Ethnography/Participants

Observation
Dr. Sadia Malik
What is ethnography/participant observation?
Participant observation is best regarded as a data collection method rather
than a data analysis method.
Confusingly, participant observation
refers to two distinct things:
 A very specific methodology, named participant observation, which involves
the researcher’s observations when closely immersed in a group or culture
which are recorded and analysed. Its most significant feature is the close
involvement of the researcher in the research setting through participation
or engaging with a group or community over a protracted period of
time.
 A general methodology or broad strategy for collecting data in a field setting.
This sometimes is called participant observation and it includes the more
specific approach described above. So a formal definition of participant
observation would also identify it as a broad strategy for collecting data
in a field setting. It involves collecting a variety of different sorts of data
pertinent to answering the research question.
There is another concept, ethnography, which is essentially the study of
cultures.
Ethnography/participant observation can be seen as a blanket term covering
a range of related methods. It can also be suggested that participant
observation studies vary along a number of dimensions. The following are
some of the more important of these (Dereshiwsky, 1999; also based on
Patton, 1986):
 The observer’s role in the setting The observer’s involvement may vary
from that of a complete outsider uninvolved in the group dynamics to full
membership of the group.
 The group’s knowledge of observation process If the participants know
that they are being studied then this is known as overt observation. Covert
observation involves the participants not knowing that they are part of a
study.
 Explication of the study’s purpose This can range from full explication
to even misleading explanations.
 Length The observation may be a relatively short single session of just
one hour or there may be multiple observations which continue for weeks
or even years.
 Focus The focus of the researcher may be on a relatively narrow aspect
of the situation or it may be more holistic in which rich data are collected
through the observation of a number of aspects of the situation in depth.
Traditionally, data are collected primarily in the form of field notes writtenup
by the observer as soon after the events as possible. This would normally
take place in ‘private time’ away from the community. There is no reason
why, in appropriate circumstances, the data collection should not use technological
aids such as voice recordings of field observations, computers, or even
video though these can be intrusive. Using computers for writing field notes is
advantageous as these can be fed directly into computer-aided qualitative data
analysis programs such as NVivo. As we have seen, there is every reason why
the researcher should be confined solely to the observations recorded in the
field notes as sources of data. It is possible to incorporate the following and more
(see Figure 5.1):
 semi-structured interviews;
 group discussions;
 life histories of members of the community;
 personal documents including photographs;
 relevant media coverage;
 other documentation.
Some of the dimensions along which participant observation/ethnographic studies
differ are illustrated in Figure 5.2.
The following are some of the important stages in participant observation –
see Figure 5.3 for an overview.
Formulating the research question Participant observation will be employed
where the researcher has a broad area of study to address though it is unlikely
that at the initial stages they will have a focused research question in mind.
The normal expectation is that the researcher will begin to understand the
specific aspects that need to be focused on. In other words, the researcher will
start to re-formulate or otherwise develop their ideas during the course of
the participant observation. This sort of process is not unusual in qualitative
research and is not especially problematic in terms of participant observation.
This does not give the researcher a carte blanche since it is essential that if
participant observation is to be used that the research question is one which
can be effectively addressed by participant observation. Whyte put it this way:
Step 6: Continuing access Participant observation/ethnography involves
maintaining
relations with the group studied and not just the entry process to the
research location. Considerable thought and skill are needed in terms of
interpersonal
relations since those being studied may have concerns about the
nature of the researcher’s activity. The completely covert research study does
not entirely avoid this risk as there may be difficulties over matters such as
credibility. For example, a researcher who gains access to a factory floor by
obtaining employment there may, nevertheless, appear different from others
working
there.
The use of key informants In any social environment, some individuals take
on more important roles in our lives than others. Similarly, in ethnography/
participant observation, some individuals tend to have a more important role
in relation to the researcher. There can be several reasons for this. In particular,
the key informant (a) may play a more central role in most aspects of the group’s
activities than others, (b) may have an interest in the research which is greater
than that of the others, or (c) may have a special rapport with the researcher
and so forth. Key informants can play a role in smoothing out the research
process and may act as a source of social support at difficult times. In some
contexts, the key informants may choose to provide information of what the
group is planning to do in the future – for example, it might be helpful for the
researcher who is studying a delinquent gang to know that they are planning
a seaside trip at the weekend.
Steo 8: Field notes/data logging
The making of field notes is probably the only
defining characteristic of the data for participant observation. The objective of
taking field notes is to have a comprehensive database of one’s observations
in the field setting. Thus, the more complete the notes the better. But this is an
unrealistic requirement in many ways since it begs the question just how much
detail is enough? Furthermore, are there no restrictions on the observations
which
are recorded? This is not to imply that the participant observer should record
everything since this would be a limitless and impossible task. Completeness
in terms of the field notes is relative to the particular study in question and
the theoretical and conceptual issues that the researcher brings to the field.
Also, since these theoretical and conceptual issues will be modified in the light
of experience, then what is a sufficiently complete set of field notes will also
change. These are difficult matters to address in the abstract but the following
ought to be taken into account:
 One important function of field notes is to help the research familiarise
themselves with the social context of the research setting including the
people within that setting and the interrelations between the two. Good field
notes will contain such information in order to build up a picture of these
important social relationships as well as helping to identify key figures in
understanding what happens in the group.
How to sample In participant observation, the objective of the researcher
is to understand better the community or group under observation. Rarely, if
ever, is the task to obtain estimates of the rates of occurrence of different sorts
of characteristic such as the average age of the members of the community, for
example. Consequently, the probability sampling used by some quantitative
researchers is simply inappropriate for participant observation which endeavours
to find explanations of key aspects of the workings of the group or community.
To achieve this aim, it is clearly more important to seek out situations and
individuals who have the most to contribute in order to develop this understanding.
When to stop fieldwork Most research is constrained by resources. This
applies as much to research by students as research financed by, say, the
Government. These constraints may determine how much fieldwork can be
done. However, sometimes another strategy is used. The term theoretical
saturation is used to describe the situation where additional data collection
produces nothing additional relevant to the concepts, ideas and theories
which are guiding the research. When this occurs, the researcher has established
a pattern of strong relationships between his or her analytic categories.
Furthermore, the categories developing in the analysis will be well understood
when the point of saturation is reached. That is, the researcher is clear about
the properties or characteristics of the category and additional data collection
is doing nothing to encourage a reassessment of the characteristics of that
analytic category (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). Or, another way of conceiving this is to simply
discontinue the observation when it is clear that new entries in one’s field notes seem very
familiar in terms of what was written in earlierfield notes.
How to analyse ethnography/participant
observation
Burgess points out that it is a common comment by researchers that participant
observation and ethnographic data simply fail to ‘speak for itself’ (Burgess,
1982, p. 236). Furthermore, field research does not neatly divide into the stages
which usually are claimed to typify quantitative research – literature review,
research question formulation, data collection, data analysis, etc. The analysis of a participant
observation/ethnography study must start with the realisation that
it is primarily part of understanding culture, social structures and organisations
by immersion of the researcher in relevant contexts (Figure 5.4).