Saint Louis University

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

Department of Chemical Engineering

MODULE 1
This Module includes the following Units:

Unit 1: General Rules in Laboratory

Unit 2: Basic Laboratory Techniques
Unit 3: Specific Heat of Metal
Unit 4: Latent Heat of Fusion of Ice

Unit 1: General Rules in Laboratory

UNIT LEARNING OUTCOME

● Know and understand the rules and good practices in a laboratory

Engage
In any laboratory subject, it is necessary to know the rules before to avoid untoward
incidents that may cause loss of materials, risk safety, and even cause the loss of life. It is
imperative that you first familiarize yourself with laboratory rules and proper practices.

Elaborate
GENERAL RULES

A few precautions can make the laboratory experience relatively hazard-free and safe.
These experiments are on a small scale and as such, many of the dangers found in the
chemistry laboratory have been minimized. In addition to specific regulations that you may
have in the laboratory, the following rules should be observed at all times.

CLEANLINESS
1. Apparatus and surroundings in the laboratory must be clean. Unnecessary
breakages of glassware will be prevented if they are arranged neatly. Also, it will
help each towards achieving best results if the equipment is kept clean and ready
to use.
2. By far the best cleaning agents are water and detergents. Acids should be used only
sparingly and only when advised by the instructor, since they are corrosive,
dangerous and ineffective when used.
3. Apparatus should be cleaned promptly after use and not a day or week later when
these have become encrusted or corroded.

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SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE
Department of Chemical Engineering

4. If a substance is spilled, clean it up immediately; otherwise, your clothes, skin, books

or paper may be damaged or ruined.
5. Never leave the laboratory in a mess, it is easier to locate things and continue
interrupted work if everything is left in order.

SAFETY
Most laboratory accidents are basically senseless, i. e., they could have been averted by
adequate anticipation and proper laboratory techniques. Depending on the degree of
seriousness, accidents may result in pain, injury, added expense and inconvenience for
anyone involved. Help avoid accidents by observing the following:

1. In every experiment, follow the procedures carefully and intelligently. Many

chemicals and mixtures are potentially dangerous if handled carelessly. In case of
doubts, consult your instructor.
2. Double check the labels of bottles to be sure that you have the correct reagent.
Using the wrong chemical may result to undesirable situation.
3. Wear appropriate clothing in the laboratory: e.g. no shorts, no tank tops and no
sandals. Be covered from the neck to the feet. Wear laboratory gown over your
clothes. Tie back long hair, out of the way of flames.
4. When heating substances in a test tube, never point it towards yourself or to
someone near you. Also, never look directly down into the mouth of a flask, beaker,
crucible or other container which is being heated because of the danger of
spattering and bumping (sudden formation of steam). Always wear an eye
protector (goggles) when performing experiments. Contact lens wearers must use
additional safety goggles; prescription glasses can be used instead.
5. Do not taste any chemicals unless procedure tells you to do so. Poisonous
substances are not always labeled as such in the laboratory. When specifically
directed to taste a particular substance, do it safely as follows: allow the end of a
glass rod to just touch the substance lightly then bring it to the tip of your tongue.
Immediately wash mouth with water afterwards.
6. Do not inhale any vapors give off by a reaction. To determine the odor of a liquid,
fan the vapors with your hand towards your nose and sniff cautiously. Never hold a
test tube or container directly near your nose because of the danger of choking or
of heated liquid bubbling up your nose.
7. When mixing acid and water, always pour the acid into the water with constant
stirring, NEVER the reverse to prevent spattering.
8. Make sure that gas generators and other special set-up of apparatus are well
assembled and sturdy so that they do not break down at a crucial moment or
become hazardous.

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Department of Chemical Engineering

9. Particular care should be exercised when dealing with corrosive acids, alkalis,
poisonous gases and flammable materials. Students will frequently be reminded of
the safety precautions in the activities that have an element of danger.
10. All experiments that produce noxious, toxic fumes and gases must be performed
under the hood. A fume hood is a well-ventilated room/cell in the laboratory.
11. Do not eat or drink in the laboratory. If the hands are contaminated with any
poisonous material in the course of the experiment, the material might eventually
find its way to the mouth causing inadvertent poisoning.
12. Try to avoid knocking over the apparatus, set-up or glassware. Your laboratory
manual and the necessary chemicals and glasswares are all that should be on your
table. This will avoid spillage of chemicals and breakage of glasswares.
13. No unauthorized experiments should be performed.
14. Avoid contact to corrosive chemicals with any part of the body since this may
produce burns, stains and other unpleasing reactions. If this happened, wash off the
exposed area with plenty of water. Notify your instructor at once. Wear gloves as
indicated.
15. The same common sense care which holds in the home kitchen holds in a chemistry
laboratory. This is especially true in the use of burners and handling heated objects.
16. Get into the habit of always washing your hands before leaving the laboratory.

RESPONSIBILITY FOR REAGENTS, APPARATUS, EQUIPMENT AND FACILITIES

1. Students must assume personal responsibility in keeping reagents free from any other
substances. Contamination will lead in inaccurate and misleading experimental
results of a large number of students.
2. Avoid contamination of the reagents through the covers or stoppers. When taking
any chemical, either hold the stopper between your fingers or if it is flat-topped, lay it
on the table topped down. Also, lay the stopper directly at the back of the bottle
when other bottles in the same row of reagents are used to avoid mixing of the
stoppers.
3. For removing solid reagents from bottles, use a clean, dry spatula.
4. When weighing chemicals, only dry, non-hygroscopic substances may be weighed
on paper, otherwise, use a watch glass.
5. Always grasp the bottle to cover the label with the palm of the hand so that when
pouring, any liquid running down the sides will not deface the label.
6. Use clean test tubes or beakers for containing liquids.
7. Always take only the amount of reagent indicated in the procedure; avoid excesses.
Excessive amount will not be effective and even result to accidents. Moreover, small
quantities of reagents are easy to manipulate and take less time to handle.
8. Do not carry reagent bottles to your tables. Other students need the same materials
too.

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SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE
Department of Chemical Engineering

9. After the performance of the experiment, do not pour material back into the
reagent bottle. This is to avoid possible contamination of the stock reagent.
10. When use of the burner is to be interrupted, turn the gas almost off, adjusting air
holes to keep only a small flame.
11. Whenever instructed to use water in the experiments, use distilled water unless
instructed to do otherwise.
12. Do not weigh hot or warm objects. Objects should be at room temperature.
13. Do not just put hot objects on the desk top. Place them on a wire gauze or heat-
resistant pad.
14. Before leaving the laboratory, make sure that the gas and water are turned off, the
table top is clean and the reagent bottles and special equipment/apparatus are
returned to the stockroom.

DISPOSAL OF WASTE MATERIALS

Waste solid chemicals, broken glasswares, paper, used matches, etc. should not be
dumped into the sink because these will plug the drain. Use trash cans for this purpose.
Unless instructions are given on the contrary, waste liquids and insoluble toxic solutions
maybe washed down the sink followed by plenty of water.

PLANNING
Just like any other classes, a laboratory class should be prepared for. The best way you can
prepare for an experiment is to read the procedures carefully and be aware of the hazards
before stepping foot into the laboratory. Planning helps prevent mistakes, loss of time and
leads to a better understanding of the principle.

IN CASE OF ACCIDENTS
1. Report all accidents and injuries to the instructor after any urgent first aid (such as
washing acid out of the eyes). The instructor, when necessary, will refer the victim or
see to it that he is brought to the school medical clinic for medical attention. In case
of severe cuts, burns and other serious injuries, time element is important. Ask a fellow
student to report the accident or injury to the faculty in case you cannot do it
yourself.
2. Treat spilled acids or alkalis as follows:
a. On hands or face: Before much damage is done, wash off the chemical with a
large amount of water then with sodium bicarbonate solution. In the case of
sulfuric acid, wipe off first, and then wash off with plenty of water.
b. On clothing: For acids, wash clothing with sodium bicarbonate or dilute
ammonium hydroxide. For alkalis, pour dilute acetic acid then neutralize with
sodium bicarbonate solution.

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SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE
Department of Chemical Engineering

3. If any chemical gets into the eyes or mouth, go to the nearest sink and wash off with
much water as possible. If the eyes are involved, hold the eyelids open with your
fingers and allow the water to run freely over the eyeball.
4. In case of fire, keep distance from it. Let the instructor handle it. However, you will
probably be asked to assist in extinguishing fires.

ACCURACY
Consistent with the aim of training students in professional responsibility, accuracy of results
will be considered in evaluation and grading. However, accuracy will be treated as a
relative term. Standard of accuracy in terms of tolerance of error will be set by the
instructor according to the performance of the student and the condition of the apparatus
and chemicals in the experiment.

Evaluate

Assignment #1: (Hand-in your answer in the Google Classroom)

Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS)/Safety Data Sheet (SDS)
1. What is the use/importance of MSDS?
2. List the parts/sections of a MSDS?
3. Submit an example of an MSDS

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 Saint Louis University
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE
Department of Chemical Engineering

Unit 2 Basic Laboratory Techniques

UNIT LEARNING OUTCOME

● Identify the different laboratory apparatus and equipment, their uses and
functions
● Know basic laboratory techniques

Engage

In any chemistry laboratory course, apparatus and equipment are essential to perform the
required activity and experiments. There are many different types of laboratory apparatus
and equipment used in the lab for different intended purpose. It pays to know some of the
most commonly used in the lab.

Explore

Watch the videos for EXERCISE A and accomplish the Report Sheet at the end of this
section. You are advised to read the procedures below so you can follow the video. Also,
you are tasked to do the necessary observations and record the data based on what will
be showed in the video of the activity.

EXERCISE A
A. The Bunsen Burner
Click on the link and watch the video:
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1Ub7uIETh0zMORE_SODQtHzAUuWK4S5fe/view?usp=sha
ring
The Bunsen burner is a convenient source of heat in the laboratory. Although there
are several varieties, their principle of operation is the same and is similar to that of the
common gas stove. The Bunsen burner requires gas and air, which it mixes in various
proportions. The amount of air and gas mixed in the chamber is varied by use of the
collar illustrated in Figure 1.3. The relative proportions of gas and air determine the
temperature of the flame.

Examine the burner and locate the

gas and airflow adjustment valve.
(see Figure 1.3). Notice that it is
composed of a base with a gas
inlet. A tube, called the barrel, with
two air holes near the bottom, is

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SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE
Department of Chemical Engineering

screwed to the base. Unscrew the

tube from the base and notice the
jet or spud set in the base, through
which the gas enters. Attach the
tube to the base.

1. Connect the gas inlet to the gas

supply with rubber tubing.
Close the air holes by screwing
the tube. Bring a lighted match
to the top of the barrel and turn
on the gas supply. Place 5 ml of
water in a test tube and using a
test tube holder, heat it over the
flame. Take the time until the
water boils.

barrel

Figure 1.3 Typical Bunsen burner.

Figure 1.4 Regions of the flame for temperature measurement.

2. Open the air holes by turning the barrel to regulate the air intake and adjust the gas
cock in the supply line to regulate the gas intake to produce a nearly colorless (bluish)
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SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE
Department of Chemical Engineering

quietly burning flame with four distinct regions. Estimate the relative temperature of
each region by holding the corner of the wire gauze at the different regions of the
flame. Base your estimates below.
Color of the Wire Gauze Approximate Temperature
no change below 500 0C
dull red 501 0C – 650 0C
cherry red 651 0C – 750 0C
orange 751 0C – 900 0C
yellow 901 0C – 1100 0C

Hold a clean, cold, dry evaporating dish over the bluish flame and note observations as
to any deposit at the bottom of the dish.
3. Open the air holes and observe the nature of the flame. Place 5 ml of water in another
test tube and heat over the flame, noting the time until it boils.
4. Hold one corner of the wire gauze horizontally cutting the flame at different regions.
Note your observations.
5. Quickly thrust a piece of wet cardboard vertically through the center of the flame with
the lower end of the cardboard resting on top of the barrel. Remove the cardboard
before it is ignited and observe the scorched portion.
6. Keep the burner lighted with the air holes open. Slowly turn off the gas supply until a
flame is observed at the gas spud. Note your observations.

B. The Graduated Cylinder

Click on the link and watch the video:
https://drive.google.com/file/d/14FxzFipu6QUhFEI4o4gZswhF2TWUoCn1/view?usp=shari
ng

Examine the 100-mL graduated cylinder and notice that it is scribed in milliliters. Fill
the cylinder approximately half full with water. Notice that the water meniscus (curved
surface of the water) is concave (see Figure 1.5).
When water is the liquid to be measured, the lowest point on the curve is always
read as the volume, never the upper level. Avoid errors due to parallax. Different and
erroneous readings are obtained if the eyes are not perpendicular to the scale. Read
the volume of water to the nearest 0.1 mL. Record this volume. Measure the maximum
amount of water that your 125-mL Erlenmeyer flask will hold. Record this volume.

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SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE
Department of Chemical Engineering

Figure 1.5 Proper eye position for taking volume readings. The meniscus reading here is 50.0mL.

C. Using the balance to calibrate your 10-mL pipet

(For this exercise, just watch the video on USING THE TRIPLE BEAM BALANCE. The
following procedures are for your additional reading. No Part C in the Report Sheet)
Click on the link and watch the video:
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1NrLA_uYDD0B9egDYJN6JJPvJdpNRkgIn/view?usp=shari
ng

In this exercise, the accuracy of the 10-ml pipet will be determined.

Weighing an object on a single-pan balance is very simple. Because of the
sensitivity of the balance, the student must be careful in its use. Directions for operation
of single-pan balance vary with its brand and model. The laboratory instructor will
explain how to use the balance. Regardless of the balance to be used, proper care of
the balance requires the following to be observed:
1. Do not drop an object on the pan.
2. Center the object on the pan.
3. Do not place chemicals directly on the pan. Use a beaker, watch glass,
weighing bottle, or weighing paper.
4. Do not weigh hot or warm objects. Objects must be at room temperature.
5. Return all weights to zero position after weighing.
6. Clean up any chemical spills in the balance area.
7. Inform your instructor if the balance is not functioning correctly. Do not attempt
to repair it yourself.

The following method is used to calibrate a pipet or other volumetric glassware.

Fill about 40 mL of distilled water in a 150-mL beaker. Record and weigh an empty, dry
25-mL Erlenmeyer flask (tare) to the nearest 0.1 mg. Measure and record the
temperature of the water. Pipet exactly 10.00 mL of water into this flask and weigh the
flask with the water in it (gross) to the nearest 0.1 mg. Obtain the weight of the water by

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SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE
Department of Chemical Engineering

subtraction. Using the equation below and the data given in Table 1.5, obtain the
volume of water and therefore the volume of your pipet.
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒎
𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 = =
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒗
Normally, density is given in units of grams per milliliter (g/mL) for liquids, grams per
cubic centimeter (g/cm3) for solids, and grams per liter (g/L) for gases. Repeat this
procedure in triplicate-that is, deliver and weigh exactly 10.00 mL of water three
separate times.

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SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE
Department of Chemical Engineering

Exercise A (Accomplish this Report Sheet)

Basic Laboratory Techniques
Name: _________________________________________________________________________

Date: ____________________Laboratory Instructor: ____________________________________

REPORT SHEET
A. Bunsen Burner
1. What is the color of the flame? ___________________
What is deposited on the test tube? __________________
To what is the color of the flame due? ____________________
How long does it take to boil the water? ______________________
2. Indicate the approximate temperature of the following regions of the flame.
a. Region 1: Center of the inner cone _________________ 0C

b. Region 2: Center of the outer cone _________________ 0C

What are your observations at the bottom of the dish? ________________________

____________________________________________________________________

3. What is the color of the flame? ___________________

Does it form a deposit on the test tube? ___________________________________

How long does it take to boil the water? ___________________________________

4. What region of the flame makes the wire gauze red hot first? __________________

What conclusion can be drawn from this result? _____________________________

____________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________

5. Which part of the cardboard burns first? ___________________________________

What conclusion can be drawn from this result? _____________________________

____________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________

6. Note your observations when the Bunsen Burner is turned off: __________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________

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SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE
Department of Chemical Engineering

B. The Graduated Cylinder

Volume of water in graduated cylinder (in mL):
Exercise No. 1: ________________
Exercise No. 2: ________________
Exercise No. 3: ________________

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Department of Chemical Engineering

Elaborate
Chemistry is an experimental science. It depends upon careful observation and the
use of good laboratory techniques. In this experiment, you will become familiar with some
basic operations that will help you throughout this course. Your success as well as your
safety in future experiments will depend upon your mastery of these fundamental
operations. It is important that the data recorded will reflect the accuracy of the device
used in the measurement.
The present system of weights and measurements, the metric system, was originally
based mainly upon fundamental properties of one of the world's most abundant
substances, water. The system is summarized in Table 1.1. Conversions within the metric
system are quite simple once you have memorized the meaning of the prefixes given in
Table 1.2.
Recently, scientists have started to use a briefer version of the metric system of units
in which the basic units for length, mass, and time are meter, kilogram, and second,
respectively. This system of units, known as the International System of Units, is commonly
referred to as the SI system and is preferred in scientific works.
A comparison of some common SI, metric, and English units presented in Table 1.3.
Conversions within the metric system are quite easy if you know the definitions for the
prefixes and use dimensional analysis in problem solving.

Table 1.1 Units of Measurement in the Metric System

Measurement Unit and definition
Mass or weight Gram (g) = weight of 1 cubic centimeter (cm3 ) of water at 4°C & 760 mm
Hg
Mass = quantity of material
Weight = mass x gravitational force
Length Meter (m) =100 cm =1000 millimeters (mm) =39.37 in.
Volume Liter (L) =volume of 1 kilogram (kg) of H2O at 4° C
Temperature °C, measures heat intensity:
0 5 9
𝐶 = ( 0𝐹 − 32) 𝑜𝑟 0𝐹 = ( × 0𝐶 ) + 32
9 5
Heat 1 calorie (cal), amount of heat required to raise 1 g of water 1°C
1 cal = 4.184 joules (J)
Density ρ, usually g/ml, for liquids and g/L for gases:
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝜌 = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

Specific gravity Sp gr, dimensionless

density of a substance
𝑆𝑝 𝑔𝑟 = density of a reference substance,usually water
The quantities presented in Table1.1 are measured with the aid of various pieces of
apparatus. A brief description of some measuring devices follows.

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Department of Chemical Engineering

Table 1.2 The Meaning of Prefixes in the Metric System

Prefix Meaning (power of 10) Abbreviation
atto 10-18 A
femto- 10-15 f
pico- 10 -12 p
nano- 10-9 n
micro- 10 -6 µ
milli- 10-3 m
centi- 10-2 c
deci- 10 -1 d
kilo- 103 k
mega- 106 M
giga- 109 G
tera 1012 T
peta 10 15 P
exa 1018 E

Table 1.3 Comparison of SI, Metric, and English Units

Physical SI Unit Some Common Metric Conversion Factors
Quantity Units
Length Meter (m) Meter (m) 1 m = 100 cm
Centimeter (cm) 1 m = 39.37 in
1 in = 2.54 cm
Volume Cubic Meter Liter (L) 1 L = 1000 cm3
(m )
3 Milliliter (mL) = 1 cm 3 1 L = 10-3 m3
1 L = 1.06 qt
Mass Kilogram (Kg) Gram (g) 1 kg = 1000 g
Milligram (mg) 1 kg = 2.205 lb
1 lb = 453.6 g
Energy Joule (J) Calorie (cal) 1 cal = 4.184 J
Temperature Kelvin (k) Degree Celsius (°C) 𝐾 = ℃ + 273.15
0 5
𝐶 = ( 0𝐹 − 32)
9

LABORATORY APARATUS and EQUIPMENT

Laboratory Balance
A laboratory balance is used to obtain the mass of various objects. There are several
different varieties of balances, with various limits on their accuracy. Two of these balances
are shown in Figure 1.1. Most modern laboratories possess single-pan balances. These are
the most accurate balances; generally, they are the simplest to use and most delicate. The
amount of material to be weighed and the accuracy required determine which balance
you should use.

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Department of Chemical Engineering

Figure 1.1 Digital electronic balances. The balance gives the mass instantly when an object
to be weighed is placed on the pan.

Graduated Cylinders
Graduated cylinders are tall, cylindrical vessels with
graduations scribed along the side of the cylinder.
Since volumes are measured in these cylinders by
measuring the height of a column of liquid, it is critical
that the cylinder has a uniform diameter along its entire
height. Obviously, a tall cylinder with a small diameter
will be more accurate than a short one with a large
diameter. A liter (L) is divided into milliliters (mL) such
that 1 mL = 0.001 L and 1 L = 1000 mL.

Thermometers
Most thermometers are based upon the principle
that liquids expand when heated. Most common
thermometers use mercury as the liquid. These
thermometers are made so that a uniform-diameter
capillary tube surmounts a mercury reservoir. To
calibrate a thermometer, one defines two reference
points, normally the freezing point of water (0°C,
32°F) and the boiling point of water (100°C, 212°F) at
1 atm of pressure (1 atm = 760 mm Hg). Once these
points are marked on the capillary, its length is then
sub-divided into uniform divisions called degrees.
There are 100° between these two points on the
Celsius, (°C, or centigrade) scale and 180° between
those two points on the Fahrenheit (°F) scale.

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Pipets
Pipets are glass vessels calibrated so as to deliver a precisely known volume of liquid
at a given temperature. The markings on the pipet illustrated in Figure 1.2 signify that this
pipet was calibrated to deliver (TD) 10.00 mL of liquid at 25°C. Always use a rubber bulb to
fill a pipet. NEVER USE YOUR MOUTH! A TD pipet should not be blown empty.
It is important to be aware that every measuring device, regardless of what it may
be, has limitations in its accuracy. Moreover, to take full advantage of a given measuring
instrument, you should be familiar with its accuracy. Careful examination of the subdivisions
on the device will indicate the maximum accuracy you can expect of that particular tool.

Figure1.2 A typical volumetric pipet and rubber bulbs

The approximate accuracy of some of the equipment is given in Table 1.4.

Table 1.4 Equipment Accuracy

Equipment Accuracy
Analytical balance ±0.0001 g (±0.1 mg)
Triple beam balance ±0.10 g
Graduated cylinder ±0.1 mL
Pipet ±0.02 mL
Buret ±0.02 mL
Thermometer ±0.2°C

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Table 1.6 Density of pure water (g/cm 3 ) at temperatures 10.0°C - 30.9°C by 0.1°C
increments

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Explain
EXAMPLE 1.1
Using the procedure given above, a weight of 10.0025 g was obtained as the
weight of the water delivered by one 10-mL pipet at 22.0°C. What is the volume
delivered by the pipet?
𝑚
SOLUTION: From the density equation given above, we know that 𝑉 =
𝑑
For the mass, we substitute our value of 10.0025 g. For the density, refer to
Table 1.6. At 22.0°C, the density is 0.997770 g/mL. The calculation is:
𝟏𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟓 𝒈
𝑽= = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟒𝟗 ≈ 𝟏𝟎. 𝟎𝟐 𝒎𝒍
𝟎. 𝟗𝟗𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟎 𝒈/𝒎𝒍
The volume must be rounded off to 10.02, because the pipet's precision can
be determined only to within ±0.02 mL.

The precision of a measurement is a statement about the internal agreement among

repeated results; it is a measure of the reproducibility of a given set of results. The arithmetic
mean (average) of the results is usually taken as the "best" value. The simplest measure of
precision is the average deviation from the mean. The average deviation is calculated by
first determining the mean of the measurements, then calculating the deviation of each
individual measurement from the mean and, finally, averaging the deviations (treating
each as a positive quantity). Study Example 1.2 and then, using your own experimental
results, calculate the mean volume delivered by your 10-mL pipet. Also calculate for your
three trials the individual deviations from the mean and then state your pipet's volume with
its average deviation.

EXAMPLE 1.2
The following values were obtained for the calibration of a 10-mL pipet: 10.10,
9.98, and 10.00 mL. Calculate the mean value and the average deviation from the
mean.
𝟏𝟎.𝟏𝟎+𝟗.𝟗𝟖+𝟏𝟎.𝟎𝟎
SOLUTION: 𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒏 = = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟎𝟑
𝟑
Deviations from the mean: |value – mean|
|10.10 -10.03| = 0.07
|9.98 - 10.03| = 0.05
|10.00 - 10.03| = 0.03
𝟎. 𝟎𝟕 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑
𝐀𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐝𝐞𝐯𝐢𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐟𝐫𝐨𝐦 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐦𝐞𝐚𝐧 = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓
𝟑
The reported value is therefore 10.03 0.05 mL.

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Evaluate

Assignment #2: (Hand-in your answers in the Google Classroom)

1. What are the basic units of length, mass, volume, and temperature in the SI
system?
2. A liquid has a volume of 1.35 liters. What is its volume in mL? in cm 3 ?
3. If an object weighs 1.47 g, what is its weight in mg?
4. Why should you never weigh a hot object?
5. What is precision?
6. Define density? Can it be determined from a single measurement?
7. What is the density of an object with a mass of 9.03 g and a volume of 0.1987
mL?
8. Weighing an object three times gave the following results: 10.2 g, 10.1 g, and
10.3 g. Find the mean weight and the average deviation from the mean.
9. Normal body temperature is 98.6°F. What is the corresponding temperature in
°C?
10. What is the weight in kilograms of 950 mL of a substance that has a density of
1.274 g/mL?
11. An object weighs exactly five grams on an analytical balance that has an
accuracy of 0.1 mg. To how many significant figures should this weight be
recorded?
12. What is the dominant color of a properly adjusted flame from a Bunsen
burner?
13. How many distinct cones does a properly adjusted non-luminous flame have
on a Bunsen burner (one, two or three)?

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Unit 3: Specific Heat of Metal

UNIT LEARNING OUTCOME
 Apply laboratory techniques and quantitative methods of obtaining data for the
calculation of the specific heat of metals through energy balances

Engage
What is Specific Heat?
By definition, SPECIFIC HEAT of a substance is the quantity of heat required to raise
the temperature of 1.0 gram of a substance by 1.0°C. It is one of the physical properties of
pure substances and just like density it is slightly temperature dependent. The standard unit
used in heat measurements is the CALORIE, which is also defined as the amount of heat
required to raise the temperature of 1.0 gram of water by 1.0°C. At this temperature
interval, the variation in specific heat of water is zero. Over relatively small temperature
intervals, variation in specific heat of an incompressible substance such as metals is so slight
that it may be assumed negligible. The relation of this capacity for holding heat to the heat
effect (Q), mass (m), specific heat of the substance (sp ht) and temperature change (ΔT),
after a heat flow is summarized in the equation (if there is no work nor changes in potential
and kinetic energies): 𝑸 = 𝒎 × 𝒔𝒑 𝒉𝒕 × ∆𝑻
In words, the change in temperature of a substance is directly proportional to the
amount of the heat added and inversely proportional to the mass.
In this experiment, the specific heat of selected metals will be measured based on two
fundamental laws of heat:
(a) Two objects originally at different temperatures eventually reach the same
temperature if they are in contact so that the heat flows from the high temperature
body to the low temperature body;
(b) The heat loss by the originally warmer object is exactly equal to the heat gained by
the originally colder object (assuming no heat loss to the surroundings).

Based on the LAW OF DULONG AND PETIT which states that the product of the atomic
weight of an element and its specific heat is approximately 6.4, the approximate weight
can also be determined using the specific heat.

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Explore
Watch the video of EXPERIMENT 1 and accomplish the Report Sheet at the end of this
section. You are advised to read the procedures below so you can follow the video. Also,
you are tasked to do the necessary observations and record the data based on what will
be showed in the video of the activity.

EXPERIMENT 1
A. Determination of Specific Heat
Click on the link to watch the video:
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1mjv6Z_h3ou9SMPAGvAEOb8f3ITcoXF1b/view?usp=shar
ing

1. Weigh accurately the metal. Place the metal in a dry clean test tube.
2. Prepare 25.0 mL (25.0 g) cold water in the improvised calorimeter. Record the
temperature of this water. Set aside.
3. Immerse the test tube with the metal in a large beaker containing about 400mL of
water and heat the water to boiling. Allow the water to boil for 15.0 minutes after
which it may be assumed that the metal has attained the temperature of the
boiling water. Record.
4. Immediately drop the heated metal into the water in the calorimeter and cover.
Watch closely the rise in temperature until the thermometer reading is in equilibrium.
Record this final temperature of the water and metal fixture while keeping it well
stirred.
5. Repeat the above procedure and obtain separate data for each metal. Tabulate
your data and calculate the specific heat of such metal using the formula below:
−𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑏𝑦 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
−[𝑠𝑝 ℎ𝑡𝑚 × 𝑚𝑚 × (𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑖 )] = 𝑠𝑝 ℎ𝑡𝑤 × 𝑚𝑤 × (𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑖 )
The negative sign represents the opposite direction of heat flow.

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B. Determination of Approximate Atomic Weight of Metal

Click on the link to watch the video:
https://drive.google.com/file/d/11hdh-MchB7AGNJRYWx5csf-
8kRSxTc0h/view?usp=sharing

Following procedure (A), determine the specific heat of the unknown metal and from
the value, calculate the approximate atomic weight of the metal using the formula:
𝑔 𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑎𝑙
𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 ( ) × 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 ( ) = 6.4
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑔∙℃ ℃ ∙ 𝑚𝑜𝑙

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Experiment 01 (Accomplish this Report Sheet)

Specific Heat of a Metal

Name: ___________________________________________

Date:_______________________ Laboratory Instructor: ________________________________

Unknown Number: ________

REPORT SHEET

A. Determination of the Specific Heat of a Metal

Metal #1 Metal #2
Mass of metal grams
Original temperature of °C
water
Original temperature of °C
metal
Final temperature of metal °C
Temperature loss of metal °C
Mass of water grams
Specific heat of metal J/g∙°C

B. Determination of the Approximate Weight of a Metal

Mass of unknown metal grams

Original temperature of water °C

Original temperature of metal °C

Final temperature of metal °C

Temperature loss of metal °C

Mass of water grams

Specific heat of metal J/g∙°C

Approximate atomic weight of metal g/mol

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Evaluate

Assignment #3: (Hand-in your answers in the Google Classroom)

1. Refer to approximate tables (from chemistry handbooks) for the actual values of
specific heats. How do you account for the large deviations from actual values?
2. What additional information is needed in order to calculate a more accurate
atomic weight for the unknown metal?
3. Indicate whether the following will increase, decrease, or have no effect on the
calculated atomic weight of the unknown metal:
a) 5.0 grams of hot water were transferred to the calorimeter together with
the metal.
b) There was heat loss by radiation from the calorimeter to the surroundings.
c) There was considerable delay in transferring the metal to the water in the
calorimeter.
d) The metal was transferred to the calorimeter before temperature of the
metal and boiling water reached equilibrium
4. A 74.8 g sample of a metal at 143.2 °C is added to an insulated vessel containing
208g of water at 24.8 °C. The final temperature of the mixture is 31.1 °C. What is
the specific heat of the metal in J/g-°C?
5. To raise the temperature of 75.0 g of a particular metal by 1.50 °C requires 107 cal
of heat. What is the approximate atomic mass of the metal? What is the metal?

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Unit 4: Latent Heat of Fusion of Ice

UNIT LEARNING OUTCOME
 Apply laboratory techniques and quantitative methods of obtaining data for the
calculation of the specific heat of metals through energy balances

Engage
What is Latent Heat of Fusion?
A characteristic property of crystalline substance is the latent heat of fusion of the
substance; that is, the amount of heat energy required to change one unit mass of the
substance from the solid state to the liquid state without changing the temperature of the
substance. In this experiment, we shall determine the latent heat of fusion of ice. To do this,
we will add a known mass of ice at 0°C to warm water whose mass and temperature are
known. As in the previous experiment, we will assume that:
−𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑏𝑦 𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑚 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡
But we must remember that the ice (the cold object) gains heat as it changes state
and then, as cold water gains more heat, the temperature rises to the final temperature of
the mixture.

Explore
Watch the video of EXPERIMENT 2 and accomplish the Report Sheet at the end of this
section. You are advised to read the procedures below so you can follow the video. Also,
you are tasked to do the necessary observations and record the data based on what will
be showed in the video of the activity.

EXPERIMENT 2
Procedures:
Click on the link to watch the video:
https://drive.google.com/file/d/19l2W9f75_CH_XV_nwNFK5fQbahUsco__/view?usp=sharing

1. Weigh the calorimeter and its cover. Record its mass.

2. Fill the calorimeter about one-half full with warm water (about 35-40°C). Weigh the
calorimeter with water and cover. Record the mass.
3. Measure the temperature of the warm water in the calorimeter. Record the
temperature.
4. Crush 2 ice cubes into smaller pieces and place the ice in the calorimeter with warm
water.
5. Stir the ice-water mixture with a thermometer and record the lowest temperature
reached.
6. Measure the mass of the whole set-up. The difference in the mass between the set-up
and the mass of the calorimeter with cover and warm water is equal to the mass of the
ice.

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Department of Chemical Engineering

7. It is assumed that the initial temperature of the ice is 0°C. Calculate the latent heat of
fusion of ice.

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Department of Chemical Engineering

Experiment 02 (Accomplish this Report Sheet)

Latent Heat of Fusion of Ice

Name: ___________________________________________

Date:_______________________ Laboratory Instructor: ________________________________

REPORT SHEET

Mass of calorimeter, cup, and cover: grams

Initial temperature of warm water: °C
Mass of calorimeter, cup, and warm water: grams
Mass of warm water alone: grams
Mass of calorimeter, cup, cover, warm water, and ice: grams
Mass of ice alone: grams
Initial temperature of ice: °C
Final temperature of warm water and ice: °C
Latent heat of fusion of ice (experimental): J/g
Latent heat of fusion of ice (theoretical): J/g
Percentage error: %

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Department of Chemical Engineering

Evaluate

Assignment #4: (Hand-in your answers in the Google Classroom)

1. What error occurred by using (a) a single large piece of ice? Or (b) very fine
shavings of ice?
2. Suppose that 5.0 grams of water is transferred to the calorimeter on the surface of
the ice and assuming that all data are correct, would the calculated value for
the latent heat of fusion be too high or too low? Give reasons for your answer.
3. Recalculate the latent heat of fusion, assuming that 5.0 grams of water were
transferred to the calorimeter on the surface of the ice. Is this the expected
result? Why?
4. What is the minimum amount of ice at 0°C that must be added to the contents of
a can of diet cola (340mL) to cool it down from 20.5°C to 0°C? Assume that the
specific heat and density of the diet cola are the same as for water and that no
heat is gained or lost to the surroundings. The latent heat of fusion of ice is 335J/g.
Specific Heat of water 4.184 J/g.K, and Density of water is 1 g/mL.

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SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE
Department of Chemical Engineering

References:

Journal

Chemistry in Context, 8th Edition. American Chemical Society., Mc-Graw Hill Higher Education, 2015

Textbooks

Brown, Le May and Bursten. (2010) Chemistry, The Central Science, 7th ed., USA: Prentice Hall
International
Chang, R.(2010) Chemistry, 10th ed., New York: McGraw Hill
Davis, Mackenzie L.,(2010), Water and Wastewater Engineering Design Principles and
Practice.,Professional Edition, McGraw Hill
Davis, Mackenzie L.,(2013), Cornwell, David A. Introduction to Environmental Engineering, 5th ed.,
McGraw Hill
Geankoplis, Christie J.(2010),Transport Processes and Unit Operations, 3rd edition
Manahan, Stanley E.(2013),Fundamentals of Environmental and Toxicological Chemistry:
Sustainable Science, 4th Ed., CRC Press
Marteel-Parish, Anne E., Abraham, Martin A.(2013) Green Chemistry and Engineering: A Pathway
to Sustainability. Wiley Publishing
Masterton, William L. et. al.(2018),Principles and Reactions: Chemistry for Engineering
Students,Philippine Ed.,C&E Publishing, Inc.
Petrucci, R.H. (2011) General Chemistry: Principles and Applications, 10th ed., Toronto Pearson
Canada
Silberberg, MS (2013), Principles of General Chemistry, 3rd ed., New York: Mc Graw Hill
Whitten, K.W., Raymond, E.D.,Peck, M.L., Stanley, G.G.,(2004) General Chemistry, 7th ed., USA:
Brooks/Cole
Yunus Cengel and John Cimbala. (2013)Fluid Mechanics Fundamentals and Applications.
Zumdahl, S. & Zumdahl, S. (2014), Chemistry, 9th ed., USA: Brooks/Cole.

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