the values of the variable that make 0 and define
the inner loop. We do this by setting 0 in the equation of the
lemniscate.
0 1 2 cos , which occurs when cos , which

occurs at ,
Next, we need to make sure that the inner loop is defined as progresses from to . We

can do this by evaluating for a value of in the interval , and making sure the resulting
point is on the inner loop. Let’s find when .

⇒ 1 2 cos 1
We check the polar point 1, on the curve and note that it is on the inner loop.
Therefore, our limits of integration are the values , .
The area of the inner loop of the limaçon 1 2 cos , then, is calculated as:
1 1 1
1 2 cos 1 4 cos 4 cos
2 2 2
1 1 cos 2 3
1 4 cos 4∙ 2 cos cos 2
2 2 2
3 1 4
3 √
2 sin sin 2
2 2 2
3

Areas of Limaçons
Limaçons that have both inner and outer loops present a challenge when calculating area. The
general form of a limaçon is:
cos or sin
When | | | |, the limaçon has an inner loop that covers part of its outer loop, so we must
be careful calculating areas in this kind of limaçon.
Example 8.8: Find the area between the loops (i.e., inside the outer loop but outside the inner
loop) of the limaçon: 1 2 sin .
First, we need to find where 1 2 sin 0 so we can identify the starting and ending ‐
values for the inner loop. After finding these values to be , , we can look at the curve
over various intervals on 0,2 and calculate the areas associated with those intervals.

/
1 3√3 8
0, : 1 2 sin ~ 0.0844
6 2 4
/
5 1 2 3√3
,
: 1 2 sin ~ 0.5435
6 6 2 / 2
5 1 3√3 8
, : 1 2 sin ~ 0.0844
6 2 / 4
1 3 8
,2 : 1 2 sin ~ 8.7124
2 2
The total area of the limaçon, including both the outer and inner loops, is the sum of these:
1
0,2 : 1 2 sin 3 ~ 9.4248
2

A sketch of the complete limaçon 1 2 sin is shown in Figure 1 below. Since taking the

area from 0 to 2 includes the area completely inside the outer loop plus the area inside the
inner loop, the total area can be thought of as shown in Figure 2.
This illustrates that the area within the inner loop is included in 1 2 sin
twice, and therefore, must be subtracted twice when looking for the area between the loops.
Subtracting it once leaves all of the area inside the outer loop (Figure 3). A second subtraction
is required to obtain the area between the loops.
Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3

1 2 sin |1 2 sin | 1 2 sin
Graphed on 0, 2 Graphed on 0, 2 Graphed on 0, ∪ ,2

Given all of the above, let’s calculate the key areas of the limaçon 1 2 sin :
The total area of the limaçon, including both the outer loop and the inner loop, is:
1
Interval 0,2 : 1 2 sin 3 ~ 9.4248
2
The area inside the inner loop is calculated as:
/
5 1 2 3√3
Interval , : 1 2 sin ~ 0.5435
6 6 2 / 2
The area between the loops (i.e., the solution to this example) is calculated as:
1 1
1 2 sin 2 ∙ 1 2 sin 3√3 ~ 8.3377
2 2

Arc Length
The arc length, , of a curve, in its various forms, is discussed below:
Rectangular Form:
For a function of the form: , from to
.
1
For a function of the form: , from to

.
1
Example 8.9: Find the length of the arc on the hyperbolic curve cosh on the ‐

interval 0, 2 .
Using the above formula, and noting that sinh :
1 1
2
1
1 2
4
1
2
4

2 2
2 1 1

2 0 2 2

Polar Form:
For a function of the form: ,
Example 8.10: Find the length of the arc of one petal on the rose 2 cos 3 .
To find the interval which defines one petal, we set 0.
0 2 cos 3 , which occurs when cos 3 0, which

occurs at , , , . A little investigation reveals
we can define a full petal over the interval ∈ , .
Next find: 6 sin 3 .
Then, the arc length of a single petal is:
2 cos 3 6 sin 3
4 cos 3 36 sin 3
2 cos 3 9 sin 3
2 cos 3 sin 3 8 sin 3
This expression is quite ugly but can be handled by a modern calculator. Its value is
approximately . as calculated on both the TI‐84 Plus and the TI nSpire.


Parametric Form:
For a function of the form: ,
Example 8.11: Find the length of the arc of one petal on the rose defined by the parametric
equations 2 cos 3 cos and 2 cos 3 sin .
This is the same curve defined in the example above. So we will
integrate over the same interval: ∈ , .
To integrate in parametric form, we need and . Let’s

calculate them:
2 cos 3 sin cos 3 sin 3
2 cos 3 cos sin 3 sin 3
Then,
4 cos 3 sin cos 3 sin 3 4 cos 3 cos sin 3 sin 3
cos 3 sin 6 cos cos 3 sin sin 3 9 cos sin 3

2
cos 3 cos 6 cos cos 3 sin sin 3 9 sin sin 3
Notice in this expression that terms above and below each other can be combined to get:
2 cos 3 sin cos 9 sin cos sin 3
2 cos 3 9 sin 3 2
This is exactly the same expression that was derived on the previous page in polar form.

Comparison of Formulas for Rectangular, Polar and Parametric Forms

Rectangular Form Polar Form Parametric Form

Form

cos cos
Conversion
tan sin sin
1
Area Under Curve ∙
2
1
Area Between Curves
2
Arc Length ( ) 1 ′
Magnitude of Speed (2D) 1 ′
/ sin cos / sin cos

Slope of Tangent Line
/ cos sin / cos sin
Second Derivative
Horizontal Tangents 0 sin cos 0 sin cos 0
Vertical Tangents undefined cos sin 0 cos sin 0

Area of a Surface of Revolution

Rotation about the ‐Axis
Rotation of a curve from to .
2 2 1
1
is the arc length of the curve on , .
If the curve is defined by parametric equations, , :
2
Rotation about the ‐Axis
Rotation of a curve from to .
2 2 1
1
is the arc length of the curve on , .
If the curve is defined by parametric equations, , :
2

Volumes of Solids of Revolution
Solids of Rotation about:

Revolution x‐axis y‐axis
Disk

Method
Washer

Method(1)
2 2
Cylindrical Shell
Method(2) or or
2 2
2 2
Difference of
Shells Method(2)(3) or or
2 2
Area Cross Section

Method(4)
Notes:
1. The Washer Method is an extension of the Disk Method.
2. is the radius of the cylindrical shell. In cases where there is a gap between the axis of
revolution and the functions being revolved, is the distance between the axis of
revolution and either or , as appropriate.
3. The Difference of Shells Method is an extension of the Cylindrical Shell Method.
4. The function is the area of the cross section being integrated.


Disk and Washer Methods
The formulas for the Disk Method and Washer Method for calculating volumes of revolution
are provided above. Below, we present an approach that can be used to calculate volumes of
revolution using these methods.
Under the Disk Method, we integrate the area of the region between a curve and its axis of
revolution to obtain volume. Since each cross‐section of the resulting object will be a circle, we
use the formula as our starting point. The resulting formula is:
or
The Washer Method is simply a dual application of the Disk Method. Consider the
illustration at right. If we want the area of the shaded region, we subtract the
area of the smaller circle from the area of the larger circle. The same occurs with
the Washer Method; since we integrate cross‐sectional area to find volume, so to
obtain the volume of revolution of a region between the two curves we integrate
the difference in the areas between the two curves.
Below is a set of steps that can be used to determine the volume of revolution of a region
between two curves. The approach is illustrated based on the following example:
Example 8.12: Find the volume that results from revolving the region between the curves
2√ and about the line 6.
Steps
1. Graph the equations provided and any other information given
in the problem (illustrated below). Then, isolate the section of
the graph that we want to work with (illustrated at right). The
disks we will use are shown as green and orange vertical lines.
The dashed objects are reflections of the curves and disks over
the axis of revolution; these give us an idea of what the central
cross‐section of the 3 shape will look like after revolution. You
do not need to draw these.

Integration
Interval

2. Identify whether there is a gap between the region to be revolved and the axis of
revolution. In the example, the axis of revolution is 6, so there is clearly a gap
between a) the red and blue curves, and b) the axis of revolution. Therefore, we will use
the Washer Method.
3. Set up the integral form to be used.
a. Disk Method: radius or radius
b. Washer Method: big radius small radius or

big radius small radius
4. Identify the variable of integration (i.e., are we using or ?). The disks used must

be perpendicular to the axis of revolution.
a. If we are revolving around an axis, use the variable of that axis.
b. If the axis of revolution is a line of the form, or , use the opposite
variable from the one that occurs in the equation of the axis. In the example, the
axis of revolution is 6, so we will integrate with respect to .
Note: The expressions used in the integration must be in terms of the variable of
integration. So, for example, if the variable of integration is and the equation of a
curve is given as , we must invert this to the form before
integrating.
5. Identify the limits of integration. In the example, the curves intersect at 0 and
4. This results in an equation for volume in the form:
big radius small radius
6. Substitute the expressions for the big and small radii inside the integral. In the
example, we have the following:
a. big radius 6
b. small radius 6 2√
This results in the following:
√ ~ .
Note that this matches the value calculated using the Difference of Shells Method
below.

Cylindrical Shell Methods
The formulas for the Cylindrical Shell Method and Difference of Shells Method for calculating
volumes of revolution are provided above. Below, we present an approach that can be used to
calculate volumes of revolution using these methods.
Under the Cylindrical Shell Method, we integrate the volume of a shell across the appropriate
values of or . We use the formula for the volume of a cylinder as our starting point (i.e.,
2 , where is typically the function provided). The resulting formula is:
2 or 2
The Difference of Shells Method is essentially a dual application of the
Cylindrical Shell Method. We want the volume of the cylinder whose
height is the difference between two functions (see illustration at
right).
Below is a set of steps that can be used to determine the volume of revolution of a region
between two curves. The approach is illustrated based on the following example:
Example 8.13: Find the volume that results from revolving the region between the curves
2√ and about the line 6.
Steps
1. Graph the equations provided and any other information given in the problem
(illustrated below left). Then, isolate the section of the graph that we want to work with
(illustrated below right). Also shown are reflections of the curves over the axis of
revolution (dashed curves); this allows us to see the “other side” of the cylindrical shells
we will use. A typical shell is shown as a green cylinder.

Integration
Interval

2. Identify whether the integration involves one or two curves.
a. One curve: Use the Cylindrical Shell Method.
b. Two curves: Use the Difference of Shells Method. This is the case in the example.
3. Set up the integral form to be used. Let be the radius of the shell.
a. Cylindrical Shell Method: 2 or 2 .
b. Difference of Shells Method: 2 difference of shell heights or

2 difference of shell heights .
4. Identify the variable of integration (i.e., are we using or ?). The shells used must

be parallel to the axis of revolution.
a. If we are revolving around an axis, consider the equation of that axis (i.e., the ‐
axis has equation: 0).
b. The axis of revolution is a line of the form, or , use the same
variable as the one that occurs in the equation of the axis of revolution. In the
example, the axis of revolution is 6, so we will integrate with respect to .
2 difference of shell heights
5. Identify the limits of integration. In the example, the curves intersect at 0 and
4. This results in an equation for volume in the form:
2 difference of shell heights
6. Substitute the expressions for and the difference of shell heights into the integral. In
the example, we need to convert each equation to the form because is the
variable of integration:
a. so 2 2√ so
1 2
The difference of shell heights, then, is 2
4
.
b. The radius of a shell is the difference between the line 6 and the value of
in the interval, so the radius is 6 .
This results in the following:
~ .
Note that this matches the value calculated using the Washer Method above.

Volume by Area of a Cross‐Section
Some problems require us to determine volume of a solid using its base and cross‐sectional
area across that base. These are not problems based on revolution of a shape, so we use a
more basic formula (that does not involve π):
or
Below is a set of steps that can be used to determine volume for this type of problem. The
approach is illustrated using the following example:
Example 8.14: Find the volume of a solid with a base of 2√sin over the interval 0,

if the cross‐sections perpendicular to the ‐axis are equilateral triangles whose bases stretch
from the ‐axis to the curve.
Steps
1. Graph the curve of the base over the interval specified.
2. Determine the variable of integration. This will always be the
variable whose axis is perpendicular to the cross‐sections
specified. In the example, the variable of integration is .
3. Determine the limits of integration. This is typically the interval
provided in the problem. In the example, this is the interval 0, .
4. Draw the cross‐section you are provided in the problem. In the example, we are
working with equilateral triangles with base equal to
the function 2√sin .
5. Determine the area of the cross‐section in terms of
the appropriate variable. We need the area of an
equilateral triangle for this example. This area can be
developed from basic principles using the illustration
√
at right, or from the formula: , where is the length of the base of the triangle.
√ √
In the example: 2√sin √3 sin
6. Integrate the area of the cross‐section using the limits determined in Step 3.
√3 sin √3 cos √ ~ .
0

Chapter 9 Improper Integrals
Improper Integration

Improper integration refers to integration where the interval of integration contains one or
more points where the integrand is not defined.
Infinite Limits
When either or both of the limits of integration are infinite, we replace the infinite limit by a
variable and take the limit of the integral as the variable approaches infinity.
lim
lim

→ →
lim
lim

→ →
Note: in this third formula, you can select the value of to be any convenient value
that produces convergent intervals.
Example 9.1:
1 1
lim

→
lim
lim

→ → 1
1 1 1
lim
lim
0 1 1
→ 1 → 1

Example 9.2:
1 1
lim

9 → 9
1 1 1
lim

3 → 3
1
3
1 0
lim
tan
3 → 3
1 1
lim
tan 0 tan 0
3 → 3 3 2 6


Chapter 9 Improper Integrals
Discontinuous Integrand
Limits are also required in cases where the function in an integrand is discontinuous over the
interval of its limits.
If there is a discontinuity at , If there is a discontinuity at ,
lim
lim

→ →
If there is a discontinuity at where ,
lim
lim

→ →

Example 9.3:
1 1
lim

4 → 4
0
lim
ln 4 lim
ln 4
→ 0 →
lim
ln 4 0 ln 4
→
ln 4 ∞ ∞
Example 9.4:
1
lim

√ →
1 1
lim
2 lim
2√
→ →
lim
2√1 2√ 2 0 2
→
Example 9.5:
sec tan lim sec tan

→ /
lim

sec lim

sec sec
→ →
1 ∞ ∞

Chapter 10 Differential Equations
Differential Equations
Definitions
A Differential Equation is an equation that contains an independent variable, one or more
dependent variables, and full or partial derivatives of the dependent variables.
An Ordinary Differential Equation (ODE) is a differential equation that contains ordinary (not
partial) derivatives. Generally, an ODE is expressed in one of the following forms:
𝐹 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑦 , 𝑦 , … , 𝑦 0 or 𝐹 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑦 , 𝑦 , … , 𝑦 𝑦
A Partial Differential Equation (PDE) is a differential equation that contains partial derivatives.
The Order of a differential equation is the highest derivative of a dependent variable in the
equation.
A Linear ODE of Order 𝒏 is an equation of the form:
𝑎 𝑥 ∙𝑦 𝑎 𝑥 ∙𝑦 … 𝑎 𝑥 ∙𝑦 𝑎 𝑥 ∙𝑦 𝑓 𝑥
where each of the 𝑎 𝑥 is a function in 𝑥 only, (i.e., not in 𝑦 or any of its derivatives). The
𝑎 𝑥 need not be linear functions. The label “Linear” refers to 𝑦 and its derivatives; that
is, there are no powers of 𝑦 and its derivatives and no products of 𝑦 and/or any of its
derivatives. For example, there are no terms like 𝑦 , 𝑦 ∙ 𝑦 , etc.
A Separable first order ODE is one that can be written in the form:
𝑑𝑦
𝑓 𝑥 ∙𝑔 𝑦
𝑑𝑥
A Solution to a differential equation is any function that satisfies the differential equation in the
interval specified.
Initial Conditions are those that allow us to determine which of a possible set of solutions to a
differential equation we seek. In essence, these allow us to determine the value of any
constants that turn up in the integrations required to solve the differential equations.
An Initial Value Problem is a differential equation whose solution depends on the initial
conditions provided.
The Actual Solution to a differential equation is the specific solution that satisfies both the
differential equation and the initial conditions.
An Explicit Solution is a solution that can be expressed in the form 𝑦 𝑓 𝑥 .
An Implicit Solution is a solution that cannot be expressed in the form 𝑦 𝑓 𝑥 .


Separable First Order ODEs
Most of the differentiable equations that will be encountered in first year Calculus will be
separable first order differential equations. Typically, we will use Algebra to identify 𝑓 𝑥 and
𝑔 𝑥 to get the equation into the form 𝑓 𝑥 ∙ 𝑔 𝑦 .
Next, we treat 𝑑𝑦 and 𝑑𝑥 as separate entities, and convert the equation to the form:
𝑑𝑦
𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑔 𝑦
Finally, we integrate both sides to obtain a solution:
𝑑𝑦
𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑔 𝑦
The final result will have a 𝐶 term. Typically, you need only one 𝐶 term since the

constants from each integral can be subtracted to get a single constant term. Often, there is an
initial condition provided which allows us to calculate the value of 𝐶.

Example 10.1: Find the explicit actual solution to 𝑒 if 1, 0 is a point on the curve.
An explicit solution is one of the form “𝑦 𝑓 𝑥 ”. An actual solution is one in which we have
solved for any constants that pop up.
Let’s begin by separating the variables.
𝑑𝑦
𝑒
𝑑𝑥
𝑒 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
𝑒 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
𝑒 𝑥 𝐶
Substituting 1, 0 for 𝑥, 𝑦 gives 1 1 𝐶 so, 𝐶 2
𝑒 𝑥 2
𝑒 2 𝑥
𝑦 ln 2 𝑥
𝒚 𝐥𝐧 𝟐 𝒙 Note the resulting domain restriction: 𝑥 2.


Example 10.2: Find the explicit actual solution to if 4, 5 is a point on the curve.

√
An explicit solution is one of the form “𝑦 𝑓 𝑥 ”. An actual solution is one in which we have
solved for any constants that pop up.
Let’s begin by separating the variables. Note that since there is an 𝑥 in the numerator, we do not
need to use inverse trig functions.
𝑑𝑦 𝑥
𝑢 9 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 √9 𝑥
𝑑𝑢 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 4 ⇒ 𝑢 25 and 𝑦 5
√9 𝑥
1 2𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
2 √9 𝑥
1 1
𝑦 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 ∙ 2𝑢 𝐶
2 2

𝑦 √𝑢 𝐶

Then, substituting 25, 5 for 𝑢, 𝑦 gives: 5 √25 𝐶 so, 𝐶 0
𝑦 √𝑢 ⇒ 𝒚 𝟗 𝒙𝟐
An alternative way to develop a solution, involving 𝑥 more directly, would be to replace the
three lines immediately above with these:
𝑦 √𝑢 𝐶 ⇒ 𝑦 9 𝑥 𝐶
Then, substituting 4, 5 for 𝑥, 𝑦 gives: 5 √9 4 𝐶 ⇒ 5 √25 𝐶 so, 𝐶 0
𝒚 𝟗 𝒙𝟐


Slope Fields
A Slope Field (also called a Direction Field) is a graphical representation of the slopes of a curve
at various points that are defined by a differential equation. Each position in the graph (i.e.,
each point 𝑥, 𝑦 ) is represented by a line segment indicating the slope of the curve at that
point.
𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒚
Example 10.3: 𝒆𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 Example 10.4: 𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙
If you know a point on a curve and if you have its corresponding slope field diagram, you can
plot your point and then follow the slope lines to determine the curve.
Example 10.5: Find the explicit actual solution to 𝑓 𝑥 if 1, 2 is a point on the curve.

Slope Field generator
𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 Slope Field for: available at:
𝑑𝑦 𝑥 http://www.mathscoop.com
𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑦 /calculus/differential‐
equations/slope‐field‐
1 1 generator.php
𝑦 𝑥 𝐶
2 2
𝑦 𝑥 𝐶
Substituting 1, 2 for 𝑥, 𝑦 gives: 𝐶 3
𝑦 𝑥 3
𝑦 𝑥 3
Finally, noting that 1, 2 is a solution, we can narrow the solution down to:
𝒚 √𝒙𝟐 𝟑

Logistic Function
A Logistic Function describes the growth of a
population over time. Early in its growth phase, the
model describes near‐exponential population growth.
As the population grows larger, it eventually faces
limits that reduce its growth rate. Late in its growth
phase, a population approaches a maximum value,
called the carrying capacity.
Several forms of the Logistic Function for a population
𝑃 𝑡 , over time, are common:
𝐾 𝑃 𝐾 𝐾𝑃 𝑒
𝑃 𝑡 or 𝑃 𝑡 or 𝑃 𝑡
𝐾 𝑃 𝑃 𝐾 𝑃 𝑒 𝐾 𝑃 𝑒 1
1 𝑒
𝑃
The symbols in these equations have the following meanings:
 𝑃 𝑡 is the population at time 𝑡.
 𝐾 is the carrying capacity of the population. It is the maximum population sustainable
in the system
 𝑃 𝑃 0 is the initial population.
 𝑟 is the rate of growth of the population, and is called the growth parameter.
 𝑡 is the variable for time.

The differential equation that leads to the Logistic Function is:
𝑑𝑃 𝑃
𝑟𝑃 1
𝑑𝑡 𝐾

Characteristics of the Logistic Function
 0 for all 𝑡
 lim 𝑃 𝑡 𝐾
→
 𝑃 𝑡 has an inflection point at 𝑡 ln 1 , when 𝑃 𝑡 . Therefore, the
maximum rate of growth for the population occurs when 𝑃 𝑡 .


Numerical Methods
If we know a point on a curve and the slope of the curve at each point, but do not know the
equation of the curve, it is possible to estimate the value of another point on the same curve
using numerical methods. Several of these numerical methods are presented below.
Euler’s Method
Euler’s Method estimates the location of the new point based on the position of the first point
and the slope of the curve at intervals between the two points. Any number of intervals, 𝑛, can
be used. Each interval is called a time step. The formulas involved are as follows.
Let: 𝑥 , 𝑦 be the initial (known) point.
𝑥 , 𝑦 be the intermediate points, for 𝑘 1, 2, … .
𝑥 , 𝑦 be the desired point. Note that 𝑛 is the number of time steps and 𝑥 is known.
ℎ be the distance between successive 𝑥‐values. That is, ℎ .
Then, Euler’s Method estimates each 𝑦 based on 𝑦 and the slope of the function at

𝑥 , 𝑦 , using the formulas:
𝑥 𝑥 ℎ 𝑦 𝑦 𝑦 𝑥 ∙ ℎ
Example 10.6: Let 𝑦 𝑥 2𝑦 𝑥. Estimate 𝑦 2 using 4 time steps if we know 1, 2 is

a point on the curve.
We start at point 𝑥 , 𝑦 1,2 , using a time step of ℎ 0.25. The following table

shows the iterations required to estimate 𝑦 2 . Values in the table are rounded to 2 decimals
for display, but the exact values are used in all calculations.
𝑘 𝑥 𝑦 𝑦 𝑥 2𝑦 𝑥 𝑦
0 1.00 2.00 2 2.00 1.00 3.00 2.00 3.00 0.25 2.75
1 1.25 2.75 2 2.75 1.25 4.25 2.75 4.25 0.25 3.81
2 1.50 3.81 2 3.81 1.50 6.13 3.81 6.13 0.25 5.34
3 1.75 5.34 2 5.34 1.75 8.94 5.34 8.94 0.25 7.58
4 2.00 7.58
Since it is natural to develop Euler’s Method in table form, it is
relatively easy to adapt it to a spreadsheet program such as
Microsoft Excel.
A plot of successive values of 𝑥 is shown in the graph at right.

Modified Euler’s Method
The Modified Euler’s Method is like Euler’s Method, but develops the slope at each point as the
average of the slopes at the beginning and end of each interval. Using the same notation as on
the previous page, the Modified Euler’s Method uses a two‐step formula:
Predictor step: 𝑥 𝑥 ℎ 𝑦 𝑦 𝑦 𝑥 ∙ ℎ
Corrector step: 𝑦 𝑦 𝑦 𝑥 𝑦 𝑥 ∙ ℎ
In the corrector step, the estimate of 𝑦 𝑥 is based on the value of 𝑦 generated in the

predictor step.

We start at point 𝑥 , 𝑦 1,2 , using a time step of ℎ 0.25. The following table

shows the iterations required to estimate 𝑦 2 . Values in the table are rounded to 2 decimals
for display, but the exact values are used in all calculations.
𝑘 𝑥 𝑦 𝑦 𝑥 or 𝑦 𝑥 𝑦
0 1.00 2.00 2 2.00 1.00 3.00 2.00 3.00 0.25 2.75
Corrector 2 2.75 1.25 4.25 2.00 3.00 4.25 /2 ∙ 0.25 2.91
1 1.25 2.91 2 2.91 1.25 4.56 2.91 4.56 0.25 4.05
Corrector 2 4.05 1.50 6.59 2.91 4.56 6.59 /2 ∙ 0.25 4.30
2 1.50 4.30 2 4.30 1.50 7.10 4.30 7.10 0.25 6.08
Corrector 2 6.08 1.75 10.40 4.30 7.10 10.40 /2 ∙ 0.25 6.49
3 1.75 6.49 2 6.49 1.75 11.23 6.49 11.23 0.25 9.30
Corrector 2 9.30 2.00 16.59 6.49 11.23 16.59 /2 ∙ 0.25 9.97
4 2.00 9.97
A plot of successive values of 𝑥 is shown in the graph at right.
The Modified Euler’s Method is more complex than Euler’s Method, but it
tends to be more accurate because it uses a better estimate of the slope
in each interval. Though complex, this method is also relatively easy to
adapt to a spreadsheet program such as Microsoft Excel.
Order: A numerical method is said to be of order 𝑛 if it produces exact results for polynomials of
degree 𝑛 or less. Euler’s method is of order 1. Modified Euler’s Method is of order 2. The
Runge‐Kutta Method, described on the next page, is of order 4.

Runge‐Kutta Method
Runge‐Kutta Method an order 4 numerical method for estimating points on a curve using an
initial point and slopes of the curve at various locations. Using similar notation to that on the
previous pages, the Runge‐Kutta Method uses the following formulas:
Note: Since 𝑘‐
1 values have a
𝑥 𝑥 ℎ 𝑦 𝑦 𝑘 2𝑘 2𝑘 𝑘
6 specific meaning
where the following 𝑘‐values are weighted together to obtain incremental in this method,
values of 𝑦. we have
switched our
 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 is the derivative of the function at 𝑥, i.e., 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑦’ 𝑥 .
index variable
 𝑘 ℎ ∙ 𝑓 𝑥 ,𝑦 from 𝑘 to 𝑛.
 𝑘 ℎ∙𝑓 𝑥 ℎ, 𝑦 𝑘
Note that the slope, 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 , used in defining each successive 𝑘 value builds on the slope
determined in the previous 𝑘 value.

Time Step 1: Once again, we start at point 𝑥 , 𝑦 1,2 , and ℎ 0.25. The following steps

show the calculation of 𝑦 1.25 :
𝑥 ,𝑦 1, 2 𝑦 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 2𝑦 𝑥
𝑘 ℎ ∙ 𝑓 𝑥 ,𝑦 0.25 𝑓 1, 2 0.25 2 ∙ 2 1 0.75
1 1
𝑘 ℎ∙𝑓 𝑥 ℎ, 𝑦 𝑘 0.25 𝑓 1.125, 2.375
2 2
0.25 2 ∙ 2.375 1.125 0.90625
1 1
𝑘 ℎ∙𝑓 𝑥 ℎ, 𝑦 𝑘 0.25 𝑓 1.125, 2.453125
2 2
0.25 2 ∙ 2.453125 1.125 0.9453125
𝑘 ℎ∙𝑓 𝑥 ℎ, 𝑦 𝑘 0.25 𝑓 1.25, 2.9453125

0.25 2 ∙ 2.9453125 1.25 1.16015625
1
𝑦 1.25 𝑦 𝑦 𝑘 2𝑘 2𝑘 𝑘
6
1
2 0.75 2 ∙ 0.90625 2 ∙ 0.9453125 1.16015625 𝟐. 𝟗𝟒
6

Time Steps 2 to 4: Performing the same set of calculations for three more steps gives the
following values, all rounded to two decimals:
𝑦 1.50 4.40 𝑦 1.75 6.72 𝑦 2.00 10.48

To nine decimal places, with 4 time steps, our calculated value of 𝑦 2.00 is 10.479962905.
Changing the number of time steps produces the results in the following table.

Number of Value of
Time Steps 𝑦 2.00
4 10.479962905 Notice how the increasing the number
10 10.486111552 of time steps in the calculation
20 10.486305959 improves the accuracy of the results.
50 10.486319742 With 500 time steps the result is
100 10.486320099 accurate to 9 decimal places.
200 10.486320122
500 10.486320124
Actual 10.486320124

In summary, let’s compare the results under the three methods above to the true values for the
function defined by our conditions: 𝑦 𝑒 𝑥 .

Estimates of 𝑦 at Each Time Step Under Four Numerical Methods
Modified Runge‐
Time Euler’s Actual
𝑥‐value Euler’s Kutta
Step Method Value
Method (4‐steps)
1 1.25 2.75 2.90625 2.935546875 2.935901588
2 1.50 3.8125 4.30078125 4.396682739 4.397852286
3 1.75 5.34375 6.488769531 6.724219203 6.727111338
4 2.00 7.578125 9.966125488 10.479962905 10.486320124

Clearly, the higher the order, the more accurate the estimates were for the function defined in the
example. This will tend to be true, but will not be true in every case. Increasing the number of steps,
and correspondingly decreasing the value of ℎ, will also tend to increase the accuracy of the estimates.
Even though there are a significant number of steps and calculations involved in developing Runge‐Kutta
estimates, their accuracy may warrant the effort, especially if a spreadsheet proram is readily available
to the student.


Chapter 11 Vector Calculus
Vectors
A vector is a quantity that has both magnitude and direction. An example would be wind
blowing toward the east at 30 miles per hour. Another example would be the force of 10 kg
weight being pulled toward the earth (a force you can feel if you are holding the weight).
Special Unit Vectors
We define unit vectors to be vectors of length 1. Unit vectors having the direction of the
positive axes will be quite useful to us. They are described in the chart and graphic below.
Unit Vector Direction Graphical

positive ‐axis representation of
positive ‐axis unit vectors and j
in two dimensions.
positive ‐axis
Vector Components
The length of a vector, , is called its magnitude and is represented by the symbol ‖ ‖. If a
vector’s initial point (starting position) is , , , and its terminal point (ending position) is
, , , then the vector displaces in the ‐direction, in the ‐
direction, and in the ‐direction. We can, then, represent the vector as follows:

The magnitude of the vector, , is calculated as:
‖ ‖ √
If this looks familiar, it should. The magnitude of a vector in three
dimesnsions is determined as the length of the space diagonal of a
rectangular prism with sides , and .
In two dimensions, these concepts contract to the following:
‖ ‖ √
In two dimensions, the magnitude of the vector is the length of the hypotenuse of a right
triangle with sides and .


Vector Properties
Vectors have a number of nice properties that make working with them both useful and
relatively simple. Let and be scalars, and let u, v and w be vectors. Then,
 If , then ‖ ‖ cos and ‖ ‖ sin
 Then, ‖ ‖ cos ‖ ‖ sin (note: this formula is used

in Force calculations)
 If and , then
 If , then
 Define to be the zero vector (i.e., it has zero length, so that 0). Note: the

zero vector is also called the null vector.
Note: can also be shown with the following notation: 〈 , 〉. This notation is

useful in calculating dot products and performing operations with vectors.
Properties of Vectors
 Additive Identity
 Additive Inverse
 Commutative Property
 Associative Property
 Associative Property
 Distributive Property
 Distributive Property
 1 Multiplicative Identity

Also, note that:
 ‖ ‖ | | ‖ ‖ Magnitude Property
 Unit vector in the direction of
‖ ‖

Vector Dot Product
The Dot Product of two vectors, and , is defined as

follows:
∙ ∙ ∙ ∙
It is important to note that the dot product is a scalar, not a vector. It describes something
about the relationship between two vectors, but is not a vector itself. A useful approach to
calculating the dot product of two vectors is illustrated here:
〈 , , 〉 alternative
vector
〈 , , 〉 notation
General Example 11.1
In the example at right the vectors are lined up vertically. 〈 , , 〉 〈4, 3, 2〉
The numbers in the each column are multiplied and the ∘ 〈 , , 〉 ∘ 〈2, 2, 5〉
results are added to get the dot product. In the example,
8 6 10
〈4, 3, 2〉 ∘ 〈2, 2, 5〉 8 6 10 24.
24
Properties of the Dot Product
Let be a scalar, and let u, v and w be vectors. Then,
 ∘ ∘ 0 Zero Property
 ∘ ∘ ∘ 0 , and are orthogonal to each other.
 ∘ ∘ Commutative Property
 ∘ ‖ ‖ Magnitude Square Property
 ∘ ∘ ∘ Distributive Property
 ∘ ∘ ∘ Multiplication by a Scalar Property
More properties:
 If ∘ 0 and and , then and are orthogonal (perpendicular).
 If there is a scalar such that , then and are parallel.

∘
 If is the angle between and , then cos
‖ ‖ ‖ ‖


Vector Cross Product
Cross Product
In three dimensions,
Let: u u u and v v v
Then, the Cross Product is given by:
x u u u u v u v u v u v u v u v
v v v
x ‖ ‖ ‖ ‖ sin
The cross product of two nonzero vectors in three dimensions produces a third vector that is
orthogonal to each of the first two. This resulting vector x is, therefore, normal to the
plane containing the first two vectors (assuming and are not parallel). In the second
formula above, is the unit vector normal to the plane containing the first two vectors. Its
orientation (direction) is determined using the right hand rule.
Right Hand Rule
Using your right hand: x
 Point your forefinger in the direction of , and
 Point your middle finger in the direction of .
Then:
 Your thumb will point in the direction of x .

In two dimensions,
Let: u u and v v
u u
Then, x v v u v u v which is a scalar (in two dimensions).
The cross product of two nonzero vectors in two dimensions is zero if the vectors are parallel.
That is, vectors and are parallel if x 0.
The area of a parallelogram having and as adjacent sides and angle θ between them:
x ‖ ‖ ‖ ‖ sin θ.

Properties of the Cross Product
Let be a scalar, and let u, v and w be vectors. Then,
 x x Zero Property
 x , x , x , and are orthogonal to each other
 x , x , x Reverse orientation orthogonality
 x Every non‐zero vector is parallel to itself
 x x Anti‐commutative Property
 x x x Distributive Property
 x x x Distributive Property
 m x x m m x Scalar Multiplication
More properties:
 If x , then and are parallel.

 If is the angle between and , then
o ‖ x ‖ ‖ ‖ ‖ ‖ sin
‖ ‖
o sin
‖ ‖ ‖ ‖


Vector Triple Products
Scalar Triple Product
Let: u u u . Then the triple product ∘ x gives a scalar representing
the volume of a parallelepiped with , , and as edges:
u u u
∘ x v v v
w w w
∘ x x ∘
Other Triple Products
∘ x ∘ x Duplicating a vector results in a product of
x x ∘ ∘
x x ∘ ∘
∘ x ∘ x ∘ x
Note: vectors , , and are coplanar if and only if ∘ x 0.

No Associative Property
The associative property of real numbers does not translate to triple products. In particular,
∘ ∙ ∙ ∘ No associative property of dot products/multiplication
x x x x No associative property of cross products


Kinematics (Particle Motion) – Vectors
This page is an extension of the Kinematics pages in Chapter 3, adapted to 3‐dimensional space.
The corresponding application to 2‐dimensional space would remove the third (i.e., )
component of each vector presented. On this page, 〈 〉 notation is used for the vectors rather
than , , notation.
Position
Position is the location of a particle at a point in time. It may be represented by the vector
〈 , , 〉.
Velocity
Velocity measures the rate of change in position. Instantaneous velocity is the vector of first
derivatives of the position vector 〈 , , 〉. Velocity vector components may be
either positive or negative.
Speed
Speed is the magnitude of the velocity vector; it is always positive. The formula for speed is:
‖ ‖
Acceleration
Acceleration measures the rate of change in velocity. Instantaneous acceleration is the vector
of second derivatives of the position vector 〈 , , 〉.
Moving Among Vectors
The following diagram describes how to move back and forth among the position, velocity and
acceleration vectors.

Displacement
Displacement is a measure of the distance between a particle’s starting position and its ending
position. The displacement vector from to may be calculated as:
∆ 〈 , , 〉

Gradient
Scalar Fields and Vector Fields
A Scalar Field in three dimensions provides a value at each point in space. For example, we can
measure the temperature at each point within an object. The temperature can be expressed as
, , . (note: is the Greek letter phi, corresponding to the English letter “ ”.)
A Vector Field in three dimensions provides a vector at each point in space. For example, we
can measure a magnetic field (magnitude and direction of the magnetic force) at each point in
space around a charged particle. The magnetic field can be expressed as , , . Note
that the half‐arrows over the letters and indicate that the function generates a vector
field.
Del Operator
When looking a scalar field it is often useful to know the rates of change (i.e., slopes) at each
point in the ‐, ‐ and ‐directions. To obtain this information, we use the Del Operator:
Gradient
The Gradient of a scalar field describes the rates of change in the , and directions at
each point in the field in vector form. Therefore, the gradient generates a vector field from the
points in the scalar field. The gradient is obtained by applying the del operator to .
, and are called directional derivatives of the scalar field .
Example 11.2:
Suppose: , , sin ln
Then: cos , and

1
So, cos ; providing all three directional derivatives in a single vector.
Over a set of points in space, this results in a vector field.
At point 2, 0.5, 1 , cos 2 2 ~ 0.416 2 2.718

Divergence
Divergence
The Divergence of a vector field describes the flow of material, like water or electrical charge,
away from (if positive) or into (if negative) each point in space. The divergence maps the vector
at each point in the material to a scalar at that same point (i.e., the dot product of the vector in
and its associated rates of change in the , and directions), thereby producing a scalar
field.
Let V V V where V , V , V are each functions in , and . Then,
∘ ∘ V V V
V V V

Points of positive divergence are referred to as sources, while points of negative divergence are
referred to as sinks. The divergence at each point is the net outflow of material at that point,
so that if there is both inflow and outflow at a point, these flows are netted in determining the
divergence (net outflow) at the point.
Example 11.3:
Let’s start with the vector field created by taking the gradient of on the prior page. Let:
1
cos
In this expression, notice that: V cos , V , and V . Then:
V V V 1
∘ sin
Let’s find the value of the divergence at a couple of points, and see what it tells us.
At 1, 1, 0 , we have: sin 1 0.841. This value is greater

than zero, indicating that is a “source”, and that the vector at produces an outflow.
At 3, 1, 2 , we have: sin 3 1.006. This value is less

than zero, indicating that is a “sink”, and that the vector at produces an inflow.


Curl
Curl
The Curl of a vector field describes the circulation of material, like water or electrical charge,
about each point in the material. The curl maps the vector at each point in the original vector
field to another vector (i.e., the cross product of the original vector and its associated rates of
change in the , and directions) at that same point, thereby producing a new vector field.
x x V V V
V V V V V V

V V V
The curl gives the direction of the axis of circulation of material at a point .
The magnitude of the curl gives the strength of the circulation. If the curl at a
point is equal to the zero vector (i.e., ), its magnitude is zero and the material
is said to be irrotational at that point.
Example 11.4:
We need to use a more complex vector field for the curl to produce meaningful results. Let:
cos
In this expression, notice that: V cos , V , and V . Then:
V V V V V V
x
cos cos
Let’s find the value of the curl at a point, and see what it tells us. Let 1, 1, 2 . Then,
2 0.25 cos 1 2 0.5 2 cos 1 ~ 15.0 14.2 0.6
The circulation, then, at Point P is around an axis in the direction of: 15.0 14.2 0.6
The strength of the circulation is given by the magnitude of the curl:
‖ ‖ 15.0 14.2 0.6 20.7

Laplacian
Laplacian
The Laplacian Operator is similar to the Del Operator, but involves second partial derivatives.
The Laplacian of a scalar field is the divergence of the gradient of the field. It is used
extensively in the sciences.
∘
Example 11.5:
For the scalar field , , sin ln , we already calculated the Laplacian in the
example for divergence above (but we did not call it that). It is repeated here with Laplacian
notation for ease of reference.
Gradient:
For the scalar field defined above: cos , and

1
So, cos
Laplacian (Divergence of the Gradient):
1
∘ sin
Let’s then find the value of the Laplacian at a couple of points.
At 1, 1, 0 , we have: sin 1 0.841.
At 3, 1, 2 , we have: sin 3 1.006.

Chapter 12 Sequences
Sequences
Definitions
 A Sequence is an ordered set of numbers.
 A Term is an element in the ordered set of numbers.
 An Infinite Sequence has no end. A Finite Sequence has a final term.
 An Explicit Sequence is one that defines the terms of the sequence based on the number of
the term. By convention, the number of the term is usually expressed in terms of the
variables or . We talk of the nth term or the kth term of the sequence or series.
 A Recursive Sequence is one that defines its terms based on one or more previous terms.
Types of Sequences
A term of a sequence is denoted and an entire sequence of terms . Generally (unless
otherwise specified), 1 for the first term of a sequence, 2 for the second term, etc.
 Explicit Sequence: terms of the sequence are defined by an Explicit Formula.
Example 12.1: , , , ,…
Example 12.2: 1, , , , …
Example 12.3: 3 ∙ , , , ,…
Example 12.4: 1 1, 1, 1, 1, …
Example 12.5: 1, , , 0, , 0, , …
Note: this is the sequence of Bernoulli Numbers; it begins with .

 Recursive Sequence: Usually, one or more initial terms are defined with values in a
recursive sequence. Each subsequent term is defined in terms of previous terms.
Example 12.6: , 1 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, …
Example 12.7: , 3, 1 3, 1, 2, 1, 3, 4, 7, …

More Definitions for Sequences
Monotonic Sequence: A sequence is monotonic if its terms are:
 Non‐increasing (i.e., ∀ ), or
 Non‐decreasing (i.e., ∀ ).
 Note that successive terms may be equal, as long as they do not turn around and head
back in the direction from whence they came.
 Often, you can determine whether a sequence is monotonic by graphing its terms.
Bounded Sequence: A sequence is bounded if it is bounded from above and below.
 A sequence is bounded from above if there is a number such that ∀ . The
least upper bound is called the Supremum.
 A sequence is bounded from below if there is a number such that ∀ . The
greatest lower bound is called the Infimum.
Theorems about Sequences
Consider the sequences , and . The following theorems apply:
Squeeze Theorem:
If ∀ some and lim lim , then lim .
→ → →
Absolute Value Theorem:
If lim
| | 0 , then lim
0.
→ →
Bounded Monotonic Sequence Theorem:
If a sequence is bounded and monotonic, then it converges.


Limit of a Sequence
 : lim . The limit exists if we can make as close to as we like by

→
making sufficiently large.
 Convergence: If the limit of the terms exists, the sequence is said to be
convergent.
 Divergence: If the limit of the terms does not exist, the sequence is said to be
divergent.
 Limits are determined in the usual manner.
 Usual properties of limits are preserved in sequences (e. g., addition, scalar
multiplication, multiplication, division of limits).

Much more about limits is presented in Chapter 1.


Basic Recursive Sequence Theory
Operators and Annihilators
An operator, applied to a sequence, results in a new sequence. The operator, , shifts a
sequence terms to the left. Sequences can also be added or subtracted, as well as multiplied
or divided by a scalar (a number).
An annihilator of a sequence is an operator that converts a sequence into the zero sequence,
i.e., 0 . The typical example of this is the operator 2 operating on the sequence
2 2, 4, 8, 16, … .
Examples of the algebra of operators and annihilators:
Example 12.8: 2 2, 4, 8, 16, … 4, 8, 16, 32, … 2
Example 12.9: 2∙ 2 2 ∙ 2, 4, 8, 16, … 4, 8, 16, 32, … 〈2 〉
Example 12.10: 2 2 2 22
2 2 0
Annihilators – Summary
The following table summarizes some sequence forms that are annihilated by elementary
operators:
Form of Sequence Sample Sequence (starting with ) Annihilator
3, 3, 3, 3, … 3 1
4, 9, 14, 19, … 5 1 1
6, 9, 16, 27, … 2 3 7 1
∙ 6, 12, 24, 48, … 3∙2
∙ 8, 28, 80, 208, … 3 1 ∙2
∙ ∙ , 12, 30, 78, 210, … 3∙2 2∙3


Example 12.11: Fibonacci Sequence
The Fibonacci Sequence is defined by the initial conditions, 0 and 1, and the
Recursive Formula: for 1. It looks like this, starting with :
0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, 233, 377, …
Let’s find the Explicit Formula (i.e., closed form) for the term of the Fibonacci sequence.
That is, we will use annihilators to convert:

into .
√
1 5 1 5
where,
2
, and 2
, given the initial conditions: 0 and 1.
Begin with the Fibonacci Recursive Formula:
, or equivalently,
Convert the equation to operator form in order to identify the annihilator:

0
0
1 0
The resulting operator, 1 , is the annihilator.
Set this equal to zero, and solve it using the quadratic formula:
1 0
1 5 1 5 √

2
. Let: 2
, and
Because and are roots of the equation, the annihilator can be expressed in factored form

as:
1 0
Using the annihilator table on the previous page, we see that:
annihilates ∙
annihilates ∙

Also from the annihilator table, annihilates sequences of the form:
∙ ∙ .
It remains to calculate the values of the coefficients and . We do this using the initial (i.e.,

seed) conditions of the Fibonacci Sequence: 0 and 1, as follows:
0 ∙ ∙
1 ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙
From the expression for , we get:
Substituting this into the expression for , we get:
1 ∙ ∙ ∙
1 √5 1 √5
∙
2 2
∙ √5
This results in the following values for the coefficients:
1 1
, ,
√5 √5
and, finally, the Explicit Formula for the term of the Fibonacci Sequence:

√
1 5 √
where,
2
, and .

Test Values: 8  34 
√ √


Process for Finding an Explicit Formula
In summary, the following steps are used to convert a sequence from recursive to explicit form.
Step 1: Identify the Recursive Formula (Example 12.12)
3 4 12 with seed values: 0, 1, 2
So, 0, 1, 2, 10, 26, 94, 266, 862, …
Step 2: Shift the recursive formula so that its lowest subscript is “ ”

⇒ 3 4 12
Step 3: Use Algebra to get all of the “ ” terms on one side of the equation
3 4 12 0
Step 4: Express the equation in Operator Form
3 4 12 0
3 4 12 0
Step 5: Factor the Operator Expression
2 2 3 0
Step 6: Use the Annihilator Table to develop a general expression for the Explicit Formula
∙2 ∙ 2 ∙ 3
Step 7: Use the seed values of the sequence and the formula in Step 6 to create a set of
simultaneous equations for the coefficients (e.g., , , )

0 ⇒ 0

1 ⇒ 1 2 2 3

2 ⇒ 2 4 4 9
Step 8: Solve the simultaneous equations for the coefficients
1 5 3 2 8

4 20 20 5 20
Step 9: Write the Explicit Formula for the sequence
∙ ∙ ∙

Step 10: Test the Explicit Formula for a couple of values in the sequence
5∙2 3∙ 2 8∙3 5∙2 3∙ 2 8∙3

26  94 
20 20

Chapter 13 Series
Series
Introduction
A Series is an ordered summation of a sequence. If 𝑎 is an infinite sequence, then the
associated infinite series (or simply series) is:
𝑆 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 ⋯
The Partial Sum containing the first n terms of 𝑎 is:
𝑆 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 ⋯ 𝑎
A sequence of partial sums can be formed as follows:
𝑆 𝑆 ,𝑆 ,𝑆 ,𝑆 ,…
Note the following about these formulas:
 The symbol S is the capital Greek letter sigma, which translates into English as 𝐒,
appropriate for the operation of Summation.
 The letter 𝒌 is used as an index variable in both formulas. The initial (minimum) value of 𝑘
is shown below the summation sign and the terminal (maximum) value of 𝑘 is shown
above the summation sign. Letters other than 𝑘 may be used; 𝑖, 𝑗, and 𝑛 are common.
 When evaluating a series, make sure you review the initial and terminal values of the index
variable. Many mistakes are made by assuming values for these instead of using the actual
values in the problem.
 The subscript 𝒏 in 𝑺𝒏 (in the partial sum formula) indicates that the summation is
performed only through term 𝑎 . This is true whether the formula starts at 𝑘 0, 𝑘 1,
or some other value of 𝑘, though alternative notations may be used if properly identified.
Convergence and Divergence
 If the sequence of partial sums 𝑆 converges to 𝑺, the series converges. Not surprisingly,
𝑺 is called the sum of the series.
 If the sequence of partial sums 𝑆 diverges, the series diverges.

Chapter 13 Series
Key Properties of Series (these also hold for partial sums)
Scalar multiplication
∙ ∙
Sum and difference formulas
Multiplication
In order to multiply series, you must multiply every term in one series by every term in the other
series. Although this may seem daunting, there are times when the products of only certain terms
are of interest and we find that multiplication of series can be very useful.
‐th Term Convergence Theorems
If converges, then lim

0.
→
If lim
0, then diverges.
→
Power Series
A Power Series is an infinite series in which each term is expressed as the product of a constant
and a power of a binomial term. Generally, a power series is centered about a particular value of
, which we will call in the following expression:
⋯
Examples of power series are the Taylor and Maclaurin series covered in Chapter 14.

Chapter 13 Series
Telescoping Series
A Telescoping Series is one whose terms partially cancel, leaving only a limited number of terms in
the partial sums. The general form of a telescoping series, and its sum are is:
lim

→
Convergence: A telescoping series will converge if and only if the limiting term of the series,
lim
, is a finite value.
→
Caution: Telescoping series may be deceptive. Always take care with them and make sure you
perform the appropriate convergence tests before concluding that the series sums to a particular
value.
Example 13.1:
1 1 1 Notice the usefulness of the

1 telescoping approach in the case
of a rational function that can be
The Partial Sums for this example are: expressed as partial fractions.
This approach will not work for
1 some rational functions, but not
1 all of them.
2
1 1 1 1
1 1
2 2 3 3
1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1
2 2 3 3 4 4
. . .
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 ⋯ 1
2 2 3 3 4 1 1
Then,
1
1 lim

→ 1


Chapter 13 Series
Geometric Series
A Geometric Series has the form:
⋯
If | | 1, then the series converges to:

1
If | | 1, then the series diverges.
Partial Sums
Partial sums have the form:
. . .
1
⋯
1
Example 13.2:
0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9
⋯ 0.9999
10 1 10 100 1000
In this geometric series, we have 0.9 and . Therefore the series converges to:
1 0.9
0.9 ∙ 1
10 1
1
10
This proves, therefore, that 0.9999 1.

Chapter 13 Series
Estimating the Value of a Series with Positive Terms
Let the following be true:
 is a positive, decreasing, continuous function for all values of , 0.
 for all integer values of .
 is a convergent series with partial sums .
 The Remainder Term of the sum, after the ‐th term, is defined as: .
Then,
And so,


Chapter 13 Series
Riemann Zeta Functions ( ‐Series)

Definition
The Riemann Zeta Function is defined by the equivalent integral and summation forms:

⋯
The summation form of the function is often called a ‐series (and replaces in the formula).
Zeta functions are generally difficult to evaluate from basic principles. An example of how one of
the world’s greatest mathematicians evaluated in 1735 is provided later in this chapter.
Positive Even Integers
Values of for positive even integer values of in closed form (as rational expressions

involving π) have been calculated by mathematicians. The formula for these is:
| |
where is the ‐th Bernoulli Number. 1
! 1
The decimal approximations below were developed from up to 14 million terms
2
of the ‐series using the Algebra App available at www.mathguy.us. 1

6
Some values of for positive even integer values of are: 0
1
2 1.644933966 … 8 1.004077356 …
30
0
4 1.082323233 … 10 1.000994575 … 1

42
0
6 1.017343061 … 12 1.000246086 …
1

30
Positive Odd Integers 0
5

Values of for positive odd integer values of do not have a general 66
formula, but can be approximated. 0
691

1 diverges 7 1.008349277 … 2730
3 1.202056903 … 9 1.002008392 …
5 1.036927755 … 11 1.000494188 …

Chapter 13 Series
Analytic Continuation
Consider the following development: Analytic Continuation
Let: 1 1 1 1 1 ⋯ The results in the left‐hand column are an
1 1 1 1 ⋯ example of a concept introduced in Complex
2 1 Analysis (i.e., Calculus of Complex Variables)
1 called Analytic Continuation. Although the

2 results are correct for the value of the
Next, function 1 , we cannot conclude that:
1
Let: 1 2 3 4 5 ⋯ 1 2 3 4 5 6 ⋯
12
1 2 3 4 ⋯ Why? Because the series does not converge;
2 1 1 1 1 1 ⋯ therefore, it does not have a value. What
1 does have a value is the function that
2 overlaps the series where the series
2
1 converges.

4
For values of 1, the Zeta Function and
Then, the convergent ‐series are equal:
Let: 1 2 3 4 5 6 ⋯ 1
1 2 3 4 5 6 ⋯
4 8 12 ⋯ The function also exists (i.e., continues) for
4 values of for which the series diverges.
3 This is Analytic Continuation.
1 1 1 1 For another example, consider the following
∙
3 3 4 12 function and series:
1 1
1 2 3 4 5 6 ⋯ 1 ⋯
12 1
This series converges only for 1 1.
And the Riemann Zeta Function value? Yet, we can calculate the function value for
2.
This result is consistent with the following 1
value of the Riemann Zeta Function: 1
1 2
1 This does not imply that:
1
12
1 2 2 2 ⋯ 1
How is this possible? See the column to
the right for an explanation. Again, the function continues where the
series does not.

Chapter 13 Series
Euler’s Development of the Value of
Definition
⋯
This is also a ‐series with 2. A ‐Series is defined as:
‐series converge for 1 and diverge for 1.
Euler’s development gives us a glimpse of the extent of his genius. See if you agree.
Euler’s Development
1. Begin with the Maclaurin Expansion for: sin .
sin …
3! 5! 7! 9!
2. We know that we can fit a curve of degree through any set of 1 points. Euler proposed

that we consider the sine function to be a polynomial of infinite degree that goes through the
infinite number of points of the function.
Further, he noted that the zeros of the polynomial are the zeros of the sine function, i.e.,
0, , 2 , 3 , 4 … . So, the polynomial for sin is an infinite product that looks like
the following, where is some constant:
sin ∙ 4 9 16 …
3. Divide each term on the right by a factor that results in 1’s before the ’s in each term.
Change the lead constant to reflect this. Let’s call the new lead constant .
4 9 16
sin ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ …
4 9 16
∙ 1 1 1 1 …
4 9 16


Chapter 13 Series
4. Determine the value of by dividing each side by and evaluating the result at 0.
sin
lim
1 1 1 1 …
→ 4 9 16
Use L’Hospital’s Rule on the left side to determine that lim
lim
1. Then,
→ →
1 1 1 1 … so, 1.
5. Rewrite the polynomial in Step 3 with 1.
sin 1 1 1 1 …
4 9 16
6. Let’s examine the coefficient of in the equation in Step 5.
The coefficient of the term in this product is obtained by multiplying by the part of one

of the other terms and 1’s in the rest of the other terms. We sum the result of this across all of
the multiplied terms to get the following term for the equation in Step 5:
1 1 1 1
⋯
4 9 16
7. The term in Step 1 must be equal to the term in Step 6, since both represent the term

in an expansion for sin . Equating the two coefficients of gives:
1 1 1 1 1
⋯
3! 4 9 16
8. Multiply both sides of the result in Step 7 by to get:
1 1 1 1
⋯ 2
6 1 4 9 16
So,


Chapter 13 Series
Bernoulli Numbers and the Riemann Zeta Function
Summation Formulas for Powers of Positive Integers
1 1 1
1 2 ⋯
2 2 2
1 2 1 1 1 1
1 2 ⋯
6 3 2 6
1 1 1 1
1 2 ⋯
6 4 2 4
1 2 1 3 3 1 1 1 1 1
1 2 ⋯
6 5 2 3 30
The coefficients of the “ ” terms are called Bernoulli Numbers. A recursive formula for the
Bernoulli numbers is:

⇒ ⋯
1 2 2 1
0 ⋯
1 2 2
1 1
⋯
1 2 2
Then, we can calculate successive Bernoulli Numbers, starting with 1 as:
1
1 1
1∙
2 2
1 1 1 1
1∙ 3∙ 1∙ 1 3∙
3 3 2 6
1 1 1 1
1∙ 4∙ 6∙ 1∙ 1 4∙ 6∙ 0
4 4 2 6
1 1 1 1
1∙ 5∙ 10 ∙ 10 ∙ 1∙ 1 5∙ 10 ∙ 10 ∙ 0
5 5 2 6
1

30

Chapter 13 Series
The blue numbers in the above formulas are the values from Pascal’s Triangle, excluding the last
two diagonal columns:
0 for every odd 1.
/
Below are values of for even values of 24. Note: | 2 | ~ 4 √ as → ∞
1 1 7 174611

6 30 6 330
1 5 3617 854513

30 66 510 138
1 691 43867 236364091

42 2730 798 2730
Bernoulli Numbers relate to the Riemann Zeta Functions as follows:
1 1 1 1 | | 2
2 ⋯
1 2 3 2 2 !
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2 ⋯ 6 ⋯
1 2 3 6 1 2 3 945
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
4 ⋯ 8 ⋯
1 2 3 90 1 2 3 9450
The function expands using Bernoulli Numbers as follows:
1 1 1 1
1 ⋯
1 ! 2 6 30 42

Chapter 13 Series
Series Convergence Tests
Integral Test
Let ∑ be a positive series, and
let be a continuous, positive, decreasing function on , ∞ , 0, such that
for every . Then,
converges if and only if converges.
If the series converges, . That is, the sum of the series and the integral will
have different values.

Comparison Test
Let ∑ and ∑ be positive series. If there is an index , beyond which for every
, then:
 If ∑ converges, so does ∑ .
 If ∑ diverges, so does ∑ .

Limit Comparison Test
Let ∑ and ∑ be positive series such that 0 lim
∞. Then:
→
 ∑ converges if and only if ∑ converges.
 ∑ diverges if and only if ∑ diverges.

Absolute and Conditional Convergence
 ∑ is absolutely convergent if ∑| | is convergent.
 ∑ is conditionally convergent if it is convergent but not absolutely convergent.

Term Rearrangement
 If an infinite series is absolutely convergent, the terms can be rearranged without affecting
the resulting sum.
 If an infinite series is conditionally convergent, a rearrangement of the terms may affect
the resulting sum.

Chapter 13 Series

Ratio Test
Let ∑ be a series. Then consider the ‐th and 1 ‐th terms:
If lim 1, then: is absolutely convergent.

→
If lim 1, then: is divergent.

→
If lim 1, then no conclusion about convergence or divergence can be drawn.

→

Example 13.3:
Determine whether the following series converges or diverges:
!
1
1 ! 1 ! 1 ∙ 1 !
Ratio ∙ ∙
1 ! 1 ∙ !
!
1 1 1
1
Then,
lim 1 1 Since , the series diverges.

→


Chapter 13 Series

Root Test
Let ∑ be a series. Then consider the ‐th term:
If lim | | 1, then: is absolutely convergent.

→
If lim | | 1, then: is divergent.

→
If lim | | 1, then no conclusion about convergence or divergence can be drawn.

→

Example 13.4:
2 3
Determine whether the following series converges or diverges:
3 2
3
2 3 2 3 2 3 2
Root
3 2 3 2 3 2 2
3
Then,
lim 1 Since , the series converges.

→


Chapter 13 Series
Dirichlet’s Convergence Test
Dirichlet’s Test
∞
𝑎𝑘
If has bounded partial sums and 𝑣𝑘 is a decreasing positive sequence with lim 𝑣𝑘 0,
𝑘 →∞
𝑘 1 ∞
𝑎𝑘 ∙ 𝑣𝑘
then the series converges.
𝑘 1
∞
cos 𝑘
Example 13.5: Prove that the series converges using Dirichlet’s Convergence Test.
𝑘
𝑘 1
1
Using the notation shown above, we will let 𝑎𝑘 cos 𝑘, and 𝑣𝑘 . We require only that
𝑘
∞
1
cos 𝑘
be bounded since lim clearly decreases to 0.
𝑘→∞ 𝑘
𝑘 1
Start by proving the following Trigonometric identity:
1 1
sin 𝑘 sin 𝑘
cos 𝑘 2 2
1
2 sin
2
1 1 1 1 1
sin 𝑘 cos cos 𝑘 sin sin 𝑘 cos cos 𝑘 sin 2 cos 𝑘 sin
2 2 2 2 2 cos 𝑘 
1 1
2 sin 2 sin
2 2
Next, let’s look at the 𝑛‐th Partial Sum in light of the above identity. Note that it telescopes:
𝑛 𝑛 1 1
sin 𝑘 sin 𝑘
cos 𝑘 2 2
1
𝑘 1 𝑘 1 2 sin
2
1 1 1 1 1 1
sin 1 sin sin 2 sin 1 sin 𝑛 sin 𝑛
2 2 2 2 ⋯ 2 2
1 1 1
2 sin 2 sin 2 sin
2 2 2
1 1
sin 𝑛 sin
2 2
1
2 sin
2
𝑛
1
Note that sin 𝑛 is bounded in the range cos 𝑘
1, 1 . Therefore, is bounded in the
2
1 1 𝑘 1
1 sin 1 sin
2 2
range: 1 , 1 , and so the original series converges.
2 sin 2 sin
2 2

Chapter 13 Series
Abel’s Convergence Test
Abel’s Test
∞ ∞
𝑎𝑘
If converges and 𝑎𝑘 ∙ 𝑣𝑘
𝑣𝑘 is a monotonic bounded sequence, then the series
𝑘 1 𝑘 1
converges.
∞ 1
cos 2
𝑘
Example 13.6: Prove that the series converges using Abel’s Convergence Test.
𝑘2
𝑘 1
1 1
Using the notation shown above, we will let 𝑎𝑘 2 , and 𝑣𝑘 cos 2 . We need to show that
∞
𝑘 𝑘
1 1
a) converges and b) cos
2
2 is both monotonic and bounded.
𝑘 𝑘
𝑘 1 ∞
1

First, identify as a 𝑝‐series, with 𝑝 2, so it converges.
𝑘2
𝑘 1
1 𝟏
Second, let’s look at some values of cos 2 in the table to the 𝒌 𝐜𝐨𝐬
𝑘 𝒌𝟐
right. The sequence is clearly monotonic and is bounded by the
1
value of cos 0 1. 1 cos ~ 0.5403
1
1 1
lim cos 1 2 cos ~ 0.9689
𝑘→∞ 𝑘2 4
We have met both requirements of Abel’s Convergence Test, and 1
3 cos ~ 0.9938
we can conclude that the given series converges. 9
1
Note: the series in this example could also have been determined 4 cos ~ 0.9980
16
to be convergent (using the comparison test) by comparing it to a
1
𝑝‐series with 𝑝 2. 5 cos ~ 0.9992
25


Chapter 13 Series
Alternating Series
The general form for an Alternating Series that includes an error term is:
1 ⋯
Theorem: If the sequence, 〈 〉, is positive and non‐increasing, and lim 0,

→
Then: ∑ 1 converges, and
If is the nth error term, then: | |

Error Term
The maximum error in a converging alternating series after terms is term 1 . Using
this, we can estimate the value of a series to a desired level of accuracy.
1
Example 13.7: Approximate the following sum to 4 decimal places:
6
We need to find term 1 to estimate the error. For the series provided, this term is .

The 1 term simply indicates the direction of the error. The magnitude of the error is the
balance of the error term, i.e., .
In order to find an approximation of the series to 4 decimal places, we need an error less than
0.00005. So, we want:
1
0.00005
6
We can solve this using logarithms or by taking successive powers of . Either way, we find:
~ 0.0001286 0.00005 and ~ 0.0000214 0.00005, so 1 6, and 5.
Using 5 terms of the alternating series, we find that the value of the sum to 4 decimal places is:
1 1 1 1 1 1
.
6 6 36 216 1296 7776
The actual value of the series is ~ 0.1428571, so we can see that the desired level of accuracy
has been achieved.


Chapter 13 Series
Absolute and Conditional Convergence
 ∑ is absolutely convergent if ∑| | is convergent.
 ∑ is conditionally convergent if it is convergent but not absolutely convergent.

Term Rearrangement
 If an infinite series is absolutely convergent, the terms can be rearranged without affecting
the resulting sum.
 If an infinite series is conditionally convergent, a rearrangement of the terms may affect
the resulting sum.
More Theorems about Absolutely Convergent Series
The following theorems apply to absolutely convergent series (i.e., absolutely convergent
alternating series and convergent series of decreasing positive terms):
 The commutative law applies to terms in an absolutely convergent series; i.e., terms can be
rearranged without affecting the value of the series.
 Every sub‐series of an absolutely convergent series is absolutely convergent; i.e., terms can
be omitted and the result is an absolutely convergent series.
 The sum, difference and product of absolutely convergent series are absolutely
convergent. Furthermore, if ∑ and ∑ are two absolutely convergent series such
that A ∑ and B ∑ , then:
o ∑ ∑ A B.
o ∑ ∑ A B.
o ∑ ∙∑ A ∙ B.


Chapter 13 Series
Radius and Interval of Convergence of Power Series
Consider the Power Series:
⋯
Definitions:
 Center: The value is called the center of the power series. Many power series have a
center of 0.
 Coefficients: The values are called the coefficients of the power series.
 Radius of Convergence: The series may converge for certain values of and diverge for
other values of . If the series converges for all values of within a certain distance, ,
from , i.e., for on the interval , , we call the radius of convergence of the
series.
 Interval of Convergence: The set of all values of for which the power series converges is
called the interval of convergence of the series. The interval of convergence is closely
related to the radius of convergence; it includes the open interval , , and may
also include one or both endpoints of that interval.
Finding the Radius and Interval of Convergence
The radius of convergence is found using the Ratio Test or the Root Test. To find the interval of
convergence, the series defined at each endpoint of the interval must be tested separately.
Example 13.8: Consider the power series: 1 ⋯
Using the Ratio Test, we find:
lim lim lim | | 1 … in the open interval: ∈ 1, 1 .

→ → →
So, this series has a radius of convergence: 1 about a center of 0.

To find the interval of convergence of the series, we must test the endpoints, i.e., 1.
When 1, we get 1 1 1 1 ⋯ , which diverges.
When 1, we get 1 1 1 1 ⋯ , which also diverges.
The interval of convergence, then, is 1, 1 . It does not include either endpoint.

Chapter 13 Series
Differentiating or Integrating Power Series
When differentiating or integrating a Power Series, we differentiate or integrate term‐by‐term.
Example 13.9: Integrate the power series: 1 ⋯
1
1 ⋯
1
1 1 1
⋯
2 3 4
The result of the integration turns out to be the power series for ln 1 , plus a constant,
which we would expect to be the case because:
1
ln 1 .
1
Theorem: Differentiation of a Power Series
If a function is defined by a power series with radius of convergence , then:
 is differentiable on the open interval defined by .
 is found by term‐by‐term differentiation of the power series for .
 The resulting power series for ′ also has radius of convergence .
 The interval of convergence of ’ may be the same as that for , or it may lose either or
both endpoints.
Theorem: Integration of a Power Series
If a function is defined by a power series with radius of convergence , then:
 is found by term‐by‐term integration of the power series for .
 The resulting power series for also has radius of convergence .
 The interval of convergence of may be the same as that for , or it may gain either or
both endpoints.

Differentiation: ′ Integration:
Term‐by‐term differentiation. Term‐by‐term integration.
Relative
Has same Ratio of Convergence. to Has same Ratio of Convergence.

Interval of Convergence may lose Interval of Convergence may gain
one or both endpoints. one or both endpoints.

Chapter 13 Series
Example 13.10: The Maclaurin Series for is:
1
1 ⋯
1
As shown on a previous page, its interval of convergence is 1, 1 .
Integrating term‐by‐term we get:
1
1 ⋯
1
ln 1 ⋯ 1
For the new series, ln 1 , note that “ ” has no impact on whether the series converges

or diverges at any point. Then,
Using the Ratio Test, we find:
/
lim lim lim ∙ lim | | 1 … in the open
→ → / → →
interval: ∈ 1, 1 .
So, this series also has a radius of convergence 1 about a center of 0.
To find the interval of convergence of the series, we must test the endpoints, i.e., 1.
When 1, we get ln 2 1 ⋯ , which converges by the alternating series

test.
When 1, we get ln 0 1 ⋯ , which diverges (it is the negative

harmonic series, and ln 0 is undefined).
The interval of convergence, then, is 1, 1 . It includes the right endpoint.
Conclusion: In the case of this example, the interval of convergence of the integrated series picks
up the endpoint at 1.


Chapter 13 Series
McCartin Table: Summary of Basic Tests for Series
Conditions for Conditions for
Test Series Form Comments
Convergence Divergence
‐th term (tests for lim 0 This test should
→
divergence only) lim
0 always be
required, but not →
sufficient performed first.
Telescoping
Series lim
is finite lim
not finite lim

→ → →∞
Special Series
Geometric
Series ( 0) | | 1 | | 1
1
‐Series 1 1 1
1 1
Alternating Series Remainder:
0 1 lim
0 lim
0
→ → | |
Integral is positive, Remainder:

continuous, and

decreasing 0
converges (2) diverges
Comparison Comparison of
( 0, 0) and need only

converges diverges exist for beyond
some index .
Limit Comparison 0 lim ∞ lim 0 Could use lim

→ → →
( 0, 0)
instead of lim

→
converges diverges
in the conditions.
Ratio Test inconclusive if:
lim
1
→
lim
1 lim
1.
(absolute → →
convergence) Use another test.
Root lim | | 1 Test inconclusive if:
→
lim
| | 1 lim
| | 1.
→ →
(absolute
convergence) Use another test.
Notes: (1) Riemann zeta function. (2) If the series converges, ∑ .

Chapter 14 Taylor and Maclaurin Series

Taylor and Maclaurin Series
Taylor Series
A Taylor series is an expansion of a function around a given value of . Generally, it has the
following form around the point :
⋯
! 1! 2! 3!
Maclaurin Series
A Maclaurin series is a Taylor Series around the value 0. Generally, it has the following
form:
0 0 0 0
0 ⋯
! 1! 2! 3!
Example . :
Find the Maclaurin expansion for :
0 1
0 1
0 1
. . .
0 1
Substituting these values into the Maclaurin expansion formula (and recalling that 0! 1) we
get:
1 ⋯
2! 3! 4! !



Example . :
Find the Maclaurin expansion for ln 1 :
ln 1 0 ln 1 0 0
1 1
0 1
1 1 0
1 1
0 1 1!
1 1 0
2 2
0 2 2!
1 1 0
6 6
0 6 3!
1 1
. . .
1 !
1 0 1 1 !
1
Substituting these values into the Maclaurin expansion formula, we get:
1 2! 3! 1 1 !
ln 1 ⋯ ⋯
2! 3! 4! !
1
⋯
2 3 4 5 6
Taylor Series Convergence Theorem
A Taylor Series for a function that has derivatives of all orders on an open interval
centered at converges if and only if:
∗
lim
lim
0
→ → 1 !
The term is called the Lagrange Remainder; ∗ is the value of that produces the

greatest value of between and . See more on the Lagrange Remainder on the
next page.


LaGrange Remainder
The form for a Taylor Series about that includes an error term is:

!
⋯
2! !
The term is called the Lagrange Remainder, and has the form:
∗

1 !
where ∗ produces the greatest value of between and .
This form is typically used to approximate the value of a series to a desired level of accuracy.
Example 14.3: Approximate √ using five terms of the Maclaurin Series (i.e., the Taylor Series
about 0) for and estimate the maximum error in the estimate.
Using five terms and letting , we get:
1
2! 3! 4!
1 1 1
1 2 2 2 1 1 1 1
~ 1 1 .
2 2! 3! 4! 2 8 48 384
To find the maximum potential error in this estimate, calculate:
∗
for and ∗ between 0 and .
!
Since , the fifth derivative of is: . The maximum value of this

between 0 and occurs at . Then,
1.65 based on our estimate of 1.6484375 above (we will check this
after completing our estimate of the maximum error). Combining all of this,
1
1 2 1 1.65 1
.
2 5! 2 5! 2
Note that the maximum value of √ , then, is 1.6484375 0.0004297 1.6488672, which is
less than the 1.65 used in calculating , so our estimate is good. The actual value of √ is
1.6487212 … .

Chapter 15 Cool Stuff
e

What is “e”?
 Euler’s number, e is the base of the natural logarithms.
 e is a transcendental number, meaning that it is not the root of any polynomial with
integer coefficients.
What Makes “e” so Special?
e shows up over and over in mathematics, especially in regard to limits, derivatives, and
integrals. In particular, it is noteworthy that:

1
lim 1 lim 1
→ → √ !
1
lim 1
→
Perhaps, most interestingly, the following equation, called Euler’s Equation, relates five
seemingly unrelated mathematical constants to each other.

Some Series Representations of e
There are many more series involving e.
A sampling of these is provided at:
1 1 1 1 1
1 1 ⋯
! 2 6 24 120 http://mathworld.wolfram.com/e.html.
1 1

! 1 1 1 1
1 1 ⋯
2 6 24 120
Decimal Expansion
2.7 1828 1828 4590 4523 5360 2874 7135 2662 4977 5724 7093 6999 5957 4966 …
The web site http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/htmltest/gifcity/e.2mil shows the decimal expansion
of e to over 2 million digits.


Derivation of Euler’s Formula by Integration

Start with: cos sin [note that 0, 1 is a point on this function]
Then: sin cos
cos sin

Integrate:
ln [note that 0 since 0, 1 is a point on this function]

Final Result:
Very Cool Sub‐Case
When , Euler’s equation becomes:
cos sin
or, 1 Note that this will allow us to calculate
logarithms of negative numbers.
Rewriting this provides an equation that relates five of the most important mathematical
constants to each other:


Derivation of Euler’s Formula Using Power Series

A Power Series about zero is an infinite series of the form:
⋯
Many mathematical functions can be expressed as power series. Of particular interest in
deriving Euler’s Identity are the following:
1
sin ⋯
2 1 ! 3! 5! 7!
1
cos 1 ⋯
2 ! 2! 4! 6!
1 ⋯
! 2! 3! 4! 5! 6! 7!
Note, then, that:
1 ∙ ∙ ∙
i ∙ sin ∙ ⋯
2 1 ! 3! 5! 7!
1
cos 1 ⋯
2 ! 2! 4! 6!
∙ ∙ ∙
1 ⋯
! 2! 3! 4! 5! 6! 7!
Notice that when we add the first two series we get the third, so we have:

and, substituting yields:


Logarithms of Negative Real Numbers and Complex Numbers
Natural Logarithm of a Negative Real Number
From Euler’s Formula, we have:
1
Taking the natural logarithm of both sides gives:
ln ln 1 which implies that ln 1

Next, let be a positive real number. Then:
ln ln 1∙ ln 1 ln

Logarithm (Any Base) of a Negative Real Number
To calculate log , use the change of base formula: log .
Let the new base be to get: log

Logarithm of a Complex Number (Principal Value)
Define in polar form as: , where is the modulus (i.e.,

magnitude) of and tan is the argument (i.e., angle), in radians, of complex number
. Then,

and where,


What Is ( to the power of )

Start with: (Euler’s Formula – special case)
Then: 1
√ √ 1

Calculate to obtain:

~ . ~

So we see that it is possible to take an imaginary number to an imaginary power and return to the realm
of real numbers.


Derivative of e to a Complex Power ( )
Start with:
cos sin
Then: cos sin
Cauchy‐Riemann Equations
A complex function, , ∙ , , is differentiable at point if and only if
the functions and are differentiable and:
and
These are called the Cauchy‐Riemann Equations for the functions and :
and in Cartesian form
and in Polar form
Derivative of
For a differentiable complex function, , ∙ , :
Then, let cos sin :
∙ cos and ∙ sin
∙ cos ∙ sin ∙ cos ∙ ∙ sin
So, . Cool, huh?


Derivatives of a Circle
The general equation of a circle centered at the Origin is: , where is the radius

of the circle.
First Derivative

Note that is a constant, so its derivative is zero. Using Implicit Differentiation (with respect
to ), we get:
2 2 ∙ 0
Second Derivative
We have a couple of options at this point. We could do implicit differentiation on
2 2 ∙ 0, but given the simplicity of , let’s work from there.
Use the Quotient Rule, simplify and substitute in in the expression.
∙ ∙

Notice that the numerator is equal to the left hand side of the equation of the circle. We can
simplify the expression for the second derivative by substituting for to get:


Derivatives of an Ellipse
The general equation of an ellipse centered at the Origin is: 1, where is the

radius of the ellipse in the ‐direction and is the radius of the ellipse in the ‐direction.
First Derivative
1 which can also be written
Note that is a constant, so its derivative is zero. Using Implicit Differentiation (with
respect to ), we get:
2 2 ∙ 0
Second Derivative
Given the simplicity of , let’s work from there to calculate .
∙ ∙
Notice that the numerator inside the brackets is equal to the left hand side of the equation of
the ellipse. We can simplify this expression by substituting for to get:

Derivatives of a Hyperbola
The general equation of a hyperbola with a vertical transverse axis, centered at the Origin is:
1, where , 0 are the vertices of the hyperbola.
First Derivative
1 which can also be written
Note that is a constant, so its derivative is zero. Using Implicit Differentiation (with
respect to ), we get:
2 ∙ 2 0
Second Derivative
Given the simplicity of , let’s work from there to calculate .
∙ ∙

Notice that the numerator inside the brackets is equal to the left hand side of the equation of
the hyperbola. We can simplify this expression by substituting for to get:

Derivative of:
Starting expression:
Expand the cubic of the binomial: 3 3
Subtract from both sides: 3 3 0
Divide both sides by 3: 0
Investigate this expression:
Factor it: 0
Solutions are the three lines: 0, 0,
Note the slopes of these lines: undefined, 0, 1
Obtain the derivative:
Start with: 0
Implicit differentiation: ∙ 2 ∙2 0
Rearrange terms: 2 2 0
Solve for :
Factored form:
Consider each solution separately:
∙
0: undefined
0: 0
∙
: 1
Conclusion:
is an elegant way to describe the derivative of with respect to for the

expression (which is not a function). However, it is noteworthy, that
this derivative can only take on three possible values (if we allow “undefined” to count as a
value) – undefined, 0 and 1.

Inflection Points of the PDF of the Normal Distribution
The equation for the Probability Density Function (PDF) of the Normal Distribution is:

√
where and are the mean and standard deviation of the distribution.
1
∙
√2 2
2
∙
2
∙ ∙

1
∙ ∙
1 1
∙ ∙ ∙
1
∙
Setting 0, and noting that 0 for all values of , we get:
1 0 So that: .
Further, noting that the value of the second derivative changes signs at each of these values,
we conclude that inflection points exist at .
In English, the inflection points of the Probability Density Function of the Normal Distribution
exist at points one standard deviation above or below the mean.


Appendix A
Key Definitions in Calculus

Absolute Maximum
See entry on Global Maximum. May also simply be called the “maximum.”

Absolute Minimum
See entry on Global Minimum. May also simply be called the “minimum.”

Antiderivative
Also called the indefinite integral of a function, 𝑓 𝑥 , an antiderivative of 𝑓 𝑥 is a function
𝐹 𝑥 , such that 𝐹 𝑥 𝑓 𝑥 on an interval of 𝑥.
The general antiderivative of 𝑓 𝑥 is the antiderivative expressed as a function which includes
the addition of a constant 𝐶, which is called the constant of integration.
Example: 𝐹 𝑥 2𝑥 is an antiderivative of 𝑓 𝑥 6𝑥 because 𝐹′ 𝑥 𝑓 𝑥 .

𝐹 𝑥 2𝑥 𝐶 is the general antiderivative of 𝑓 𝑥 6𝑥 because 𝐹′ 𝑥
𝑓 𝑥 for all values of 𝐶.
Notation: the antiderivative of a function, 𝑓 𝑥 , is expressed as: 𝑭 𝒙 𝒇 𝒙 𝒅𝒙.


Appendix A Key Definitions
Ault Table
Named for A’Laina Ault, the Math Department Chair at Damonte Ranch High School in Reno,
Nevada, an Ault Table is a chart that shows the signs and the behavior of a function and its
derivatives over key intervals of the independent variable (usually 𝑥 or 𝑡). It is very useful in
curve sketching because it makes the process of finding extrema and inflection points relatively
easy. The steps to building an Ault Table are:
1. Calculate the first and second derivatives of the
function being considered. Additional derivatives may
be taken if needed.
2. Find the zeros of each derivative; these form the
interval endpoints for the table. Note that the zeros of
the first derivative are critical values, representing
potential maxima and minima, and the zeros of the
second derivative are potential inflection points.
3. Arrange the zeros of the first two derivatives in
numerical order, and create mutually exclusive open
intervals with the zeros as endpoints. If appropriate,
include intervals extending to ∞ and/or ∞.
4. Create a set of rows as shown in the table on the next
page. At this point the boxes in the table will be empty.
5. Determine the sign of each derivative in each interval
and record that information in the appropriate box
using a “ ” or a “ “.
6. Use the signs determined in Step 5 to identify for each
interval a) whether the function is increasing or
decreasing (green lines in the table), b) whether the An Ault table facilitates the graphing
first derivative is increasing or decreasing (red lines in of a function like the one above:
the table), c) whether the function is concave up or 𝑠 𝑡 2𝑡 – 9𝑡 12𝑡 – 4
down (bottom red line in the table), and d) the shape of
the curve on the interval.
From the information in the table, you can determine the location of all extrema and inflection
points of the curve. You can also determine where the speed is positive; the signs of both the
first and second derivatives are the same.
An example is provided on the next page:

Example: develop an Ault Table for the function: s(t) = 2t3 – 9t2 + 12t – 4
First find the key functions:
𝑠 𝑡 2𝑡 – 9𝑡 12𝑡 – 4 Position function
𝑠′ 𝑡 6𝑡 18𝑡 12 Velocity function
|𝑠′ 𝑡 | |6𝑡 18𝑡 12| Speed function
𝑠 𝑡 12𝑡 18 Acceleration function

Next, find the function’s critical values, inflection points, and maybe a couple more points.
𝑠 𝑡 2𝑡 – 9𝑡 12𝑡 – 4 𝑠 0 4
𝑠′ 𝑡 6 𝑡 1 𝑡 2 𝑠 𝑡 0 ⇒ Critical Values of 𝑡 are: 𝑡 1, 2
Critical Points are: 1, 1 , 2, 0
𝑠 𝑡 6 2𝑡 3 𝑠 𝑡 0 ⇒ Inflection Point at: 𝑡 1.5
𝑠 𝑡 2𝑡 – 9𝑡 12𝑡 – 4 𝑠 3 5, just to get another point to plot

Then, build an Ault Table with intervals separated by the key values:
Key values of 𝑡 that define the intervals in the table are 𝑡 1, 1.5, 2
Note: Identify the signs (i.e., “ , “ “) first. The word descriptors are based on the signs.
𝒔 𝒕 𝟐𝒕𝟑 – 𝟗𝒕𝟐 𝟏𝟐𝒕 – 𝟒
𝟎, 𝟏 𝟏, 𝟏. 𝟓 𝟏. 𝟓, 𝟐 𝟐, ∞
𝒔 𝒕 increasing decreasing decreasing increasing
𝒔 𝒕
and is: decreasing decreasing increasing increasing
𝒔 𝒕
𝒔𝒐 𝒔 𝒕 𝒊𝒔: concave down concave down concave up concave up
Curve
Shape
Results. This function has:
 A maximum at 𝑡 1.
 A minimum at 𝑡 2.
 An inflection point at 𝑡 1.5.

Concavity
A function, 𝑓, is concave upward on an interval if 𝑓’ 𝑥 is increasing
on the interval, i.e., if 𝑓 𝑥 0.
A function, 𝑓, is concave downward on an interval if 𝑓’ 𝑐 is
decreasing on the interval, i.e., if 𝑓 𝑥 0.
Concavity changes at inflection points, from upward to downward or
from downward to upward.

Continuity
A function, 𝑓, is continuous at 𝑥 𝑐 iff:
a. 𝑓 𝑐 is defined,
b. lim 𝑓 𝑥 exists, and
→
c. lim 𝑓 𝑥 𝑓 𝑐
→
d. If 𝑥 𝑎 is an endpoint, then the limit
need only exist from the left or the right.
The curve shown is continuous everywhere
Basically, the function value and limit at a point except at the holes and the vertical asymptote.
must both exist and be equal to each other.

Critical Numbers or Critical Values (and Critical Points)
If a function, 𝑓, is defined at c, then the critical
numbers (also called critical values) of 𝑓 are 𝑥‐
values where 𝑓’ 𝑐 0 and where 𝑓’ 𝑐 does not
exist (i.e., 𝑓 is not differentiable at 𝑐). This includes
𝑥‐values where the slope of the curve is horizontal,
and where cusps and discontinuities exist in an
interval.
The points where the critical numbers exist are
called critical points. Note: endpoints are excluded
from this definition, but must also be tested in cases
where the student seeks an absolute (i.e., global) maximum or minimum of an interval.



Decreasing Function
A function, 𝑓, is decreasing on an interval if for any two values in the interval, 𝑎 and 𝑏, with 𝑎
𝑏, it is true that 𝑓 𝑎 𝑓 𝑏 .

Degree of a Differential Equation
The degree of a differential equation is the power of the highest derivative term in the
equation. Contrast this with the order of a differential equation.
Examples:
𝒅𝟐 𝒚 𝒅𝒚
 𝟒 𝟒𝒚 𝟎 Degree 1
𝒅𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒙
𝟐
𝒅𝟐 𝒚 𝒅𝒚 𝟑
 𝒚 𝒂𝒙 𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐 Degree 2
𝒅𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒙
𝟓 𝟐
𝒅𝟒 𝒚 𝒅𝟑 𝒚
 𝟑 𝟐𝒚 𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 Degree 5
𝒅𝒙𝟒 𝒅𝒙𝟑

Derivative
The measure of the slope of a curve at each point along the curve. The derivative of a function
𝑓 𝑥 is itself a function, generally denoted 𝑓 𝑥 or . The derivative provides the
instantaneous rate of change of a function at the point at which it is measured.
The derivative function is given by either of the two following limits, which are equivalent:
𝑓 𝑥 ℎ 𝑓 𝑥 𝑓 𝑥 𝑓 𝑐
lim or lim
→ ℎ → 𝑥 𝑐
In the figure below, the derivative of the curve 𝑓 𝑥 √25 𝑥 at 3, 4 is the slope of the

tangent line at 3, 4 , which is .

Differentiable
A function is differentiable at a point, if a
derivative can be taken at that point. A
function is not differentiable at any 𝑥‐value
that is not in its domain, at discontinuities, at
sharp turns and where the curve is vertical.
To find where a function is not differentiable
by inspection, look for points of discontinuity,
sharp turns, and vertical slopes in the curve.
In the curve shown at right, the curve is not
differentiable at the points of discontinuity
(𝑥 5 nor at the cusp (𝑥 2).

Differential
Consider a function 𝑓 𝑥 , that is differentiable on an open interval around 𝑥. ∆𝑥 and ∆𝑦
represent small changes in the variables 𝑥 and 𝑦 around 𝑥 on 𝑓. Then,
 The differential of 𝑥 is denoted as 𝑑𝑥, and 𝑑𝑥 ∆𝑥.
 The differential of 𝑦 is denoted as 𝑑𝑦, and 𝑑𝑦 𝑓 𝑥 ∙ 𝑑𝑥
 ∆𝑦 is the actual change is 𝑦 resulting from a change in 𝑥 of ∆𝑥. 𝑑𝑦 is an approximation
of ∆𝑦.

∆𝒚
𝒅𝒚

∆𝒙 𝒅𝒙

Differential Equation
An equation which includes variables and one or more of their derivatives.
An ordinary differential equation (ODE) is a differential equation that includes an independent
variable (e.g., 𝑥), a dependent variable (e. g., 𝑦), and one or more derivatives of the dependent
varaiable, (e.g., , , , etc.).
If the differential equation includes partial derivatives, it is a partial differential equation (PDE),
and not an ordinary differential equation. See Chapter 10 for more definitions.
Examples:
𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒚
 𝒆𝒙  𝒚 𝒂𝒙 𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝟏 𝒅𝟐 𝒚 𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝟐 𝒚 𝒅𝒚
 𝒙 𝟏 𝟎  𝟑 𝟐𝒚 𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙
𝟒 𝒅𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒙

Displacement
Displacement is a measure of the shortest path between two points. So if you start at Point A and end
at Point B, the length of the line segment connecting them is the displacement.
To get displacement from velocity:
 Integrate velocity over the entire interval, without any breaks.

Distance
Distance is a measure of the length of the path taken to get from one point to another. So, traveling
backward adds to distance and reduces displacement.
To get distance from velocity, over an interval 𝑎, 𝑏 :
 Integrate velocity over the 𝑎, 𝑏 in pieces, breaking it up at each point where velocity
changes sign from " " to "– " or from "– " to " ".
 Take the absolute value of each separate definite integral to get the distance for that
interval.
 Add the distances over each interval to get the total distance.


𝒆
𝑒 is the base of the natural logarithms. It is a transcendental number, meaning that it is not the
root of any polynomial with integer coefficients.
1 𝑛 𝑑 1
𝑒 lim 1 𝑒 lim 𝑒 𝑒 𝑑𝑥 1
→ 𝑛 → √𝑛! 𝑑𝑥 𝑥
1 1 1 1 1
𝑒 1 1 ⋯
𝑘! 2 6 24 120
1 1
𝑒
𝑘! 1 1 1 1
1 1 ⋯
2 6 24 120
Euler’s Equation:
𝑒 1 0 shows the interconnection of five seemingly unrelated mathematical constants.
Decimal Expansion of 𝒆:
𝑒 2.7 1828 1828 4590 4523 5360 2874 7135 2662 4977 5724 7093 6999 5957 4966 …
The web site http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/htmltest/gifcity/e.2mil shows the decimal
expansion of e to over 2 million digits.


Global Maximum
A global maximum is the function value at point 𝑐 on an interval if 𝑓 𝑥 𝑓 𝑐 for all 𝑥 in the
interval. That is, 𝑓 𝑐 is a global maximum if there is an interval containing 𝑐 where 𝑓 𝑐 is the
greatest value in the interval. Note that the interval may contain multiple relative maxima but
only one global maximum.
Global Minimum
A global minimum is the function value at point 𝑐 on an interval if 𝑓 𝑥 𝑓 𝑐 for all 𝑥 in the
interval. That is, 𝑓 𝑐 is a global minimum if there is an interval containing 𝑐 where 𝑓 𝑐 is the
least value in the interval. Note that the interval may contain multiple relative minima but only
one global minimum.

Horizontal Asymptote
If:
lim 𝑓 𝑥 𝐿, or
→
lim 𝑓 𝑥 𝐿,
→
then the line 𝑦 𝐿 is a
horizontal asymptote of 𝑓.


The set of hyperbolic functions relate to the unit hyperbola in much the same way that
trigonometric functions relate to the unit circle. Hyperbolic functions have the same shorthand
names as their corresponding trigonometric functions, but with an “h” at the end of the name
to indicate that the function is hyperbolic. The names are read “hyperbolic sine,” “hyperbolic
cosine,” etc.
𝒆𝒙 𝒆 𝒙
𝒆𝒙 𝒆 𝒙
𝟐
𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡 𝒙 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐡 𝒙 𝐬𝐞𝐜𝐡 𝒙
𝟐 𝒆𝒙 𝒆 𝒙 𝒆𝒙 𝒆 𝒙
𝒆𝒙 𝒆 𝒙
𝒆𝒙 𝒆 𝒙
𝟐
𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡 𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐭𝐡 𝒙 𝐜𝐬𝐜𝐡 𝒙
𝟐 𝒆𝒙 𝒆 𝒙 𝒆𝒙 𝒆 𝒙
Graphs of Hyperbolic Functions

Increasing Function
A function, 𝑓, is increasing on an
interval if for any two values in the
interval, 𝑎 and 𝑏, with 𝑎 𝑏, it is
true that 𝑓 𝑎 𝑓 𝑏 .


Inflection Point
An inflection point is a location on a curve
where concavity changes from upward to
downward or from downward to upward.
At an inflection point, the curve has a tangent
line and 𝑓′ 𝑥 0 or 𝑓′ 𝑥 does not exist.
However, it is not necessarily true that if
𝑓′ 𝑥 0, then there is an inflection point at
𝑥 𝑐.

Inverse Function
Two functions 𝑓 𝑥 and 𝑔 𝑥 are inverses if and only if:
 𝑓 𝑔 𝑥 𝑥 for every 𝑥 in the domain of 𝑔, and
 𝑔 𝑓 𝑥 𝑥 for every 𝑥 in the domain of 𝑓.
Important points about inverse functions:
 Each function is a reflection of the other over the
line 𝑦 𝑥.
 The domain of each function is the range of the
other. Sometimes a domain restriction is needed
to make this happen.
 If 𝑓 𝑎 𝑏, then 𝑓 𝑏 𝑎.
 The slopes of inverse functions at a given value of 𝑥 are reciprocals.

Local Maximum
See entry on Relative Maximum.

Local Minimum
See entry on Relative Minimum.

Monotonic Function
A function 𝑓 is monotonic if it is either entirely non‐increasing or entirely non‐decreasing. The
derivative of a monotonic function never changes sign.
A strictly monotonic function is either entirely increasing or entirely decreasing. The derivative
of a strictly monotonic function is either always positive or always negative. Strictly monotonic
functions are also one‐to‐one.

Natural Exponential Function
The natural exponential function is defined as:
𝑓 𝑥 𝑒 .
It is the inverse of the natural logarithmic function.
Natural Logarithmic Function
The natural logarithmic function is defined as:
1 41
ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑡, 𝑥 0. ln 4 𝑑𝑡 ~ 1.38629
𝑡 1 𝑡
The base of the natural logarithm is 𝑒. So,
ln 𝑥 log 𝑥


One‐to‐One Function
A function 𝑓 is one‐to‐one if:
 for every 𝑥 in the domain of 𝑓, there is exactly one 𝑦 such that 𝑓 𝑥 𝑦, and
 for every 𝑦 in the range of 𝑓, there is exactly one 𝑥 such that 𝑓 𝑥 𝑦.
A function has an inverse if and only if it is one‐to‐one. One‐to‐one functions are also
monotonic. Monotonic functions are not necessarily one‐to‐one, but strictly monotonic
functions are necessarily one‐to‐one.

Order of a Differential Equation
The order of a differential equation is the highest derivative that occurs in the equation.
Contrast this with the degree of a differential equation.
Examples:
𝒅𝟒 𝒚 𝒅𝟐 𝒚
 𝟒 𝟒𝒚 𝟎 Order 4
𝒅𝒙𝟒 𝒅𝒙𝟐
𝒅𝒚
 𝒚 𝒂𝒙 𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐 Order 1
𝒅𝒙
𝟐
𝒅 𝒚 𝒅𝒚
 𝟑 𝟐 𝒅𝒙
𝟐𝒚 𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 Order 2
𝒅𝒙

Ordinary Differential Equation (ODE)
An ordinary differential equation is one that involves a single independent variable.
Examples of ODEs: Not ODEs (Partial Differential Equations):
𝒅𝟒 𝒚 𝒅𝟐 𝒚 𝝏𝒛 𝝏𝟐 𝒛 𝝏𝟐 𝒛
 𝟒 𝟒𝒚 𝟎  𝒛
𝒅𝒙𝟒 𝒅𝒙𝟐 𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒙𝟐 𝝏𝒚𝟐
𝒅𝒚 𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝒗 𝝏𝒗 𝝏𝒖
 𝒚 𝒂𝒙 𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐  and
𝒅𝒙 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚
𝟐
𝒅 𝒚 𝒅𝒚 𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝟐 𝒖
 𝟑 𝟐 𝒅𝒙
𝟐𝒚 𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 
𝒅𝒙 𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒙𝟐

Partial Differential Equation (PDE)
A partial differential equation is one that involves more than one independent variable.
Examples of PDEs:
𝝏𝒛 𝝏𝟐 𝒛 𝝏𝟐 𝒛
 𝒛
𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒙𝟐 𝝏𝒚𝟐
𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝒗 𝝏𝒗 𝝏𝒖
 and
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚
𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝟐 𝒖

𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒙𝟐
Position Function
A position function is a function that provides the location (i.e., position) of a point moving in a
straight line, in a plane or in space. The position function is often denoted 𝑠 𝑡 , where 𝑡 is time,
the independent variable. When position is identified along a straight line, we have:
𝑠 𝑡 Position function
𝑠′ 𝑡 Velocity function (rate of change in position; may be positive, negative, or zero)
|𝑠′ 𝑡 | Speed function (absolute value of velocity; it is zero or positive by definition)
𝑠 𝑡 Acceleration function (rate of change in velocity)
𝑠 𝑡 Jerk function (rate of change in acceleration)
Note that the inverse relationships hold for the functions as well. For example, consider the position
function 𝑠 𝑡 and the velocity funtion 𝑣 𝑡 :
𝑣 𝑡 𝑠 𝑡 and 𝑠 𝑡 𝑣 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
General Case of Integrating the Position Function in Problems Involving Gravity
Given intial position 𝑠 0 , and intial velocity 𝑣 0 , the position function is given as:
𝑠 𝑡 16𝑡 𝑣 0 𝑡 𝑠 0 where all functions involve the units feet and seconds.
Note: The force of gravity is 32 𝑓𝑡/𝑠𝑒𝑐 or 9.8 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐 .

Relative Maximum
A relative maximum is the function value at
point 𝑐 in an open interval if 𝑓 𝑐 𝛿
𝑓 𝑐 and 𝑓 𝑐 𝛿 𝑓 𝑐 for arbitrarily
small 𝛿. That is, 𝑓 𝑐 is a relative maximum
if there is an open interval containing 𝑐
where 𝑓 𝑐 is the greatest value in the
interval.

Relative Minimum
A relative minimum is the function value at point 𝑐 in an open interval if 𝑓 𝑐 𝛿 𝑓 𝑐 and
𝑓 𝑐 𝛿 𝑓 𝑐 for arbitrarily small 𝛿. That is, 𝑓 𝑐 is a relative minimum if there is an open
interval containing 𝑐 where 𝑓 𝑐 is the least value in the interval.

Riemann Integral
If ∑ 𝑓 𝑥 ∗ ∙ ∆𝑥 is a Riemann Sum (see the entry on “Riemann Sum” below), then the
corresponding definite integral, 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 is called the Riemann Integral of 𝑓 𝑥 on the
interval 𝑎, 𝑏 . Riemann Integrals in one, two and three dimensions are:
𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 lim 𝑓 𝑥 ∗ ∙ ∆𝑥
∆ →

𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑑𝐴 lim 𝑓 𝑥 ∗ , 𝑦 ∗ ∙ ∆𝐴
∆ →

𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑑𝑉 lim 𝑓 𝑥 ∗ , 𝑦 ∗ , 𝑧 ∗ ∙ ∆𝑉
∆ →


Riemann Sum
A Riemann Sum is the sum of the areas of a set of rectangles that can be used to approximate
the area under a curve over a closed interval.
Consider a closed interval 𝑎, 𝑏 on 𝑥 that is partitioned into 𝑛 sub‐intervals of lengths
∆𝑥 , ∆𝑥 , ∆𝑥 , … ∆𝑥 . Let 𝑥 ∗ be any value of 𝑥 on the 𝑖‐th sub‐interval. Then, the Riemann
Sum is given by:

𝑆 𝑓 𝑥 ∗ ∙ ∆𝑥

A graphical representation of a Riemann sum
on the interval 2, 5 is provided at right.
Note that the area under a curve from 𝑥 𝑎
to 𝑥 𝑏 is:

∆ →

The largest ∆𝑥 is called the mesh size of the partition. A typical Riemann Sum is developed
with all ∆𝑥 the same (i.e., constant mesh size), but this is not required. The resulting definite
integral, 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 is called the Riemann Integral of 𝑓 𝑥 on the interval 𝑎, 𝑏 .
Scalar Field
A Scalar Field in three dimensions provides a value at each point in space. For example, we can
measure the temperature at each point within an object. The temperature can be expressed as
T=ϕ(x,y,z). (note: ϕ is the Greek letter phi, corresponding to the English letter “f”.)


Separation of Variables
Separation of Variables is a technique used to assist in the solution of differential equations.
The process involves using algebra to collect all terms involving one variable on one side of an
equation and all terms involving the other variable on the other side of an equation.
Example:
Original differential equation:
√
Revised form with variables separated:
√

Singularity
A singularity is a point at which a mathematical expression or other object is not defined or fails
to be well‐behaved. Typically, singularities exist at discontinuities.
Example:
In evaluating the following integral, we notice that 𝑒 does not exist at 𝑥 0. We say,

then, that 𝑒 has a singularity at 𝑥 0. Special techniques must often be employed to
solve integrals with singularities.
𝑒 𝑑𝑥


Slope Field
A slope field (also called a direction field) is a graphical representation of the slopes of a curve at
various points that are defined by a differential equation. Each position in the graph (i.e., each
point 𝑥, 𝑦 ) is represented by a line segment indicating the slope of the curve at that point.
𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒚
Examples: 𝒆𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙
If you know a point on a curve and if you have its corresponding slope field diagram, you can
plot your point and then follow the slope lines to determine the curve. Slope field plotters are
available online at:
 http://www.mathscoop.com/calculus/differential‐equations/slope‐field‐generator.php
 http://www.geogebratube.org/student/m42741
Vector Field
A Vector Field in three dimensions provides a vector at each point in space. For example, we
can measure a magnetic field (magnitude and direction of the magnetic force) at each point in
space around a charged particle. The magnetic field can be expressed as 𝑀⃑ 𝑉⃑ 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 . Note
that the half‐arrow over the letters 𝑀 and 𝑉 indicate that the function generates a vector field.


Vertical Asymptote
If lim 𝑓 𝑥 ∞ or lim 𝑓 𝑥 ∞, then the line 𝑥 𝑐 is a vertical asymptote of 𝑓.
→ →

Appendix B
Key Theorems in Calculus
Functions and Limits
Inverse Function Theorem
A function has an inverse function if and only if it is one‐to‐one.

Intermediate Value Theorem (IVT)
If
 a function, , is continuous on the closed interval , , and
 is a value between and ,
Then
 there is a value in , such that .

Extreme Value Theorem (EVT)
If
 a function, , is continuous on the closed interval , ,
Then
 has both an absolute maximum and an absolute minimum on , .

Squeeze Theorem (Limits):
If
 , and
 lim
lim

→ →
Then
 lim

→


Appendix B Key Theorems
Differentiation
Rolle's Theorem
If
 a function, 𝑓, is continuous on the closed interval 𝑎, 𝑏 , and
 𝑓 is differentiable on the open interval 𝑎, 𝑏 , and
 𝑓 𝑎 𝑓 𝑏 ,
Then
 there is at least one value 𝑐 in 𝑎, 𝑏 where 𝑓 ′ 𝑐 0.

Mean Value Theorem (MVT)
If
 𝑓 is differentiable on the open interval 𝑎, 𝑏 ,
Then
 There is at least one value 𝑐 in 𝑎, 𝑏 where 𝑓 𝑐

Increasing and Decreasing Interval Theorem
If
 𝑓 is differentiable on the open interval 𝑎, 𝑏 ,
Then
 If 𝑓 𝑥 0 for every 𝑥 ∈ 𝑎, 𝑏 , then 𝑓 is increasing on 𝑎, 𝑏 .
 If 𝑓 𝑥 0 for every 𝑥 ∈ 𝑎, 𝑏 , then 𝑓 is decreasing on 𝑎, 𝑏 .
 If 𝑓 𝑥 0 for every 𝑥 ∈ 𝑎, 𝑏 , then 𝑓 is constant on 𝑎, 𝑏 .

Concave Interval Theorem
If
 𝑓 𝑥 exists on the open interval 𝑎, 𝑏 ,
Then
 If 𝑓 𝑥 0 for every 𝑥 ∈ 𝑎, 𝑏 , then 𝑓 is concave upward on 𝑎, 𝑏 .
 If 𝑓 𝑥 0 for every 𝑥 ∈ 𝑎, 𝑏 , then 𝑓 is concave downward on 𝑎, 𝑏 .



First Derivative Test (for finding extrema)
If
 is a critical number ∈ , ,
 is differentiable on the open interval , , except possibly at c,
Then
 If changes from positive to negative at , then is a relative maximum.
 If changes from negative to positive at , then is a relative minimum.

Second Derivative Test (for finding extrema)
If
 ∈ , , and
 0 and ′ exists,
Then
 If 0, then is a relative maximum.
 If 0, then is a relative minimum.

Inflection Point Theorem
If
 ∈ , , and
 ′ 0 or ′ does not exist,
Then
 , may be an inflection point of .

Inverse Function Continuity and Differentiability
If
 a function, , has an inverse,
Then
 If is continuous on its domain, then so is on its domain.
 If is increasing on its domain, then so is on its domain.
 If is decreasing on its domain, then so is on its domain.
 If is differentiable on its domain, then so is on its domain (wherever 0).
Note: this exception exists because the derivatives of and are inverses.


Derivative of an Inverse Function
If
 a function, , is differentiable at , and
 has an inverse function , and
 ,
Then
 (i.e., the derivatives of inverse functions are reciprocals).

Integration
First Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
If
 is a continuous function on , ,
 is any antiderivative of , then
Then


Second Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
If
Then
 For every ∈ , ,

Mean Value Theorem for Integrals (MVT)
If
Then
 there is a value ∈ , , such that

Appendix C

Summary of Key Derivatives and Integrals


Appendix C Key Derivatives and Integrals

Common Functions
Power Rule
∙ ∙
∙
∙ ln ∙ ln ∙
1 1
ln ln ∙
1 1
log log ∙
ln ln
sin cos sin cos ∙
cos sin cos sin ∙
tan sec tan sec ∙
cot csc cot csc ∙
sec sec tan sec sec tan ∙
csc csc cot csc csc cot ∙



Common Functions
1 1 Angle in
sin sin ∙
√1 √1 Q I or Q IV
1 1 Angle in
cos cos ∙
√1 √1 Q I or Q II
1 1 Angle in
tan tan ∙
1 1 Q I or Q IV
1 1 Angle in
cot cot ∙
1 1 Q I or Q II
1 1 Angle in
sec sec ∙
| | √ 1 | |√ 1 Q I or Q II
1 1 Angle in
csc csc ∙
| | √ 1 | |√ 1 Q I or Q IV

1 1 Angle in
sin sin ∙
√ √ Q I or Q IV
1 1 Angle in
cos cos ∙
√ √ Q I or Q II
Angle in
tan tan ∙
Q I or Q IV
Angle in
cot cot ∙
Q I or Q II
Angle in
sec sec ∙
| | √ | |√ Q I or Q II
Angle in
csc csc ∙
| | √ | |√ Q I or Q IV


Indefinite Integrals

Note: the rules presented in this section omit the “ ” term that must be added to all
indefinite integrals in order to save space and avoid clutter. Please remember to add the “ ”
term on all work you perform with indefinite integrals.
Basic Rules
Power Rule
1 1
∙ 1 ln| |
1
ln ln
1 1
ln ln
ln ln


Indefinite Integrals of Trigonometric Functions
sin cos
cos sin
tan ln |sec | ln |cos | sec tan
cot ln |csc | ln |sin | csc cot
sec ln |sec tan | sec tan sec
csc ln |csc cot | csc cot csc

Indefinite Integrals of Inverse Trigonometric Functions
sin sin 1
cos cos 1
1
tan tan ln 1
2
1
cot cot ln 1
2
sec sec ln 1 sec ∈ 0,

2
sec ln 1 sec ∈ ,
2
csc csc ln 1 csc ∈ 0,

2
csc ln 1 csc ∈ ,0
2
Involving Inverse Trigonometric Functions
1 1
sin sin
√1 √
1 1 1
tan tan
1
1 1 1 | |
sec | | sec
√ 1 √



Selecting the Right Function for an Integral
Form Function Integral
1 1
sin sin
√ √
1 1 1
tan tan
1 1 1 | |
sec sec
√ √
1 1
sinh * ln
√ √
1 1
cosh * ln
√ √

1
tanh *
1 1
ln
1 2
coth *

1 1 1 √
sech * ln
√ √ | |
1 1 1 √
csch * ln
√ √ | |

* This is an inverse hyperbolic function. For more information, see Chapter 6. Note that you do
not need to know about inverse hyperbolic functions to use the formulas on this page.

Appendix D

Key Functions and Their Derivatives

Appendix D Functions and Their Derivatives
Functions and Their Derivatives
Function
Description The function is always concave The graph of the function has The function is always The function has one absolute

up and the limit of f(x) as x the ‐ and ‐axes as decreasing and has the x‐axis maximum and the x‐axis is an
approaches 0 is 1. horizontal and vertical as an asymptote. asymptote.
asymptotes.
Function
Graph

First
Derivative
Graph

Second
Derivative
Graph

Function .
| |
.
Description The logistic curve. It is always The function has two relative The function is always The function is periodic with

increasing and has one point minima and one relative increasing on the right and domain and range 1, 1 .
of inflection. maximum. always decreasing on the left.
The y‐axis as an asymptote.
Function
Graph

First
Derivative
Graph

Second
Derivative
Graph


Function
Description The function has one absolute The graph has three zeros, The function has one relative The function has two relative

minimum and no points of one relative minimum, one maximum, two relative maxima, two relative minima,
inflection. relative maximum, and one minima, and two points of and three points of inflection.
point of inflection. inflection.
Function
Graph

First
Derivative
Graph

Second
Derivative
Graph

Appendix E
Geometry and Trigonometry Formulas

Appendix E Geometry and Trigonometry Formulas

Geometry
Summary of Perimeter and Area Formulas – 2D Shapes
Shape Figure Perimeter Area

Kite
,
,

Trapezoid ,
, b ,b bases
h height

Parallelogram
,

Rectangle
,

Rhombus
,

Square
,
∙
Regular Polygon

Circle

Ellipse



Geometry
Summary of Surface Area and Volume Formulas – 3D Shapes
Shape Figure Surface Area Volume

Sphere

Right

Cylinder

Cone

Square
Pyramid

∙
Rectangular
Prism

Cube

General

Right Prism


Trigonometry
Function Relationships Opposite Angle Formulas Cofunction Formulas (in Quadrant I)

1 1

sin sin sin cos cos sin
sin θ csc θ 2 2

csc θ sin θ
cos cos
1 1 tan cot cot tan
cos θ sec θ tan tan 2 2
sec θ cos θ
1 1 cot cot sec csc csc sec
tan θ cot θ 2 2
cot θ tan θ
sec sec
sin θ cos θ Angle Addition Formulas
tan θ cot θ
cos θ sin θ csc csc
sin sin cos cos sin
Pythagorean Identities Half Angle Formulas sin sin cos cos sin
sin cos 1 cos cos cos sin sin

1 cos
sin cos cos cos sin sin
tan 1 sec 2 2
tan tan
cot 1 csc tan
1 – tan tan

1 cos
cos tan tan
2 2
Double Angle Formulas tan
1 tan tan
sin 2 2 sin cos 1 cos
tan
2 1 cos Product‐to‐Sum Formulas
cos 2 cos sin
1 2 sin 1
1 cos sin ∙ sin
cos cos
2 cos 1 2
sin
1
2 tan sin cos ∙ cos cos cos
tan 2 2
1 tan 1 cos
1
sin ∙ cos sin sin
2
Triple Angle Formulas Power Reducing Formulas 1
cos ∙ sin sin sin
sin 3 3 sin 4 sin 1 cos 2 2
sin
2
cos 3 4 cos 3 cos 1 cos 2 Sum‐to‐Product Formulas
cos
3 tan tan 2
tan 3 1 cos 2 sin sin 2 ∙ sin ∙ cos
1 3 tan tan 2 2
1 cos 2

sin sin 2 ∙ sin ∙ cos
2 2
Arc Length Law of Sines
cos cos 2 ∙ cos ∙ cos
2 2
Law of Cosines Law of Tangents cos cos 2 ∙ sin ∙ sin

2 2
2 cos 1
tan
2 cos 2
1 Mollweide’s Formulas
2 cos tan mathguy.us
2 1
cos
2
Euler’s Formula Polar Multiplication and Division 1
sin
2
cos sin cis Let: cis cis 1
sin
2
DeMoivre’s Formula ∙ cis cis 1
cos
2
cis cis

Trigonometry
Period 2𝜋 Period 2𝜋 Period 𝜋 𝒚 𝑨 ∙ 𝒇 𝑩𝒙 𝑪 𝑫

Amplitude: |𝑨|
"𝒇"
Period:
𝑩
𝑪
Phase Shift:
𝑩
Vertical Shift: 𝑫

Period 2𝜋 Period 2𝜋 Period 𝜋 Harmonic Motion

𝑑 𝑎 cos 𝜔𝑡 or

𝑑 𝑎 sin 𝜔𝑡

𝑓
𝜔 2𝜋𝑓, 𝜔 0

Trig Functions of Special Angles (Unit Circle)
𝜽 Rad 𝜽° 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽

0 0⁰ 0 1 0
𝜋 1/2
6 30⁰ √3/2 √3/3
𝜋 1
4 45⁰ √2/2 √2/2
𝜋 1/2
3 60⁰ √3/2 √3
𝜋 90⁰ 1 0 undefined
2

Rectangular/Polar Conversion Triangle Area Vector Properties

Rectangular Polar 1
𝐴 2 𝑏ℎ 0 𝐮 𝐮 0 𝐮
𝑥, 𝑦 𝑟, 𝜃
𝐴 𝐮 𝐮 𝐮 𝐮 0
𝑟 𝑥 𝑦 𝑠 𝑠 𝑎 𝑠 𝑏 𝑠 𝑐
𝑥 𝑟 cos 𝜃
𝑦 1 1 𝐮 𝐯 𝐯 𝐮
𝑦 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝜃 tan 𝑠 𝑃 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
𝑥 2 2 𝐮 𝐯 𝐰 𝐮 𝐯 𝐰
𝑟 cos 𝜃 𝑖 sin 𝜃 𝐴 1 𝑎 sin 𝐵 sin 𝐶
𝑎 𝑏𝑖 𝑚 𝑛𝐮 𝑚𝑛 𝐮
or 𝑟 𝑐𝑖𝑠𝜃 2 sin 𝐴
𝑚 𝐮 𝐯 𝑚𝐮 𝑚𝐯
𝑎 𝑟 cos 𝜃 𝑟 𝑎
𝑏 1
𝐴 𝑎𝑏 sin 𝐶
𝑏 2 𝑚 𝑛 𝐮 𝑚𝐮 𝑛𝐮
𝑏 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝜃 tan
𝑎 𝑥1 𝑦1 1
1 1 𝐯 𝐯
𝑎𝐢 𝑏𝐣 ‖𝐯‖ ∠𝜃 𝐴 𝑥2 𝑦2 1
2 𝑥3 𝑦3 1 ‖𝑚𝐯‖ |𝑚| ‖𝐯‖
𝑎 ‖𝐯‖ cos 𝜃 ‖𝐯‖ 𝑎 𝑏 𝐯
𝑏 1 Unit Vector:
𝑏 ‖𝐯‖ sin 𝜃 𝐴 ‖𝐮‖ ‖𝐯‖ sin θ ‖𝐯‖
𝜃 tan 2
𝑎
Vector Dot Product Vector Cross Product Angle between Vectors

u u 𝐮∘𝐯 ‖𝐮 𝐯‖
𝐮∘𝐯 𝑢 ∙𝑣 𝑢 ∙𝑣 𝐮x𝐯 u v u v cos 𝜃 ‖𝐮‖ ‖𝐯‖ sin 𝜃 ‖𝐮‖ ‖𝐯‖
v v
𝐮∘ 𝐯 𝐰 𝐮∘𝐯 𝐮∘𝐰 𝐮x 𝐯 𝐰 𝐮x𝐯 𝐮x𝐰 ⊥ iff 𝐮 ∘ 𝐯 0 ∥ iff 𝐮 x 𝐯 0

Appendix F

Polar and Parametric Equations


Appendix F Polar and Parametric Equations
Polar Graphs
Typically, Polar Graphs will be plotted on polar graph paper such as that
illustrated at right. On this graph, a point , can be considered to be the
intersection of the circle of radius and the terminal side of the angle (see
the illustration below). Note: a free PC app that can be used to design and
print your own polar graph paper is available at www.mathguy.us.
Parts of the Polar Graph
The illustration below shows the key parts of a polar graph, along with a point, 4, .

The Pole is the point 0, 0 (i.e., the origin).

The Polar Axis is the positive ‐axis.
The Line: is the positive ‐axis.

Many equations that contain the cosine
function are symmetric about the ‐axis.

Many equations that contain the sine
function are symmetric about the ‐axis.

Polar Equations – Symmetry
Following are the three main types of symmetry exhibited in many polar equation graphs:
Symmetry about: Quadrants Containing Symmetry Symmetry Test(1)
Pole Opposite (I and III or II and IV) Replace with – in the equation
Left hemisphere (II and III) or Replace with – in the equation

‐axis
right hemisphere (I and IV)
‐axis Upper hemisphere (I and II) or Replace , with , in the

lower hemisphere (III and IV) equation
(1)
If performing the indicated replacement results in an equivalent equation, the equation passes
the symmetry test and the indicated symmetry exists. If the equation fails the symmetry test,
symmetry may or may not exist.

Graphs of Polar Equations
Graphing Methods
Method 1: Point plotting
 Create a two‐column chart that calculates values of for selected values of . This is akin to a
two‐column chart that calculates values of for selected values of that can be used to plot a
rectangular coordinates equation (e.g., 4 3).
 The ‐values you select for purposes of point plotting should vary depending on the equation
you are working with (in particular, the coefficient of in the equation). However, a safe bet
is to start with multiples of 6 (including 0). Plot each point on the polar graph and
see what shape emerges. If you need more or fewer points to see what curve is emerging,
adjust as you go.
 If you know anything about the curve (typical shape, symmetry, etc.), use it to facilitate
plotting points.
 Connect the points with a smooth curve. Admire the result; many of these curves are
aesthetically pleasing.
Method 2: Calculator
Using a TI‐84 Plus Calculator or its equivalent, do the following:
 Make sure your calculator is set to radians and polar functions. Hit the MODE
key; select RADIANS in row 4 and POLAR in row 5. After you do this, hitting
CLEAR will get you back to the main screen.
 Hit Y= and enter the equation in the form . Use the X,T, ,n key to
enter θ into the equation. If your equation is of the form , you may
need to enter two functions, and , and plot both.
 Hit GRAPH to plot the function or functions you entered in the previous step.
 If necessary, hit WINDOW to adjust the parameters of the plot.
o If you cannot see the whole function, adjust the X‐ and Y‐ variables (or use ZOOM).
o If the curve is not smooth, reduce the value of the step variable. This will plot more
points on the screen. Note that smaller values of step require more time to plot the
curve, so choose a value that plots the curve well in a reasonable amount of time.
o If the entire curve is not plotted, adjust the values of the min and max variables until
you see what appears to be the entire plot.
Note: You can view the table of points used to graph the polar function by hitting 2ND – TABLE.


Graph of Polar Equations
Circle

Equation: sin Equation: cos Equation:
Location: Location: Location:
above ‐axis if 0 right of ‐axis if 0 Centered on the Pole
below ‐axis if 0 left of ‐axis if 0
Radius: /2 Radius: /2 Radius:
Symmetry: ‐axis Symmetry: ‐axis Symmetry: Pole, ‐axis,
‐axis

Rose
Characteristics of roses:
 Equation: sin
o Symmetric about the ‐axis
 Equation: cos
 Contained within a circle of radius
 If is odd, the rose has petals.
 If is even the rose has 2 petals.
 Note that a circle is a rose with one petal (i.e, 1).


Graphs of Polar Equations
Limaçon of Pascal

Equation: sin Equation: cos
Location: bulb above ‐axis if 0 Location: bulb right of ‐axis if 0
bulb below ‐axis if 0 bulb left of ‐axis if 0
Symmetry: ‐axis Symmetry: ‐axis

Four Limaçon Shapes
2 2

Inner loop “Cardioid” Dimple No dimple

Four Limaçon Orientations (using the Cardioid as an example)

sine function sine function cosine function cosine function

0 0 0 0


Graph of Polar Equations
Lemniscate of Bernoulli

The lemniscate is the set of all points
for which the product of the
distances from two points (i.e., foci)

which are “2 ” apart is .

Characteristics of lemniscates:
 Equation: sin 2
o Symmetric about the line
 Equation: cos 2
 Contained within a circle of radius

Spirals
Hyperbolic Spiral:
Archimedes’ Spiral Fermat’s Spiral

Lituus:
Characteristics of spirals:
 Equation: , 0
o Distance from the Pole increases with
 Equation: , 0
o Hyperbolic Spiral 1 : asymptotic to the line units from the ‐axis
o Lituus 2 : asymptotic to the ‐axis
 Not contained within any circle

Graphing Polar Equations – The Rose
Example F.1:
This function is a rose. Consider the forms sin and cos .

The number of petals on the rose depends on the value of .
 If is an even integer, the rose will have 2 petals.
 If is an odd integer, it will have petals.
Let’s create a table of values and graph the equation:
Because this function involves an

argument of 2 , we want to start by
looking at values of θ in 0, 2
2 0, . You could plot more
0 0
points, but this interval is sufficient
/12 2 7π/12 2
to establish the nature of the curve;
/6 3.464 2π/3 3.464 so you can graph the rest easily.
/4 4 3π/4 ‐4
/3 3.464 5 /6 3.464 Once symmetry is
5 /12 2 11 /12 2 established, these values

are easily determined.
/2 0 0

The values in the table
generate the points in the Blue points on the graph
two petals right of the ‐axis. correspond to blue values
in the table.
Knowing that the curve is a
rose allows us to graph the Orange points on the
other two petals without graph correspond to
calculating more points. orange values in the table.

The four Rose forms:

Graphing Polar Equations – The Cardioid
Example F.2:
This cardioid is also a limaçon of form sin with . The use of the sine function

indicates that the large loop will be symmetric about the ‐axis. The sign indicates that the large
loop will be above the ‐axis. Let’s create a table of values and graph the equation:

Generally, you want to look at

values of in 0, 2 . However,
some functions require larger
0 2
intervals. The size of the interval
/6 3 7π/6 1 depends largely on the nature of the
/3 3.732 4π/3 0.268 function and the coefficient of .
/2 4 3π/2 0
2 /3 3.732 5 /3 0.268
Once symmetry is
5 /6 3 11 /6 1 established, these values
2 2 2 are easily determined.

The portion of the graph
above the ‐axis results
Blue points on the graph
from in Q1 and Q2,
correspond to blue values
where the sine function is in the table.
positive.

Similarly, the portion of Orange points on the
the graph below the x‐axis graph correspond to
results from in Q3 and orange values in the table.
Q4, where the sine
function is negative.

The four Cardioid forms:

Converting Between Polar and Rectangular Forms of Equations
Rectangular to Polar
To convert an equation from Rectangular Form to Polar Form, use the following equivalences:
cos Substitute cos for
sin Substitute sin for
Substitute for
Example F.3: Convert 8 3 10 0 to a polar equation of the form .
Starting Equation: 8 3 10 0
Substitute cos and sin : 8 ∙ cos 3 ∙ sin 10 0
Factor out : 8 cos 3 sin 10
Divide by 8 cos 3 sin :

Polar to Rectangular
To convert an equation from Polar Form to Rectangular Form, use the following equivalences:
cos Substitute for cos
sin Substitute for sin
Substitute for
Example F.4: Convert r = 8 cos + 9 sin to a rectangular equation.

Starting Equation: r = 8 cos + 9 sin
Substitute cos , sin : 8 9

Multiply by : 8 9
Substitute : 8 9
Subtract 8 9 : 8 9 0
Complete the square: 8 16 9 16
Simplify to standard form for a circle:

Parametric Equations
One way to define a curve is by making and (or and ) functions of a third variable, often (for

time). The third variable is called the Parameter, and functions defined in this manner are said to be
in Parametric Form. The equations that define the desired function are called Parametric Equations.
In Parametric Equations, the parameter is the independent variable. Each of the other two (or more)
variables is dependent on the value of the parameter. As the parameter changes, the other variables
change, generating the points of the function.
Example F.5: A relatively simple example is a circle, which we can define as follows:
Circle: cos sin
As the variable progresses from 0 to 2 , a circle of radius is born.
The circle in the illustration at right can be defined in several ways:
Cartesian form: 16
Polar form: 4
Parametric form: 4 cos 4 sin

Familiar Curves
Many curves with which the student may be familiar have parametric forms. Among those are the
following:
Curve Cartesian Form Polar Form Parametric Form
Parabola with horizontal 2

directrix 1 sin
Ellipse with horizontal cos
1 1 ∙ cos
major axis sin
0 1
Hyperbola with horizontal sec
1 1 ∙ cos
transverse axis tan
1
As can be seen from this chart, sometimes the parametric form of a function is its simplest. In fact,
parametric equations often allow us to graph curves that would be very difficult to graph in either
Polar form or Cartesian form. Some of these are illustrated on the next page.


Some Functions Defined by Parametric Equations
(Star Wars fans: are these the “oids” you are looking for?)
The graphs below are examples of functions defined by parametric equations. The equations and a
brief description of the curve are provided for each function.
Deltoid Nephroid Astroid

Parametric equations: Parametric equations: Parametric equations:
2 cos cos 2 3 cos cos 3 cos
2 sin sin 2 3 sin sin 3 sin
The deltoid is the path of a The nephroid is the path of a The astroid is the path of a
point on the circumference
point on the circumference point on the circumference
of a circle as it makes three of a circle as it makes two of a circle as it makes four

complete revolutions on the complete revolutions on the complete revolutions on the
inside of a larger circle.
outside of a larger circle. inside of a larger circle.
Cycloid

Parametric equations: The cycloid is the path of a point on the circumference of a circle as the
sin circle rolls along a flat surface (think: the path of a point on the outside
of a bicycle tire as you ride on the sidewalk). The cycloid is both a
1 cos
brachistochrone and a tautochrone (look these up if you are interested).

Appendix G
Interesting Series and Summation Formulas
𝑐 𝑛𝑐 𝑐 𝑐 ⋯ 𝑐 𝑛𝑐
𝑛 𝑛 1 𝑛 𝑛 1
𝑘 1 2 ⋯ 𝑛
2 2
𝑛 𝑛 1 2𝑛 1 𝑛 𝑛 1 2𝑛 1
𝑘 1 2 ⋯ 𝑛
6 6
𝑛 𝑛 1 𝑛 𝑛 1
𝑘 1 2 ⋯ 𝑛
2 2
1 1
𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 1 𝑥 1 1 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 ⋯
1 𝑥 1 𝑥
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
𝑒 1 𝑥 ⋯ 𝑒
𝑘! 2! 3! 4!
1 𝑥 1 1 𝑥 1 1 𝑥 1 1 𝑥 1
ln 𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ⋯ ln 𝑥
𝑘 𝑥 2 𝑥 2 𝑥 3 𝑥
𝑥
1 ln 1 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
𝑘 𝑥 ⋯ ln 1 𝑥
2 3 4
𝑓𝑜𝑟 1 𝑥 1
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
1 cos 𝑥 1 ⋯ cos 𝑥
2𝑘 ! 2! 4! 6!
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
1 sin 𝑥 𝑥 ⋯ sin 𝑥
2𝑘 1 ! 3! 5! 7!
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
1 tan 𝑥 𝑥 ⋯ tan 𝑥
2𝑘 1 3 5 7
𝑓𝑜𝑟 1 𝑥 1

Calculus Handbook
Index
Page Subject
156 Abel's Convergence Test (Series)
158 Absolute Convergence of a Series
32 Absolute Extrema ‐ see also Integration
49, 129 Acceleration
35 Alauria Diagram
147 Analytic Continuation
54 Antiderivatives
101, 104 Arc Length
95 Area by Integration
106, 111 Area Cross Section Method ‐ Volume of a Solid
97 Area in Polar Form
99 Area of a Limacon
105 Area of a Surface of Revolution
227 Astroid
178 Ault Table
87 Average Rate of Change
87 Average Value of a Function
150 Bernoulli Numbers
221 Cardioid
171 Cauchy‐Riemann Equations
51 Center of Curvature
18 Chain Rule
220 Circle (Polar Form)
152 Comparison Test for Series Convergence
33 Concavity
158 Conditional Convergence of a Series
104 Conversion among Rectangular, Polar, Parametric Forms
136 Convergence Tests ‐ Sequences
152 Convergence Tests ‐ Series
10 Continuity Examples
8 Continuity Rules
72 Cosine Integral ‐ Ci(x)

Calculus Handbook
Index
Page Subject
126 Cross Product
132 Curl
51 Curvature
38 Curve Sketching
227 Cycloid
106, 109 Cylindrical Shell Methods ‐ Volume of a Solid of Revolution
86 Definite Integration
81 Definite Integrals
86 Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
88 Properties of Definite Integrals
81 Riemann Sums
86 Rules of Definite Integration
89 Solving Definite Integrals with Directed Line Segments
92 Special Techniques
177 Definitions ‐ Alphabetically
130 Del Operator
227 Deltoid
z
171 Derivative of e to a Complex Power (e )
175 Derivative of: (x+y)3=x3+y3
Derivatives ‐ see Differentiation
172 Derivatives of a Circle
173 Derivatives of a Ellipse
174 Derivatives of a Hyperbola
38 DIACIDE (curve sketching)
114 Differential Equations
50 Differentials
Differentiation
17 Basic Rules
18 Exponential and Trigonometric Functions
23 Generalized Product Rule
25 Inverse Function Rule
25 Inverse Function Diagram
202 List of Key Derivatives

Calculus Handbook
Index
Page Subject
104 Parametric Derivatives
37 What Does the Graph of f '(x) Tell Us about f(x) ?
155 Dirichlet’s Convergence Test (Series)
9 Discontinuities
106, 107 Disk Method ‐ Volume of a Solid of Revolution
48, 129 Displacement
48 Distance
131 Divergence
125 Dot Product
166 e
9 Essential Discontinuity
167 Euler's Formula
119 Euler's Methods (Differential Equations)
18, 55 Exponential Functions
72 Exponential Integral ‐ Ei(x)
31 Exterema
34 Exterema of Polynomials
31 First Derivative Test
8 Functions
228 Functions and Their Derivatives (Summary)
86 Fundamental Theorems of Calculus
69 Gamma Function
45 General‐Specific Method (for Related Rates Problems)
213 Geometry Formulas (Area and Volume)
130 Gradient
223 Graphing Polar Equations
73 Definitions
78 Derivatives
77 Graphs of Hyperbolic Functions and Their Inverses
74 Identities
79 Integrals
76 Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

Calculus Handbook
Index
Page Subject
75 Relationship to Trigonometric Functions
222 Hyperbolic Spiral
i
170 i
112 Improper Integrals
152 Integral Test for Series Convergence
79 Integrals
54 Indefinite Integration
9 Infinite Discontinuity
33 Inflection Points
34 Inflection Points of Polynomials
Integration
55 Exponential Functions
54 Indefinite Integration (Antiderivatives)
204 List of Key Integrals
55 Logarithmic Functions
63 Partial Fractions
66 Parts
70 Parts ‐ Tabular Method
60 Selecting the Right Function for an Intergral
55 Trigonometric Functions
71 Trigonometric Substitutions
159 Interval of Convergence
25 Inverse Function Diagram (for derivatives)
58 About Inverse Trig Functions
19, 22 Derivatives
20, 22 Development of Derivatives
21 Graphs
58, 59 Integrals
9 Jump Discontinuity

Calculus Handbook
Index
Page Subject
35 Key Points on f(x), f'(x) and f''(x)
129 Kinematics (Particle Motion) ‐ Vectors
13 L'Hospital's Rule
165 Lagrange Remainder of a Taylor Series
133 Laplacian
82 Left Endpoint Method (Riemann Sum)
222 Lemniscate of Bernoulli
66 LIATE
99, 221 Limacon
12 Limit‐Finding Techniques
11 Limit Rules
11 Limits
16 Limits: Failure to Exist
222 Lituus
18, 55 Logarithmic Functions
72 Logarithmic Integral ‐ li(x)
169 Logarithms of Complex Numbers
169 Logarithms of Negative Real Numbers
118 Logistic Function
163 Maclaurin Series
31 Maxima and Minima
44 Mean Value Theorem
81 Mesh Size (of a Riemann Sum)
82 Midpoint Method (Riemann Sum)
227 Nephroid
52 Newton's Method
176 Normal Distribution PDF Inflection Points
120 Order of a Numerical Method (Differential Equations)
16 Oscillating Behavior of Limits
51 Osculating Circle
146 p ‐Series

Calculus Handbook
Index
Page Subject
104 Parametric Forms ‐ Summary
63 Partial Fractions
48 Particle Motion
104 Polar Forms ‐ Summary
218 Polar Graphs
48, 129 Position Function
18 Power Rule (differentiation)
142 Power Series
17, 23 Product Rule (differentiation)
18 Quotient Rule (differentiation)
159 Radius of Convergence
51 Radius of Curvature
153 Ratio Test for Series Convergence
104 Rectangular Forms
134, 137‐139 Recursive Sequences
45 Related Rates
31 Relative Extrema
9 Removable Discontinuity
105, 106 Revolution ‐ Volume, Surface Area
81 Riemann Sums
146 Riemann Zeta Function (p ‐Series)
82 Right Endpoint Method (Riemann Sum)
126 Right Hand Rule
44 Rolle's Theorem
154 Root Test for Series Convergence
220 Rose
121 Runge‐Kutta Method (Differential Equations)
130 Scalar Field
32 Second Derivative Test
135 Sequences
136 Absolute Value Theorem
136 Bounded Monotonic Sequence Theorem
136 Bounded Sequence

Calculus Handbook
Index
Page Subject
137 Convergence and Divergence
135 Explicit Sequence
137 Limit of a Sequence
136 Monotonic Sequence
134, 137‐139 Recursive Sequences
136 Squeeze Theorem
135 Types of Sequences
141, 228 Series
156 Abel's Convergence Test
158 Absolute Convergence
152 Comparison Test
158 Conditional Convergence
141 Convergence and Divergence
152 Convergence Tests
141 Definition
155 Dirichlet’s Convergence Test
145 Estimating the Value of Series with Positive Terms
144 Geometric Series
152 Integral Test
142 Key Properties
163 Maclaurin Series
142 n ‐th Term Convergence Theorems
146 p ‐Series
141 Partial Sums
142 Power Series
153 Ratio Test
154 Root Test
162 Summary of Convergence/Divergence Tests
163 Taylor Series
143 Telescoping Series
158 Term Rearrangement
43 Shape of a Curve
106, 109 Shell Methods ‐ Volume of a Solid of Revolution
72 Sine Integral ‐ Si(x)
117 Slope Fields
106 Solids of Revolution
49, 104, 129 Speed

Calculus Handbook
Index
Page Subject
222 Spiral
105 Surface of Revolution
70 Tabular Method of Integration by Parts
163 Taylor Series
197 Theorems ‐ Summary
82 Trapezoid Method (Riemann Sum)
19, 55 Trigonometric Functions
215 Trigonometry Formulas
128 Triple Products of Vectors
61, 90 u ‐Substitution
16 Unbounded Behavior of Limits
130 Vector Field
123 Vectors
123 Components
126 Cross Product
132 Curl
131 Divergence
125 Dot Product
130 Gradient
133 Laplacian
124 Properties
123 Special Unit Vectors
128 Triple Products
48, 129 Velocity
106 Volumes of Solids
106, 107 Washer Method ‐ Volume of a Solid of Revolution
146 Zeta Function

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Version 4.8 Page 2 of 236 March 26, 2020

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 is continuous if 𝑔 𝑥 0. Division

 𝑓 𝑥 is continuous if 𝑓 𝑥 exists. Exponents

 𝑓 𝑥 is continuous if 𝑓 𝑥 exists. Roots

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Note: a removable discontinuity exists at 𝑥 𝑐 whether or not 𝑓 𝑐 exists.

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Limits may exist approaching from either the left lim

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Techniques for Finding Limits

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lim 0 and lim 0 lim ∞ and lim ∞

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Indeterminate Forms of Limits

Example 1.8: Form ∞ ∞

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𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒙𝒙 let: 𝑦 lim 𝑥

Then, since ln 𝑦 0, we get 𝑦 𝑒 𝟏

Example 1.10: Form ∞𝟎

𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒙𝟏/𝒙 let: 𝑦 lim 𝑥 /

Then, since ln 𝑦 0, we get 𝑦 𝑒 𝟏

Then, since ln 𝑦 4, we get 𝑦 𝒆𝟒

Version 4.8 Page 15 of 236 March 26, 2020

When Limits Fail to Exist

Note: in this case, we may write: lim ln| | ∞

Version 4.8 Page 16 of 236 March 26, 2020

Basic Rules of Differentiation

Note: In these rules, is a constant, and and are functions differentiable in .

Basic Derivative Rules

Product Rule (two terms)

Product Rule (three terms)

Exponential and Logarithmic Functions 0, 1

Derivatives of Special Functions

sin cos sin cos ∙

cos sin cos sin ∙

tan sec tan sec ∙

cot csc cot csc ∙

sec sec tan sec sec tan ∙

csc csc cot csc csc cot ∙

Inverse Trigonometric Functions (Basic Formulas)

Development of Basic Inverse Trig Derivatives

Graphs of Inverse Trig Functions

 The graphs of cos , cot , csc have negative slopes over their

Generalized Inverse Trig Derivatives

Sample Developments of Generalized Formulas from Basic Formulas

Generalized Product Rule

Product Rule (four terms)

Generalized Product Rule

Generalized Product Rule (n terms) 1. Take the derivative of each

Original Derivative of Original Remaining Functions

Inverse Function Rule

If and are inverse functions and 0, then

Example 2.3: Let 3. Find the slope of at the point 7, 2 .