Week

Week3 3
Cells Cells
– Structure
and Tissues-
and Function
Part 1
Week 3
Learning Outcomes - You should now be able to:

• Define a Cell
• Identify the components of a cell
• Differentiate between Prokaryotic cell and Eukaryotic cell
• Describe the function of each organelle within a cell
 Cells
● A cell is the smallest unit of a living thing. A living thing, like you, is called an organism. Thus, cells are the
basic building blocks of all organisms

● In multicellular organisms, several cells of one particular kind interconnect with each other and perform
shared functions to form tissues (for example, muscle tissue, connective tissue, and nervous tissue), several
tissues combine to form an organ (for example, stomach, heart, or brain), and several organs make up an
organ system (such as the digestive system, circulatory system, or nervous system)

● Several systems functioning together form an organism (such as an elephant, for example)

● There are many types of cells, and all are grouped into one of two broad categories:
Prokaryotic (Bacteria and Archae) and Eukaryotic (Animals, plants and fungi)
 Microscope

Most light microscopes used in a college biology lab can magnify cells up to approximately 400 times
 Cell Theory

By the late 1830s, botanist Matthias Schleiden and zoologist Theodor Schwann were studying
tissues and proposed the unified cell theory, which states the following:

1. All living things are composed of one or more cells

2. The cell is the basic unit of life

3. All new cells arise from existing cells.

All cells share four common components:

1) a plasma membrane, an outer covering that separates the cell’s interior from its surrounding environment

2) a cytoplasm, consisting of a jelly-like region within the cell in which other cellular components are found

3) DNA, the genetic material of the cell

4) ribosomes, particles that synthesize proteins

● A eukaryotic cell is a cell that has a membrane-bound nucleus and other membrane-bound
compartments or sacs, called organelles, which have specialized functions

● The word eukaryotic means “true kernel” or “true nucleus,” alluding to the presence of the
membrane-bound nucleus in these cells

● The word “organelle” means “little organ,” and, as already mentioned, organelles have
specialized cellular functions, just as the organs of your body have specialized functions
Cell size
Types of
Cells
Structure of
an Animal
Cell
Structure of a
Plant Cell
 Cytoplasm

● The cytoplasm comprises the contents of a cell between the plasma membrane and the nuclear
envelope (a structure to be discussed shortly). It is made up of organelles suspended in the gel-like
cytosol, the cytoskeleton, and various chemicals

● Even though the cytoplasm consists of 70 to 80 percent water it has a semi-solid consistency, which
comes from the proteins within it

● However, proteins are not the only organic molecules found in the cytoplasm. Glucose and other
simple sugars, polysaccharides, amino acids, nucleic acids, fatty acids, and derivatives of glycerol are
found there too

● Many metabolic reactions, including protein synthesis, take place in the cytoplasm.
 Cytoskeleton
Within the cytoplasm, there are ions and organic molecules, plus a network of protein fibers that helps to maintain
the shape of the cell, secures certain organelles in specific positions, allows cytoplasm and vesicles to move within
the cell, and enables unicellular organisms to move independently.

Collectively, this network of protein fibers is known as the cytoskeleton.

There are three types of fibers within the cytoskeleton:

● microfilaments, also known as actin filaments,

● intermediate filaments, and

● microtubules
 Flagella and Cilia
● Flagella (singular = flagellum) are long, hair-like structures that extend from the plasma membrane and are us
to move an entire cell, (for example, sperm, Euglena)

● When present, the cell has just one flagellum or a few flagella

● When cilia (singular = cilium) are present, however, they are many in number and extend along the entire
surface of the plasma membrane.

● They are short, hair-like structures that are used to move entire cells (such as paramecium) or move substance
along the outer surface of the cell (for example, the cilia of cells lining the fallopian tubes that move the ovum
toward the uterus
 Endomembrane System

The endomembrane system (endo = within) is a group of membranes and organelles (Figure 4.13) in
eukaryotic cells that work together to modify, package, and transport lipids and proteins. It includes the
nuclear envelope, lysosomes, and vesicles, the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus.
 Nucleus
● Typically, the nucleus is the most prominent organelle in a cell

● The nucleus (plural = nuclei) houses the cell’s DNA in the form of chromatin
and directs the synthesis of ribosomes and proteins

● The outermost boundary of the nucleus is the nuclear envelope

● The nuclear envelope is a double-membrane structure that constitutes the

● Both the inner and outer membranes of the nuclear envelope are
phospholipid bilayers

● The nuclear envelope is punctuated with pores that control the passage of
ions, molecules, and RNA between the nucleoplasm and the cytoplasm.
Parts of
the
Nucleus
Endoplasmic
Reticulum
 Endoplasmic Reticulum
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a series of interconnected membranous tubules that collectively modify proteins and
synthesize lipids.

However, these two functions are performed in separate areas of the endoplasmic reticulum:

● Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)

RER:
● The rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) is so named because the ribosomes attached to its cytoplasmic surface give it a
studded appearance when viewed through an electron microscope.

● The ribosomes synthesize proteins while attached to the ER, resulting in transfer of their newly synthesized
proteins into the lumen of the RER where they undergo modifications such as folding or addition of sugars.

SER:
● It is continuous with the RER but has few or no ribosomes on its cytoplasmic surface

● The SER’s functions include synthesis of carbohydrates, lipids (including phospholipids), and steroid hormones;
detoxification of medications and poisons; alcohol metabolism; and storage of calcium ions.
Golgi Apparatus

• Functions:

• Sorting

• Tagging

• Packaging

• Distribution of lipids and

● In animal cells, the lysosomes are the cell’s “garbage disposal.”

● Digestive enzymes within the lysosomes aid the breakdown of proteins,

● In single-celled eukaryotes, lysosomes are important for digestion of the food they
ingest and the recycling of organelles

● These enzymes are active at a much lower pH (more acidic) than those located in
the cytoplasm

● Lysosomes also use their hydrolytic enzymes to destroy disease-causing organisms

● They are membrane-bound sacs that function in storage and transport

● Vacuoles are somewhat larger than vesicles, and the membrane of a vacuole does not fuse with the
membranes of other cellular components

● Vesicles can fuse with other membranes within the cell system. Additionally, enzymes within plant
vacuoles can break down macromolecules
 Ribosomes

● Ribosomes are the cellular structures responsible for protein synthesis

● When viewed through an electron microscope, free ribosomes appear as either clusters or
single tiny dots floating freely in the cytoplasm

● Ribosomes may be attached to either the cytoplasmic side of the plasma membrane or the
cytoplasmic side of the endoplasmic reticulum
 Mitochondria
● Mitochondria (singular = mitochondrion) are often called the “powerhouses” or
“energy factories” of a cell because they are responsible for making adenosine
triphosphate (ATP), the cell’s main energy-carrying molecule

● The formation of ATP from the breakdown of glucose is known as cellular respiration

● Mitochondria are oval-shaped, double-membrane organelles hat have their own

● Each membrane is a phospholipid bilayer embedded with proteins

● The inner layer has folds called cristae, which increase the surface area of the inner
membrane

● The area surrounded by the folds is called the mitochondrial matrix

● The cristae and the matrix have different roles in cellular respiration
 Peroxisomes
● Peroxisomes are small, round organelles enclosed by single membranes

● They carry out oxidation reactions that break down fatty acids and amino acids

● They also detoxify many poisons that may enter the body. Alcohol is detoxified by peroxisomes in liver cells

● A byproduct of these oxidation reactions is hydrogen peroxide, H2O2, which is contained within the
peroxisomes to prevent the chemical from causing damage to cellular components outside of the organelle

● Hydrogen peroxide is safely broken down by peroxisomal enzymes into water and oxygen
 Central Vacuole

● Plant cells each have a large, central vacuole that occupies most of the cell

● The central vacuole plays a key role in regulating the cell’s concentration of water in changing
environmental conditions

● In plant cells, the liquid inside the central vacuole provides turgor pressure, which is the
outward pressure caused by the fluid inside the cell

● As the central vacuole shrinks, it leaves the cell wall unsupported. This loss of support to the
cell walls of a plant results in the wilted appearance

● Additionally, this fluid has a very bitter taste, which discourages consumption by insects and
animals

● The central vacuole also functions to store proteins in developing seed cells.