Construction Safety - A Monograph

Manas Kumar Pathak and Ashis Kumar Panda

Industrial Plants Safety Division

Atomic Energy Regulatory Board

Mumbai-400 094
India

December 2007
1.0 Introduction

Construction may be defined as the process of manufacturing, testing and

assembling the components of a facility, the erection of civil works and
structures, and the installation of components and equipment.

Construction activity is as old as the civilization itself. It has developed through

the ages and produced fine monuments such as the massive Pyramids, the
Colosseum, exquisite ancient temples, the Taj Mahal and modern wonders of
complex and tall structures, dams and bridges-marvels of modern engineering
and industries- a testimony of ingenuity and excellence of designers, architects
and construction engineers. At the same time construction of factories and giant
plants brought in growing complexities with multiplicity of disciplines,
technologies and construction equipment and unskilled manpower posing
greater hazards and challenges.

At present construction is the single largest activity, second only to agriculture in

India which employs illiterate /semi-literate migrant labour intensively. There is
no established pragmatic method of screening workforce prior to deployment at
construction sites. Accidents resulting into loss of life and limbs have been
rampant. This makes construction safety management a herculean task.

As construction is a complex and dynamic activity, a high degree of commitment

to safety by project management and rigorous and pro-active measures are
essential to prevent accidents at construction sites. Persistent efforts by the
government, regulatory bodies as well as project management are needed for
sustainable and committed safety at work place.

This monograph on construction safety is published by AERB in its silver jubilee

year with an objective to create awareness about the hazards associated with the
construction activities amongst safety professionals, project management,
workers, regulators and all others who have a stake in the safety at construction
site. The ultimate aim is to continually augment our efforts in achieving zero
accidents at construction sites.

This document covers the legislative frame work for construction safety,
management issues, safety measures in various construction activities,
guidelines on personal protective equipment and selected case studies of
accidents from which important lessons can be learnt.

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2.0 Legislative Framework

Comprehensive legislations and pro-active measures are necessary to meet the

needs of contemporary construction industry. A dedicated safety management
and a disciplined approach to ensure compliance with safety rules & procedures
will certainly prevent the majority of accidents at construction projects. The
applicable legislations in India are the Factories Act - 1948, the Atomic Energy
(Factories) Rules-1996, the Building & Other Construction Workers (Regulation
of Employment and Conditions of Service) Act, 1996 and the Central
Rules,1998. To enforce the safety provisions in construction projects of the
Department of Atomic Energy, notifications /directives from time to time based
on the requirements are issued by the Chairman, Atomic Energy Regulatory
Board (AERB), the competent authority. AERB Safety Guide for Works
Contract also underlines various requirements.

The prime objective of the legislations and notifications is to regulate the

employment in construction industry and to provide safety, health and welfare
measures for workers. Empowered Inspectors are appointed by AERB to oversee
safe working conditions and practices. Competent persons as per Atomic Energy
(Factories) Rules,1996 are appointed at sites under various sections of the
Factories Act,1948 to ensure safety in day to day work.

3.0 Construction Safety Management - Issues and challenges

It is well recognized that the construction is dynamic in nature and highly

accident prone. The major issues need to be addressed by project management
are:

i) Illiterate /semi-literate and unskilled/ semi-skilled workforce, with

rural background.

ii) High turnover due to temporary employment varying from days to

months.

iii) Lack of proper training and difficulties in wearing personal protective

Equipment.

iv) Exploitation of workers by contractors and sub-contractors.

v) Young untrained labourers attempting to do the job through shortcuts.

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The above issues should be addressed by the project management during the
entire life cycle of the project. Few measures are listed below for a
comprehensive safety management of the project.

3.1 Safety Organisation

A robust safety organization helps in effective implementation of safety aspects.

Therefore it is imperative to have such a setup at every construction site. In this
context, following need to be ensured:

! A well-defined safety professional organization shall be available at

every site. This safety organization shall be responsible for safety
assurance of all works by the department, principal contractors and their
sub contractors.

! Head of the safety organization shall be a departmental position and other

functionaries can be a combination of departmental and contractor's
safety personnel in an approximate ratio of 1:3. There should be a well-
defined interface between the safety setup of Department and Contractor.

! Safety organization shall comply with all the requirements such as safety
surveillance, safety training, safety enforcement measures, safety audit
etc. related to all works.

! Safety functionaries should be exclusively assigned with only safety

related duties.

! The qualification, experience and the minimum number of safety

professionals deployed should be as per the notification issued by AERB.

3.2 Safety Culture

Safety culture is the product of individual and group values, attitudes,

perceptions, competencies, and patterns of behaviour that determine the
commitment to, and the style and proficiency of an organisation. Project
management should develop a safety culture that will give appropriate priority to
safety realizing that safety has to be managed like other areas of the business.
The presence of a positive safety culture is the most important factor in
preventing injuries and in ensuring safe working conditions / practices.
Management should always recognize importance of best established practices
for development of sustained positive safety culture.

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3.3 Surveillance Programme

The objective of the safety surveillance programme should address assurance of

effective implementation of safety measures in execution of works. The safety
organization should monitor, maintain records and follow up corrective actions.
Following surveillance programme should be in place at sites.

! The surveillance programme should consist of identification of safety

related deficiencies (SRDs) and status of corrections of the same, the
implementation of protective measures, the safe work practices etc.

! Specific surveillance should be ensured with respect to testing of

equipment, portable power tools, electrical equipment and tools, hand
tools, surveillance of material handling equipment, transport equipment,
earth moving equipment, gas cylinders etc. to comply with various
statutory requirements.

3.4 Training/Orientation

Safe place of working and safe system of working are the two important
requirements in reducing accidents in construction site. Though safe place of
working can be provided, safe system of working can only be provided through
proper training to the workmen. Safety training should be made a part of all
construction jobs. It should include

! Hazards associated with work

! First aid
! Fire prevention & protection measures
! Accident Prevention
! Usage & maintenance of safety equipment etc.

The training/orientation programme like induction training, on the job training,

refresher training, job specific pre - job briefing should be carried out as
mandatory requirements in line with the procedure made for training. Induction
cum orientation training should cover the overall safety aspects of the unit,
general instruction of the various hazards of the unit and the particular work, and
the general do's and don'ts. Workers should be given demonstrations on use of
personal protective equipment (PPE), use of tools etc. Records of induction
training/re-training should be maintained. Refresher training should be carried
out periodically.

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3.5 Certification of Construction Workers

An accepted method of certification of construction workers with respect to

safety orientation need to be followed for the construction works. Certification
should cover all line managers. The certification can be after training and
evaluation of performance.

3.6 Engineering Solutions

Appropriate engineering solutions for preventing inherent unsafe conditions like

unguarded floor openings, unguarded working platforms, faulty access ladders
etc. should be thought of and applied. An established system to ensure the safety
of work places should be available. Approved procedures, use of best practices,
periodic checks etc. Further help to maintain the work place in a safe manner.

3.7 Safety Work Permit

In order to ensure safety in all hazardous jobs such as excavation, work at height,
work in confined spaces, working with chemicals, welding and gas cutting etc.,
safety work permit should be taken. The permit procedures should be well
established and practiced. The importance of permit system should be impressed
upon the line management. The record of permits should be maintained in a
systematic manner and should be verified periodically by safety officials.

3.8 Height Pass System

It is found that about 60% of fatalities are caused due to fall of persons from
height. A system of issuing height passes to persons detailed to work at height is
introduced in construction sites. It is to be ensured that an established procedure
for issue of height passes is in place. The height pass is issued after conducting
medical examination of persons and rig walk test to ensure the physical fitness to
work at height. The height pass issued is made available with persons for all
works at height. This serves as a mechanism to check that only medically fit
workers are deployed for jobs at height.

3.9 Documentation

The documents that need to be prepared at any construction site are, construction
safety manual, job hazard analysis reports, checklists and supporting documents
like procedures for vehicle control movement, training manual, safety work
permit system etc. Which are need based and specific to each site.

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3.9.1 Construction Safety Management Manual (CSMM)

Construction safety management manual should be made prior to start of

construction activity. This manual should include safety policy, organization
chart & responsibilities, safety manpower qualifications & experience, training
& competency to perform assigned duties, job safety procedures to
prevent/control hazards due to various agencies in the construction environment,
job control / work permit system, job inspection /supervision & enforcement and
accident reporting & investigation system.

3.9.2 Job Hazard Analysis (JHA) Reports

Job hazard analysis is one of the best methods for identifying all possible hazards
associated with a job and the safety measures to be taken for each possible
identified hazard. Before start of construction activity, detailed job hazard
analysis (JHA) should be carried out for all critical jobs starting from excavation
to equipment erection and a checklist should be prepared based on the job hazard
analysis carried out. In job hazard analysis, first a job is selected and then it is
broken into different steps. For each step, hazards are identified and accordingly
safety measures to be taken for each hazard are brought out.

3.9.3 Supporting Documents

Documents like procedures for controlling the movement of earth moving

machinery & lifting machinery, control measures to prevent fall of person /
material from height, safety training procedures, safety work permit procedures
for blasting, excavation, welding & gas cutting, concrete handling activities,
erection activities at height etc. should also be made available.

The project management approves the above documents. The approved

documents are reviewed by the representatives of Atomic Energy Regulatory
Board periodically during the construction phases of the project. The reports are
revised based on experience and review observations.

4.0 Construction Activities - Hazards and Safety Measures

It is a fact that the accidents can be eliminated by providing safe working place
and establishing safe ways of working at the construction site. A brief description
of different types of construction activities, their associated hazards and safety
measures to be taken for prevention of accidents are highlighted. AERB's

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stipulations through notifications wherever issued are provided for reference in
this monograph.

4.1 Blasting

The blasting works involve use of explosives. A safety work permit is issued for
carrying out this job. The blasting jobs should be well planned. The hazards
involved during blasting are damage to adjacent property, injuries to nearby
personnel etc.

Major safety measures to be taken during blasting are:

i) The blaster should be a qualified and competent person for carrying out
blasting work. He should know about the dangers involved.

ii) Blasting in the open site shall only be carried out during the fixed hours
every day / fixed day in the week. Workers & residence of adjacent
property been informed about the blasting so they will not be
unnecessarily disturbed by it.

iii) No loose material such as tools, drilling implements etc. shall be left on
the rock surface to be blasted.

iv) Explosives and blasting equipment should be stored only in “Magazine”

of clean, dry, well-ventilated, substantially constructed bullet and fire
resistance and securely locked. Stock book should be kept accurate and
maintained. Licence should be obtained for storage of explosive as per
Explosive Act, 1984.

v) Blasting caps, electric blasting caps or primers should not be stored in

the same box, container or room with other explosives. Precautions
against lightening shall be provided in accordance with Indian
Electricity Act, Rules and Regulations.

vi) The grit blaster should wear facial respirator with clean air supply to
avoid inhalation of free silica.

vii) The explosives should be transported in specially designed vehicles

bearing a special sign or inscription entitled "DANGER
EXPLOSIVES” and also detonators separated from other explosive
should be transported in separate compartment.

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viii) Care should be taken that the blasting point is free of detonating gas,
inflammable objects, sparking or damage wiring system, stray currents

ix) In case of misfire, no person should be allowed to approach the blasting

site for 30 min. All misfired holes shall be cross-marked by duly
authorized person.

4.2 Excavation

Minimum safety requirements stipulated by AERB during excavation work are

as follows:

i) Means for rapid access and egress should be provided. All trenches 120
cm or more in depth shall at all times be supplied with at least one ladder
for every 30 m along the trench. Ladder shall be extended from bottom
of the trench to at least 1 metre above the surface of the ground.

ii) Workers should not be exposed to dangers of being buried by excavated

material or collapse of shoring. Measures to prevent dislodgment of
loose or unstable earth, rock or other material from falling into the
excavation by proper shoring shall be ensured.

iii) Measures shall be taken to prevent persons who are not engaged in
excavation work, from approaching excavation areas by placing
warning signals, barricades etc. near the site of the excavation.

iv) Excavated material shall not be dumped within 1.5 metres of the edges.

v) Excavated area shall have illumination level of at least 20 lux for night
work.

4.2.1 Trench

The hazards associated with trench work are collapsing of the sides /caving in
and burying / partially burying those in the trench. Trench provides confined
space to work & collapse occurs quickly without warning. The probability of
locating & rescuing a person in time is very low which increases the severity of
the hazard. Main hazards associated with trench work are:

i) Collapse of the sides;

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ii) Worker being struck by falling materials;

iii) People falling into the trench;

iv) Unsafe means of access;

v) Vehicles falling into the trench; and

vi) Workers being electrocuted.

Control measures required to prevent the above hazards are:

i) Materials should not be kept near the trench.

ii) Shoring (supporting the sides of the trench) and /or proper slopes to the
trench walls should be provided.

iii) During shoring all loose rocks/boulders to be either secured properly or

removed permanently.

iv) Trench sides in the work should be thoroughly inspected before start of
work.

v) Extend the shoring above ground level to a height of 1.0 mtr.

vi) Ladder access at suitable intervals with proper support in the trench
should be provided and ladder should extend above the ground level.

vii) Vehicles should be prevented from approaching too close to the edge of
the trench by providing suitable stops.

viii) Clearance should be taken from electrical section before carrying out
trench work.

ix) Proper cordoning of trenches with warning signals should be provided.

x) Proper barricading of the trench and placement of warning signals.

xi) Proper lighting in the construction area.

xii) Earth moving machinery should have proper canopy.

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4.2.2 Shaft

Hazards mentioned for trench work are also applicable to the work related to
shafts along with one additional & potential hazard called “ Dangerous Working
Atmosphere”.

Dangerous atmosphere may result from lack of oxygen, increase in carbon

dioxide level (Number of persons working for a long time), Carbon monoxide
level (Use of petrol/diesel/kerosene operated machines) which can lead to
serious accidents. Control measures to prevent the hazard are:

i) Test for oxygen level inside the shaft before start of work everyday.

ii) In case of fuel operated machines, frequent monitoring of the air along
with a proper ventilation system for the shaft should be ensured to
provide a healthy working atmosphere.

iii) Effective communication system between the ground staff & the
persons working in the shaft should always be there to ensure safe
working environment.

4.3 Work at Height

Majority of the accidents at construction sites are related to fall of persons

working at a higher elevation.

4.3.1 Scaffold

The most common way of providing a platform to work at height is scaffold.

Potential hazards associated with the scaffolding works are:

i) Fall of person: Persons working on a platform at a height may fall and

get serious injury.

ii) Fall of materials: Materials/tools may slip & fall from working
platform and can injure persons working below.

iii) Scaffold collapse: This is one of the potential hazards associated with
work at height, which can result in multiple casualties.

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Measures to be taken to prevent the above hazards are:

i) Guard rails should be fitted to the working platform and should be

secured to prevent their outward movement.

ii) The platform should be strong enough to bear the loads of workmen &
materials.

iii) The ground should be checked for firmness & if necessary base plates
should be used for support.

iv) Toe board should be fitted on the working platform to arrest fall of
materials /tools.

v) Frequently used tools should be tied to the worker else kept inside a
covered & secured toolbox on the platform.

vi) Persons should not be allowed to work under the scaffold and if at all it is
necessary to carry out work, then safety net should be provided to arrest
the fall of materials & tools.

vii) Experienced & skilled persons should erect scaffold.

viii) Scaffold should be secured to the permanent structure at sufficient

points to avoid movements.

ix) Scaffold should not be over loaded with excess manpower or materials.

x) Movement of cranes, vehicles & heavy equipment near the scaffold

structure should not be allowed without supervision.

xi) Experienced workers should carry out dismantling of scaffold as per

procedures and sequence of operation.

xii) All persons while working at height should use personal protective
equipment like safety belt with full body harness, helmet etc.

xiii) Working platform should be free from unnecessary materials.

xiv) The quality check/examinations for the condition of members of

scaffolding, tie rods, bolts etc. should be carried out and the scaffolding
should be certified for safe use.

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xvi) Width of the platform should be sufficient (about one meter) enough to
accommodate the personnel and material required for the specific job.

xvii) The platform /walkways should not have any openings /gaps.

xviii) The person should be medically examined to assess fitness to work at

height.

Wide and secured platform Non availability of access to higher

while working at height ensures elevation, compel workers to use
safe working condition. wrong practices.

4.3.2 H-Form Work (DOKA System)

The H-Form work popularly known as DOKA, is a mould used to shape the
concrete and support the concrete until it attains sufficient strength. It is an
engineered system used for concreting works. The hazards associated with this
system are falling of members, fall of persons from the platform etc. A typical
H-Form used for wall concreting is shown in the photograph. The hazards are
mainly associated during shuttering and de-shuttering operations. Accidents
leading to death are mainly caused due to improper usage, lack of quality
assurance, use of non-standard components etc.

Measures to be taken to avoid accidents during usage of H-Form work are as

follows:

i) Strength and stability should be assessed before taking up any

modification works of the H-Form work.

ii) Shuttering /De-shuttering procedures should be clearly laid out. Check

lists should be used to comply with the procedures.

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iii) Quality assurance programmes for non-standard components should be
in place.

iv) Mock-up exercises should be carried out before actually installing at work
spot.

v) Persons using the H-Form work should be fully aware of safety

provisions.

vi) The shuttering /de-shuttering works should be carried out under strict
supervision.

vii) Proper lifting machinery should be used.

viii) Complete assembly of the H-forms should be done on ground whereafter

it should be lifted as a single unit by crane and fixed firmly at the
concreting location. Reverse of this procedure is to be followed for de-
shuttering.

H- Form work shuttering on the wall

4.3.3 Ladder

Access to different elevations, scaffold platform is provided by ladders and also

the same is used as a working platform for some kind of work. Main hazards
associated with working on a ladder are:

i) Slip of ladder: This is the most common form of hazard associated with

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 the ladder as it may slip while the person is climbing on it or working
from it at a height.

ii) Fall of person: A person may fall while climbing on the ladder due to
loss of balance while carrying materials or due to missing a rung in the
ladder.

iii) Ladder Collapse: The ladder may give away under the load of the
person resulting in severe injuries.

iv) Electrocution: The metallic ladder may come in contact with live
electrical lines and the person working on it may get electrocution.

Measures to be taken to prevent the above hazards are:

i) The ladder should stand evenly on its stiles on a firm and level surface.

ii) Ladder should be securely tied near its upper end grouted at lower end to
the permanent structure when used for access to platforms.
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iii) Ladder should be placed approximately at an angle of 75 to the
horizontal when it is used for access as well as working platform.

iv) Ladders with missing /defective rungs should not be used.

v) Two ladders should not be joined to carry out work at a height.

vi) Ladders should be inspected thoroughly for any defects before start of
work and on regular intervals.

vii) Use of metallic ladders or wooden ladders with metallic parts should be
prohibited in the areas where live electric lines are available.

viii) Use of personal protective equipment should be ensured.

ix) Rungs & footwear of persons should be free from slippery materials
such as oil/mud to avoid slipping from the ladder.

x) Make shift ladders should not be used.

xi) Persons should face the ladder while climbing up or getting down.

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 A Ladder for access to height with secure working platform

4.4 Erection of Structures

The most serious accidents that occur during erection work of structures are due
to fall of workers from the structures, fall of materials from structures on persons
working below and collapse of the structure or a part of the structure.

Measures to be taken to prevent the above hazards are:

i) Safe access should be provided to the structures under erection.

ii) Properly inclined ladders secured at the top should be used for
vertical movements.

iii) A suitable working platform with guard rails & toe guards should be
provided.

iv) If work is to be carried out for a short time and where working platform is
not feasible, then the workmen should use safety belts secured to a
permanent member of the structure to prevent fall. Where a rigid
member is not available for securing the safety belt hook, proper
lifelines should be provided for the purpose, with the lifelines firmly
attached to nearby strong structures.

v) Toe board should be fitted on the working platform to arrest fall of

materials /tools.

vi) Frequently used tools should be tied to the worker else kept inside a

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 covered & secured toolbox on the platform.

vii) Working under the structure should be prevented and if at all it is

necessary to carry out work, then safety net should be used to arrest the
fall of materials & tools.

viii) Structures / platforms should not have openings uncovered /

unbarricaded.

Following minimum safety requirements have been stipulated by AERB during

working at height:

i) All open sides of structure above a height of 3.5 metres from which a
worker might fall and openings into which a worker might fall should be
adequately covered or barricaded. Every opening in the floor of a
building, or in a working platform shall be provided with suitable means
to prevent fall of persons or materials by providing suitable
fencing/railing of 1 metre.

ii) Where barricades could not be installed, safety net should be installed
close to the level at which there is a danger of a fall. During erection of
tall buildings/structures above 3.5 metres height, nylon nets shall be
provided to prevent fall from height in case it is not possible to provide
barricades.

iii) Where secure foothold is impracticable, safety belts or harnesses with

secure anchorage points should be provided at the working place as well
as access to working spot. All persons working at heights more than 3.5
metres above ground or floor and exposed to hazard of falling down
shall use safety belts.

iv) At elevated places secured access and foothold should be provided.

Adequate and safe means of access and exit shall be provided at all work
places for all elevations. Means of access may be portable or fixed
ladder, ramp or a stairway. The uses of cross braces or frame work as a
means of access to the working surface shall not be permitted.

v) Scaffolding or staging 3.5 metres above the ground floor shall have a
guard rail properly attached, bolted, braced or otherwise secured at least
1 metre high above the floor/ platform.

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vi) Where the platform is more than 3.5 metres above ground floor for
working/ standing on the platform, the width should be minimum 1
metre.

Erection of Structure Use of an ideal fall arrest system

4.5 Unguarded Opening

Openings are needed to be kept in the constructed floor of the building for
material movement or equipment erection. If these openings are not
covered/barricaded properly, man or material may fall through these. Thus either
the man falling through the opening gets serious injury or any person working
below the opening gets injury due to fall of material through the opening.
To prevent fall of person or material through opening, every opening in the floor
of a building shall be provided with suitable fencing/railing of 1 metre height
with toe guard. Where barricades can not be installed, safety net should be
installed close to the level at which there is a danger of a fall.

Good practice used to arrest the fall through floor opening with metal gratings

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4.6 Use of Material Handling Equipment

During construction, large numbers of material handling equipment like cranes,

chain pulley blocks, hoists, lifts and other lifting accessories are used for
transferring/lifting of different construction materials, heavy structures etc.
Various types of hazards are associated with these material handling equipment
that may cause loss of life and property. To prevent the hazards associated with
the material handling, the following minimum measures need to be taken.

i) No lifting machine, chain, rope or lifting tackle shall be taken into use for
the first time unless it has been tested and examined by a competent
person and a certificate of such a test and examination specifying the
safe working load and signed by the person making the test and the
examination is kept available for inspection.

ii) Cranes shall be operated only by authorised persons who are well trained
and experienced.

iii) Regular inspection and maintenance of material handling equipment

should be scheduled and carried out. Load testing of crane at specified
load shall be carried out by Competent Person at least once in twelve
months.

iv) Standard signals shall be used so that the operator and user are able to
synchronise their communication.

v) Care should be taken to prevent accidental approach to live electric line.

vi) The load to be lifted should not exceed the Safe Working Load (SWL).

vii) The load to be lifted should be secured tightly to prevent falling during
lifting.

Secured load lifting by tying at A scene of Tower crane accident causing

several places of the load massive damage due to unsafe practice

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4.7 Use of Portable Electrical Equipment

During construction activities, many portable electrical equipment like grinder,

drill machine etc. are used. Main hazards associated with the portable electrical
equipment are electrocution. For safe use of the portable electrical equipment,
the following minimum measures need to be taken.

i) All portable appliances, which are powered by single phase AC supply,

shall be provided with three core double insulated cable and three pin
plug top.

ii) All connections to portable equipment or machines from the

panel/distribution board/extension board shall be taken using 3 core
double insulated PVC flexible copper wire in one length.

iii) Earth Leakage Circuit Breakers (ELCB) should be provided on the

distribution board.

iv) The condition of equipment should be checked before its use.

v) Special care should be taken during monsoon to avoid accidents.

Wrong practice of using only two A clumsy arrangement of cables

live wire connections and ignoring for electrical connection of
the earthing point, for the electrically equipment, which increases
operated machines. This increases fire hazard.
electrocution hazard.

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4.8 Working in Confined Space

During construction, different works are required to be carried out inside the
confined spaces like boiler, pipeline, pit, reaction or process vessel, storage tank
etc. Conditions like oxygen deficiency, toxic atmospheres, high temperatures
etc. may occur inside the confined space and these conditions may lead to serious
health hazard of the people working inside the confined space. So all employees
required to enter into confined or enclosed spaces shall be instructed about the
hazards involved, the necessary precautions to be taken, and the use of protective
and emergency equipment. No person should enter in any confined space like
tank, pit chamber etc. in which gas, fumes, vapours, dust are likely to be present
to such extent that it may endanger his/her health without safety work permit.

Minimum safety requirements for working in confined space are:

i) No person shall be allowed to enter in any confined space until

measures are taken to remove gas, fume, vapour or dust below
permissible limit and the analysis is certified by a competent person
along with a valid safety work permit.

ii) The oxygen content inside the confined space should also be measured
along with arrangement for forced air supply inside the confined space.
No permit should be issued if the oxygen content is below 19%.

iii) The person while entering the confined space should wear Self
Contained Breathing Apparatus (SCBA) set. if hazardous substance is
likely to be present or oxygen deficiency is likely to occur during the
course of work.

iv) No portable electric light above 24V should be used.

v) If any inflammable gas, fume is likely to be present, only light of

flameproof construction should be used.

vi) No single person should be allowed to enter into the confined space.
Buddy system should be followed for working inside confined space.
Persons entering inside the confined space should work as a team of two.
Backup persons should also be available outside to assist whenever
required.

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vii) Authorized persons entering a confined space must wear a chest or full
body harness with a retrieval line attached to the center of their backs
near shoulder level or above their heads. The other end of the retrieval
line should be held by a rescue person outside or attached to a
mechanical device outside the confined space.

viii) Means of communication should be made available and well established

between personnel inside the confined space and those outside.

Confined space with safe Confined space inside equipment

arrangement for access and egress

4.9 Welding & Gas Cutting

Cutting and welding operations (commonly referred to as hot work) are widely
performed during construction activities. Potential health, safety, and property
hazards result from the fumes, gases, spark, hot metal and radiant energy
produced during hot work. Hot work equipment, which utilizes electricity or
compressed gases, requires special awareness and training on the part of the
worker to be used safely. Welding and Cutting operations present a variety of
hazards, not only to those carrying out the operation but in many instances to
others in the vicinity. The hazards associated with hot work can be reduced
through the implementation of effective control programs. Cutting and welding
job should be controlled by permit to work system. The possibility of electric
shock is one of the most serious risks encountered by a welder. Accidental
contact with the 'live' electrical components, including the electrode and the
work piece, can result in serious a burn injury or more seriously electric shock.
Electric shock can kill either by direct action on the body or by a resultant fall, if
working at height.

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Safety Measures during Gas Cutting

i) The gas cylinders should be kept well away from any fire or hot areas.
Welding hose, gas torches, valve connections should be checked for
leakage of gas.

ii) The gas cutter should use personal protective equipment like goggles,
hand gloves, safety shoes etc.

iii) Proper routing of welding hose should be done before the start of the
work to avoid damage due to other personnel/equipment movements.

iv) Before starting any gas cutting, a written permit clearance should be
obtained from authorised agency indicating special precautions
including the fire fighting details.

Safety Measures during Arc Welding

i) Correct and proper electric earthing should be done for the welding
machine, the casing and the job to be welded. An authorised and trained
electrician should check all connections.

ii) The welding cable should be in good condition without any insulation
damage. The welding cable connections should be tight. The cable
should not be laid on wet surface.

iii) All welding work should be started only after obtaining welding permit
from authorised agency indicating special precautions including the
availability of fire fighting measures near the job.

iv) During carrying out welding, welder should use personal protective
equipments like welding screen, hand gloves etc.

v) If welding work is to be carried out at a height, then necessary

arrangements should be in place to prevent sparks dropping down
below.

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vi) For welding in confined areas like inside of tanks, pipes etc., proper
ventilation should be provided.

vii) For welding work on overhead equipment such as crane etc. a separate
earth cable should run upto the work place and should be connected to
work place.

5.0 Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

The primary approach should be to prevent a hazard to the workmen. Wearing of

personal protective equipment play an important role in reducing the effects of
accidents at site. It should be the last line of defence when engineering controls
are not further possible. In the construction work, the basic requirements for the
protection of the workers are safety helmet, safety shoes and other protective
equipment depending upon the nature of work should be provided. The selection
of the right protective equipment as per national/international standards and right
usage reduces consequences of accidents.

5.1 Principles of PPE

5.1.1 The quality of personal protective equipment should ensure absolute

and full protection from the possible hazard. and it should be designed in
such a way and out of such a material that it can withstand the hazard
against which it is intended to be used.

5.1.2 The selection of right type of PPE requires consideration of the

following:
 Nature and severity of the hazard.
 Type of containment, its concentration etc. for respiratory
protection.
 Expected activity of the workman and duration of work.
 Comfort in using PPE.
 Ease of maintenance.
 Conformity to National /International Standards etc.

5.1.3 Enforce the usage of PPE by workman through proper training and
awareness programmes .

The AERB Guidelines for Personal Protective Equipment available on the

subject should be referred for further information.

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6.0 Suggestions for improvement in Accident Prevention Programme

Safety Work Cycle of three frequencies-daily, weekly & monthly consisting of

following features are suggested to be followed at construction sites:

 Morning safety meeting.

 Inspection prior to start of work.
 Patrolling by line management & higher management.
 Guidance & supervision during work.
 Safety process discussions.
 After-work site clean up.
 Daily End of Work check up-analysis of any unusual occurrences.
 Planning for next day's jobs and review of adequate safety measures.

7.0 Case Studies of Accidents

Case Study-1: Accident due to caught in-between

Brief Description:
During the cleaning of the belt at the tail pulley area of conveyor of sand
screening section of batching plant, one worker was trapped between the
tail end pulley belt roller and ground. The trapped person sustained
multiple injuries.

Probable Cause of the Accident:

There was no arrangement to prevent unauthorised access to the tail end pulley of
the belt conveyor. The space available for working in that area was congested.
The deceased person tried to clean the belt at the tail pulley end while it was in
motion. In this process, his right hand got trapped/caught in between the belt and
the ground. He was dragged under the roller and the belt end where he got
entangled.

Lessons learnt to prevent such accident:

- Belt guard with locking arrangement should be provided to
prevent unauthorised access.
- Loose cloths should not be worn during working with conveyor.

Case Study-2: Accident due to steam burns

Brief Description:
During gasket replacement job in the down stream flange of the two

24
Atmospheric Steam Discharge Valves (ASDV), one of the ASDV popped up
2
and lot of saturated steam at 49 Kg/cm pressure and about 260 deg C came
out through the downstream flange of ASDV. One of the helpers engaged in
the work got serious steam burns.

Probable Cause of the accident:

Down stream of the ASDV was provided with silencer followed by a telescopic
joint of discharge pipe opening leading to the rooftop. The diameter of the
silencer pipe was 750 NB and that of telescopic pipe was 900 NB. The procedure
adopted was loosening of bolts of flange standing on a platform made for this and
lifting the spool piece comprising of ASDV and the silencer portion through a 3
ton chain pulley block held by three persons from top. The gasket was replaced
successfully and the steam line at a pressure of about 49 Kg/cm2was taken in line.
Bulk of the steam flown back without rising to the top of the floor through the
intended path. Due to some restriction at the telescopic path and due to bend just
after the silencer without having sufficient straight path, the back flow occured
and steam released.

Lessons learnt to prevent such accident:

- Work Permit system for working on high-pressure steam line.
- Design review of downstream line of the ASDVs.

Case Study-3: Accident due to failure of a chain pulley block

Brief Description:
During lifting of a pipe spool of 20 inches in diameter and weighing about
260 kgs by a chain pulley block of capacity 2 ton, the load hook of the chain
pulley block suddenly got detached from the swiveling block. The pipe spool
fell down and the elbow of the pipe spool hit the rigger.

Probable Cause of the accident:

As per the Operating and Maintenance manual of the chain pulley block, the
bottom block with swivel consists of 14 nos of 5 mm (5D) balls which holds the
hook in position for lifting or lowering the load and swiveling of the hook. 5 D
balls are kept in position by a grub screw. For the affected chain pulley block, the
grub screw was missing and instead of 14 balls only one ball was present. There
was no punch mark on the head of the grub screw to prevent its slippage. The
cause of the detachment of the hook was due to missing of the balls from the
swiveling blocks and subsequent to the missing of the grub screw.

25
Lessons learnt to prevent such accident:
- Checklist for inspection of chain pulley block should be made
incorporating all critical parameters like availability of grub screw,
punching marks etc.
- Person should not stand below the hanging load or come close to it.

Case Study-4: Accident due to fall of an object

Brief Description:
A bundle of reinforcement rods weighing about 205 kg were being lowered
to ground (Elevation 12000 mm) by Tower Crane. A Fitter was in that
location for unloading the bundle from the crane. During the lowering
process, an ISMB 100 beam, about 2 metre long, weighing abut 23 kg, that
was kept on two climbing brackets at the Elevation 20400 mm level, was
dislodged by the hook block of the Tower Crane. It fell on the fitter, causing
injury on right forehead.

Probable Cause of the accident:

The ISMB 100 beam, length of about 2 metres and weighing about 23 kg was
kept on two climbing brackets that were about 1.5 metres apart at EL 20400, on
the outer wall of vault. The beam was to be used for fixing the supports for the
shuttering to be done at higher elevation for concreting. The beam was at a height
of about 8.4 m above the working floor. The beam was tied by coir ropes at both
ends with the climbing brackets. It was not positively fixed by fasteners to the
climbing brackets. When the material was lowered by Tower Crane, the hook
came down and the load swinged due to rotary movement of the crane boom as
well due to lowering operation. At that time, swinging load might have come in
contact with the two climbing brackets and ISMB 100 resting on them and
dislodged the beam to fall down and cause injury to the fitter.

Lessons learnt to prevent such accident:

- All structural members should be rigidly fixed at all levels to prevent their
fall.
- For safe movement of material through tower crane from one place to
another, signalman should be placed in such a location that he should be able
to visualize the whole area and operation clearly.

Case Study-5: Accident due to fall through an opening

Brief Description:
One worker fell from El 108 m to El 100 m through a hatch block opening of
length 2.2 m x width 0.5 m.

26
Probable Cause of the accident:
The hatch block opening was covered by one old 12 mm thickness plywood sheet
of length 2.4 m X width 0.4 m. Below the plywood 4 nos. of 10 mm rods were
kept loosely. When the worker kept his feet on the plywood, due to his weight,
plywood sheared and he fell down through the opening. The opening was not
barricaded by any guardrail, which could have prevented the fall of the victim.
Also multiple agencies were using that opening for material lifting and lack of
communication was there among the contractors.

Lessons learnt to prevent such accident:

- Every opening in the floor of a building, or in a working platform shall be
provided with suitable means to prevent fall of persons or materials by
suitable fencing/railing of at least 1 metre height.
- No plywood or wooden plank shall be used for covering any opening.

8.0 Conclusion

This monograph is prepared based on the experience gained through inspection

and safety regulation of different construction facilities by AERB in accordance
with the Factories Act & Rules. The available literature on construction safety
was reviewed and relevant information was provided. Hazards associated with
different construction related activities like excavation, work at height, working
in confined space, use of material handling equipment and control measures to
avoid the hazards are described briefly in this monograph. Illustrative figures are
also presented at appropriate places. Few case studies of accidents along with the
lessons learnt from the accidents are also given to create awareness to prevent
recurrence of such accidents. It should, however, be noted that the information
provided in this monograph is very brief and it is essential that details are
checked from relevant reference books, manuals etc. for comprehensive safety
management of construction work sites.

Acknowledgements

The authors are grateful to Shri S.K.Sharma, Chairman, AERB and Shri
S.K.Chande, Vice -Chairman, AERB for their suggestions in preparation of this
monograph and constant encouragement & guidance.

A special thanks to Shri R.Bhattacharya, Head, IPSD for his valuable

suggestions, guidance and detailed review of the draft.

27
Sincere thanks are also due to Dr P.C.Basu, Director, C&SED and his staff, Shri
R.I.Gujarathi, Director, NPSD, Dr. Om Pal Singh, Director, ITSD, Smt.S.
Bhattacharya, formerly of NPSD, Shri K.Ramprasad, IPSD, Shri L. N. Valiveti,
IPSD and Shri Nidhip Chodankar, IPSD for their review and expert comments.

References

 Construction Safety Handbook

V.J. Davies, K.Tomasin. Thomas Telford, London
 Health And Safety Hazards In The Construction Industry
James L. Weeks
 The Factories Act, 1948
 The Atomic Energy (Factories) Rules, 1996
 Various AERB notifications concerning construction safety
 AERB Guidelines for Personal Protective Equipment

28
Published By : Atomic Energy Regulatory Board
Niyamak Bhavan
Anushaktinagar
Mumbai 400 094
INDIA
 GOVERNMENT OF INDIA

CONSTRUCTION SAFETY

A MONOGRAPH

Manas Kumar Pathak and Ashis Kumar Panda

Industrial Plants Safety Division

ATOMIC ENERGY REGULATORY BOARD

NIYAMAK BHAVAN
ANUSHAKTINAGAR
Mumbai- 400 094 25 Years of
Safety Regulation
INDIA 1983 - 2008