Chapter 7: Biodiversity, the Healthy Society, and the

Debatable Issues of the 21st Century

Good Health is a condition of being away from illness and diseases not just

physically but also emotionally, mentally, and spiritually. Having good health is

dependent on many factors including economic status and environmental conditions.

Health is an indicator of sustainable development and the most basic human

right.Biodiversity refers to the variety of life forms, not just rare and endangered forms

of life, nor just big and attractive animals and plants. It includes every living thing- the

common, the ordinary, the ugly, and even those organisms invisible to the naked eye. It

also refers to more than individual specie. It includes the genes they contain, and the

ecosystem and habitats of which they are part of. Biodiversity is the foundation of

human health. The conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity can provide

significant benefit to health. The relationship between biodiversity and human health is

extensive and complex simply because the conservation and sustainable use of

biodiversity have positiveimpacts on human health. The continuing loss of biodiversity

on global scale represents a direct threat to health and well-being. A healthy global

environment is capable of supporting a diversity of life. (World Health Organization,

2010).

Biodiversity is an essential element for supporting life on earth. The condition of

the natural environment depends entirely on the continuing diversity. If one species is

lost from the ecosystem, all of the other species in the ecosystem are affected. The loss

of these life forms could affect the entire ecosystem governing the environment.

According to the World Health Organization there are major threats to biodiversity that
are identified by the United Nations Environmental programs and they are as follows: 1)

habitat loss and destruction, 2) alterations in ecosystem composition, 3) over

exploitation, 4) pollution and contamination, and 5) global climate change. It is therefore

important toproperly administer agricultural productivity and sustainable use of natural

resources. Biological diversity also ensures clean air, water, and fertile soils for

sustainable development.

Aside from the promise of a better health foods and restoring healthier condition

of the natural environment, there are other debatable issues of the 21 st century such as

the biotechnology, GMOs, the nano technology, gene therapy, and climate change.

A. Biotechnology

Biotechnology aims to help professionals in managing, conserving, and using

plant genetic resources for food and agriculture. Biotechnology uses biological systems,

living organisms, or derivatives thereof to make or modify products or processes for

specific use. Particularly, it aims to develop new development precision tools and

diagnostics; speed up breeding gains and efficiency; develop pest and disease resistant

crops; combat salinity, drought, and problems of agriculture; enhance the nutritional

quality of food; increase crop varieties and choice; reduce inputs and production cost;

and increase profits (Bragdon et al., 2005).

The book, “Managing Innovation in Biotechnology” reported in 2006 that for

more than two decades, the biotechnology sector experienced an important growth

because it is a dynamic business with many challenges in new product developments to

improve the quality of life of humans and animals. The company develops a new
method for selling its products in the market and granting licences and patents to other

companies. There are two important lines of research for bio-technology that gives

profits, 1) the DNA (Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid), and 2) genetic engineering. Genetic

engineering is a technique that allows genes and DNA to be transferred from one

source to another. This leads to the production of living modified organisms (LMOs) or

genetically modified organisms (GMOs). Some of the advantages of biotech are: 1)

Reduce pollution and waste; 2) Decrease the use of energy, raw materials and water; 3)

Lead to better quality food products; 4) Create new materials and biofuels from waste;

and 5) Provide an alternative to some chemical processes.

B. Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs)

The World Health Organization defines GMO as an organism, either plant,

animals, or microorganism in which the genetic material (DNA) has been altered in a

way that does not occur naturally by mating or natural recombination. The development

of GMOs was perceived to help in the advancement of science and technology for the

benefit of human beings. It also aims to address the issues of food security, agriculture,

drug production, and nutrition. GMOs are known as transgenic organisms because this

process involves the transfer of genes.

The Center for Ecogenetics and Environmental Health (CEEH, 2013) identified

the characteristics of GMOs in food and agriculture: 1) pest resistance, 2) virus

resistance, 3) herbicide tolerance, 4) fortification, 5) cosmetic preservation, 6) increase

growth rate, 7) flower production, 8) paper production, 9) pharmaceutical production,

10) bioremediation 11) enzyme and drug production, and 12) medical treatment.
 Research studies revealed some conflicting arguments such as whether

consumption of GMOs crops is beneficial or harmful to human health. There are also

counter arguments either opposing health risk claims or suggesting that GMOs provide

more benefits than harm. However, the most notable GMO risks to human are the

potential development of allergens and toxicity from GMO related crops. Studies also

show that GMO crops potentially increase the nutritional value of foods. Here are some

of the benefits and risks of GMOs by Serafica et al., 2018.

Benefits Risks
Higher efficiency in farming; Risk in gene flow;
Increase in harvest; Emergence of new forms of resistance,
secondary pest, and weed problems;
Control in fertility; Recombination of virus and bacteria to
produce new pathogens;
Increase in food processing; Consumption alter the balance of existing
microorganisms in the human digestive
system;
Improvement of desirable characteristics; Production of toxins may be detrimental to
human health;
Nutritional and pharmaceutical enhancement; Human Genome Project
and
Reduce the use of fertilizers and pesticide. Mutation of genetically engineered
microorganism
Cloning

These concerns were affirmed by the report of the World Health Organization

(WHO) that also reported the three major issues on GMOs that are in international

public debates. These are the potential risks of allergic reactions, gene transfer/flow,

and outcrossing. (WHO, 2014)

C. The Nano World

 The tern “nano” refers to a unit meaning of one billionth or ten raised to negative

nine (10-9). A nanometeris one billionth of meter. Nano expresses a very tiny amount or

size. A particle of beach sand is almost ten times larger than a pollen grain. A single

strand of DNA is about three nanometers wide. Catalysts, minerals, and other particles

are measured on a nano scale. Nanoscience deals with materials that are very small

using specialized microscopes and other nanodevice. Nanotechnology involves

operating at a very small dimension and it allows scientist to make use of the

exceptional optical, chemical, physical, mechanical, and biological qualities of materials

of that small scale (NNI 2017). It is an advance interdisciplinary field that encompasses

science and technology that manufacture materials to improve the various aspects of

humanity especially on healthcare, environment, energy, food, water, and agriculture. It

is a field of exploration and advancement of knowledge to help improve the quality of life

on earth.

It is possible that in the near future, computers will become even much better,

more efficient, and faster than today. Energy saving computers with a larger storage of

memory will be developed. Shortly few years from now, the entire memory of the

computer will be saved in a single tiny chip. Nanotechnology has the potential to

construct high efficiency, low cost batteries and solar cells.

In the pursuit of a better life, humans are now dealing with the challenges in a

world that cannot be seen by the naked eye. No wonder why today, science and

technology keeps leading the world and beyond. The Nano world provides both the

knowledge and instrument to control nature along with the other scientific principles

governing the technological world.

 Below is a table showing the Benefits and Concerns of the Application of

Nanotechnology in Different Areas published by the University of Washington.

Example of Areas Possible Benefits Concerns

Affected by
Nano Technology
Environment >Improved detection >High reactivity and toxicity
and removal of >Pervasive distribution in the
contaminants environment
>Development of >No nano-specific EPA regulation
benign industrial
process and materials
Health >improved medicine >ability to cross cell membranes
and translocate in the body
>No FDA approval needed for
cosmetics or supplements
Economy >Better products >Redistribution of wealth
>New jobs >Potential cost of clean-ups and
healthcare
>Accessibility to all income level

According to McNamara et al., 2018, nanotechnology refers to the manipulation

of matter on an atomic or subatomic scale. In the future, as nanoscience and

nanotechnology progresses, more breakthroughs are expected to arise in the different

fields of science, hopefully resolving problems in health, environment, and security

among others.

D. Aspects of Gene Therapy

 Human illness and diseases nowadays are becoming complicated and some are

no longer curable using traditional methods. Gene therapy is a potential method to

either treat or cure genetic-related human illnesses. The whole vast concerns of human

health including illnesses, aging, treatment and prevention, diet and lifestyle have

greatly improved from the help of technology especially in the medical science.

In 2015, a team of researchers at the Harvard Medical School stated that they

were able to restore basic hearing in generally deaf mice using gene therapy. The

Boston Children’s Hospital research team also reported that they have restored a higher

level of hearing-down to 25 decibels which is actually equivalent to a whisper. They

used an improved gene therapy vector developed at the Massachusetts Eye and Ear

that was identified as “Anc80” which enables the transfer of genes to the inaccessible

outer hair cell when introduced into the cochlea ( Fisher, 2017).

Gene therapy is actually inspired by the success of DNA technology which

occurred more than twenty years ago. The primary goal of gene therapy is to increase

the body’s own level of healing capacity. It is simply a process of inserting foreign DNA

into a patient’s tissues which requires expertise and technological skills to eradicate the

targeted disease. It is one of the promising technological advancements and yet, maybe

unfavourable medical field being studied. The financial cost of this therapy is not simply

cheap but costly. It is still considered as an experimental technique that uses genes to

treat or prevent diseases. Researchers are testing several approaches to gene therapy

consisting of the following: 1) replacing a mutated gene that causes diseases with a

healthy copy of the gene, 2) inactivating, or knocking out a mutated gene that is not
functioning properly, and 3) introducing a new gene into the body to help fight a

disease. (Science Daily, 2017)

It is considered risky and still under study to make sure that it will be safe

andeffective. It is currently tested only for diseases that are terminal and no treatment

available to cure. (Genetic Home Reference, January 2019)

E. Climate Change

Climate refers to the long-term weather patterns prevailing over a given area of

the planet. Climate change refers to the statistically significant changes in the climate

for a continuous period of time. There are two factors contributing to climate change, 1)

natural internal-external process, and 2) the persistent anthropogenic changes in the

composition of the atmosphere or in the use of land. It can also be due to the natural

occurrences contributed by destructive acts of human beings.

The following are the natural and man-made causes of climate change.

1. Volcanic Eruptions is one of the natural causes of climate change. It can cause

a cooling effect to the lithosphere because it has emitted aerosol that can block a

certain percentage of solar radiation. There are recorded major volcanic eruptions that

havecaused climate change, one of which is the eruption of Mt. Pinatubo of the

Philippines in 1991.

2. Orbital Changes also can cause climate change. According to theMilankovitch

Theory, as the Earth travels through the space around the sun, cyclical variations in

three elements of Earth-Sun geometry combine to produce variations in the amount of

solar energy that reaches the Earth. The three elements that have cyclic variations are

eccentricity, obliquity, and precession (Academia Emporia, 2017).

3. The Carbon Dioxide Theory

According to this theory, carbon dioxide (CO 2) is added when power and heat are

produced by burning coal, oil, and other fossil fuels. It absorbs part of the infrared

radiation in the air and returns it to the ground keeping the near surface warmer. It

raises the temperature from 2oC to 3oC.

Gilbert N. Plass stated that there is no possible stable state for the climate. He

simply explained it using the CO2 theory. The extra CO2 released into the atmosphere by

industrial process and other human activities causes the temperature to rise. The CO 2

theory also predicts that warming trend will continue for several centuries. ( Plass, 1956)

Most of the scientist who studied the climate change agreed that the average

temperature of the Earth’s atmosphere has been increasing by over 90% in the latter

part of the 20th century.

4. Human Activities

From the start of industrial period between 17 th-18thcentury, the over-all effect of

human activities on the climate greatly exceeded as compared to the known changes of

natural processes like the solar changes and volcanic eruptions. Human activities

emitted the four principal greenhouses gases: carbon dioxide (CO 2), nitrous oxide

(N2O), methane (CH4), and the halocarbons (a group of gases containing fluorine,

chlorine, and bromine). These human activities include the burning of fossil fuels,

converting lands to forestry and agriculture, building of roads, bridges, and highways,
mining, manufacturing, steel making, and other human productive activities. The effects

of these activities also affect the environment and all life forms in the planet. It directly

affects the basic elements of human lives like water, food, health, use of land and the

environment.