A geometrical approach to solving the Basel problem

By Raynald Gozali
April 2020

Introduction
%
" " " "
Basel problem asked for the exact sum of the infinite series: ! = + + +⋯
&'" #$ "$ *$ +$
The problem was first introduced in 1650 by Pietro Mengoli and it remained unsolved for
centuries. It baffled the great minds of mathematics until it was solved by non-other than
-$
Leonhard Euler in 1734, which he found to be exactly . (Ayoub, 1974). 𝜋 is a fundamental
property of a circle, thus it should not intuitively appear in an infinite series. This paper will solve
the Basel problem using geometry and show why 𝜋 showed up in the infinite series of inverse
natural numbers, squared.

Inverse square law

Before discussing the Basel problem, a law that is critical to understanding the problem must be
discussed beforehand. The inverse square law is a law which states that the intensity of a physical
quantity at a point is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between it and the
source point, which can be denoted by the mathematical expression:
1
𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
(𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒)*
This law is not a rare law as it occurs when energy spreads out radially from a point source, that
being light or any electromagnetic wave, heat, electric fields or sound. The law can be visualized
by the picture below:

[Illustration of inverse square law]

As the quantity gets further away from the
source of emission, the same amount of
energy is spread to a larger area. So, the
"
same 1 × 1 area has & $ less energy on that
distance 𝑥 than on the 1 unit of distance.
However, the total amount of energy area
𝑥 * on distance 𝑥 from the source is the same
for all distance 𝑥 because of the law of conservation of energy (McAllister, 2015).

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Inverse Pythagorean Theorem
The Pythagoras theorem is a well-known theorem that links two sides of the of a right-angled
triangle with its hypotenuse: 𝑎* + 𝑏* = 𝑐 * . It can be visualized by the diagram below.

In the diagram, the sum of the square with sides a and b equals the square with side c. If one
small square equals 1 unit2, 3* + 4* = 25, which is 52. So, this diagram proves Pythagoras
theorem, 𝑎* + 𝑏* = 𝑐 *.
" " "
The inverse Pythagoras theorem, D$ + E$ = F$, apply in a right-
angle triangle if line h is perpendicular to the hypothenuse,
being the height of the triangle from side c. It can easily be
proven with the help of the diagram shown on the side and
basic algebraic manipulation. The area of the triangle can be
found below.
1 1
𝐴 = 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑐ℎ
2 2

Knowing these, we can do some algebraic manipulation.

𝑎𝑏 = 𝑐ℎ
𝑎𝑏
𝑐=
ℎ
Substituting 𝑐 this into the Pythagoras theorem,
* *
𝑎𝑏 *
𝑎 +𝑏 =I J
ℎ
* *
𝑎 𝑏
𝑎* + 𝑏* = *
ℎ
1 1
* *
(𝑎 * + 𝑏 * ) = *
𝑎 𝑏 ℎ
1 1 1
+ =
𝑏* 𝑎* ℎ*
" " "
Proving the inverse Pythagoras theorem: D$ + E$ = F$

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Solving the Basel Problem
Imagine a number line on the ground and placing a microphone on the origin of the number line.
This microphone is connected to a computer with a software that can measure the loudness of
the sound. By placing a speaker one unit away from the origin, the microphone will measure a
loudness of one unit, or just a loudness of 1 for simplicity. Because of the inverse square law,
"
placing the speaker two units away from the origin will have a loudness of *$ , three units away
" "
and a loudness of +$ , four units away and a loudness of K$ and so on. By placing two speakers,
" "
one unit and two units away from the origin, the origin will have a loudness of "$ + *$ , or loudness
M
of K. So, by placing speakers on all the positive real numbers on the number line, the microphone
" " "
will have a reading of 1 + K + N + ". and so on. Hence whatever the measurement of the
microphone is the solution to the Basel problem. Note that all the speakers are identical and all
“loudness” are measured by the microphone on the origin (0,0), relative to when the speaker is
one unit away from the origin.

This infinite array of speakers gives rise to a different question: how can we rearrange the
speakers so that the total loudness measured by the microphone doesn’t change? Turns out that
there are a lot of ways to rearrange them but the progress to solve this problem comes from an
elegant way to transform a speaker into two speakers without changing the total loudness. Now
imagine placing a microphone on the origin of the cartesian plane and placing a speaker ℎ units
away from the origin anywhere in the cartesian plane. The microphone will measure a loudness
"
of F$ .

Now draw a line perpendicular to line h and place two speakers on where the new line intersects
the coordinate axis. The speaker on the x-axis is speaker A and on the y-axis is speaker B.

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The loudness that the microphone measures on the speaker of distance h is equal to the
combined loudness of both speaker A and speaker B because of the inverse Pythagoras theorem.
" "
The microphone will measure a loudness of D$ from speaker A and a loudness of E$ from speaker
" " "
B and the inverse Pythagoras theorem, D$ + E$ = F$, applies. This only works if all the speakers
used are identical and produce the same power at all times.

Three important facts in geometry of a circle that will be used a lot is that if we take a diameter
of a circle and form a triangle from any point, N, on the circle, the angle on point N will form a
right angle, forming a right-angled triangle, which is called Thales’ theorem. The other fact is that
if a tangent of a circle meets the radius of the circle, it will always form a right angle. A tangent is
a line that touches the circle on one point. Finally, Inscribed angle theorem states that an angle
inscribed on a circle is half the angle center angle if they subtend the same arc (Rayner, 2016).

[Thales’ theorem] [Radius and tangent] [Inscribed angle theorem]

Now, a circle of circumference 2 is drawn with the x-axis being a tangent on the circle on the
origin. The speaker is placed on the opposite side of the circle from the origin while microphone
*
still on the origin. Hence, the diameter of the circle is -.

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 "
The loudness that the microphone measures is equal to P$ and the distance from the microphone
* " -$
to the speaker is -. So, the microphone will measure a loudness of $ $
= K
. To rearrange the
Q S
R
speakers without changing the loudness measured by the microphone, a second circle with a
circumference twice as big as the first one is drawn. A line is drawn tangent to the smaller circle
on the point where the speaker is until it touches the larger circle on point A and B and a triangle,
∆𝐴𝑂𝐵, is made.

Since the diameter of the larger circle is twice the smaller circle and both circles share a point on
the origin, O, point C on the diagram above is the midpoint of the larger circle, hence 𝐴𝐵 WWWW is the
WWWW
diameter of the larger circle. As a result, ∠𝐴𝑂𝐵 is 90°. 𝑂𝐶 is the diameter of the smaller circle
and WWWW
𝐴𝐵 is tangent to the smaller circle on point O. So, ∠𝑂𝐶𝐴 and ∠𝑂𝐶𝐵 are both right angles.
Since WWWW
𝑂𝐶 is the height of Δ𝐴𝑂𝐵 on its hypotenuse, the inverse Pythagoras theorem applies here.

" " "

The inverse Pythagoras theorem in this case is WWWW $ + WWWW $ = WWWW $. Since the loudness
|_`| |_a| |_b |
"
measured by the microphone is P$ , the combined loudness measured by the microphone of the
speakers on point A and point B is equal to the loudness measured by the microphone of the
speaker on point C. Another circle, with center D and circumference of 4, is drawn and we can
ignore the circle with circumference of 1, as shown on the figure below.

5
A line is drawn, passing through point D and point B until it touches the larger circle at point E
WWWW is the diameter of the larger circle, ∠𝐸𝑂𝐹 = 90°,
and F and a triangle, ∆𝐸𝑂𝐹, is made. Since 𝐸𝐹
as shown on the figure below.

In order for the inverse Pythagoras theorem to work, ∠𝑂𝐵𝐸 have to be a right angle in order for
WWWW
𝑂𝐵 to be the height of ∆𝐸𝑂𝐹. If a line is drawn between points O and D, it will pass through the
WWWW and connect it
center of circle C, hence it is the diameter of the smaller circle. When we take 𝑂𝐷
to point B, it will form a right angle on ∠𝐷𝐵𝑂. Since point E is colinear with point D, ∠𝑂𝐵𝐸 is also
a right angle. Hence, WWWW
𝑂𝐵 is a height of ∆𝐸𝑂𝐹 from its hypotenuse and the inverse Pythagoras
theorem applies.

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When 2 speakers are put on point E and F, the combined loudness of the two speakers are
" " "
equal to the loudness of the speaker on point B as |_f
WWWW|$
+ |_g
WWWW|$
= |_a
WWWW|$
. Now doing the same for
the speaker on point A, a line is drawn connecting point A and D until it reaches 2 points, G and
H, on the larger circle to produce a diameter of the circle. A triangle is then made by connecting
points G and H with O and height WWWW
𝑂𝐴 is constructed. Two speakers are then placed on points G
and H.

The inverse Pythagoras theorem applies on the diagram above as WWWW 𝑂𝐴 is the height of the triangle
" " "
with the hypotenuse of ∆𝐻𝑂𝐺 as the base. As a result, |_k WWWWW|$
+ |_l
WWWW |$
= |_`
WWWW|$
. The two lines, WWWW
𝐺𝐻
WWWW , intersects at point 𝐷 forming 4 right angle triangles, dividing the circle into four. As a
and 𝐸𝐹
result, the distance of each light house along the circle is 2 units. Since speakers are moved
around in a way that it does not change the loudness measured by the microphone, the total
-$
loudness measured from the four speakers is still K
units.

Repeating everything again, a circle twice as big is drawn with 𝑂 as the common point of both
circles and draw lines until it touches the circumference of the larger circle, connecting all the 4
speakers on the small circle with the center of the bigger circle.

The blue triangle corresponds to the transformation of speaker E to speakers I and J; the red
triangle corresponds to the transformation of speaker F to speakers K and L; the green triangle

7
corresponds to the transformation of speaker G to speakers M and N; the yellow triangle
corresponds to the transformation of speaker H to speakers P and Q. To show all the
transformations are following the inverse Pythagoras theorem, take triangle ∆𝐼𝐽𝑂 as an example.
n is the diameter of the circle and WWWW
∠𝐼𝑂𝐽 is 90° as 𝐼𝐽 n , making WWWW
𝑂𝐸 is perpendicular to 𝐼𝐽 𝑂𝐸 the height
of the triangle with its hypotenuse as the base as shown below. The other transformations follow
the same logic.

The speakers are evenly spaced around the circle as all the diameters of the circle that connects
the speakers cuts the larger circle into 8 equal parts. We get a right angle when we connect points
G and F to point D, which is the center of the smaller circle. According to the inscribed angle
theorem, if we connect points G and F to the mid-point of the larger circle, we get an angle half
WWWWW
that of ∠𝐺𝐷𝐹, which is 45°. Extending the two lines until it touches the larger circle, we get 𝑁𝑀
WWWW.
and 𝐿𝐾

Doing the same for all other points, every line will form 45° angles and since 360 ÷ 45 = 8, the
circle is divided into 8 equal parts and the speakers are evenly spaced on the circumference
with a distance of 2 units.

8
Now, just repeat the process, always doubling the circumference of the circle and transforming
the speakers into two new ones along the line drawn through the center of the larger circle. At
-$
every step, the loudness measured by the microphone on point O is K and the distance between
the speakers is 2 units. In the limit, when the diameter of the circle approaches infinity, we get a
horizontal line with an infinite number of speakers, with each of them being 2 units away, and
point O being the center point.

-$
Because the loudness measured by the microphone is K at every step, this is also true at the limit
when the diameter approaches infinity. This gives rise to another infinite series, the sum of all
-$
the inverse odd numbers, squared is K
. This series can be mathematically expressed as
%
" -$
! $
= .
&'w% (*#v") K

This is surprising as something that is supposed to have nothing to do with circles, gives us a
result with 𝜋. However, now we can see where the 𝜋 is from. In fact, we can say that the number
line is like the limit of the circumference of a circle when the diameter approaches infinity and
when we add numbers along the number line, making sure to add all the way until +∞ and −∞,
it is like adding along the circumference of an infinitely large circle.
% %
" "
There are still some steps to solve the Basel problem as ! $ ≠! $ . Taking only
&'" # &'w% (*#v")
the positive part of all odd numbers essentially divides the sum of all the inverse odd numbers
%
" -$
squared by 2. This can be mathematically expressed as: ! (*#v")$
= |
. Now the missing step
&'{
to the solution of the Basel problem is just the sum of all the positive reciprocal of even numbers
%
"
squared, mathematically expressed by: ! $ . This is true as all positive even numbers plus
&'" (*#)

9
 %
"
all positive odd numbers gives us the natural numbers. The series, ! $ , can be thought of
&'" (*#)
as the Basel problem but scaled by a factor of 2. By moving the speakers from the natural
numbers, which is a representation of the Basel problem, to all even numbers, we are essentially
doubling the distance of all the speakers. It means that the loudness measured by the
microphone at the origin is decreased by a factor of 2* .

% % %
" " " +
Now to go from ! #$
to ! (*#v")$
, the series, ! $ , is scaled it by a factor of K,
&'" &'{ &'" #
which can be solved algebraically as shown below:
% % %
1 1 1
1. } * = } *
+}
x (2x + 1) (2x)*
&'" &'{ &'"
% %
1 1 1
2. } * = }
4 x (2x)*
&'" &'"
By substituting 2. to 1.
% % %
1 1 1 1
} *=} *
+ } *
x (2x + 1) 4 x
&'" &'{ &'"
% %
3 1 1
} *=}
4 x (2x + 1)*
&'" &'{

%
" -$
Knowing that ! (*#v")$
= |
, we can solve for the Basel problem.
&'{
%
3 1 𝜋*
} *=
4 x 8
&'"
%
1 𝜋* 4
} = ×
x* 8 3
&'"

10
 %
1 𝜋*
} =
x* 6
&'"
1 1 1 1 1 1 𝜋*
+ + + + + + ⋯ =
1* 2* 3* 4* 5* 6* 6

Hence, solving the Basel problem.

Conclusion
Even though there were physics used, such as properties of sound, this approach only uses
physics for intuition and it is still considered a rigorous mathematics proof as mathematical
concepts were used to come up with the final answer and all conjectures made were true.

The speaker method is very difficult to test in real life as it is not possible to have an infinite array
of physical objects. However, it is possible to have a large number of speakers so that the
loudness measured by the microphone is close enough to the real value. It is also very difficult to
have hundreds of identical speakers producing the same power at all times. Ambient noise and
loss in power would also be a major factor in why testing the speaker method would be close to
impossible. However, as mentioned before, sound and loudness was used just for intuition of
inverse square law and inverse Pythagoras theorem as it is easier to grasp a concept that is
common in everyday life.

This solution is different from Leonhard Euler’s approach in 1734 as he solved it with arithmetic,
calculus and trigonometry (Euler, 1768). Even though 𝜋 appeared in Euler’s approach because of
his use of trigonometry, it does not give people a clear intuition on why it appeared as most of
us know that 𝜋 is related to circles.

This discussion shows that with the appearance of 𝜋, no matter how far and hard we look and
how complex the mathematics gets, circles will make an appearance. Since Euler used
trigonometry to solve the Basel problem (Sandifer, 2003), people who understand mathematics
knows that 𝜋 is related to trigonometry because of their relation to the unit circle and the nature
of their graph (Thong, 2015) but this knowledge is something that not everyone knows. However,
from this discussion, it was clearly shown how the Basel problem is related to 𝜋 as the proof
started from a circle and becoming a line as the limit of the diameter of the circle approaches
infinity. In fact, it can be inferred that the number line is a circle with an infinitely large diameter.

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Bibliography
Website:

McAllister, W. (2015). Inverse square law. Retrieved from Khan Academy :

https://www.khanacademy.org/science/electrical-engineering/ee-electrostatics/ee-
electric-force-and-electric-field/a/ee-inverse-square-law

Journal:

Ayoub, R. (1974). Euler and the Zeta function. American Mathematical Monthly, 1067-1086.

Euler, L. (1768). Remarks on a beautiful relation between direct as well as reciprocal power
series . Memoires de l'academie des sciences, 83-106.

Books:

Sandifer, E. (2003). Euler’s Solution of the Basel Problem – The Longer Story . Danbury: Western
Connecticut State University.

Rayner, D. (2016). Complete Mathematics for Cambridge IGCSE Extended. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.

Thong, H. S. (2015). New Additional Mathematics. Singapore: Marshall Cavendish Education.

Pictures:

[Illustration of inverse square law]. Retrieved from

https://kids.britannica.com/students/assembly/view/167423

[Thales’ theorem]. Retrieved from

https://brilliant.org/wiki/thales-theorem/

[Radius and tangent]. Retrieved from

https://www.mathematics- monster.com/lessons/circle_theorem_tangent_radius_90_
degrees.html

[Inscribed angle theorem]. Retrieved from

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Inscribed_angle_theorem.svg

All pictures that are not cited are created by https://www.draw.io.

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