Tuning For Speed PDF

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TUNING FOR SPEED
Now in its third edition, this book has been

revised, enlarged and brought up to date in such
matters as racing fuels, "tuned" exhaust systems
and the theory of carburation and lubrication.
Two new chapters, one on twin-cylinder engines
and the other concerned with two-stroke tuning,
have been added and the tables of valve and
ignition tunings, of sparking plugs and car-
buretter sizes and settings now include data
applicable to the most recent types of racing
engines. Based upon many years of actual racing
experience, this work is invaluable to owners of
racing motorcycles and of interest to every keen
motorcyclist.
ALSO PUBLISHED IN ASSOCIATION WITH
"MOTOR CYCLING"
"MOTOR CYCLING" MANUAL
fJ.uning t04
"MOTOR CYCLING" ELECTRICAL MANUAL
MODERN MOTORCYCLE MAINTENANCE
LIGHTWEIGHT MOTORCYCLES
"MOTOR CYCLING" YEAR BOOK
SPEED
HolY to increase the performance of a standard
"MOTOR CYCLING" ROAD TESTS
THE CYCLEMOTOR MANUAL
motorcycle engine for racing and
MOTORCYCLING ABROAD competition work
TRIALS RIDING
MOTORCYCLE ENGINEERING FOR SCHOOLS
BY
"MOTOR CYCLING" SERVICE SERIES
P. E. IRVING
IN ASSOCIATION WITH
THE STAFF OF
TEMPLE PRESS LIMITED

BOWLING GREEN LANE
LONDON, E.c.l
. 'I '. .. 'j
.::J,
FIRST PUDLiSHED 1948
REPRINTED 1949
SECOND EDITION 1951 CONTENTS
REPRINTED 1952
THIRD EDITION 1956
FOREWORD vii
A PRELIMINARY SURVEY
II CARBURATION AND INDUCTION FACTORS 16
III ATTENTION TO O.H.V. CYLINDER HEADS 32
IV ADJUSTING COMPRESSION RATIOS 46
V CHECKING PISTON AND RING WEAR 64
VI THE CONNECTING-ROD AND BIG-END 79
VII TRUING AND BALANCING FLYWHEELS 94
VIII WORK ON THE CRANKCASE 109
IX REASSEMBLING CRANKCASE COMPONENTS 122
X "TOP-HALF" REASSEMBLY 132
XI LIGHTENING THE VALVE MECHANISM 141
XII ADJUSTMENTS TO VALVE GEAR 153
XIII IMPROVED CYLINDER FILLING 168
XIV IGNITION TOPICS 182
XV TWIN-CYLINDER ENGINES 189
XVI TWO-STROKE ENGINES 207
XVII ASSEMBLING THE ENGINE IN THE FRAME 234
XVIII MAINTENANCE OF RACING CARBURETTERS 240
XlX "HARD" AND "SOFT" TYPES OF SPARKING PLUG 258
XX TESTING THE FINISHED WORK 264
ApPENDIX 273
INDEX 285
Prill/ed by Purnell alld SOliS, Ltd.
Pail/toil (Somerset) alld LOlldoll
MADE IN GREAT BRITAIN
FOREWORD
SINCE time immemorial man has sought to travel faster than his
fellow man. This inborn human urge gained tremendous impetus
some 60 years ago with the introduction of the petrol engine as
a practical proposition for vehicle propulsion. Inevitably, users
of the new form of transport felt their competitive instincts
aroused. Their demands for more power and more miles per
hour were met initially by the simple expedient of fitting larger
and still larger engines. In this" brute force" era, in which sheer
volume counted for more than volumetric efficiency, the results
of hit-or-miss experiments were all too obvious, the scientific
reasons for those results all too seldom understood.
Clearly a halt had to be called to this" Frankenstein's Monster"
method of progression. With a growing understanding of basic
principles in internal-combustion power production, allied with
practical experiments on the road, designers turned their atten-
tion to obtaining increased perfomlance from engines of more
moderate cubic capacity. So far as motorcycles were concerned,
this more scientific form of development was encouraged by the
introduction of the Isle of Man Tourist Trophy Races with their
strict limitation of engine sizes. This second era was one in which
the observant mechanically-minded amateur rider sometimes dis-
covered a "secret of tune" which enabled him for a time to score
over his professional rivals.
With advances in metallurgy and a complete appreciation of
basic principles, the point has now been reached in this, the third
era, where there are no longer any "secrets". Science has re-
placed brute force and guesswork. Success in international
events depends upon the combined efforts of the designer and
development engineer, plus a host of specialist technicians
responsible for ancillary equipment.
But if the day has passed when the lone amateur could hope to
beat the factory representative in a major event, tuning skill,
combined with riding ability, continues to bring success to the
private owner in a wide variety of competitions. Nor need he
possess elaborate workshop facilities to improve the performance
of llis standard sports model or production type racer. What he
must have, however, is the necessary "know how" and that is
vii
FOREWORD
supplied in this' Manual. Written by a well-known technician
responsible for the design, development and racing preparation
of highly successful "factory" models, it embodies a wealth of
hard-earned knowledge yet reflects throughout the author's ready
understanding of the private owner's problems. Now in its third CHAPTER I
edition and incorporating two new chapters devoted respectively
to twin-cylinder four-stroke and two-stroke power units, plus an
extended index and many additional illustrations, the book has A PRELIMINARY SURVEY
been fully revised and brought completely up-to-date.
Although intended primarily for the racing motorcyclist, SUCCESS in tuning an engine for speed depends upon three
much of the text will prove equally useful to those drivers of main factors. They are: (1) getting the maximum com-
Formula III racing cars who may lack practical experience in the bustible charge into the cylinder the maximum number of
tuning of high-performance air-cooled single- and twin-cylinder times per minute; (2) turning as much as possible of the
power units. Moreover the ordinary everyday motorcyclist,
perhaps not in the least degree interested in racing, can benefit heat liberated into useful work, instead of absorbing it into
from a study of the special assembly methods employed by racing the combustion-chamber walls or losing it down the exhaust
mechanics; a touring engine rebuilt to racing standards of pipe; and (3) eliminating all unnecessary sources of internal
accuracy could well be more efficient in overall performance, friction.
smoother running, cleaner and quieter in operation than hitherto. With these three points fixed firmly in mind, some time
The author emphasizes that in this textbook it has not been can be spent very profitably in planning a course of action
possible to delve deeply into details of specific makes of machines which will ultimately give the maximum benefit without
and power units. Thus, should the reader find that his advice wasting too much time, or money, on non-essentials.
runs counter to that given in some manufacturers' instruction It must be assumed that certain indispensable equipment
manual, the latter should always be heeded or the maker con- is available, such as a good workshop bench, well lighted,
sulted before modifications are undertaken. Similarly, where
reference is made to machine tools, heat treatments and so forth, and in surroundings of such a nature that scrupulous cleanli-
the information is given so that the reader may explain what is ness can be observed, particularly during the final stages of
required to the engineer deputed to carry out the work; specialist assembly. It is also a good plan to prepare suitable washing
technicians are not always well versed in the idiosyncrasies of and draining trays, large enough to accommodate a com-
motorcycles and will appreciate expert advice. plete crankcase, before commencing work.
External and internal micrometers of assorted sizes are
useful, but expensive. As one will be concerned primarily
with clearances and not actual dimensions, they are not
absolutely vital, but a good set of narrow-bladed feeler
gauges most definitely will be. Another very useful gadget
is a cast-iron surface plate at least 12 in. square. Really
accurate scraped plates, too, are expensive, but a slab of
Consulting Editor
.. Motor Cycling" cast iron or mild steel plate, surface ground on both sides,
makes an excellent substitute, and there are plenty of
machine shops which will carry out the grinding at quite
reasonable rates. In conjunction with the surface plate will
viii
1
..;-! . '(, .
TUNING FOR SPEED A PRELIMINARY SURVEY
be needed a scribing block and dial gauge reading to .001 if necessary, until it reaches half-way up the hole. Now
in., for checking squareness and parallelism of various read off on the burette the amount of liquid poured into
components and assemblies, and a burette, or graduated the head. Assuming this to be 80 c.c. and the correct volume
glass jar, for measuring compression ratios. of the engine to be 498 c.c., the C.R. would be
A lot can be done without any equipment additional to
the usual workshop hand tools, but a little capital invested 498 + 80 578 7.22 to 1
at the outset is almost certain to pay a dividend later on.
When lack of cash is a deciding factor, it is a good plan for and so on for any other capacity (see Chapter IV), The
several aspirants to speed honours to pool their resources level of liquid in the hole should be watched closely for
and thus obtain a well-equipped workshop without an a while, to verify that no leakage is taking place past the
excessive drain on the pocket of each individuaL rings or valves. If there is a leakage, then the real volume
Then one must decide for what sort of event the machine
is to be used-or, rather, for what it is suitable-grass,
scrambles, hill-climb or road events. However well pre-
4.'ared, very few engines other than modern types can com-
pete with any hope of even moderate success in long-dis-
tance racing when limited to non-alcoholic fuel, but they The method 0/ measur- ~
<
illg combustiol/-chamber
may do quite well in short-distance work-dirt or grass- I'oiume with a burette
tracking, hill-climbs or sprint stuff-or even long-distance alld liquid-eilher par-
track or road-racing where alcohol is permitted. Some of affill alld thill oil or water
is lIsed.
the engines built several years before the 1939-45 war are
excellent for such work; they are usually lighter than their
modern brethren, and although sometimes rather deficient
in fin area judged by modern standards, this is not to their
detriment if the engine is to run exclusively on "dope" fuel;
in fact, it may even be an asset in short-distance events
when a rapid warm-up to operating temperature is necessary.
Right from the start it is best to keep a record, rather of the head will be somewhat less than the apparent volume
than to trust to memory, of work done and the results which but, unless the engine is in a very bad state indeed, the
have been obtained, and, in order to know where you have inaccuracy will rarely be bad enough to matter at this
started, commence operations by noting carefully the stage of the proceedings. If you really want to do the job
ignition timing, valve timing and compression ratio. accurately, then lift off the head and carefully apply grease
The latter is determined by setting the piston at t.d.c. around the valve heads and between the piston crown and
with the valves closed, then filling the cylinder head from barrel to form a temporary seal.
the burette until the liquid just reaches the lowest threads As to the liquid used, water is the best when there is any
of tbe plug bole, the engine being positioned so that the doubt about the condition of the valves or rings, because it
plug hole is vertical. Then rock the mainshaft very slightly is less likely to leak past these points than paraffin or light
until the liquid reaches its maximum height and top-up, oil, particularly if a drop or two of engine oil is first
2 3
squirted up the inlet and exhaust ports. For checking the plan to determine for subsequent reference what the actual
ratio of a newly assembled engine, a mixture of paraffin advance range is.
and thin oil is preferable, as it does not leave a legacy of For the valves, methods vary: some cams are ground
rust behind it. with " quietening curves " at the start and finish of lift,
Although burettes (which can be obtained from most which give a very slow take-up, making the actual" lift"
wholesale chemists or scientific instrument suppliers) are and "close" points difficult to determine. The recom·
mostly graduated in C.c.s, there is of course no absolute mendation in such cases is to measure the timing with the
need to use either that instrument or that scale. The head tappets set to a clearance much greater than the normal
volume could just as easily be measured in fluid ounces or running clearance. This has the effect of making the
cubic inches, provided that the same measure is used for opening and closing points more sharply defined, but, of
the cylinder capacity. In working out the ratio remember course, it does not give the true figures, a point which must
that 35.2 fluid ounces equals one litre (1,000 c.c.) and, using be borne in mind when comparing the timings for engines
this conversion factor, the volume of any cylinder can easily of different makes.
be determined. A table of representative valve timings and clearances is
If a timing disc is fitted to the mainshaft before measur- given in Chapter XII from which it will be seen that, on
ing the clearance volume and a wire pointer is fixed at some o.h.c. Nortons, the timing is quoted with less than the
convenient location, the pointer can be bent to fix accur- running clearance. As the clearance is adjusted by varying
ately zero on the disc when the piston is absolutely at thicknesses of shims inside,the valve caps on these models,
t.d.c., as indicated by the liquid in the plug hole having the recommended checking clearance is obtained simply by
reached maximum height. using feeler gauges of the appropriate thickness between
The ignition and valve timings can now be checked, and to valve stem and cam follower.
avoid inconsistencies it is best to adopt a standard system of On Vincent engines, it is not possible to "measure the
measurement, preferably that recommended by the makers. clearances with feelers; the method adopted is to set up a
For measuring the ignition, first set the points to the correct dial gauge in contact with the valve stem, and to adjust the
gap (:012 in. in the case of most racing magnetos), in- tappets so that the valve is lifted one to two thous., making
sert a 1i-thou. feeler or a piece of tissue paper between sure, of course, that the follower is on the base circle of the
the points, and, while applying slight resistance to the cam and not just at the start of lift. Then turn the engine
armature spindle (by holding the sprocket nut between until the valve lifts a further .005 in., and read off the timing
the fingers or some such method), in order to take up any at that point. This method is the one which should be used
back-lash in the drive, turn the motor until the feeler is just on any engine to get a really accurate reading of the valve
released as the points commence to open, the control timing.
being, of course, set to full advance. The crank angle at which each valve reaches full lift, too,
On machines fitted with automatic centrifugal advance should be measured, and also the full height of lift of
mechanisms, it is best to lock the mechanism into full both valves and the amount each is open at both bottom and
advance with a piece of metal or wood jammed between top dead centres with correct running clearances. You will
one pair of the fixed and moving stops; checking at full then have a fairly complete picture of the valve-timing
retard and adding the theoretical amount of advance given diagram, though to do the job properly, readings should
by the A.T.D. is not really accurate, although it is a good be taken at, say, 2" intervals: the lift curve can then be
4 5
TUNING FOR SPEED
Sometimes a bearing will be slightly pitted in one small
plotted on squared paper and the effect of any subsequent area but is otherwise in good condition: In this case" as
cam modifications will be shown very clearly by plotting a temporary expedient if no spa~e i.s avaIla?le, the beanng
the new lift curves on the same sheet (see Chapter XIII). can be refitted on its shaft or III Its hO~SI~g so th~t the
All this measuring and note-taking may seem very up- damaged area comes into a position w~ere It IS ?ot subjected
stage and time-wasting, but if you are to do any good at to heavy load. The line of least load ~s ~t 9 ~ clock ,on the
the game you must know what you are about, and you may drive-side main, at 3 o'clock on the tImmg-side !Dam, and
*as well start off correctly. You may, for instance, do some- 9 o'clock on the crankpin-in each case lookmg at the
thing very silly later on, but will have all the information crankcase from the drive side. , ,
necessary to check back on earlier work and thus be able One point which needs to be watched closely IS blg-
to put the motor back to a previously successful state, and end lubrication, and another is whether the. rod or cage
then start again from there but along different lines. shows any tendency to work over to one sI,de a~d bear
The way is now clear to get down to business, the first heavily against the flywheel. The lat~er state IS a SIgn that
step, obviously, being to strip the engine completely, keep- either the crankpin or big-end sleeve IS tapered, or that the
jng watch all the time for places where undue wear bas roller-cage slots are not absolutely parallel with the ,axle;
occurred, for wear implies friction, which is one of the but, in any case, the trouble is liab.le to be aggravated If the
main things to be eliminated. oil is fed in at one side of the cage mstead o~ through a ~ole,
or holes, immediately under the rollers. SIde-fed, beanngs
Mechanical Condition are a potential source of bother at prolonged high revs;
Regarding the general mechanical condition, any parts if possib1~, steps should be taken to ~b~ain a central feed,
which show signs of bad wear should be replaced, the main either by modifying the pin or obtammg ano.the~ of the
thing being to decide what constitutes "severe" wear. approved pattern. This point will be dealt With III more
Because a bit of mechanical noise does not matter, a certain detail in Chapter VI. .'
amount of slackness here and there can be disregarded; but If the compression is already faIrly high, say, up to 7 to 1
it is a mistake to think, as some do, that everything should be or so, it is probable that enough I?etal can be turned off
sloppy. Plain bearings in the cam gear and small-end the cylinder to raise the C.R. Suffi,cI~ntly ~or pet!ol-~eIl:zo!e
should have a clearance of between .001 in. and .002 in. to be used while retaining the ongmal pIston, l~ thl~ IS m
per inch of diameter, with a maximum of .003 in. Ball or good condition and shows no signs of crackmg IIl: the
roller bearings should have practically no slack in them at gudgeon bosses. If" dope" is to be used, the ,old pIston
all, and the race tracks must be examined to see that no can be put quietly on the shelf, for a. new hIg~-domed
pitting has taken place. pattern will be required in order to obtam the deSIrable 14
When dismantling any engine containing more than one to 1, or so, ratio. ,
set of rollers, take particular care to avoid mixing up the The condition of barrel and rings is especially Important,
sets. Take each bearing apart carefully, place each set for it is no use sucking in a lot of gas just to let it blow past
of rollers in a matchbox, or tin, and make a note on the the piston. If an area of wear exists ~t the top end of the
container stating the location of the contents. Injecting barrel, the rings will lose contact WIth the walls at very
fresh oil into each bearing prior to dismantling will usually high speeds, allowing pressure to, be reduce~.
serve to retain the rollers in place long enough to stop them Unfortunately, few cylinders will stand bemg rebored to
cascading all over the bench. 7
6
the full standard oversize without bringing the engine out- in methanol and, as the mixture in such engines is often
side the class cubic capacity limit, and you may have to look excessively rich, the guide lubrication suffers and wear is
into the question of obtaining a new barrel or having the old rapid.
one re-lined. The latter technique is quite a good idea for Valve and Seat Modifications
the arduous conditions of dirt-track or sand racing, because
the liner can first be bored out .005 in. under-size, and, later, If the exhaust valve has worn to a very thin edge or shows
honed out to standard diameter: after that a new liner can signs of being badly burnt under the head, it should be dis-
be fitted and thus the expense of new barrels is avoided. If carded in favour of a new one.
the wear is only to the extent of two or three tho us. the The silchrome or cobalt-chrome valves frequently fitted
barrel can be lapped out by hand. to sports engines are very satisfactory in ordinary road use
The condition of the valves, guides and seats is important. for both inlet and exhaust, but where racing is concerned it
Inlet valve stems should have between .002 in. and .004 in. is better to play safe and go in for an austenitic steel, i.e.,
clearance, but exhaust valves, if made of K.E. 965 or K.E. 965 or Jessop's G2. for the exhaust valve, although the
Jessop's G2. steel, need more, .002 per 1 in. of stem diameter standard steel should be satisfactory for the inlet.
being a good figure to work to. If the clearance is less than Apart from the faint chance that a crack may have
this, the valve may bind at high temperatures; if more; it occurred between the exhaust valve seat and plug hole (a
cannot get rid of heat properly, owing to insufficient contact defect which is sometimes difficult to detect), an old cylinder
with the guide. head which has seen much service usually shows a good
This matter of heat dissipation is vital, and if the existing deal of valve-seat wear-particularly on the inlet side-
guide is of cast iron (which is a comparatively poor con- which causes the valves to be slightly masked and reduces
ductor of heat) it can, with advantage, be replaced by their effective lift. If, as is frequently the case in sports
one of aluminium-bronze or phosphor-bronze, though the engines, the valves are of equal size, the best way to cure this
latter has been known to give trouble under extreme beat trouble will be to obtain a valve about 1 in. larger in
conditions tbrough breaking away at the hot end near diameter, open out the inlet port to suit and recut the seat.
the port. This procedure may not be possible in some engines
An alloy composed of copper with I per cent. chromium where the valve is already of the maximum permissible
added, and known as chromium-copper, is even better for diameter, as dictated by the position of the plug hole or the
heat transference and its rate of wear is low; itis, however, liability of fouling the edge of the exhaust valve when both
difficult to machine and particularly hard to ream. It must valves are partially lifted. In such a case the masking must
be remembered that none of these non-ferrous materials be removed by cutting it away with a tool similar to a valve
will function satisfactorily without lubrication; cast-iron seat cutter but with a much flatter angle; if the valve seat
will work dry, but even it will benefit from the presence of angle is 45°, it is often possible to utilize a cutter intended
a little oil. Cast iron is, however, quite satisfactory for for a larger valve with a 30° seat. Some welding firms make
the inlet valve guide, as heat conditions here are much a speciality of building-up worn seats by welding, and in
less severe, and iron material can with advantage be used for some cases also will re-machine the head, though not of
exhaust guides in place of aluminium bronze in engines course to racing standards; both iron and aluminium-
with aluminium heads using methanol, Shell A or 811, or bronze heads can be reclaimed by this method, but there is
similar fuels arid a castor-base oil. This type of oil is soluble a grave danger of melting the aluminium jacket or at least
8 9
TUNING FOR SPEED
destroying the close adherence between the two metals in
the case of bi-metal heads which have aluminium fins cast the mating surfaces are very accurate and smooth and the
round a bronze" skull". bottom of each recess and ring are square to the axis.
Boring out the seats and fitting inserts is an attractive For aluminium-bronze heads, use either Monel-metal or
method of head reclamation, since there is no risk of K-Mon~l (~btainable from Henry Wiggin and Company,
cracking or spoiling the head through excessive heat, and Ltd., Blrmmgham) or wrought aluminium bronze prefer-
also the inserts can be made of material which is less prone ably in the form of tube. •
to seat-sinkage than the original; cast aluminium-bronze Ri,ngs should always be shrunk in, never pressed in cold,
is bad in this respect whereas wrought aluminium-bronze as wlth the latter method there is always a risk of scoring
in the form of tube or extruded bar is good. Seat-rings the surfaces. With .002 in. per inch of diameter inter-
made in plain cast-iron or austenitic cast-iron which is high- ference a ring should just drop into a cast-iron head at
Q
expansion, high-wear-resisting material, can be obtained 200 C. temperature difference, but, to make sure, 250 0 C.
from various firms-" Brico" and Wellworthy to mention is advisable. This can be obtained either by just heating the
only two-in standard sizes which may, however, need to head to 250 0 C. or by heating it to 200" C. and freezing the
be reduced in outsize diameter to be usable in some heads. ring in dry ice (frozen carbon dioxide; 200 0 C. (400° F.) head
Seat rings can also be purchased as spares from firms who temperature without freezing is sufficient for a bronze head'
supply aluminium "heads with inserted seats as standard this temperature can be obtained in a domestic gas 0;
equipment. The nickel-iron anoy known as "Ni-resist" is electric stove. To ensure quick and accurate fitting a
of the austenitic type and is excellent raw material from mandrel (or mandrels) should first be made up from steel
which to make seat-rings. bar, with a pilot which fits the guide bore and a register
When fitting seat-rings, the limiting factor is usually the on which the ring fits with a little more slack than the
thickness of metal which will be left between the recesses interference of the ring in the recess (otherwise the mandrel
and the plug-hole and at the top of the sphere between may be gripped by the ring). In use, a light coating of
the two recesses; if the thickness at the surface of the grease on the register will retain the ring whilst the mandrel
sphere is less than 1 in. there is a risk that a crack will is pushed quickly home and pressed down for some seconds
occur in service, particularly if there is much difference until the ring is gripped by the head.
between the thermal coefficients of expansion between the Aluminium-alloy heads with inserted seats have been
metals of the seats and the head. The most likely place used on racing engines for many years and are a feature
for such a crack to start is between the plug-hole and of all post-war production racers. Various methods of
exhaust seat, and it may be possible to improve the situa- fitting the rings have been tried, but the plain parallel
tion by using a seat-ring to suit an exhaust valve n- in. form just described is much the simplest to make and to
replace and never comes loose if properly fitted in the
smaller; admittedly this will leave a small ridge in the
port but this can be subsequently blended out and in any first place. Aluminium, besides having a high coefficient
case the exact shape of the exhaust port is not of great of expansion loses a large proportion of its strength at
importance. high temperatures, though some alloys such as Y-alloy
Seat-rings of the same coefficient of expansion as the and R.R..53b' are much better than others in this respect
head do not need to be fitted very tightly : 1t to 2 thous. per and are In consequence much used. Two conflicting
inch of diameter will retain them indefinitely, provided that factors accentuate the problem; if the initial fit is not
10 tight enough the head will expand away from the ring
11
and it will loosen ; but if the fit is too tight, under certain Should the plug hole be tapped to take the old-fashioned
circumstances the' head metal may stretch or else the 18 mm. size, which is now almost unobtainable in " hard"
ring may be contained so tightly that it collapses and in grades, it can be fitted with a 14 mm. adaptor sleeve, usually
either event the ring will loosen. The most satisfactory obtainable from one of the accessory houses. Perhaps a
seat materials seem to be austenitic cast iron for the inlet better plan is to screw in a solid steel plug, lying ilr in.
and wrought aluminium-bronze for the exhaust, and with or so below the inner surface of the head, and to get this
these materials a cold interference of .003 to .004 in. per recess filled in by an acetylene welder with Sifbronze. This
inch of diameter gives perfectly satisfactory operation in can be done at a dull-red heat, and will not harm the head
Y-alloy or R.R. 53b heads. Austenitic calit iron work if it is made of iron. A new plug hole can then be drilled
hardens very rapidly and any machining operations must slightly off-centre and at a different angle to the original,
be done with a perceptible depth of clit ata low speed; so as to get the plug points as near to the centre of the head
if the tool is allowed to skid on the work it will be very as possible. The diagram gives the machining dimensions.
difficult to re-start the cut. For that reason, ordinary The remaining components still to be considered are the
valve-seating cutters operated by hand are useless; the cams and rockers. Supposing that the valve-timing figures
only satisfactory way to form the seats true to the valve have worked out like this: Inlet opens 35° before t.d.c.,
axis in the first place is by means of a seat-grinder of the closes 60° after b.d.c. Exhaust opens 65° before b.d.c.,
Black and Decker type. closes 30° after t.d.c.; the cams are of such a type as to be
Inserted seats which are worn but still tight cannot easily worth retaining-at least for the time being-unless they
be removed by heating the head, as the temperature required are badly worn or exhibit wavy grooves on the flanks. But
to get the seat loose enough to drop out is so high that the if the timing is slower (i.e., of shorter duration) than that,
heat-treatment of the head metal may be affected. The best and particularly if the overlap at t.d.c. is less, then a new
method is to turn out the old seat very carefully to avoid set of cams should be obtained.
damaging the recess, or else to run a flat-ended drill down
through the ring at two or three places and break the ring
into pieces. This operation must, however, be done very
carefully to avoid making any cuts in the wall of the recess,
!/lnH. D TO SUIT LONG
or in the bottom face. Local damage of this sort is almost

bound to lead to gas leakage and severe damage to the head.
18 mm. " I.S PITCH
Sometimes a seat ring will be found to be loose, or there THREAD
will be some evidence that it has been 10Dse when the head fACE SQUARE
has been at running temperature. If the recess and ring are TO THREAD
still otherwise in good condition, a satisfactory repair can
be made by copper plating the ring and finishing the
deposited metal by turning or filing in a lathe to a size which
will give the correct interference fit. All but the outside
diameter of the ring should be "stopped off" with wax All old-type cylinder head fitted with all 18 mm. sparking
bef-;,e plating to eliminate any possibility of plated metal plug call befitted with this special adaptor to carry a 14 mm.
plug. The adaptor is drilled and tapped at all angle to
flaking off under the action of heat inside the head. brillg the plug points illto a more favourable position.
12 13
.
~~5~~!li~l!iiliJil,'I!fi~lffii!i!ii!!)!il1!1~.{i!i!iti,l'i~~!!IJ_~~_'l!:i1IIiiili'lilimMIIJllllliIlIi'_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _i!Il!Il!I_ _
1
Bil&2&£Iim_li111li.£_1:!m~"""'=;""'~,_;.,;",,'";;;;';'-".0>
indication that cams giving longer valve openings are

required for maximum power at high revs.
The foregoing more or less covers the preliminary survey
of the new parts which may be required and the work to be
If ),ollr cams give a done. The methods of doing that work form the subject of
timing approximate to
this diagram and with subsequent chapters.
not less thall the over-
lap shown, they call be
retailled temporarily
alld the performance
improved by olher
means.
The lift must also be considered and should be slightly

greater than one-quarter of the port diameter.
Many makers will supply racing cams which can be
fitted directly in place of touring or sports cams, and it is
often possible to obtain higher lifts by utilizing cams made
for an engine of similar make but of larger capacity.
The valve-timing diagram is detetmined not only by the
cam contours but also by that of the cam-follower feet, and
wear of their surfaces will affect the timing quite consider-
ably. The grooves which eventually appear in cam followers
with non-rotating solid feet have the effect of opening the
valve earlier and closing it later; therefore, if considerable
wear of this nature is discovered, it is best to recheck the
timing with new rockers, or with the old ones reground to
the correct contour.
If the wear is more than 10 or 12 thous. in depth the
rockers will, in any event, need to be reground and case-
hardened anew unless new ones can be obtained, and this is
obviously a job best done by the makers. In this connection
it is sometimes found that an engine which has been going
very well despite severely worn rockers, falls off in perform-
ance after new rockers have been installed. This is a clear
14 15
CARBURATION AND INDUCTION FACTORS
the latter is about the smallest size which will give anything
like good results, and as progress is made, larger sizes can
be tried. At the commencement it is unwise to use too
CHAPTER II big a choke, and the following ranges are recommended:
CARBURATION AND INDUCTION FACTORS *

500 c.c. single o.h.v., Ii in.-l-& in.; 500 c.c. twin o.h.v.,
"*
in.-l in.; 350 C.c. o.h.v., 500 C.c. s.v., 1 in.-1J.\ in.;
250 C.c. o.h.v., 350 C.c. s.v., in.-~ in.; 250 C.c. s.v.,
AT this juncture it is worth noting that a lot of fun can ~ in.
As to valve size, it is scarcely possible to lay down any
be obtained by "hotting-up" a side-valve engine' there
hard and fast rule as so many factors are involved, but the
have been quite a number of 90 m.p.h. s.v. "5008" in
following table gives an idea of the throat sizes which are
existen:e at. one time or another, and readers with long
memones WIll recollect the astonishing little 250 C.c. J.A.P. advisable: 500 C.c., 1i in.; 350 C.c., I! in.; 250 C.c.,
engines which were reputed to be able to rev. at 8,000 1-& in.
r.p.m. The s.v. unit is usually much lighter than its o.h.v. The capacities refer to the size of individual cylinders
and not to the engine as a whole. At best, however, these
c~unterpart, and can be screamed up to maximum revs.
figures can only be a rough guide, because other factors
WIthout danger of the valves hitting the piston or fouling
each other. besides the cylinder capacity enter into the matter; the
Irrespective of the location of the valves or their method type of performance (i.e. the shape of the power curve) .
of operation, the prime necessity is to have the inlet passage required, the valve timing, compression ratio, the design
as unobstructed as possible. An easy exit for the exhaust is of carburetter and the nature of the exhaust system all
also ~ghly desirable, but this is more for the purpose of exercise an effect. Generally speaking, the faster the
ensunng cool running than to aid in power production. engine is capable of revolving, judged from a purely
There are three main factors to be considered in the inlet mechanical sense, the larger the choke which can eventually
tract: (a) the size of the valve ; (b) the shape and length of be used, though a good deal of modification may be
the port; and (c) the size of the carburetter. To some required before- the ultimate size is attained; this line of
extent .these are allied to each other. For example, it is no development almost inevitably leads to a type of engine
l:se usmg a very large-bore carburetter if the rest of the which, whilst it develops very high power at high r.p.m.,
induction system is inadequate; such an instrument will is virtually useless below a certain minimum speed and in
give little or no extra power and will certainly spoil the consequence has to be used in conjunction with very care-
acceleration. Improving the breathing capacity of the fully chosen gear ratios and driven with great skill in order
valve and port without increasing the choke size will on to keep it always pulling above its minimum speed. Such
the other hand, improve the power a little at high :evs. a power unit will show up at its best on a fast circuit, but
with?ut affecting the low speed end much; but, of course, may be equalled or even outclassed by an engine with less
the Ideal arrangement is to make the whole induction maximum power but with greater torque or pulling power
system match, thus carrying out a principle once aptly at low or medium speeds, on a short course with many·
described as " proportional tuning". corners or in a vehicle such as a racing car where a very
A 500 c.c. engine with a conventional cast-iron o.h.v. close set of gear ratios cannot be used. The Italians are
head will usually have a carburetter of Ii-in. or 11\-in. bore; notable exponents of large-bore induction systems; the
16 17
TUNING FOR SPEED
250 Guzzi has a-choke of 32 mm. diameter, or just over larger valves at a later stage, but in the meantime several
Ii in. and, therefore, 16 in. larger than that normally fitted jobs can be done to improve the breathing ability. As
to post-war 500 C.c. " Manx" Nortons, and this bore is con- the valve is operating only partially open for much of the
tinued right through the long induction pipe and inlet port time, anything which will ease the passage of gas past the
up to the throat of the valve. The 500 C.C. twill of the same seat at low lifts is highly beneficial, and one step towards
make, which is virtually two 250 sinales has even been this is to reduce the seat width from the usual j~ in. or so
used with 35 mm. chokes and the sam; si;e is used on the down to a mere :lz in. by carefully radiusing the corners of
four-cylinder Gilera, in which one carburetter feeds a pair the valve at the seat and the top edge, and performing a
of cylinders of which each is of course only 125 C.c. So similar operation on the port.
far, even the fastest English" works" machines have never RADIUS EDGES
gone to these e~tremes; the twin AJ.S. had one 1i in.
7~O"NWOU?
carburetter feedIng each of its 250 c.c. cylinders, whilst
the "works" 500 c.c: Nortons and Velocettes used 1ilr in.
chokes. The foregoIng data refer to enaines built circa
195~52. Si?ce. then e~lgine speeds ha~e gone higher
AT WGE OF SEAT
How to reduce the width of the seatings on

p~rticular1y In sIngle-cylInder types, and chokes of liB in. valve face and inlet port.
dlam: h~ve been used on Norton and Vincent engines,
runnIng In excess of 7,000 r.p.m.
If the seat is very wide, as it frequently is when inter-
Even these sizes, though smaller in relation to the
changeable valves are used, it is also possible to open out the
cylinder c~pacity than th~, Italian examples, furnish a gas
port by perhaps -fir in., which Plovides a useful increase in
speed conSIderably lower th~ those stated by some authori-
total area. The correct method is to use a cutter, similar to
ties to be t~e theoretical optimum, this somewhat puzzling a valve-seat cutter, but with an included angle of 45°,
par~dox bemg probably caused by the aforesaid optimum
but the job can be done by careful work with a file and
hav~ng ?een . determined in manifold-type multi-cylinder
engmes In whIch the fuel has to be vaporized and maintained scraper.
F or rounding off the valve edges, hold the stem in the
i~ t~at s~ate before reaching the cylinders to obtain equal
chuck of a lathe or drill, remove the bulk of the metal with
dIstrIbutIOn, whereas in motorcycle engines the bulk of
a smooth file and finish off with emery cloth. Should the
the fuel is not actually vaporized until after it enters the
valve-seat in the head be very badly pocketed and you
hot cylinder; this process takes full advantage of the
decide to fit a larger valve, it is often possible to utilize
la~er:t heat of. evaporation of the fuel to cool the charge
one from a larger engine of the same make, as it is a frequent
wIthin the cylmder and so results in a greater weight of
practice to employ the same size of stem throughout the
charge being induced.
range; alternatively, racing editions of sports engines are
often fitted with larger valves, and one of these could be
Work on the Inlet Port employed.
The shape of the inlet valve under the head is of more
If your engine measures up to these standards and the
importance than is often realized and depends upon the
valve head and seat are in good condition, it may be well to
shape of port. It used to be the fashion to have a com-
leave things as they are temporarily and to. experiment with
19
18
TUNING FOR SPEED
paratively fiat, straight port-a shape which directs the gas

flow past the valve stem into the region nearest the exhaust The modern dOlYn-
valve-and in this case the valve head must be fairly flat draught port used
underneath and joined to the stem with a small radius, so ill conjunction with
as to allow plenty of room for the gas to flow past into the a til lip-shaped inlet
valve overcomes the
operative region. This port shape-see sketch below-is by defects of the flat-
no means the best, partly because the area (B) is relatively port design.
ineffective owing to the acute change in direction which the
gas is compelled to take, and partly because much of the
charge coming in at (A) is liable to rush straight across and
out through the still-open exhaust valve, particularly if a lines) in addition to increa~ing the valve area, but it may. be
highly extractive exhaust system is in use. better to leave this operation until a later stage, thus bemg
able to pull something out of the bag which others may not
LEAKAGE PATH
suspect. In any case, the valve guide must be so treated. as
Limitations inher- to offer the minimum obstruction, the usual method bemg
ent ill the old- to cut it off flush with the roof of the port. This sometimes
type "flat" inlet reduces the guide length rather too drastically; equally
port are depicted ill
this sketch. Note good results can be obtained by fairing the guide off to a
holY the fresh knife edge on the entering side and filing out the sharp
charge tends to
~;
.{low inlo the ex- corner between the guide and port, reducing the guide
~
haust port. wall thickness down to h in. or so at the sid~s. When a
Ii
11 larger inlet valve is fitted, or sometimes even 1ll standard
INEFFECTIVE AREA B
'I heads, a certain amount of masking or interruption to smooth
gas flow may exist in the area around the lower edg~ of
The shape shown in the second sketch-as used in the valve which may prevent this area being fully effective.
modern engines-may not look so well to the casual eye,
but is, in fact, better because almost the whole of the seat GUIDE NOT CUT OFF FLUSH
circumference is brought into effective use. This design of
port works best in conjunction with a semi-tulip valve the rF~I,~!~T~HI~S~C~UiR,VEiDEfLECTS
j EX.VALVECHARGE
shape of which has the effect of steering the gas towards
the lower side of the seating. Some of the fresh charge is
thus directed away from the exhaust valve, less will escape,
and it will pick up less heat from that hot-headed com-
ponent. Conversely, the latter is inclined to run hotter, a
point which will have to be. watched in petrol-benzole
motors but is of less consequence with alcohol fuel.
How gasflow can be improved by enlarging the inlet tract
By going up in valve size, it is possible to improve the to suit a bigger valve. The dotted lines indicate where
shape of a flat port (as indicated in the third sketch by dotted metal should be removed.
20 21
TUNING FOR SPEED
flexible shaft chuck, and a strip of emery cloth or better

still, "Durex" abrasive tape, is slipped into the slot and
wrapped round tht'f rod up to about! in. diameter. The
wound-up tape must be inserted into the port before the
Gas flo IV may be power is turned on after which the flying end of the tape
improved by re- rough-polishes the port very rapidly. For final polishing,
shaping the mating use felt bobs moistened with ordinary metal polish, or
edges of the head
and cylinder barrel cotton material wound round the slotted bar. There is
OBSTRUCTION
adjacel/f to the inlel some controversy regarding the value of an absolutely
valve.
~~Of-"'--- TO GAS FLOW mirror-like surface, but there is no doubt that a finish of
this nature cannot do any harm, and is at least a source
of envy to chance beholders; however, shape is of greater
importance than mere polish.
PARTICULARLY AT
lOW VALVE LIfT
Side-valve Inlet Ports
It is often possible to cut away some metal from the head
and in some instances the mating edge of the cylinder The treatment described for o.h.v. inlet ports applies
barrel also, and generally shape and smooth up the sur- equally well to side-valve types .. Except in those cases
faces so that gas coming past the seat radially to the valve where the port has been purposely elevated in order to
is gently guided into the cylinder instead of impinging obtain clearance over a rear-mounted electrical installation,
against an irregular surface, or one which is too close to the most s.v. ports have reasonably easy curves, and, so far as
valve to permit easy entry. For these port and head modi- the approach of the gas to the underside of the valve is
fications, rotary files or emery wheels driven by a flexible concerned, may be as good or better than the average o.h.v.
shaft from an electric motor are invaluable, but the same type. As to valve shape, the same rules apply: a fiattish
effect can be produced with "riffiers" or bent files. GRIND AWAY HERE TO
Ordinary round files can be bent to shape after heating to
re~ness, and re-hardened' by plunging into water; after
thIS treatment the steel is very hard and brittle, but if not
knocked about, the teeth remain keen for a long time.
~rom the carburetter flange face or stub up to the valve
gUIde boss there should be a gradual taper in the port,
entirely frce from ridges or hollows, and after the whole
port has been brought to a satisfactory shape it must be
polished with rough and fine emery cloth to a dead smooth
finish. For rough port-polishing, one of the handiest tools
is a piece of steel rod slotted across a diameter with a hack- III a side-valve ullit the gas flow call usually be improved
considerably by grillding away metal ill the cyJinder head
saw for about i in. in from the end. This rod is held in the at the poillt illdicated. Great care is required in this oper-
22 atioll. Do not overdo it.
23
TUNING FOR SPEED CARBURATION AND INDUCTION FACTORS
port requires a flattish underhead profile, but a combina- MINIMUM CLEARANCE

THIS AREA NOT TO ASSIST IN RAISING C RAilO
tion of a swept port with a semi-tulip shape of valve gives CONSIDERED AS RAISED ROOF WITH SMOOTH
TO DIRECT GAS FREELY
the best results. INTO CYLINDER
The valve guide can be shortened a little or even cut off
flush with the port without detriment, but the amount to
which this is done depends largely on the port shape. It
may be better to leave the guide fairly long and streamline
~ it by tapering off to a very thin section at the upper end.
Certain V-twin engines were built with the inlet ports
lying horizontally in order to employ a plain T-shaped
induction manifold, but an incidental advantage gained is
the reduction in the angle of bend in the port itself. The
front cylinder off such a motor mounted on a single-cylinder
r
FLAT STRAIGHT
DIRECTING
STREAM TOWARDS
crankcase and equipped with a carburetter arranged to PORTION OF VALVE OPENING
work at 25° upward inclination offers interesting possibilities.
It is obvious that after passing the valve the charge has
1I
A section of the inlet tract of a side-valve engine modified
to undergo another change in direction before it can reach for special high-performance valve timing.
the cylinder, and this, plus the fact that a third-possibly
one-half-of the valve opening is partially masked by the
valve chest wall is bound to impair the breathing. The the head, or alternatively if there is sufficient metal in the
change in direction cannot be avoided, but the effect of the casting to allow for the necessary grinding-away.
masking can be reduced by clearing away the chest wall Most side-valve engines have "slow" timings and low
with a port-grinder and eliminating as far as possible all valve lifts, with the intention of giving good low-speed
sharp angles. . performance and, in keeping with this idea, are fitted with
small-bore carburetters. After due attention to the induc-
Further Aids to "Breathing" tion tract and timing (a point still to be dealt with), a larger
In detachable-head engines, care must be taken to see carburetter can be used, although it is not possible to go up
that the inner edge of the gasket merges properly with the to quite the same size as an o.h.v. unit will take. As a
interior of the head. It may be advisable to cut a new commencement, use the next size lower to that recommended
gasket, from soft sheet aluminium or copper, which fits the for an o.h.v. engine in the capacity choke scale on page 17.
head studs accurately, and to trim it up to the correct internal Naturally, the inlet port must be increased in diameter to
contour after bolting to the head. match up with the larger-bore carburetter. One of the
As a further aid to " breathing", reduce the valve head difficulties associated with the obtaining of good breathing
diameter until the seat width is only -fir in. and round off in a side-valve engine on the lines just described is that, if
the edges of seat and valve as previously described. On ample gas-flow areas are provided all round the valve head,
account of the proximity of the chest wall, it is rarely of the compression ratio may become much too low. A possible
much use to attempt to use a larger valve, although it may line of development worth pursuing only if valve-timing
be possible to do so if there is ample room available around modifications can also be carried out would be to regard
24 B 25
TUNING FOR SPEED CARBURATIO N AND INDUCTION FACTORS
that portion of the valve opening furthest from the cylinder pletely in order to get the maximum port area; by so doing
as being relatively useless anyway, and to re-design the more of the valve will be exposed to the outgoing gas and
combustion chamber with the space immediately above the stem will be robbed of much valuable contact area
the inlet valve machined parallel to a radius only slightly through which most of the heat picked up has to be con·
greater than the largest inlet valve that can be worked in. ducted.
The dep~h of this poc~et should be about 3h in. greater than On the other hand, if the port is so shaped that a large
the maXlmum valve ltft, and the cam contour modified to proportion of the extremely hot gas is caused to impinge
slam the valve up to fuIllift as rapidly as possible and hold on the stem without a free path of escape, there is a grave
it at full lift for a considerable period. risk of valve-failure, through overheating at the junction
The port likely to be most effective in this instance would of the stem and head. Cutting away the side walls so that
be of the flattish type, as shown in the diagram on page 25, the port is considerably wider than the diameter at the
directing the gas stream mainly in the direction of the effective throat reduces this effect very considerably, and is in fact
portion of the valve opening. To assist the gas in changing the only course open in some engines where for the sake of
direction to enter the cylinder, the head may be hollowed out compactness the port has purposely been kept fiat.
slightly and the top edge of the cylinder bore radiused off, Before doing much modification to port shape, the thick-
though not so far down the bore that the top ring is deprived ness of metal between the port and neighbouring pockets
of the protection of the upper ring land. such as rocker-boxes, spring-boxes or the recess sometimes
provided to accommodate coil valve springs, should be
explored, preferably with indicating callipers, to ensure
The Exhaust Port that there is ample metal present; nothing is more annoying
The exhaust valve and port still remain to be dealt with, (or expensive) than to find the port breaking through into
and it should be appreciated that the gas-flow conditions a place where it should not do so, particularly just as the
are quite different from those existing in the inlet. In the job is nearing completion. Also, on inserted-seat heads,
latter, the gas approaches from the back of the valve, and
FINNEO NUT
the pressure-difference between port and cylinder is (or C AND A WASHER
should be) of the order of 5 or 6 lb. per sq. in. only
as a maximum value, and must be much less than this at
the finish of the induction stroke.
With the exhaust valve, however, the gas at the moment
of opening is at high pressure-70 or 80 lb. per sq. in.-
and is waiting aU round the periphery of the head, ready to
escape the moment the valve begins to lift. Thus, whatever
the port shape, the whole of the circumference of the valve
is operative, and 50% of the gas can escape straight down
INSUFFICIENT BACKING
the port; only half of the gas is obstructed by the valve IIEHIND SEAT RING
stem and guide, consequently these can be permitted to (Right) The ideal exhaust-p:JrI arrangemeJl( showing, ill comparisoll with
occupy quite a lot of space without detriment. the inset sketch, the seat ring well supported alld the valve guide protected
It is a mistake to carve away the guide and boss com- from feed-back of heat from the exhallst pipe area.
26 27
TUNING FOR SPEED
~;ever remove metal in any but the smallest amount from
the seat ring itself, and also leave plenty of metal under the polished, it is best not to clean the carbon out of it, but
ring where it is closest to the port, as there is a possibility to allow a thin skin to remain. Carbon is a poor heat
that explosion pressure may actually force the seat-ring conductor and acts as quite an effective insulator,
back due to lack of support if there is insufficient port- which helps to limit the absorption of waste heat by the
metal backing up the ring at this point; the valve will then port walls.
cease to be gas-tight and may shortly fail through over- Python engines (the name under which Rudge power
heating. units were supplied to other makers) were sometimes
It is not always appreciated that one of the most prolific equipped with adaptors forced into the ports to suit Ii-in.
causes of trouble in I.-c. engines is the large amount of pipes (far too big, even for the 500 c.c. models), and these
waste heat absorbed by the exhaust-port walls and fed should be removed. This is done by removing the hexagon-
back into the head. Once the exhaust valve has opened, headed setscrews which lock the adaptors in place; the
any heat left in the gas ceases to be of any value and latter can then be twisted out with the aid of a large Foot-
becomes a waste product, and the less it is re-absorbed print pipe-wrench, an operation best conducted before
into the engine the better. Consequently, exhaust ports detaching the head from the cylinder. The right pipe size
should be as short as possible, and there should be a path is that which just fits in the counterbore in the port from
for beat conduction between the port and the exhaust pipe which the adaptors have been removed.
nut, but not between nut and pipe. These conditions are Much of the heat absorbed by the exhaust valve head gets
all assisted by using a male-threaded nut, with a perceptible away by conduction through the seat; the latter should,
clearance between the bore of the nut and the pipe; at one therefore. be reasonably wide-between ~ in. and tin.,
time long ports furnished with many fins to cool the port according to valve size. For sprint work, or on engines
down were fashionable, but it is far better to prevent the which will be regularly stripped down after every event,
heat being absorbed rather than to dissipate it afterwards; narrower seats can be used with safety, but more frequent
an examination of almost every engine which has been a valve-clearance adjustment may be necessary. It may pay on
successful performer on petrol or petrol-benzole will show heads originally designed with both valves of equal size to
that they all possess this feature of short, direct ports. reduce the diameter of the exhaust valve, and, therefore,
The point is ofless importance on engines designed specific- the seat width, in order to fit a larger inlet valve and still
ally for alcohol fuel, but that does not impair the essential maintain enough clearance between the two to prevent
correctness of the principle. mutual interference in the overlap period when both are
Double-port heads which were popular some years ago partially lifted. A slightly convex head is preferable to
are, in general, not nearly as efficient as those with single one which is dead flat or even concave, although it means
ports, and most engines so designed will perform better if a slight increase in weight. The edge must not be too
one of the ports is blanked off completely and as close up thin, otherwise it will get very hot and may warp out of
to the valve as possible. The term "double port" is used shape at running temperature; as with the inlet valve, the
here as applying to a single valve; if there are two exhaust top edge should be slightly rounded off to improve gas-
valves, it is usual for each to have its own port, and in this flow and to avoid a local hot area.
event the criticism, of course, does not apply. If there is any doubt as to the quality or age of the valve,
Once an exhaust port has been correctly shaped and play safe-discard it and get a new one of K.E. 965 or
28
similar austenitic steel, although these materials are difficult
29
• .. "! :. " .~! . ,;" :

TUNING FOR SPEED CARBURATION AND INDUCTION FACTORS
in stem diameter, and have cast-iron guides; an improve-

ment in heat dissipation can be effected by increasing the
stem diameter by nr in. and using aluminium-bronze or
Barronia-metal guides, but it will be necessary with these
metals to ensure a small though positive supply of lubricant
RIGHT to prevent seizure. A flash-coating of hard chrome plate
IE~ .0005 in-.OOI in. thick on the valve stem will also assist
Correct and incorrect techniques ill the process in this direction.
of izard-jacillg m/l'e seat areas. Absorption of heat by the head is lessened by contouring
the valve chest so that the outgoing gas is allowed to flow
to come by to-day. Better still, if possible get hold of a away as smoothly as possible; this is achieved by eliminat-
sodium-filled valve of the type commonly fitted to aero- ing sharp corners in the valve chest and allowing plenty of
engines and used by our leading racing firms during the room over the head of the valve when it is at full lift.
last two or three years of racing before the war. These The scheme previously outlined for deliberately masking
valves are larger in the stem than the " solid" ones they part of the inlet valve is definitely not applicable to the
replace, and in consequence the guides will need to be exhaust valve, for it is imperative that the whole circum-
renewed or bored out. Valves which have worn thin near ference of this component is brought into action at the
the seats but are otherwise sound can be reclaimed by commencement of lift in order to liberate the high-pressure
building up the seat with "Stellite" No. 6 grade or gas immediately.
.. Brightray". Both these alloys are non-ferrous and have Valve Seat Angles
the advantage that they are very resistant to attack by the
by-products of Ethyl fluid; in countries where heavily- The majority of valve seats are formed at 45 0 to the axis,
0
leaded fuel is obtainable and permissible for racing it is a but some makers favour the flatter 30 seat, which is more
wise precaution to have the valves" Stellited before they
H effective at low lifts because the actual openin'g between
become damaged by lead attack. There are other materials valve and seat is greater by 22% or in the ratio of 86
such as "Cobalite" which can be used for hard-facing valves, to 70. This advantage ceases after the valve has lifted by an
but it must be remembered that the deposited material amount approximately equal to Ii times the seat width, and
should always be backed up by the parent metal of the is, therefore, of less importance with narrow seats than
valve, as shown in the diagram; it is inadvisable to use hard- with wide ones. But with the widths commonly employed
facing to increase the diameter of the head or to build up a the gain is worthwhile because much of the breathing must
very badly worn head to its original perforce be accomplished when either valve is only partially
lifted. Conversely, the 45° seat has a greater self-centring
effect on the valve, and may give better results mechanically
Side Exhaust Valves
in heads with short guides, Of those in which distortion may
Side exhaust valves are worse off than the o.h.v. type occur at high temperatures.
as regards heat, because they get little cooling from the
incoming charge, and the part of the seat next the barrel is
bound to run very hot. Also they afe usually rather small
30 31
ATTENTION TO O.H.V. CYLINDER HEADS
the carburetter and porl bores can then be blended into

each other and you will be sure that, even if the carburetter
CHAPTER III
has to be refitted hastily at some future date, it will go
back correctly and cannot possibly work out of position at
any time through vibration.
ATTENTION TO O.H.V. CYLINDER HEADS Sometimes these flanges become bent (usually through the
use of a packing washer which is too soft and thick), and
So far we have progressed to the stage where the valve this fault must be rectified by truing up the face. For use
seats and ports have been attended to-at least, so far in later experiments, it is worth while making up some
as the written word is concerned: carrying out the work in extension blocks to go between the flange faces, in order to
a really thorough manner takes a much longer tBne and vary the length of the induction system; the easiest way
far more patience than simply describing it. is to machine them from aluminium c;;st'ngs made from a
Before proceeding further, the carburetter should be wooden pattern the same shape as the flange and i-in.
fitted temporarily to make sure that it lines up accurately finished thickness. Four of these, plus the necessary longer
with the port without a ,. step" anywhere around the studs, will enable the induction pipe length to be varied in
circumference. If the mixing chamber pushes on to a stub, i-in. steps up to 2 in.
or has a spigoted flange. the two bores are almost bound to The cylinder heads of early models were fitted with
be concentric, but a " step" will exist if the diameters are screwed-in stubs to take clip-fitting carburetters, and the
unequal or if the port has been filed a trifle out of round engine makers concerned can often supply longer patterns;
during the cleaning-up process. alternatively, in order to use a flange-fitting carburetter, a
Once lined up, either of these types will always reassemble steel flange can be welded or brazed to the stub.
correctly, but the standard flange. which has no spigot, It may be advisable to make up a new stub altogether
is sometimes a rather slack fit on its two studs. If the stud- rather than to modify an old one; many induction systems
holes are worn or have been filed out at some time, it pays are neither long enough nor large enough for maximum
to ream them out to i in. and fit bushes on to the studs; power at very high f.p.m. (see Chapter XVIII). New pipes
can be made up quite easily from steel tube with flanges
brazed or welded on. Another simple method is to use a
piece of canvas-reinforced hose attached to the existing
induction pipe and to an extension piece by Jubilee clips,
though some care has to be taken to avoid a nasty step
or change in diameter at each change from pipe to hose,
particularly if an inch or so of hose is exposed; in that case,
the best thing is to line the hose with a third piece of
metallic tube to preserve a constant diameter. This scheme
insulates the carburetter from the high-speed vibrations
which sometimes causes a mysterious loss of r.p.m. through
Showing how all old~type inductioll stub can be modified to
accept {J modem flange-:!ittil/g carburelter. Note holl' the unsuspected flooding at a certain critical speed and so is
inductioJl pipe is blended smoothly into the inlet porI. referred to again in Chapter XVIII.
32 33
TUNING FOR SPEED
ATTENTION TO O. H. V. CYLINDER HEADS
Amal carburetters are made in both flange- and clip- ing their present state of reliability. Most sports models
fitting forms. The largest bore which can safely be used and genuine" racers" of 1934-39 vintage were fitted with
with the standard 2-in. stud centre-distance is iii in., and hair-pin springs with the notable exception of the speedway
even then there is only just clearance for the nuts. Clip- J.A.P. which has always retained coils, these being, in any
fitting carburetters, i.e. those which fit on stubs, do n?t !13ve case, sufficiently reliable for an engine intended primarily
this limitation, and ""hen for reasons of space or to ehmmate for short-distance events. Since 1945 there has been a
bends in the induction system, the mixing chamber has to be considerable change back to coils, largely because of the
mounted out of the vertical, the clip-fitting type is easier to difficulty of enclosing hair-pins without serious interrup-
install because it can simply be swivelled round the stub tion to air-flow through the head fins, particularly on a
into the correct position. The angle of the mixing chamber parallel twin. Coil-spring fracture is mainly caused through
is immaterial, with limits, provided the float level is correct " surging" or a state of rapid vibration of the centre coils.
in relation to the jet, though if the inclination is great~r and the way to overcome this is by using only a limited
than 15° flooding from the pilot jet into the engine WIll number of coils; all modern coil springs are duplex or
occur when standing if the fuel supply is not turned off. even triplex with not more than six free coils in the outer;
Standard stub diameters are Ii in., It in., and Ii in., the inner spring often has one or two more coils of lighter
according to the bore of the carburetter. Adaptor stubs with gauge wire and it is an advantage for it to be a push fit
any of these diameters can easily be made up to fit on within the outer one as this provides a certain amount of
standard flange studs, but it is best to use socket head friction damping and so helps to prevent surging.
screws of the Allen or .• Unbrako" type with the largest size Side-valve engines are usually equipped with single
to avoid having to cut too far into the wall to obtain head springs of fairly light poundage, sometimes of the" floppy"
clearance. By this method it is also possible to make up a type. with a large number of coils. These should be re-
stub of 1.422 in. diameter to utilize the 32 mm. carburetter, placed by others of similar proportions to those just
which is the largest size commercially available at the described, which will probably entail replacing the top
time of writing. . and bottom spring caps and the split collets. It is also
That just about completes the work on tbe head itself, probable that pieces will be required to make up for the
and if you are really satisfied that all is as it should be, the reduced length of spring and these should be made with the
next thing is to examine the valve springs, collars and split smallest possible area in contact with the head to minimise
collets, to see if any improvement can be effected. transfer of heat to the uppermost coils.
With regard to spring pressure, it is a mistake to think that
Coil and Hair-pin Springs enormously strong springs are a sine qua non; any pressure
in excess of that required to prevent valve chatter up to the
Hair-pin springs came into use many years ago for racing,
usable maximum revs.-say,6,500 for a 500 c.c. unit, up to
because the coil springs in use at that period were not
7,500 for a 250 c.c. plot-simply wastes .a little more power
always reliable and became less so as engine speeds rose
and loads up the valve gear unnecessanly.
above 6,000 r.p.m. and valve lifts increased above i in.;
The actual strength required at full lift depends upon the
the combination of these two factors creates a difficult
cam contour and lift, as well as the revs. and weight of
situation for any spring and even hair-pin springs have
valve gear, so it just is not possible to give any hard-and-
undergone considerable design modifications before reach-
fast rule, but, apart from these considerations, it is usual
34
35
A TTENTION TO O.H. V. CYLINDER HEADS
TUNING FOR SPEED
much larger diameter coils and shorter legs. Further, the
in two-valve heads to provide 100-120 lb. pressure when
design is. such that over the working range of the spring,
the valve is seated, and, unless the cam design is very
the loop In contact with the valve moves almost in a straight
peculiar, 140-150 lb. should suffice at full lift (the greater
line parallel to the valve stem and there is little or no
figures obviously applying to the larger-size engines).
tendency, as there was with earlier designs, for the stationary
Four-valve designs, with their much lighter individual com-
legs to move in and out on their abutments. When for
ponents, require only about 80 lb. seat pressure per valve.
It is possible to make up a rig to test this pressure but reasons of space it has been necessary to reduce the overall
width of the pair of springs, as, for instance, on parallel
makers' genuine replacements can be accepted as giving
twins, like the twin-cylinder A.J.S. racing machine, the ends
the correct amount provided that nothing has taken place
of each pair of springs are overlapped, and careful design
to alter the installed length of the spring appreciably.
is necessary to ensure that no interference occurs between
Excessive seat wear, or possibly a stretched exhaust valve
the springs at any part of the valve movement. When
~ay account for this length being to in. or so longer tlian
fitting these overlapping springs, particularly to an engine
It should be and this is sufficient to reduce the pressure by
several pounds. For workshops which do a considerable for which they were not originally designed, care must be
amount of tuning work, it is a wise plan to acquire one of taken to see that the end loops do clear each other at all
the special spring-testing machines that give an accurate points from closed to full lift.
measurement of the poundage given at any particular length. After a while, wear occurs on the straight piece of the
The actual installed poundage can then be determined by loops of hair-pin springs, caused by rubbing against the
first measuring the distance between the top and bottom spring retainer, and replacement is called for if this wear
spring collars and then determining the pressure of the exceeds one quarter of the wire diameter. The force exerted
springs at that length on the machine. by the springs in each pair should be equal to avoid tilting
Apart from being obviously broken, coil springs often ~he valve, therefore it is essential to replace in pairs, not
Ju~t .one at a time. When they do break, hair-pins usually
~horten or settle an? so ~ose their eff~ctive strength; attempt-
fall Just where the top leg commences to bend round into
~ng to re~tore the s~tuatlOn ~~ packIng up the lower seating
the coil and every care must be taken to see that no cuts
IS som~tImes effect\;,e, ~ut It IS then essential to verify that
the spnngs are not cOil-bound" at full lift; to do this see or deep scratches are made in the wire at this point when
that. the valv~ can be. raised a further
maximum POInt to which the rocker lifts it.
n- in. beyond the
handling such springs.
I~ is ofte~ c~nsidered advisable to convert a coil-spring
Another expedient is to place the weaker set of springs on engme to halr-pms and this can be done with a little wangling
th.e inlet valve, as insufficient strength on this component in some o.h.v. designs. On MOV and MAC Velocettes of
wIll at worst only reduce the top r.p.m. a little, but severe the original design with bolted-on rocker boxes, standard
mechanical damage may result from lack of spring strength KTT springs, and spring collars can be used, but the rocker-
on the exhaust valve. box extensions which normally surround the spring cups
have to be cut away, leaving the outer ends of the rockers
exposed, and the rocker-box standards on the push-rod
Hair-pin Springs side must be thinned down to clear the springs which are
. Hair-pin ~prings were originally made with fairly small installed at an angle .
diameter COils and long legs, but the modern variety has Removal of the50il valve spring enclosure has the effect
36 37
TUNING FOR SPEED ATTENTION TO O.H.Y. CYLINDER HEADS
of deprivi~g the valve guides of lubrication which they MEAN DIAH.
I. OF SPRING i
W'H'C<Nm
normally receive by leakage from the rocker bearings and it I ' _. _._.-",! I,,· EXTRA
is, therefore, desirable, particularly for long-distance work,
to drill lil in. holes through the head into each valve guide
to receive oil pipes which can be supplied with lubricant
either from a small external tank from the normal lubrication
system with metering jets to limit the supply, which need
I. ,1" ..- GREATER DIAM
only be small in quantity. (LeJt) At maxilllum rall'e liji there II1l1st be adequate clear-
ance between vall'e guide alld spring cap and between the
spring coils. (Right) Note how the outer diameter of. the
Auxiliary Return Springs alloy cap is that oj the mean diameter oj the aliter spring.
Some designers prefer to utilize return springs on the rockers amounts of pressure and thereby to discover whether
or push-rods, thereby either reducing the strength necessary stronger valve springs are required.
in the valve springs or, alternatively,permitting higher revs Another method is to attach a tension spring to a short
for the same spring strength; examples are the hair-pin vertical arm on each rocker; this idea is good because when
springs surrounding the rocker bosses on KTT Velocettes the exhaust valve is closing, the inlet is lifting and, therefore,
and the springs fitted on the lower ends of the push-rods the tension in the spring is increased just when it is most
of certain J.A.P. motors. The effect of such springs is to wanted, and the required effect is gained without excessive
maintain the cam follower in contact with the cam can- cam-follower loading during other parts of the cycle.
tinuously, and excessive pressure leads to local heating and In some designs the exhaust spring settles very quickly
wear of the cam-follower foot unless a roller is employed. because the coils nearest the exhaust port become over-
A neat way of adding return springs to engines with hollow heated; a remedy can be effected by insulating the lower
rockers is to house a coil spring loosely in the bore of the spring coils by mica washers, or packing the spring seat u.p
shank with one end fixed to the rocker arm and the other on narrow washers so that there is the minimum of metalhc
attached to the rocker enclosure in such a way that the contact and the maximum of air space between the spring
spring can be wound up to any desired amount; this scheme seat and the hot port metal. Generally speaking, enclosed
has the merit that it is easy to experiment with varying coil springs can be kept as cool or even cooler than open
springs by the expedient of pouring enough oil over them
through jets to carry away the heat.
Before leaving this subject of springs it may be well to
dispel a popular misconception as to their function: some
A method oj ob-
taining illcreased think that the cam pushes the valve open against the spring
return-sprillg ac- right up to full lift and after that the spring takes charge
(ioll without crea(-
ing additiollal cam- .and performs the closing action. In fact, the cam operates
/
Jollower loading. against the spring plus the inertia of the valve for the first
, ./
.'\.
.'{
/
portion only of the lift; after a certain point and up to full
lift, the spring is doing all the work of slowing the ~al~e
.down until it is actually stopped by the time full lIft IS
38 39
• TUNING FOR SPEED ATTENTION-TO O.H.V. CYLINDER HEADS
reached. After that, the spring accelerates the valve back

again until a certain point is reached on the closing flank
of the cam; from that point onwards the valve is being An 0 ver-Iong valve
slowed down again by pressure between the cam-follower stem causes thrust
to the righl.
and cam so that it is eventually let down on to the seat
at a .very low velocity. In other words, the valve is under
cam-control for the first portion of the lift (whilst accelerat-
ing) and for tbe remainder of the motion, i.e. over the nose
of the cam, the valve is under spring control. The pressure mean diameter of the outer spring and filing scallops in the
between the cam and follower during periods of cam-control edge, so that tbe spring bears only on six or eight projec-
is equal to the spring pressure plus the inertia force or tions. Alternatively, new caps can be turned from a
momentum of the valve gear, whilst during the periods of strong light alloy (preferably R.R. 77, but, failing that,
spring control, the pressure is the spring pressure minus R.R. 56, or Duralumin B) to the same dimensions as the
the valve inertia, and if at any point the inertia becomes original steel ones, except for allowmg a little extra thick-
greater than the spring pressure the cam follower will leave ness where the flange merges into the taper bore, and
the cam contour giving rise to the condition known as around the collet boss.
valve fioat. This may not be very noticeable, in fact if If you are rejuvenating an old engine and are using non-
the cams are inadequate in lift or duration, may even be standard valves, the easiest way to retain the spring is by
beneficial from the power production point of view, but if using a spring cap, collets and wire circlip of J.A.P. design,
the speed rises still further, the separation will become since all the machining called for is to turn in each stem a
greater and greater until the valve bits the piston or the narrow semi-circular groove to accommodate the circlip,
other valve and suffers in the process, or else very heavy and to verify that the stems accurately fit the collets, which
impact loads (as indicated by th.e onset of excessive noise) are obtainable with bore sizes of -& in., Hin., and i in.
will be set up somewhere in the valve gear with the certainty The position of the upper end of an o.h. valve-stem is
of failure if the conditions are allowed to continue. important, but is difficult to check dimensionally without
Touching on the matter of spring caps, many can be special measuring fixtures, so it will need to be done by eye.
lightened judiciously by reducing their diameter to the Assemble the rocker gear on the head and observe the
behaviour of the rocker-tip relative to the valve stem as the
mechanism is operated by hand from the closed to the full-
lift position. If the stem is too long, the contact point will
The simple construction

of tire J.A.P.-type split
collet and spring cap If the stem is too
assembly recommended short the thrust will
by many racing men. occur 011 the opposite
side to that indicated
by the above sketch.
40 41
TUNING FOR SPEED ATTENTION TO O.H.V. CYLINDER HEADS
ADJUSTER IN LINE
been packed up to increase the spring pressure, or if incor-
.-::;. .04--
WITH VALVE Just right! A valve rect springs are installed; this point is most important.
stem of the correct As a general rule, it is best to defer the assembly of the
length has the head until any necessary alternations to the barrel or piston
rocker at right
angles to it, with have been effected; the subject is dealt with in Chapter X.
the adjusfer dead Such modifications may be required to obtain the correct
central, whel/ ill the compression ratio, or to ensure that the valve-clearance
mid-lift position.
"pockets" in the piston crown are deep enough and of the
correct radius.
move outwards, as shown in the diagram; if too short, the The correct compression ratio depends upon the cylinder
movement will be in the opposite direction. If the outer capacity, type of fuel, material of the head and many other
end of the rocker is fitted with a screwed adjuster, this should items, such as stroke-bore ratio, effectiveness of the induc-
be exactly in line with the valve stem in the half-lift position tion system, and so forth, but the following table gives an
with the contact point dead central to the stem at the same approximate guide to the ratios which can be employed
time. with safety in o.h.v. engines under racing conditions when
There is little likelihood that a fairly new engine using using 50/50 petrol-benzole fuel, although they by no means
standard components will not be correct, but numerous represent the ultimate, or necessarily the most suitable,
causes-excessive cutting-back of the valve seats, stretched figures:
Cylinder-head Materia!
or incorrect valves, or damaged rocker boxes-may all Alum. Alum. or
contribute their quota to incorrect alignment in old power Cylinder capacity Iron Bronze Bi-meta!
units. Sometimes a cure can be effected by shortening the 250 c.c. 8.5 9.5 10
350c.c. 8.2 9 9t
stem or fitting hardened end-caps of the appropriate thick- 500c.c. 7.8 8.5 9
:gess; in otlter..cases packing up the rocker box will do the
:rick. The point may seem to be of little importance, but Elderly engines with finning a bit on the scanty side may
It must be remembered that, however strong the springs not be able to use ratios quite as high as those quoted, save
may be, as maximum revs. are approached they have less
and less margin of strength over that required to return
the valves to their seats; thus, an amount of friction any- Tile benefits of a
where in the whole of the valve gear, which is barely higher compression
perceptible at hand-cranking speeds, becomes a serious piston can be lost if
lire resultantcombus-
item at top revs. liOll space becomes
The clearance at full lift between the valve guide and ullduly distorted.
Better results will
spring collar must also be checked. This should be a full be attained with the
~ in., otherwise, if the motor is over-revved, the parts lower piston dome,
may hit, and no valve will stand up to impact of that illustrated here by a
dotted line.
nature for very long. Similarly, if coil springs are used,
they must not be "coil-bound," i.e., compressed solid
at full lift, which might occur if the bottom washers have
42 43
TUNING FOR SPEED
ATTENTION TO O.H.V. CYLINDER HEADS
for very short-distance events or when using alcohol fuel. After grinding in, wash away aU traces of abrasive with
Ratios as high as 16 to 1 can be used with fuels such as petrol or paraffin, smear a drop of clean mineral ~il on the
P.M.S. 2, J.A.PAuel, or methanol, irrespective of the seats and assemble each valve in turn-first applymg some
cylinder size, but in " square" engines-i.e .• those in which graphited running-in compound to the stems to. mil~.imize
the bore and stroke are equal, or nearly so-the piston may the risk of scoring or "picking-up" when the engme 15 first
need to have such a pronounced dome on it that the shape started.
of the combustion chamber becomes unfavourable to good Make sure that the split collets are paired up correctly,
combustion. and after fitting the springs with the aid of the invaluable
In such cases better results may be obtained by keeping
the ratio down to, say, 12 to 1. Of course, " dope" fuels can
Te~ spring compressor-an essential part of ~e shop
equipment--verify that both collets are hard agamst the
be used with ratios suitable for petrol-b,enzole, but the abutment on the stem and tbat the spring cap is fitting
engine will not give any more power-it will simply run snugly on the taper; if not, one or two light blows with a
cooler and be less liable to give trouble with valves or plugs. hide mallet or the end of a hammer-handle on the spring
This subject is a wide one and has a c;hapter devoted to it cap (not the valve stem) will usually jar the assembly into
later on. position. If you are in any doubts as to the fit .of the collets
Assuming that the compression ratio and valve clearances in the spring cap, it is advisable before assemblIng the valves
are correct, final-stage work on the head can be commenced to lap these components together in position on ~he stems,
by polishing the valve stems with dead-smooth emery cloth using ordinary valve~grinding paste as the abraSIve. .
(rubbed along the surface, not round it) and then grinding- Wire circlips sometimes become stretched when beIng
in in the normal manner, but using a fine abrasive, finishing removed and it is best to close them up before reassembly
off with powdered Turkey-stone or metal polish to obtain and then to make absolutely sure, even by using a magni~
really smooth seatings entirely free from ridges or grooves. fying glass, that each is actually seated in the groove an~
During this process the inlet-valve seat, which has been
reduced to '2 in. wide through' rounding-off the edges of
nestling snugly in the recess provided in the top of the spht
collets when the full pressure of the valve spring is on them.
valve and port (see page 19), will increase slightly in width Occasional cases of valves dropping in with this form of
to 45 or 50 thous., at which it is wide enough to run for fixing are usually attributable to failure to observe this point
some time without undue hammering back. It is best to use
during assembly.
some flexible device rather than a rigid tool for oscillating Split collets are often supplied in pairs, partially cut
the valve so that it can seat itself freely; a rubber suction-cup through. They should always be left in this cond~tion until
on a wooden handle fills the bilI, though it may be necessary
required, then separated and the.s~an burr l~ft m the ~ut
to apply a drop of Bostik to the polished valve head to cleaned up prior to fitting. MlXlng up splIt collets In-
, obtain sufficient grip to turn it. Another method is to push discriminately is a fruitful source of valve failure, though
a piece of tight-fitting canvas-lined hose on the end of the it may take some time to develop.
stem and oscillate it, either by twirling between the hands
Finally, don't leave the head on the back ?f !he be~ch. to
or with a hand drill. When grinding in Vincent valves the get filled up with dust and swarf. Smear oIl lIghtly mSlde
upper guide must be in place, for the lower one is too short
the ports and block them with pieces .of clean rag, o.r,
to locate the valve accurately by itself and is not intended
better still, large corks, which are less lIkely to be left In
to do so.
place when they should have been removed.
44
45
ADJUSTING COMPRESSION RATIOS
POSSIBLE GAS
CHAPTER IV Jo,mmNe,
GASKET '/,," THICK
THE previous note on compression ratios suitable for

I iiiii. . . .
various engines needs amplification. In the first place,
the ratios quoted are for racing only, being far too high for
ordinary road work with silencer and "pump" fuel, one
to one and a quarter ratios less being about as high as
could be used in the latter
circumstance. PISTON CROWN LEVEL SLIGHT RADIUS
WITH TOP OF ON CORNER
Owing to the shape of the CYLINDER BLOCK OF BORE'
combustion chamber, it is im-
Points which must be checked when a side-valve
possible to obtain such high cylinder head has been machined 10 raise the com-
ratios in a side-valve cylinder pression ratio.
without restricting the breath-
ing ability-about 7 to 1 Most s.v. en.gines are now of the detachable head pattern,
being as high as one can with the combustion chamber concentrated over the valves,
reach-and it must always be and in this type the throat between chamber and barrel
remembered that it is not the sometimes constitutes a restriction, particularly if much
actual measured compression metal has been machined off the head to raise the compres-
ratio which counts, but the sion. A small radius on the top edge of the barrel next the
pressure of the gas at the end of valve chest will improve the flow lines, but must not be
the compression stroke. This carried so far down that the top ring is in danger of being
depends as much upon the exposed. The thickness of the gasket is sufficient clearance
perfection of cylinder filling between the flat portioIi of the head and the piston crown,
as on the ratio; therefore a which should, therefore, be just level with the top face of
balance must be struck be- the barrel at t.d.c. An aluminium head is oarticularly
tween the interior shape which desirable, except, perhaps, for "dope" fuel, when th~
gives the best gas-flow and that cooling problem is not so acute.
which gives the highest ratio. Reverting to o.h.v. engines, the aim is to obtain the
correct ratio with the least possible area of metal exposed to
Scallfy /illning, characteristic flame. However impressive it looks, an excessively domed
of design of the 1920's, is still piston crown is not desirable, partly because its exposed
satisfactory where cool-running
methanol and similar fuels are area is great, also because the "hump" hinders flame
used. propagation, and anything in the nature of the converging
47
1
.•..•• ""~ __ '_'_"_"_"T .•_- _ _ _ _ .r--~._. _~r.__r.--_~_ _
. _I
TUNING FOR SPEED ADJUSTING COMPRESSION RATIOS
pocket which is formed by the angle between dome and thickness and free from wrinkles, and should be provided
head produces a likely locality in which detonation can in assorted thicknesses, as a large number of thin shims do
\ take place. not provide a firm foundation for the cylinder. It must
It is quite a good scheme to make a cast of the combus- be remembered that a ring-ridge may form at the upper
tion chamber by pouring melted wax into the plug hole with limit of the top-ring travel in quite a short time if the engine
the piston at t.d.c.This shows up any pockets or restric- is used on sand or grass tracks and broken rings or ring-
tions, and the wax can be softened and rem"oulded with the lands may ensue if the engine is run with one or more
fingers after detaching the head, to give an improved shape plates removed after running for some time with thick
with the same volume of wax and, therefore, the same plates, unless the ridge is carefully removed. For that
compression. As quite a number of different makers have reason if an engine has to be repeatedly changed over
used the same bore diameters-74 mm., for instance, is a from one compression ratio to another it is best to do so
popular size for 350 c.c. power units-it is often possible by using the appropriate pistons, making sure that the
to utilize a "foreign" piston of different proportions to height of the top ring above the gudgeon pin is the same
replace a standard article and thereby obtain a better for each piston and that the weights of each are the same,
shape of combustion chamber. to avoid need for re-balancing.
Unless shims are already fitted under the barrel flange, the
usual method of finally adjusting the ratio is by shortening Determining Compression Ratios
the barrel. A great deal of laborious setting-up and For maximum power, the rule is to employ the highest
remeasuring can be saved by making up a two-column ratio at which the engine will run without distress, on the fuel
table showing the C.R. and equivalent compression space which is specified for the race in question. There are, of
and determining, as follows, the differences in barrel course, many factors, both internal and external to the
length which are equal to 1 C.c. engine, which have an effect on the ratio which can be used,
but the prime factor to be considered is the quality of the
Bore 1 c.C.= fuel.
60mm. .014 in. J.A.P. fuel, methanol and similar fuels composed mainly
7fjmm. .0lD in.
80mm. .008 in. of alcohol can be run at anything up to 18 to 1, even in
90mm. .006 in. engines with iron heads and barrels and scanty finning, this
being partly because alcohol is almost knock-free and
Knowing the existing ratio, a very simple piece of arith- partly because the large amount of heat required to vaporize
metic will show how much length alteration is required for these fuels exercises a great internal cooling effect.
any other ratio. Skimming the barrel flange is an operation " Dope" engines for use on official dirt tracks are, how-
which has to be done very accurately to ensure that the new ever, limited by the regulations to 14 to 1 ratio. Even in
surface is dead square to the bore, and some prefer to turn events where there is no such limitation, there is not much
the top joint face where squareness is not so vital. On the to be gained by going any higher as very often the obstruc-
other hand, a little more than is necessary at the moment tion in the combustion chamber caused by the high piston-
can be turned oft the flange and thereafter adjustments to crown required to obtain these ultra-high ratios more than
increase or decrease the ratio can readily be made by shims. offsets the slight increase in power which might otherwise
These should be made up from good material of even be gained.
48 49
. With petrol or petrol-benzoic, the internal cooling effect
IS much lower, and detonation is liable to occur above a COMPRESSION RATIO ,INCREASED FUEL. fLOW
SUITABIUTY (500 C.C. COMPARED WITH
certain ratio, depending upon the octane number of the GRADE Of fUEL
SINGLE CYLINDER STRAIGHT PETROL
fueL That is to say, fuel which, on the average, is rated AIR-COOLED ENGINE)
at 72 octane, will not perform satisfactorily in engines which Nil
TI Up to 8.5
have had their ratios pushed up to the limit at which they 9.5 35%
X
would run on pre-war SO/50 petrol-benzole. " " 80%
Y " 10.5
The precise octane rating for this latter mixture is not " .. 12.5 60%
M
available, but it is believed to be above 84 octane, or roughly "Over 12.5 130-140%
A
midway between" MT80" (petrol, plus 3i C.c. of tetra- 811 12.5 100%
ethyl-lead per gallon) and 87 octane aviation petrol. Benzole,
however, has an appreciably greater internal cooling effect
t?an petrol, and seemingly extraordinarily high compres- pit stops, but a compromise may be effected by using
Slons--over 10! to 1 in some instances-were used in the alcohol blends such as .. 80/l0/1O" composed of 80 per
1938 and 1?39 T.T. races, the engines concerned being the cent methanol, 10 per cent benzole and 10 per cent petrol.
last :v~rd III development, and possessing heavily finned Blending methanol with petrol is not quite a straight-
aluminIUm heads and barrels, sodium-cooled exhaust valves forward matter; the methanol must be of the quality known
and copious internal oil circulation, with jets to the piston as " anhydrous" or "dry blending" methanol, and even
crowns. Similar engines had to be dropped down to 7.5 then it will only mix with petrol if at least equal quantity
to 1 or lower when using "Pool" which is an obvious of benzole is added as well. Some riders for instance employ
illustration of the great effect exercised by the quality a mixture composed of equal parts of methanol, petrol and
of the fuel. benzoIe, which will run very satisfactorily with a reasonable
Pool spirit as supplied in the United Kingdom after the war
had a maximum octane rating of 72, but no fixed analysis; COMPRESSION RATIO
BLOWER PRESSURE
on occasion, up to 1 C.c. of tetra-ethyl-lead per gallon was
added to low octane fuel to bring it up to the required
st~ndard. In 1950 F.I.M. regulations were altered to per- Unblown
Ill1t the use of 80 octane fuel for international events; that + 2 lb. per sq. in. TI TI
octane value may be obtained by a benzole or alcohol 4 TI X
6 j: TI X
additive and on this quality, compression ratios in the region II X X
8 II
of 9 to 1 may well be employed in a well-designed 500 c.c. 10 X M
engine. 12
Ii
;1 M M
The great internal cooling effect of alcohol fuel is offset 14 M M
by the much higher consumption; the mileage per gallon 16 M M M
on pure methanol is only about one-third of that obtained 18 M M
with petrol or petrol-benzole.· This is naturally a serious 20 M M
matter in long-distance racing, as apart from the question
of expense, it entails either a vast tank capacity or too many Types of specially-blended Australiall Shell fuel suitable for
normally-aspirated and supercharged engines ..
50 51
TUNING FOR SPEED
Finding Compression Ratios
consumption on ratios around 10 or 11 to 1. In Australia
the Shell and Vacuum Oil Companies supply several To provide an easy method of finding out the C.R. given
grades of racing fuel ready mixed, and the list of these by any particular combustion space volume (or vice versa)
on page 51 with their approximate analysis and suitable in conjunction with cylinders of various capacities, the graph
compression ratios gives a fairly clear picture of the on this page has been drawn; three curves represent the
situation. most commonly used cylinder (not total engine) capacities,
Before leaving this question of fuel, which is really too the 125 c.c. curve is added for" Liddler" owners or those
complex to deal with at all fully in this volume, it is worth interested in 250 twins or 500 c.c. fours. To find the ratio
mentioning that a great deal of nonsense is talked about given by any known combustion chamber volume, read
special" dopes". The amount of energy liberated in the across from the volume figure to the curve of the cylinder
cylinder per cubic inch of correct mixture is very much the capacity concerned and then downwards to the ratio line.
same, whatever combustible substance is employed, the
theoretical quantity being 48 foot-pounds and no amount
of juggling with various fuels will alter this fact. The
reason why alcohol gives greater power is two-fold' 12
(a) it can be run at higher compressions and therefor~
0 \
II 1
at . greater efficiency and (b) the high latent heat of o \

evaporati~n of alcohol cools down the fresh charge 100
Vi' I'\~ 720 CTANE
OCTANE
I
(POOL
very consIderable so that a greater weight of charge is 09 9
induced into the cylinder: in other words more mixture o
~8 01\
is induced and then burnt at higher efficiency, hence a
:-V0rth-w~ile increase in power, though the percentage
l:70 \
r\ ~.T. 80
50~0 PETRO~-BE~:Z:OI
mcrease IS not nearly as great in practice as it should be
in theory.
An exception to the statement about dopes must be
:J
...J
060
>
t'j 50 I\.
" ~
'" "l
~sOo
1_ J I MAXIMUM RATIO
FOR DIRT TRACKS
made in the case of oxygen-carrying compounds such as
nitro-benzine, which has recently come into prominence,
z
~ 10 ~
........
f'-...... \~ ....... r0-
1'1'....
-M....rf~c:
- t-- ....
0(
first as a fuel for miniature engines for model aircraft and w
then as a racing fuel. Without delving too far int~ the
d 30
~~
.....
chemistry of the matter, this compound contains an excess 20 """" r---.... l""~
1\
~ 12S'C.C.
of oxygen and when added to the regular fuel permits
much larger amounts of the latter to be burnt and thus
10 ,
provides much more power. Naturally the co~sumption 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
lllcreases greatly and as nitro-benzine costs several pounds COMPRESSION RATIO
per gallon, the whole business is very costly. Also the stuff
itself is very unstable, chemically and all in all it is probably Rl:lationship between combustion-space volume and compression
ratio in the most commonly used cylinder capacities is readily
a good thing that it is not as yet permissible in international seen/rom this graph.
motorcycle road-racing. 53
52
TUNING FOR SPEED
Conversely, to find what compression space is required
for, say, 7t to 1 in a 250 c.c. cylinder, read up from 7.5 on
the ratio line to the 250 curve, then across to the volume 90
line, where it will be seen that the required figure is 38 C.c.
If it is desired to raise the ratio to 8, for which the volume
should be 35-! c.c., the amount of packing (or material i 80 \
\
I:
which has to -be removed from the cylinder base) can be
found by reference to the second graph, which will be :;; 70
mentioned in a later paragraph. ()
I~
z:;
The diagonal lines drawn across the capacity curves >-
indicate roughly the maximum ratios which can be used ~. 60 I
o
with various grades of fuel, though (except in the case of
"
~
w
alcohol) the indication is necessarily only approximate
owing to the aforementioned varying factors. An engille ~'" 50
with an iron head and barrel and poor finning cannot
employ nearly as high a ratio as one with an aluminium
head and extensive finning, unless the latter's breathing is
so poor that the cylinder does not fill properly at maximum
r.p.m., and then its actual compression pressure is very
40
'005" '0 I O' '015
. '"
'020
. ~~
'025
CYLINDER BASE PACKING EQUIVALENT TO I C.C.
OF COMPRESSION SPACE
. '030
. '035
.
much less than the measured value. Here is shown the thickness of packing equal to 1 c.c. for
given bore dimensions.
For the same reason, reduced cylinder filling, engines
which are to be raced at high altitudes, and consequently examined: on the side of the crown remote from the plug
low atmospheric pressures, will stand a higher ratio than some of the- carbon film will be burnt away and the surface
when run at sea-level, which is worth remembering in some of the aluminium will be locally pitted and rough, for which
countries where competitions are held in mountainous condition the colloquial description is that" the mice have
regions. A damp atmosphere also helps to suppress been at it."
detonation. To some extent detonation due to an excessively high
Detonation the Limiting Factor ratio can be suppressed by retarding the ignition and using a
jet giving a very rich mixture, but the result will only be
A peculiar thing about almost all engines is that with any diminution of power; in other words, there is nothing to
particular fuel there is a limiting ratio above which one be gained and everything to be risked in attempting to use
dare not go without an almost certain risk of piston trouble, a ratio higher than the engine is willing to accept. This
yet the ratio at which the engine will run happily is fre- is particularly true in long-distance races in which the throttle
quently only very slightly lower; dropping from, say, 7.8 is wide open most of the time; for small tracks and sand
to 7.5 may make all the difference between success and racing, it is usually possible to go up a little in the ratio,
failure with but little or no diminution in performance. because as the engine is not running for very long, and in
Apa~t from audible" pinking," the signs that detonation any case is being shut off fairly frequently, the internal
has been occurring are unmistakable when the piston is temperatures do not have time to become dangerously high.
54 55
The graph on page 55 enables the amount of packing On the other hand, if at some future date the barrel is
which must be remo\ed or added when adjusting the ratio stacked up again with shims by an appreciable amount, it
to be determined very easily. Referring to the previous may be necessary to obtain a longer shaft or a pair of
example, it was found that to raise a 250 c.c. cylinder from coupling-discs of greater thickness. On no account must
7.5 to 8 to 1 the compression space must be reduced from these couplings be run with the tongues only half-engaged
38 to 35! C.c. With this second graph, supposing the bore in the slots, as the metal is then subjected to a form of
of the cylinder to be 68 mm., if we read across from 68 mm. stress which may cause failure.
on the vertical line to the curve, and then down to the It goes without saying that the cylinder bore should be in
horizontal line, we find that .0115 in. is equivalent to I C.c.; perfect condition. particularly at the upper end, where the
therefore the thickness of packing must be reduced by 2.5. X heaviest wear invariably occurs. The wear practically
.0115=.029 in., or just under 3~ in. ceases about an inch or so below the ridge which forms just
By reading in the reverse direction, i.e., upwards from level with the top ring at t.d.c., but, in effect, over this
the horizontal line, then across, the difference in volume short length the barrel is tapered. In their attempts to
effected by removing or adding a known thickness of conform to the varying diameter, the rings have alternately
packing can be read oif directly, thus saving a lot of calcu- to expand and contract, a feat which may be beyond their
lation. With the aid of this graph, a series of plates can capacity above a certain speed.
easily be made up so that the ratio can he altered rapidly When this occurs, gas will be able to blow past and also
to any desired figure. oil can work its way up into the head. Worse still, if the
If the barrel is held down by studs which go through the rate at which the rings are being forced in and out corres-
flange only, care must be taken to see that the latter is not ponds to their natural frequency of vibration, they will get
made too thin, as it is in a highly stressed locality, and into a state known as "flutter," and after a while wil1
in overhead camshaft engines with the usual Oldham break, usually at a point fairly close to the gap. If the ring
couplings in the vertical shaft there is a likelihood that the design is incorrect, flutter may occur even in a perfect bore,
small amount of end-float normally allowed may all be or may be aggravated by barrel distortion of an unsuspected
swallowed up-a state of affairs which will put excessive nature, which may be caused either by thermal distortion or
end-thrust on the vertical bevel shafts. This point must, through the base flange or crankcase face not being dead flat.
therefore, be verified. Another snag about altering compression ratios by
omitting compression plates or reducing the base flange is
that the piston ring will inevitably strike any ring ridge
If tire barrel is attached to which has formed; occasionally this has even been known
tire crankcase by sharI studs to cause the piston ring land below the top ring to break
it is inadvisable 10 remove away. Even a change from one type of piston to another
metal from the base. Whell
10llg bolts such as those may introduce the same effect due to varying ring heights,
ilIuslrated on page 126 are so it is always wise to remove every vestige of ridge by very
used, a small amount of careful work with a sharp hand scraper or a ring-ridge
metal can be removed from
the base wilh safety. remover if any possibility of fouling exists. This point
has already been noted in Chapter II but is sufficiently
important to warrant repetition.
56 c 57
TUNING FOR SPEED ADJ USTING COMPRESSION RATIOS
vided with a flange at the upper end which can be gripped

Re~conditioning Worn Barrels between the head and barrel and thus prevent the liner
Badly worn barrels may be rejuvenated by reboring or from moving in any direction.
by linering, though the first method is rarely applicable Other points which must not be overlooked are the dril-
for racing, as mentioned in Chapter I; Norton engines ling of any oil-holes and cutting out any con-rod clearance
of 490 c.c. are one exception as they can be bored out from slots which may be provided in the barrel originally.
79 to 79.6 mm. before exceeding the 500 c.c. limit. Not If the skirt of the barrel, which projects inwards into the
all barrels are thick enough to stand being linered without crankcase, is long and of fairly thin section, as it is for
danger of fracture at the flange, although. the type in which instance, in MOV and MAC Velocettes, it is a wise plan
long bolts extend from the crankcase up to the head are to reduce the liner diameter at the lower end so that it
much less likely to fail than those with a bolted flange. is just the same size over the length of the skirt as the
Also it must be remembered that however well the liner bore into which it is pressed. This eliminates the danger
fits, its junction with the barrel constitutes an additional of the skirt developing a crack when the liner is pressed
heat~break, though this is of less moment with alcohol into position.
than with petrol fuel. Incidentally, liners in aluminium cylinders should be
Barrels can be brought back to original size by chrome~ fairly thick-not less than i in., and preferably more-to
plating, though this is a specialized process, as it is neces- resist distortion, but when used in an iron barrel they may
sary for the plating to have a porous surface to provide a be made as thin as nr in. Provided a locating flange is
multitude of oil reservoirs; the processes are known by present, an interference fit when cold of .001-.002 in. is
various trade names such as "Listard," the Van der sufficient, irrespective of diameter, as the liner is bound to be
Horst patent administered in England by R. A. Lister and hotter than the jacket when running, and it will never
Co., Ltd., Dursley, Glos., and" Honeychrome," a speci- loosen. In aluminium jackets a greater interference is
ality of Monochrome, Ltd., Alcester. Laystall Engineering required, and allowance must be made for the high expan-
Co., Ltd., London, S.E.!, market a range of liners under sion, on the following basis, according to the aHoy used:
the name of "Cromard," these being very thin mild- High silicon (L.33, .. Alpax," " Lo.-Ex"), .0009 per in. of diameter.
steel tubes with chrome-plated bores supplied finished to Y Alloy. R.R. 50 or 53, " Birmabright," .0011 per in. of diameter
size; all that has to be done is to bore the barrel to the Magnesium Alloys (EJektron. Magnuminium), .0016 per in. of
diameter.
-correct size and press the liner into place, no subse-
quent boring being required. Included in the range is a After a short period of running, liners in aluminium shells
liner, specially designed for fitting to the speedway J.A.P. sometimes bed down a little and exhibit either tight spots
engine. or hollows in the bore; it is therefore a wise precaution to
This liner is slightly reduced in diameter near the lower hone them out initially 2 or 3 thou. small and re-hone
end and the cylinder must be machined with a correspond- or lap out to the correct size after a short period of running-
ing step in the bore, so that there is no possibility of the in with an old or slightly undersized piston.
liner, which has no flange at the top, being pulled down Shown overleaf is a simple method of rejuvenating a cast-
:into the crankcase should it come loose or if the piston iron barrel by boring it out and fitting a short liner, which
seizes badly. Such an occurrence is nothing short of a can be made from any good grade of cast-iron but prefer·
calamity and, where possible, liners should always be pro- .ably an alloyed iron containing Ii to 3% of nickel. The
58 59
TUNING FOR SPEED
WEAR SHOWN FACED OfF
LEVEL
EXAGGERATED AFTER FITTING All traces of abrasive must, of course, be finally eliminated
t by several washings in clean spirit.
If this treatment is applied to side-valve barrels a hollow
will sometimes be noticed in the surface adjacent to the
exhaust-valve port; this is a sign that when hot the barrel
distorts inwards, and the" bump " s~ formed has in time
been rubbed away by the piston. When cold, of course
the former" bump" now appears as a .. hollow," and it i~
::
.
better not to continue lapping in an attempt to eliminate it.
l
f. If that is done, the bump will reappear when the engine
END OF LINER AND FACE
• OF GROOVE MUST BE FACED w~rms up and may cause trouble if full-throttle is applied
I OFF FLUSH TO AVOID ANY
GAP WIthout a lengthy preliminary running-in period.
Short liners may be lIsed very effectively for
barrel renovations.
important point to watch is squareness of the shoulder and

liner to avoid any semblance of gap; if properly done
lhe joint will be almost invisible and will remain so in
service.
The quickest method of truing up worn or linered bores
is by means of a cylinder hone which can be rotated and Higher power out-
put callsfor greater
reciprocated in the bore either under a drilling machine heat dissipation; it
with a long spindle travel or 'by means of a slow-speed is interestillg to
electric drill. A copious and continuous supply of kero- compare the/inning
on this 1939 Velo-
sene or paraffin oil is vital to prevent scratching the sur- cette T. T. engille
face, but there is no need to attain a mirror-like finish. with the 1926 edi-
tion all page 48.
The ideal surface consists of a large number of very fine
criss-cross markings which retain oil and give a quick bed-
in of the rings.
Hand-lapping to obtain a perfect finish or to clean up a
slightly damaged bore can be done with a discarded piston,
split in halves and expanded by two springs slipped over the
gudgeon bosses. Mounted on an old rod or a piece of
wood, this device is pushed up and down the barrel by
hand and given a partial rotation at each stroke, the abra-
sive being flour emery mixed with oil if much metal has to
be removed, and metal polish for obtaining the final finish.
60
• TUNING FOR SPEED ADJUSTING COMPRESSION RATIOS
Enclosure of valves in large cast boxes which eliminate a machines quite well, especially if given a low-temperature
lot of fin area is bad from the cooling aspect, and in such heat-treatment of 10 hours at 1700 C.
cases the covers should be liberally drilled and fitted with The best compromise is afforded by Y-alloy or R.R.SO,
scoops in order to stimulate a flow of air through the valve with a coefficient of .000022 in., while the aluminium-
chest; the fins sometimes cast on the covers are not really magnesium group-such as " Birmabright " or Hiduminium
effective, as the stagnant pocket of air in the valve chest is 40-are only very slightly higher and have the additional
the real barrier to heat dissipation. advantage of being very resistant to corrosion, even by
For short-distance events with alcohol fuel-grass- and sea-water.
dirt-tracking and sprint work-deep barrel fins are not A process which has lately come into prominence is the
necessary (readers will remember the early dirt-track " Alfin" system, in which a true metallic bond is formed
J.A.P. power units, which might almost be called" clean- between the iron and aluminium, so eliminating a heat-
shaven "), but when road racing, complete with mudguards, break at this locality. The process is handled by Wellworthy
barrel cooling becomes worse as the speeds become higher, Ltd., Lymington, Hants, who are prepared to cast solid
due to the "dead air" region behind the front-wheel jackets on to barrels, the fins, of course, having to be sub-
assembly becoming more and more pronounced. Hence the sequently turned by the customer. Racing Norton and
use of fins up to 8 in. in diameter, which would be of J.A.P. engines have been equipped for some time with
prohibitive weight in iron and are, therefore, made of " Alfin" barrels, with fins cast to size. The main patents
aluminium or, in rare instances, magnesium alloy. covering the process are held by the Fairchild Aviation
For anyone with a little skill in lathe work there is no Corporation, Farmingdale, N.Y., U.S.A., and there are
great difficulty in making up a bi-metal barrel out of a solid several licences operating in that and other countries. A
casting, or, better still, a forged bar of light alloy, with the recent development has been the bonding-in of austenitic
fins turned from the solid. The tapered form of fin has cast-iron (" Ni-resist") seat inserts in cylinder heads,
been found to be the most effective, although a little more thereby obtaining better conduction of heat from the
, ~ ','
difficult to machine than the parallel variety. The bore insert to the head than with shrunk-in inserts.
should be finished at as high a speed as the lathe will permit,
using for preference a tungsten carbide tool and a feed of
about .003 in. per revolution, as successful heat transference
between liner and barrel depends very largely upon the
perfection of finish of the contacting surfaces.
The actual composition of the alloy is of little moment,
except in so far as the coefficient of thermal expansion
varies. High expansion rates are not advantageous, and in
this respect the magnesium alloys and the LS aluminium
alloy commonly used for general castings are the worst of
the lot at .000026 in. per degree C. High-silicon alloys to
specification L33 are the lowest at .000019 in .. but do not
machine well. "Lo-ex," the alloy from which most motor-
car pistons are made, has the same coefficient as L33 but
62 63
CHECKING PISTON AND RING WEAR
think that ultra-wide clearances are essential or even

beneficial; the reverse is the case in fact, for piston rings
cannot function properly in a piston with an excessive
CHAPTER Y amount of "slap." Whenever the piston is tilted, the
rings, instead of being in contact over their full face-
width, will make only edge contact over a large part
CHECKING PISTON AND RING WEAR of their circumference, and so cannot seal properly; in
time the rings will wear to a barrel shape, and this will
JOINTLY or singly, the piston, rings and gudgeon-pin diminish their ability to prevent the upward passage of
have a number of jobs to perform. They must prev~nt oil. Also, as the piston alternates in position from side to
leakage of gas from, and the passing of oil into, the WOrkl?g side of the barrel the rings have a tendency to follow suit
part of the cylinder, and also act as a cross-head t.o .resist (due to the friction between them and the ring grooves),
the side-thrust of the con.-rod and absorb the mmimum and even if their contact with the wall is not momentarily
of power in so doing. As each is dependent upon the others broken, the action is very prone to initiate ring-flutter.
to a greater or less exte~t, they can ~e considered as a These effects are governed by skirt clearances, i.e., the
little family group in whIch the behavIOur of one. affects diameters measured at right angles to the gudgeon just below
the well-being of the remainder. . .. the lowest ring and at the bottom edge of the skirt. Since
All these components work in highly adverse condItIOns there is, or should be, very little oil present above the rings,
of high and fluctuating temperatu.res,. high. pr~ssures and the lands between them cannot be expected to carry any
rubbing speeds and scanty lubncatIOn; It IS. n?t sur- load at all, and should run just clear of the barrel. As there
prising, therefore, that nearly half the. power lost m mternal is a sharp rise in temperature as the crown is approached,
friction is absorbed by them. Luckily, as no medals are the lands must be progressively smaller, but again it is
awarded for mechanical silence in racing, the problem of undesirable to make the top land too small, since this would
eliminating piston-slap does not arise; t~us the ~learances expose the top ring to the fully fury of the combustion,
which give the best results can be used ~rr:spectl~e of any whereas a close-fitting land will shield it to some extent.
noise which may occur. Nevertheless, It lS a mIstake to
RING EXPOSED CONTACT AT

TO FLAME EDGE ONLY Deliberately exagger-
ated, this illustration
O~
A pistoll with excessive gives an idea oj how
clearance in the barrel ring lands CUll be
tilts at t.d.c., thus ex- checked on a surJace
posing the top ring to plate Jor clearance and
flame contact and concentricity.
rounding the edges oj
all rings.
64 65
CHECKING PISTON AND RING WEAR
TUNING FOR SPEED
A correctly fitted piston, after running at racing speeds for

some time, should show an even bearing over the thr~st
faces of the skirt and just the faintest witness of rubbmg
contact on the ring lands. To obtain this result it is impera-
tive that the relationship between skirt and lands is correct- A piston typical of
that is to say, in addition to being the right relative sizes, modem racing practice
employing two narrow
the lands must be concentric with the skirt, which cannot be compression rings and
determined simply by direct measurement witha micrometer. an oil scraper ring.
It is, of course, possible for a piston which is too small
all over to exhibit the appearance just described, but this
can be detected by the presence of thick carbon deposits
in the plane of the gudgeon pin, or by the skirt showing areas
of heavy bearing at the upper and lower extremities and light
bearing in the centre, which appearance is caused by the
piston running tip-tilted, in turn permitting the ring lands
to make contact. Easing down these areas of heavy bearing
under the erroneous impression that they are .. high be disguised by still further filing. The file must, of course
spots" will only make matters worse. be used with a circular motion, so that the cut washes ou~
Perhaps at this juncture it might be as well to deal with smoothly to zero at the perimeter of the area being worked
this matter of easing down the high spots, which is fre- on.
quently misunderstood. Obviously the piston must touch As regards the actual clearances, conditions vary so
the barrel somewhere, but if every time the motor is greatly that it is virtually impossible to give any hard~and~
down all the rub marks are carefully eased off with a file, fast rules and in case of doubt the manufacturer's advice
the piston will simply become smaller and smaller until it is must be sought. Generally speaking, the temperatures in
r~cing engines, even with 50/50 fuel, are not a great deal
useless. The thing is to distinguish between the appearance
of normal and abnormally hear), contact areas. The latter are lugher than those sometimes encountered in touring engines,
potential sources of seizure, and the surface may be either thanks to the use of open exhaust systems and the fact that
torn and rough (in which event momentarily seizure has the racer is almost always making a pretty fair breeze of its
actually occurred) or possess a smooth polished appearance own. As a rule, therefore, an increase of .001 in. to .003 in.,
easily visible by viewing tangentially across the curved according to diameter, will suffice in most cases.
The thermal expansion of the piston and barrel both
surface.
Areas of normal pressure have a dull-grey matt sur- exert an influence, and as materials such as Y-aUoy and
face, possibly intersected by machine marks of trifling R.~. ~3 B are preferable ~o the high-silicon, low-expansion
depth, and should be left undisturbed, but the polished vanetles on ~ccount of their greater strength at high tempera-
areas, or tfue " high-spots," should be eased down with a tures and slIghtly less coefficient of friction, allowance must
dead~smooth single~cut, or Swiss file used very sparingly, be made for their greater thermal expansion if a change~over
for it is a simple matter to convert a high spot into a hollow, i~ made. As an approximate guide, the following table
and, once done, the fault cannot be rectified-it can only gLves the clearances per inch of diameter which will be found
66 67
TUNING FOR SPEED CHECKING PISTON AND RING WEAR
suitable for Y-alloy or R.R. 53 B pistons running in iron
barrels:
Top land .0065 in.
Second land .0055 in.
Third land .005 in. I
Top of skirt .0036 in.
Bottom skirt .0027 in. I A
Bi-metal barrels with shrunk-in liners have a slightly \

higher expansion rate than pl~in iron, a~d the cl~arances
in such cases can be about .001m. less per mch of dlameter.
These clearances apply to pistons without T-slots (which And here is indicated
are not commonly employed in racing), and are measured how the depth of relief .003·.00S SMALLER
should merge smoothly
at right angles to the gudgeon. . into the contact face THAN OIAM. AT A
All pistons distort to some extent under .the )~flue!lce when work 011 the slip- /
of heat and load, and pistons of the plam cylIndncal per type of piston is
completed.
pattern (sometimes referred to as the "pot" type) are
oval-turned to the extent of .006 in. or .010 in. to give Owing to the heat-flow down the side ribs and their conse-
greater clearances on the sides, although the ring ~ands are quent expansion, the thrust faces of slipper pistons depart
frequently circular; when cold, therefore, the skirt clear- from their cold shape quite a lot when hot, and the clear-
ances progressively increase from the central plane out- ances should be increased perceptibly towards the lateral
wards. edges, particularly just below the top ring, as indicated in,
Actually, quite a small area is sufficient to carry the con.- the diagram on the left.
rod side-thrust, and this fact led to the development of the There are two ways of measuring clearances: (a) by'
slipper piston, which is both stronger and causes less measuring the bore with an internal micrometer or a dial.
friction loss through oil shear than the "pot" variety, gauge such as the Mercer, and subtracting the various.
but to some extent the latter can be improved by heavily piston diameters as measured by "mike" or vernier; and.
relieving the sides so that they run well clear of the walls. (b) by direct measurement, using various feeler gauges.
The latter is the means which most private owners will have·
to adopt, and is quite accurate if carefully performed.
For the wide clearances round the top lands it is best to·
use a number of thin feelers rather than one or two thick
The shaded portion ones, as the latter give a false reading through being too·
suggests how the con-
tact faces of a slipper stiff to conform with the barrel curvature.
pistoll call be relieved. As mentioned, the ring lands must be concentric with
the skirt, and this is easily proved by placing the piston on
a surface plate and measuring by feelers the gap between
plate and lands, which should, of course, be equal for
corresponding localities on each side of the piston.
68 69
It is sometimes necessary to reduce an oversize piston and destruction of the piston in that area may then occur
to fit a standard bore, or to finish to size a semi-finished with startling rapidity.
piston, i.e. one with all machining completed except the Another worthwhile idea is to chamfer the open end at
final sizing of the ring-lands and skirt. This job can be 45° almost to a knife-edge. This has the effect of skimming
done in a lathe using a large 60° cone centre in the open excess oil off the bore and directing it up towards the piston
end with a loose pin or blade bearing on the gudgeon crown, whereas a square shoulder just rolls the oil up
bosses to provide the drive, and a regular centre in the ahead of itself, creating oil-drag and increasing the work
tail-stock. Alternatively a soft spigot can be turned in the to be done by the oil-control ring.
chuck to fit the register bored in the open end of the piston The skirt clearances of two-stroke pistons are of great
which is then pulled back on the spigot by a loose pin importance because the piston has to act as the pumping
and bolt passing through the hollow head-stock. In either element for the induction system. Pressure of up to 6 lb.
case the ring-grooves must be checked with a dial-gauge per sq. in. are involved in the crankcase breathing cycle,
to see that they run free from wobble; with any reputable and as there is very little oil present and no rings at all on
make of piston, this is an indication that the piston as a the skirt, leakage can only be prevented by the latter being
whole is running true and finish-turning can commence. a close fit all round its circumference. Extreme ovality
Camming, or relieving, the sides as just described, is best leads to loss through the transfer ports, round the piston
done in one of the piston-finishing machines used by sides and out through the exhaust. Consequently many
engine re-conditioners. Of the range of cams developed such pistons are ground circular or with not more than
and widely adopted for these machines, type "C" is usually .003 in. camming, and that concentrated in the region of
most suitable. It gives .009 in. total ovality and .006 in. the gudgeon bosses, leaving the last ! in., or so, of the
reduction in diameter measured at the 45° points. Failing skirt parallel and with a clearance of .0015 to .002 in. per
access to one of these devices, camming can be done either inch of diameter.
by hand or in the lathe by. offsetting the piston .010 in. The bores of air-cooled split-singles distort quite consider-
in the direction of the gudgeon and relieving the high side ably on account of the difficulty of cooling the metal
to a depth of .005 in. and then repeating the process on the between the bores. It pays to make these pistons a fairly
other side. This will leave about half the skirt on each close fit, then, after a warm-up period, to give the motor
thrust face still circular and the sides of these areas must a short burst at full-throttle, shutting off immediately at
finally be merged into the relieved portions by hand the first indication of tightening-up. Now dismantle the
filing. engine, ease down the areas of high pressure and repeat.
A precaution which must always be taken, even with This process will give much better results than any amount
new factory-made pistons, is to see that the corners of the of running-in at light load.
ring-grooves are slightly chamfered. If not, a fine square The most satisfactory ring equipment is two narrow
file run round the grooves will do the trick. The purpose pressure rings, and one scraper, usually of the slotted type,
of these chamfers is partly to provide a small channel for which is so effective that a very copious supply of oil can
oil distribution, but mainly to prevent the rings being be fed to the barrel. The pressure rings should have
locked into the grooves by metal being pulled over at the .0015 in. to .002 in. side clearance in the grooves, but
corners should the lands happen to run in contact with scrapers perform their work better with about twice that
the cylinder. Locked rings permit local blow-by to occur amount. Oil wiped off the bore is thereby enabled to pass
70 71
TUNING FOR SPEED CHECKING .PISTON AND RING WEAR
through to: the back of the ring and out through the drain- clearance at the back of the ring helping to prevent ring-
holes. Sometimes a row of drain holes is provided below flutter), and in all cases the sides of rings and grooves must
the oil-ring; these should be horizontal and not drilled be free from waves or ridges. These defects do not often
downwards at an angie, as the rapid acceleration of the occur in the grooves unless the piston has seen a great deal
piston away from t.d.c. then has the effect ~f driving any of service, but are sometimes noticeable on rings; the
oil in, or near, the holes back through the pIston. remedy is to lap the sides on a flat iron plate with flour
On the other hand, the primary job of the upper rings emery and finally metal polish, using only light finger
is to maintain gas-tightness, but this is done not so much pressure. Incidentally, it is better to have dead-flat rings
by the natural pressure of the rings against the walls as running at slightly excessive clearances than wavy ones
by the action of the high-pressure gas passing through the with the correct amount of side-slack.
clearance between ring and groove into the clearance space .... DIAMETIiR-D---
SIDES TO BE
behind, and thus forcing the ring outwards against the DEAD FLAT.
cylinder. If the side clearance is insufficient the gas cannot PARALLEL
AND PREFERABLY
get through sufficiently fast to build up this vital pressure RADIAL LAPPED TO A
THICKNESS. MIRROR FINISH
in the very short time available. But if it is too great, then D.26 FOR
RACING Important ring di-
there is likelihood of the grooves being hammered out wider mensions which
still as there will not be much oil present to provide a WIDTH must be taken in~o
cushion. To assist in building up pressure, the upper ring FREE GAP account when III
) TO " TIMES RADIAL DEPTH search 0/ the last
grooves should be only .005 to .010 in. deeper than the CONTACT ~ACE MUST BE FI>.EE FROM ounce 0/ per/o rm -
radial thickness of the rings. The small clearance also BROWN PATCHES INDICATING BLOW-BY ance.
helping to suppress ring-flutter. The grooves in pistons which have been run for some
The pressure-ring grooves should be only .005 in. to .010 in.
deeper than the radial thickness of the rings (the small time in severe conditions often wear unevenly. When new
rings are fitted in such grooves they may feel as if the side
clearance is correct because, being of correct radial depth,
they are located in the unworn portion of the grooves.
HIG<H_F'REl;SUI\E GAS
However, under working conditions, the top ring in par-
ticular is subjected to a severe twisting action, due to lack
of support at the outer edge, and it will almost certainly
. fail in short order. The only cure is to skim the grooves
out parallel and, if wider rings are not available, to fit two
rings per groove by grinding-down standard rings by the
requisite amount. There is, of course, a limit to how much
The effect 0/ COIII- can be taken from the grooves because the lands eventually
pressed or expanding become too thin and may break under load. Definite
gas as a means 0/ in-
creasing the radial figures are hard to give but, as a general rule, i.\ in. would
pressure a/piston rings be about the safe minimum land width and then only if
against the cylinder the piston is of strong material such as Y-alloy or R.R. 53.
walls.
72 73
___~J . _______.______.__ _
Effective gas ~ealing is achieved mostly by the top rin~, rings is iij-D is the barrel diameter-but lately high-pres-
the second acting as a standby should the top one fall, sure rings of greater radial depth, ~, have come into use.
and also as an oil controller. For sprint work, or in very The latter type are less prone to flutter at high speeds, but if
small engines when there is little room for rings, it is pos- they are used care must be taken to see that the ring-grooves
sible to omit the second ring and use a single groove, with are deep enough to accommodate them. If they are fitted in
two narrow side-by-side rings therein as just described. grooves of normal depth there is a likelihood that they will
By placing the gaps on opposite sides minute leakages stand proud of the ring lands even when forced down to the
through this point will be almost entirely eliminated. bottom of the grooves, and, in service, the ring-faces will
A recent development is the Dykes ring, which is of then be forced to carry the side thrust which should be
"L" section, the short leg providing for location in the borne by the piston skirt. This condition, although easy to
piston, while a comparatively large clearance at the top of overlook. is very bad indeed, and must be rectified by
the ring allows a clear path by which high-pressure gas can deepening the grooves. Another point about these rings
flow rapidly into the space behind the vertical portion, and is that, being stiffer, they will not conform to a worn, or
thus expand it against the bore. Only one such ring per oval, barrel quite as freely as will the lighter variety, and it
piston was employed in the 1954 A.J.S. r.acing twin, though is advisable to lap them in very carefully to ensure gas-
the usual slotted ring was also fitted for 011 control purposes. tightness if the barrel is not so perfect as it might be.
There is little to choose between the various well-known In side-valve engines and most two-strokes some barrel
brands of ring, but each maker has perfected types specially distortion is bound to occur due to unequal distribution of
suitable for racing, notably the Wellworthy "Thermo- metal and varying temperatures around the cylinder and in
chrom" and "Limalloy" or Hepworth and Grandage these motors it is a good plan to peg the rings so that they
" I "Phormicast." Whatever the make, it is advisable to obtain cannot rotate in the grooves. They then bed-in closely to
rings with lapped sides, since they maintain correct side the shape which the cylinder attains when running and will
clearances for long periods, and there is much less friction maintain good gas-tightness and oil control even when the
between the ring and groove when subjected to heavy gas cylinder has worn appreciably.
pressure. Two-stroke rings are also pegged for another reason-to
The usual radial depth of English or Continental piston prevent the ends springing into the ports and becoming
broken, and they are also generally much wider in proportion
to their depth than four-stroke rings of equivalent diameter
to enable them to traverse the ports with less shock. When
fitting new rings care must be taken to clean out the corners
adjacent to the pegs very thoroughly, otherwise the rings
will be propped up above the lands and either they or the
barrel will suffer as soon as the engine is started up. The
tiny lips on the ends of the Puch rings are very frail and can
easily be broken off during assembly if held proud of the
piston by the pegs or by carbon.
A piston rillg reclaim method which n~ay be Wide ring gaps are advisable, particularly for engines
used ill cases where spares are llot avO/lable. SUbjected to rapid cold starts; .010 in. per inch of diameter
74 75
TUNING FOR SPEED CHECKING PISTON AND R1NG WEAR
is a good figure to work to. To make a thorough job, ENDS CHAMfERED 45"
after rough gapping, lap the rings in to the barrel with

metal polish until they are bedding uniformly all the way Chamfered outer
round, and finally finish the gaps to the correct width. gudgeoll pin edges act
Regarding gudgeon pins, it is a great aid to assembly as eirciip retainers,
whilst the tapered bore,
to make these an easy hand-push fit in the piston when cold. left soft, reduces
Some makers prefer to fit them a little tighter, but this weight alld is polished
entails driving the pin out with a drift, or warming up the so that flaws may be
detected..
piston with hot water or a bit of meta-fuel in a cocoa-tin
lid; as in any case a i-in. pin will have about .002-in.
clearance at running temperature, another .0005-in. will
make very little difference. The best way to take a thou. or
so out 'of gudgeon pin holes is with a hone of the Sunnen or are softened and should be replaced. Insufficient pin
Delapena type, using kerosene or paraffin liberally. It is rigidity is a fruitful source of cracked piston bosses, and the
not easy to take out small amounts with an ordinary reamer most satisfactory designs have a central bore not greater
without leaving small chatter-marks in the bore: indeed, than .6 of their diameter. Although this can be tapered out
sometimes a better job can be made with a triangular hand for one-third the length of the pin at both ends, the bore
scraper. must be left soft and is preferably polished to remove sur-
The main attributes of a gudgeon pin are stiffness and face blemishes from which cracks may start. A nickel-
high surface hardness; pins which have become .. blued" chrome steel sllch as K.E. 287, case-hardened, .025 in.
-.035 in. deep, is an excellent material for the purpose.
The best form of end location is by circiips. either of the
If'.. ENDS OF CIRCllP SHOULO BE spririg-wire type (without bent-in ears, which sometimes
___ r'! iN APART WHeN CORRECTLY break off) or the Seeger pattern, although for fitting the
~O':"'il.
t:
I . \
FITTED
latter variety you must have the right sort of pliers, avail-
able quite cheaply from the makers of the circlips. The
)
I
\ :, .,: wire type is perfectly satisfactory provided the ends of the

gudgeon pin are chamfered, and the overall pin length is
-..... .............. _......._-----
-_._ ~: ~- .
such that the final circlip can just be sprung into place
with the pin thrust hard against the opposite one. The
chamfers then act as retainers, and there is DO likeli-
hood of the circlips ever managing to work out of the
IJ a special pair oj grooves. Seeger circlips require flat~bottomed grooves
pliers is 1I0t available
the poillfS oj an old turned to accurate depths in accordance with the table
pair oj scissors call be which covers the range of sizes most likely to be met. This
ground dOWII alld used type of circlip must never be fitted in the half-round grooves
to remove eire/ips oj
the Seeger type. used with wire circlips because, although it may seem to fit
correctly, in fact it would only be seating on the corners
76 77
TUNING FOR SPEED
and in a short period of running the corners would dig in

and the circ1ip would become loose.
Wire circlips should always be stretched out before re-
CHAPTER VI
fitting to make sure that they will fit tightly in place.
Occasionally an engine will exhibit a tendency to hammer
the circlips loose, more so on one side than the other; THE CONNECTING-ROD AND BIG-END
in such a case examine the alignment of the small end bush
for both squareness and absence of" twist"; the latter is THE function of the flywheel assembly is to convert the
difficult to detect but may be the unsuspected cause of the straight-line motion of the piston into rotary motion at
trouble. the engine sprocket. The crankcase also forms a vital
If a spare is not available at all, or the standard article is link in this mechanical chain by providing a rigid location
known to be unreliable, a new piston can be made from a for the cylinder and mainshaft bearings, whilst, in addition,
solid bar with only a lathe, a drill, and the usual hand tools. housing timing gears, oil pumps and so forth. Referring
The process is rather too long for inclusion here but as a back to Chapter 1. it was pointed out that any areas where
guide it will help to note that the best material is aluminium undue wear has occurred are open to suspicion and that
alloy R.R. 59, which is specially made for pistons and the cause of the wear (which may be malalignment, lack of
retains strength very well at high temperatures. The lubrication or faulty material) must be investigated with an
American material to SAE260 specification, and known eye to its cure. This advice should come in useful at this
commercially as 14 S also is very suitable. Alloys such as stage, for the main job of work to be tackled in the" base-
R.R. 77, which are even stronger at atmospheric tempera- ment " will consist of the elimination of friction usually
tures, contain zinc and, therefore, are not so good at due to malalignment.
higher temperatures.
The Velocette slow-taper crankpin:!fywheel assembly calls

for the use of a specially modified" Pickavant" hydraulic
tool when dismantling (left) or reassembling (right).
78 79
TUNING FOR SPEED THE CONNECTING-ROD AND BIG-END
0"0"
.020" CHAMFER '020 RADIUS ON steel (1% carbon, 1% chromium), which hardens right
through by quenching in oil after soaking at 8200 C. for
ICtJjI~:'
half an hour. After quenching, temper for half an hour at
0
200 C. and cool in air; this procedure relieves internal
stresses without materially affecting the hardness, which
should be Rockwell C. 60-64 or diamond hardness number
750-800.
A worn big-end assembly can be renovated by If the crankpin is already drilled centrally for oil, a mating
grinding down and fitting a press-fit ~a~dened hole must also be drilled in the sleeve before hardening.
sleeve to the crank-pin. Where the pili lS not
drilled centrally for lubrication, the sleeve must be Where the pin is not drilled, an annular groove should be
provided with annular grooves and a transverse formed at one or both ends of the sleeve to collect lubricant
passage.
from the flywheel oil-hole, a shallow transverse groove with
central hole finally delivering it to the rollers as shown
Talking of big-ends, in that chapter was mentioned the in an accompanying sketch. After hardening, the sleeve
desirability of having the oil fed to the centre of the roller- must be ground internally to a diameter .00 I in. smaller
track and not simply to one side, a scheme which is now than the pin, then forced into position under a press. Finally,
practically extinct. Unfortunately, big-end components are it must be ground externally and on the two end-faces;
in rather short supply from time to time and final assembly squareness of the latter is particularly important, as the
of the flywheels may have to be postponed if the existing slightest error will be greatly magnified at the mainshafts.
parts are too badly worn to be worth retaining .. If carbon-chrome steel is not available, a case-hardening
The type of big-end in which the central portIOn of the variety can be used, in which event the bore can be left
crankpin is considerably larger than the two ends can be soft if desired, thus avoiding the necessity for internal
repaired very satisfactorily by grinding down the centre grinding. The scheme is first to rough-turn the blank to
portion and fitting thereto a hardened sleeve. If the outer grinding sizes and then to carburize for six hours to obtain
race in the con.-rod is also worn, this should first be ground a case-depth at least .045 in. After cooling, rough-bore
or lapped out true-preferably without removing it from the then recess the end faces to t in. larger diameter than the
rod-after which operation the pin-sleeves can be ground to bore to a depth of /6 in., drill the oil hole and finally heat-
the particular oversize necessary to suit th~ finished outer treat. After hardening, the sleeve can be finished inter-
race diameter and whatever rollers are avallable. nally either by boring or grinding, fitted to the pin and
The pin-sleeve should preferably be madeJrom ball-race then finish-ground exactly as previously described.
Mild steel is not up to the arduous nature of this work, the
END CLEARANCE TO AVOID
ROLLERS BEING NIPPED IF
With the shouldered case being liable to flake away from the soft core; 3%
type of crankpill there nickel to specification 815 or EN 33, or single-quench 3%
FLANGES ARE DISTORTED mllst be end-float be-
tween rollers and or 3!% nickel will be satisfactory for moderately heavy
sholliders to avoid duty, but better varieties are 882, 890, EN 34, 38 and 39,
dallger of the former
becoming nipped when the last three being wartim.e specifications. The heat-
the pin is tightened ill treatment for all these grades is practically the same, viz.:
the flywheels. carburize at 900-920° C. Refine by quenching in oil from
80 81
0
850-860° C. Harden by quenching in oil from 760 C. on no account may they be convex. even to the slightest
Temper by cooling in air from 150-170° C., except for the extent. Unfortunately, with normal grinding equipment,
3% and 3i% nickel single-quench grades, in which the re- it is difficult to attain this finish, but somewhat the same
fining and hardening can be effected simultaneously by effect can be gained by turning a shallow undercut in the
quenching in oil or water from 760-780° C. faces which also provides a little extra room for the vital
Equivalent American specifications are S.A.E. 51100 for fillet.
carbon-chrome ball-race steel, S.A.E. 2317 for 3t% nickel Sometimes the oil-hole in the pin is drilled inwards from
case-hardening steel and S.A.E. 3316 for 3!% nickel-chrome the corner of the shoulder, causing a local weakness from
C.H. steel. If it is necessary to make up a completely new which a fatigue crack will start. It is best to modify the
pin, either of the two case-hardening steels mentioned will drilling to avoid this danger; it may also be necessary to
do. The plain nickel steel, though having less core strength, drill another hole in the flywheel to coincide with the new
gives a slightly harder case than the nickel-chrome steel. position of the hole in the pin,
Steels which harden right through, such as the ball-race
steel mentioned or medium-carbon direct-hardening steels De/ails of SHOULDER
lUlIst not on any account be used for complete pins, because, crallkpill de-
when hardened sufficiently on the roller track, such steels sign which are
likely to cause
are far too brittle in the core and are certain to break in weaklless
service. In any case the threaded ends must always be left under high- FAULTS TO BE
dilly condi- LOOKED FOR
soft and this can be achieved by copper-plating prior to tions. IN CRANKPIN$
carburizing and hardening. Another method is to rough-
tum the threaded portions .100 in. oversize, carburize the
whole pin, turn off the carburized skin locally and screw-cut
the threads and finally harden. Incidentally, great care must
be taken to ensure that the threads are square to the axis, When reassembling the big-end new rollers should be
otherwise it may be difficult to maintain tightness of the fitted for preference, but old ones can be used, provided
nuts. they are absolutely free from flats or other surface blem-
.,...,..,...,..,.....~GROUNa SHOULDER This method oj mach il/- ishes (which can be detected by examining them through a
....
~
HA lIIg a groove alld pro- magnifying glass under a fairly strong, oblique light) and
- LF I!.OUNO CROOVE vidi~lgagrol(1/d slwlllcjer
obViates a pO:iSlbJe are all of the same diameter to within one or two tenths of
. weakness wilhOllt re- a thou. One or two oversize rollers will rapidly ruin any
. ducillg the ejJective roller bearing, this being the reason why new and old
. length of spigot.
rollers should never be run together.
Caged rollers are maintained in parallel by the spacing
Breakage of crank-pins of the shouldered type almost bars, and, if the pin is of the shouldered type. the rollers
invariably occurs in the corner of the shoulder, and it is can have several thou. end clearance-in fact, this is advis-
desirable to have a definite fillet in this corner, even at the able, otherwise if any deflection takes place the shoulders
expense of reducing the length of bearing in the flywheels. may close in a trifle and nip the rollers endways. If the
The faces of the shoulders should be slightly concave; pin is without shoulders, the bars of the cage should be
82 83
THE CONNECTING-ROD AND BIG-END
TUNING FOR SPEED
weak and for serious work should be replaced by parts
made of bar or tube. Factory-made cages have the slots
Details of shoulder formed by broaching, a method which is not available to
BRONZE convexity shown ill everyone; an alternative process is to end-mill the slots
PLUG exaggerated pro-
RADIUS OR FILLET
IN CORNERS ~
file for clarity.
blL HOLE DRILLED HALF WAY

ALONG SPIGOT DIAMETER
and then machine the ends out square. A cage with rela-
tively long slots to accommodate long rollers such as in.
by r\ in. (a very useful size) or three short rollers placed
*
-I~CONVEX SHOULDERS (GREATLY EXAGGERATED) in each slot can easily be made by milling the slots with a
ABOUT .001" CONVEXITY IS SUFFICIENT standard Woodruff key-seat cutter, and finishing the ends
out by hand using a square file ground to width so that it
relieved on the internal diameTer so that the cage bears on does not damage the machined sides. The blank should be
the pin only outside the roller path, for although the cage turned with a shoulder or groove at each end to mark the
is soft it will wear away the pin surface much faster than length of the slots, which is not vitally important. What is
will the rollers. In engines running at 7,000 r.p.m. or more, important, however, is that the slots must be dead parallel
this form of wear can become very serious, and it may be to the axis, otherwise the whole roller assembly will run
advisable to hard-chrome-plate the rubbing areas; .001 over to one side and, therefore, accurate setting-up of the
to .002 in. thickness will be ample, but the deposit must be milling machine and dividing head is essential.
finally ground to a dead-smooth finish and must on no Large uncaged rollers are not good for high-speed work
account be allowed to encroach on the roller tracks. Useful because of the heavy pressure between them due to centri-
as it is in other ways, hard-chrome cannot stand up to the fugal force. This force can be reduced to an acceptable
action of heavily loaded rollers and will inevitably flake off figure by using rollers which are small in diameter and.
if applied to the tracks. consequently light. The Vincent big-end uses three rows
What makes the life of a big-end so strenuous is not so of rollers 3 mm. diameter by 5 mm. long per rod, separated
much the speed or the loading but the fact that the roller
assembly does not rotate round the pin at a steady speed,
SLOTS FILED TO
as it does in a main bearing. Instead, it has alternately to LENGTH Of ROlLERS
speed up and slow down because at or near top dead centre ~ --=t L
the swing of the con.-rod is in opposition to the motion of ~
I
.tZ2Z
the pin, whereas at bottom dead centre the two motions are =
~
in the same direction though of course not at the same ~
......:...--0
speed. Like all objects possessing weight, the roller assembly ~
objects to this process and relatively heavy loads are created
between the rollers and the bars of the cage and a certain
=
amount of sliding motion must take place. 1"'- /1
EQUAL TO LENGTH MILLING FIRST SLOT WITNESS OF cunEI'.
The lighter the assembly, the less its inertia, and for that OF ROLLER CUnEI'. 15 JUST
BREAKING THROUGH
AT ENDS OF SLOT
IS IMMATERIAL
reason racing cages are made of one of the strong wrought TURNED BLANK
aluminium alloys such as R.R. 56 or 24 S. Some cages are Three stages in the fabrication of a big-end roller bearing cage,
made from cast aluminium which, though light, is relatively using bar or tube material.
84 85
by parallel rings which prevent the rollers skewing; ~e it with abrasive applied to the rollers; such a procedure will
total end clearance must be held to limits ?etween .00.4 m. almost certainly lead to rapid breakdown in service. A
and .010 in. if skewing or binding endways IS to be aYOl ded . piece of hard wood turned to size makes quite an effective
The 250 Guzzi also uses small rollers of 3 mm. dl~met~r lap for emergency use, but when many rods of the same
by approximately i .in. l?n~ with ;to cage, but m t~lS diameter have to be handled, it pays to make up an expand-
instance the big-end IS split, Just as If the rod had a plam ing lap. This tool can either be held in a vice and the rod
bearing. Plain big-ends have been successfully used for turned by hand or it can be used in a drill; in either case the
some time now on high-speed engines though they u\e rod should be allowed to "float" on the lap and be fre-
necessarily smaller and more, heavily load~~ ~han theIr quently removed and reversed to avoid tapering the bore.
counterparts in the automobl!e world. .Rlgldlty of the When spun round with the pin held horizontally, the
metal surrounding the big-end IS of more Importance than rod should not show the slightest sign of working over to
1ightness, therefore no attempts at lightening ?f altering -one side; if it does, either the pin -or the outer race is tapered
the design of plain rods should ~e attemp~ed WIthout con- -or the slots in the cage are at a minute angle. Reversing
sultation with the makers, who m some mstances supply the rod may effect a cure, in which event mark the correct
rods of different design for racing. The correct clearance for position of pin, rod and cage; if not, the cause should be
plain big-ends is .001 in. to .0015 in. per i~ch wh~n :he rods located and rectified. Sometimes deep grooves are formed
are cold though a much greater clearance IS permissIble pro- in the flywheels through rods running over, and if these
vided the oil pressure is maintained above the allowable are present they should be skimmed out to accommodate
minimum figure as quoted by the makers. phosphor-bronze or hard-steel washers of suitable thickness.
In any design of roHer bea:ing there i.s bound to b,? a The correct amount of side-clearance varies according to
certain amount of rubbing gOIng on, WhiCh,. at ultra-hl~ the design, but is rarely of great importance, .010 in. to
speeds wiB generate sufficient heat to cause seizure unless It .020 in. being about right in most cases.
is carried away by the lubricant. For reasons of strength, If not already done, it is a good idea to polish the con.-
the oil-h(lles are never very large, and care must be tak.en rod all over, since the removal of the rough outer skin
to check that they are clear by feeding oil thr?ugh then;, w~th greatly diminishes the chance of fatigue cracks developing.
a force*feed oil can. Incidentally, when domg up a vm- Although rare, cracks of this nature usually occur at· the
tage" model, it is often possible to obtain a more up-:o- junction of the shank and small-end. They can be detected
date big-end which will fit the old pattern wheels With
1ittle or no modification. . . CAST IRON SLEEVE
After assembling the rollers with oil (not grease,. WhlC~ IS
likely to block the oil-holes) the con.-rod should Just sh~e
into place. If it has to be pushed o~ scr~wed on, the fit IS
too tight: if there is more than .002-m. dlametr~l clearance
it is too loose. The best way to get an exact fit IS b~ means
of several sets of rollers graduated in steps of .0001 m. But
if these are unobtainable the outer race can be lapped out I-----ABOUT 6 · - - -.....
with flour emery and a mild-steel lap, but on no acc01;lnt Details of a lapping tool of the split-adjustable type suitable for
must any attempt be made to ease a tight big-end by rotatmg the cleaning up of the big-elld eye.
86 87
THE CONNECTING-ROD AND BIG-END
TUNING FOR SPEED
compressed layer and destroy the effectiveness of the
by immersing the rod in hot paraffin for some time, and, process.
after drying, dusting the surface with french chalk; if any Experiments in lightening rods extensively are not advis-
cracks are present they will be indicated by the chalk adher- able, unless the maker's advice has been obtained. There is
ing to the paraffin retained in them. Cracks may also be sometimes a fair amount of excess metal round the small-
detected by the Magnaflux, or similar methods, which are end due to taper in the forging dies and manufacturing
commonly employed in aircraft manufacturing or main- tolerances and much of this can safely be removed by filing.
tenance establishments and it is a good idea to avail one- As the stress concentration falls mainly on the extremities
self of such facilities if they are easily accessible. of the ~mall-end; ~hese .should be left untouched. It may
Shot-peening the surface is of great value in preventing be possIble to obtam a lIghter rod made specially for racing
fatigue-cracks-the system is to bombard the surface with from higher-grade steel; as one example, the early KIT
steel shot, projected at high velocity by compressed air ::elocet~~ rod can be used in the push-rod MOV engine.
through a nozzle. This process must not be confused with M.anx Norton rods can also be used in "International"
shot-blasting, which uses sharp-edged grains and removes a engmes.
certain amount of metal. The smooth shot used in shot-
peening removes no metal at all but, through its compacting
action, places the surface skin of the metal in compression. A guide to the
Obviously, shot-peening must be done after polishing, as amount of material
any work done on the surface after peening will remove the which may be re-
moved from the
small-end eye for
Iighteningpurposes.
One method of check-

Rod.s must be tested carefully for alignment in all planes.
ing for bend in the rod. Checking off the sides of the big-end, the small-end should
In place of the adjust- be central within .005 in. to .008 in. The big-end and small-
able distallce piece, a end bores must be ~ead parallel; although it is possible to
plain bar call be filed
to a push {it between c~rry out an appro~Imate check for this by using the crank
the mandrels. Any pm and. gudgeon pm as mandrels, a better way is to make
discrepallcy 011 the
other side can be up a paIr of bars, at least 6 in. long, which are a tight push
checked witlt feelers. fit in the respective bores. For preference, they should be
hardened and grou~d, bu.t soft ones will suffice if carefully
handled. Co~merc!al bnght-~rawn bflr is usually .003 in.
~ess than nommal SIze and qUIte effective mandrels for use
m small-ends can be made from such material hard-
chrome plated up to finished size. '
With these mandrels in place, the distance between them
D 89
88
the sleeve in the bore and in service it would revert to its

original position. Setting should preferably be done in a
straightening press, but failing that a strong vice and three
bolts can be used, two being placed on one side of the rod
and one between them at the point where the bend is
required; the bolts should be of large diameter and soft to
avoid local d~lmage to the rod. Alternatively, narrow
strips of thick brass can be used with much less possibility
of damage.
If these errors are in opposite directions, the rod will
have to be set at both ends, but do not use the checking
A "works" method of mandrels for the purpose and bend these as well. Since the
testing for twist in the side clearance between small-end and piston bosses can
rod. Any error is shown
as a clearance between be fairly generous, it is permissible to face off one side of the
one mandrel and the small-end if all the errors cannot be corrected otherwise.
knife-edge jig. Considerable patience may be needed, but it is vitally
important that the con.-rod be absolutely true; even the
measured at the extremities should not differ by more than slightest out-of-truth factor can have a big effect at, say,
.002 in. In the absence of the necessary measuring equip- 6,000 r.p.m.
ment, a steel bar can be filed so that it will just fit between Rods which have been set only slightly often show a
the mandrels at the tightest end; the gap at the larger end tendency to revert to their original position, so the best
can then be measured by feeler gauges. The bearings must plan is to set the rod too far and then correct the amount
also be free from" wind" or twist, i.e., the mandrels should of overset to bring the alignment right. Rods treated in this
be parallel when viewed along the length. of th.e rods. manner are very unlikely to lose alignment again.
Accuracy in this respect can be checked qUlte eaSIly on a
surface-plate by the use of blocks and a dial gauge or feeler
gauges. .
It is quite likely that at least one of these errors wIll be
found, possibly all three. To avoid pulling the rod about
unnecessarily, the three checks should first be made and the
situation carefully weighed up, otherwise one may cure one
error by making another worse. As a general ru~e, first
eliminate any .. twist" and then set about gettI~g .t~e BLOCK
centrality and parallelism of the small-end correct. .oJ It IS
central but inclined, bend the rod close to the small-end;
SURF,6,CE PLATE
if off-centre and inclined in the same direction, bend near
the big-end. The rod should never be gripped by the big-
end sleeve when being "set"; this action might just cant A third method of checking for bend in the rod.
90 91
The small-end bush for racing must not have less than
5th welD
.001 in. clearance, but more can be allowed without detri- =
ment except for the noise caused. Nortons can be permitted ,---.:..~_ _ _ _ =-== 2nd WELD
, up to .005 in. before replacing the bush. Phosphor bronze
is the usual material but any of the light alloys, such as
R.R. 56 or R.R. 59 or Duralumin H, which retain strength
at high temperatures, make very good bearings and save
=-----_0
perhaps an ounce of reciprocating weight. c::= 6th WELD
It occasionally becomes advisable to make up a com- The autho,r's idea of a cOllnec/ing rod buill up of high-
pletely new connecting-rod, and at the same time to redesign tenSile sheet steel (lnd fabricated by welding.
for greater rigidity. In this connection, the best design is
the simplest; the flanges of the I-section should be tangen- writ~r sees no reason why it should not be possible to
tial to the small-end boss, and taper outwards to a width fabncate a rod from high-tensile alloy steel sheet united
equal to the bore of the big-end eye. Circumferential by. welding. If the small and large ends are composed of
rigidity of the big-end is most important, and to obtain this stnps cut along the gra~n of the steel and bent to shape, and
without excessive weight there should be either one or two t~e flanges of the I-sectIon are carried round as shown in the
deep ribs running right around the eye. For material, ~Iagram, the grain flow in every part of the rod would be
" Vibrac "V 30 is extremely good, and for best results the Ideal, which is not always the case with one-off hand
rod should be rough machined in the soft state, then heat forgings. The joints could be made with filler rod of the
treated to 85 tons tensile. All polishing of the exterior same analysis as the components and the whole assembly
should then be completed and the big- and small-ends finally heat-treated before finally machining the rod to size.
ground to size. Rods which are not likely to be run at
ultra-high revs, do not require a steel of this nature, and
carbon-manganese steel to Spec EN 16, heat-treated to 65
tons tensile, gives a very good result; it is a standard steel
used in many English machines built after 1945. It can be
machined in the fully heat-treated state and, therefore, does
not require to be ground in the bores after hardening, which
makes the manufacture somewhat simpler.
Where extreme lightness is sought, the weight of the
big-end sleeve can be saved by making the rod from 5%
nickel or 3!% nickel-chrome case-hardening steel, case-
hardened to a minimum of .045 in. in the big-end eye only,
the rest of the rod being kept soft by copper plating before
carburizing. Many two-stroke rods are made on this
~ principle and it was standard practice in Rudges for many
years.
Although it seems a rather revolutionary suggestion, the
92 93
TRUING AND BALANCING FLYWHEELS
~e pin ~n the w?eels. If parallel, these are usually made a

lIght. dnve fit (I.e., about .001 in. larger than the hole),
and if for any reason the fit is much looser than this the
pin can be hard-nickel-plated and ground to correct 'size.
CHAPTER VII Velocette crankpins are ground with an almost imperceptible
taper of .001 in. per inch length, and should push in by
TRUING AND BALANCING FLYWHEELS hand for half the depth of the flywheel hole; the nuts will
then do the rest, but if the pin will not go in so far as that,
the shoulders may not be pulled up into hard contact with
THE maximum of rigidity in the flywheel and crankpin the flywheel as intended by the makers and not only will
assembly is essential to avoid power-wastage thr?~gh the assembly lack rigidity but there will be a grave danger
internal vibration. This is obtained partly by provldmg that the crankpin will break in service.
heavy sections of metal in the regions of maximum, stress, Whatever the form and fit of the pin, the whole assembly
and partly by the manner in which the assembly 1S held
event~ally depends upon the nuts, which should be
together. ' l':' I examtned for possible damage or distortion of the threads
Some years ago it was common practice, to gnnd laIr y
:n
steep tapers on the pin, and to pull these mto e wheels
by fine-thread nuts. This method of constructlOn makes
and ~crapped jf there is any doubt about them. The
abuttmg faces must be square to the threads and can be
c~ecked and, if necessary, rectified by turning up a mandrel
a good job, provided that th~ tapers ~t really. accuratel~; WIth a thre.ad tightly fitting the nuts, which are then screwed
thus, in doing-up such an engme (particularly If a new.pm on and skImmed up dead flat. If it is necessary to make
is being used) the fit should be ~hec~ed by m~ans of prussla~ new nuts because sI;ares are unobtainable, mild steel is not
blue smeared on the pin, whlch IS then hghtly ro:ated m good enough: nothmg less than 45-ton tensile steel should
the holes. If contact is not made over the whole mter~al
be used, .and alloy steel of 55-65 tons such as K.E. 805 is
surface of each hole the parts can be lapped together, usmg better st~l1 for racing. Most English crankpin nuts are
a fine-grit abrasive, but great care must be taken to see that tapped either 20 or 26 threads per inch, Whitworth form
the holes are not lapped out-of-square, in w~ich event t~e
the c~m:nonest sizes .being ! in., t in. and 1 in. and, there.:
second state will be worse than the first. ThIs process will
fore, . It IS often pOSSIble to utilize nuts of another make if
cause the wheels to come a little closer together and the
genume spares are not available.
side-float of the con.-rod will be reduced by a like amount,
.Recently there has been a growing te~dency to do away
thus the clearance must be checked carefully on final
With nuts altogether and rely simply upon a press fit. This
assembly. The tapered crank-pins used in J.A.P. Speed~ay
system has been used for a long time on two-stroke Villiers
engines are supplied in tbree lengths, stanc,lard, plus ~\ 1~.,
and Velocettes, and also for built-up two-throw crank~
and plus fa in., to allow for any e~largement that may, III
sh~fts such as the D.K.W. To be successful, the surface
time, occur in the holes. By selectmg the c?rre~t leng~h ?f
fi?ISh and accuracy of both shaft and hole must be of a very
pin, the con.-rod side-c1e:arance can .be mamtamed wlthm
hIgh order and great care must be taken during assembly to
the correct limits of .015 m. to .030 m. . avoid broaching metal from the holes.
It is now more usual to pull the wheels up agamst sub-
An excellent method of eliminating nuts which is worth
stantial shoulders on the pin, rigidity being gained ffi:ore by
consideration by experimenters is the S.K.F. Rystem of using
this action than by the actual fit of the reduced portIOns of
95
94
TUNING FOR SPEED
riders find they get better results with light flywheels on
short tracks where acceleration out of the corners is of
paramount importance, but for road work, where full use
can be made of the gearbox and cl utch, there is not much in
CRANKPIN
it. However, a general cleaning-up of all surfaces will
LIGHT DRIVCFIT ~~~~~~ not be a waste of time and is of decided benefit on the
IN WHEELS
.0" TO .OQ.(W rim surfaces, as oil-drag is perceptibly reduced by a high
INTERFERENCEJ2~i!=====B;W~ polish.
'EXPANDER PLUGS. ~~~~~~t-:~ Another method of rc.ducing oil-drag is to chamfer the
.002" TO ,003" TIGHT ~
outside diameter of the rims, leaving only a narrow land . ,,
Two types of ex- next the inner faces running in close proximity to the edge of
, •••••••.. " pallder·plug jiltillg
I..-r,...,..~-' 10 supersede a COIl-
the crankcase scraper. As the majority of the oil to be
l'ellfiollal crallkpill. skimmed off travels down the inner faces of the flywheels,
the scraping action is not unduly impaired but remember
that, during assembly, the wheels cannot be roughly aligned
by a straight-edge across the rims if this modification is
performed.
.:-::" D~ THIS WAY The correct fit of the main-bearing inner races on the
"', ~ shafts varies according to type; in no circumstances should
I--~~;:;'~"",'~~~~'~.·ONE·PIECE WAISTED PLUG there be any actual slack present, but if the races are locked
THIS END SLIGHTLY
~~~"""'"~':iW'7;1.LARGE~ IN .D!At1ETER
~ . THAN O:rH~R END up endways in some manner, they can be quite an easy fit.
TO FACILITATE ASSEMBLY If not so retained, there must be sufficient interference
between bore and shaft to prevent" creep" which, once it
commences, will cause the shafts to wear, particularly if
expander plugs in a hollow pin c:r shaft. The schem~ i~ .to
make the shaft a tight push fit 1U the hole so that InItial SPLIT MUFf ENGAGING WITH ROLLERS
assembly is easy with no danger of scoring. ~he~ a hard

steel expander plug is forced into the bore, WhICh IS about
one third to one half the diameter of the shaft, and the latter
is thereby expanded and locked firmly in the flywheels.
Diagrams show two methods by which this sc~eme could
be applied. A somewhat similar idea was used 10 the 1954
A.J .S. racing twin though, in this instance, the expander
plugs had a fairly steep taper. ....
Regarding the flywheels, there is .very .httle P~l~t 10 gO.1Og
in for a big course of weight reductlOn; In fact, It IS possIble YWHEEL ASSEMBLY LOOSE SLEEVE
to reduce rather than increase the performance by such
Split puller for removing inner mab;·bearing races.
a proceeding, except perhaps for speedway work. Some
97
96
TUNING FOR SPEED
in J.A.P, engines, renewal is the only course open if wear
they are not case-hardened; a light drive fit is the ideal at
shown by pitting of,the roller tracks is present, As previously
which to aim. noted, chrome-platmg cannot be used as a reclaiming process
One snag about these tight-fitting races is the difficulty
~or roller races. Take particular care to line up the oil-holes
of removal without damage; applying two levers to the
roller-cage will almost inevitably distort it, thus nipping one m shaft, and wheel accurately on the timing side, and, as a
or two rollers endwise, and this defect should always be precautIOn, check that the axial distances of the hole from the
looked for in old engines. The best scheme is to make up face of the wheel and from the shoulder of the shaft are the
~ame, o~herwise the oil flow may be restricted. If any error
. a split puller which cannot harm the cage, but, failing that,
two sharp-edged chisels ground to a narrow taper may be IS fo~nd, ~ull ~ow-a~ea can be obtained by grooving in the
driven in from opposite sides between the race and flywheel reqUIred directIOn WIth a half-round chisel.
until there is a gap wide enough to insert a pair of levers. It is essential after new shafts have been fitted, and advis-
Of course, before. reassembling, any burrs raised on the able even if not, to check the truth of the wheels before final
assembly commences. One method is to apply a dial indicator
faces must be filed off flush. to the outer side of the wheel near the rim with the shaft
As on the crankpins, Velocette mainshafts have an almost
imperceptible taper of .001 in. per inch on the bearing seats supported between lathe centres; another is to rotate the
also' the inner bearing races are ground to the same taper assembly with the shaft running in an accurately-bored bush
and 'to a diameter such that they have to be lightly driven or even in its own bearings, If there is more than .003 in:
on for the last quarter-inch, or so. If looseness develops, r~n-o~t, !he s~aft wil! have to be set in the requisite direc-
the inner race may appear to fit correctly if it is reversed on tIon; It WIll be ImpOSSIble to line both shafts up accurately. if
the shaft but this must not be done on any account, as one, .or both, are not dead true.
the race is then only in contact at one end and will rock Strictly speaking, any balancing which is thOUght to be
necessary should be done at this stage so that each wheel
about under load. can be dealt with individually; it is, however, easier to work
If slackness is found, do not adopt the barbarous process
of centre-punching or chiselling the shaft, which" however on the wheel~ after they are assembled, so unless two odd
wh~els are bemg made into a pair the job can safely be left
good it may seem at the time, ceases to be effe,ctlVe afte~ a
very short while. Building up the shaft by, mckel-plat~ng untIl later, on the assumption that they were individually
or metal-spraying with zinc are both effective and lastmg balanced by the makers in the first place.
repair methods and are necessary for these and similar shafts After all work on the components has been completed
which are forced into the flywheels and permanently locked assembly is a straight-forward job, although it is easy t~
by grub-screws. Though the course is not advisable, Vincent overlo,ok the obvious precaution of ensuring that the oil-
~ol~s 10 the, crank pin, and. timing side wheel are accurately
shafts can be pressed out after driving out the Mills' pin
fitted through at an angle. The correct interference fit is m, line. ThIS p~ecautIOn IS not required when fitting pins
.003 in. and this must be verified before pressing~in the new WIth annular oil grooves, which should be placed with
shafts. On the drive side, press in the new shaft hard up to . the ~ole leading to the rollers at the 3 o'clock position,
the shoulder with the angle-hole about 60° away from the 10~kmg towar~~ the drive-side with the pin at the top, this
original position, then drill back through the shaft at 45° bemg the pOSItIOn of least load, Cleanliness is essential
not only for the sake of the bearing but also to ensur~
with a ~ in. drill, and fit a new Mills pin.
Where the main bearing rollers run direct on the shafts, as that no particles of foreign matter are trapped between the
98 99
TUNING FOR SPEED
A simple method of
rough-aliglling the fly-
wheels with the aid of
two wooden chocks
and a straight-edge
before filial checking
alld tightenillg. ...
Where a pair of centres is 1101 available, the flywheel assembly

abutting faces to the detriment, of mains,haft alignment. may be supported on a pair of bearings in a simple WOOdell
If the pin is of the solid type, It can be Inserted ~nd the jig. A steel base plate, or sheet of thick glass, on which to
nut fully tightened on one wheel only before assembling the mount the jig, makes for added accuracy,
rest but if it is of the two-piece variety with a pressed-on
slee~e, it is not advisable to tighten either ~ut fullyynless light blow is necessary, as the inertia of the wheels them-
the other wheel and nut are in place, otherwIse the pm may selves does the trick, and no damage at all is done to the
rim surface.
be pulled over too far to one side, leaving insufficient thread
for the nut on the other end. Grea~ care m~st be. taken For final tightening a properly fitting box-spanner with
with tight parallel-fitting pins to avoId damagmg the hole a strong tommy-bar at least 2 f1. long is essential; the normal
when fitting the second wheel, which is, liable to cant over type of tubular spanner is not really up to the job (unless
due to its overhung weight. The temptatIOn to p~ll the wheel reinforced by a brazed-on ring turned to clear the crankpin
on with the nut as soon as a couple of threads project through nut counterbore), but if made from chrome-molybdenum
must be resisted, as so doing will overload, and very pro- steel tube, this type will do. The best spanners, of course,
bably damage, the thread inside the n u t . . . are those made from solid steel with integral tommy-bars,
After semi-tightening, the wheels can be hned-up fa~r1y which can be purchased from any good small-tool factor.
closely by means of a straight-edge laid across the nms Real'strength must be put into the final tightening, some-
and, when reasonably accurate, the nuts are pulled up nearly thing of the order of 400 foot-pounds being necessary.
as tightly as they will go. As easy a way as an~ to move the The final check must be made on the main shafts, using
wheels relative to each other is to bump the nm of one on an indicator reading to thousandths of an inch. If a lathe
a lead block or the end-grain of a hardwood post; only a or a pair of centres is available, the assembly should be
mounted thereon, taking care that the wheels are not
100
101
TUNING FOR SPEED
some very careful work can be done with a scraper applied
t~ th~ flywhe~l fa~s, b?t m.ost people adopt the easy way of
Dlppmg the mns ID a vIce. 10 the plane in which both shafts
are .. high." This process is all right if the wheels are of
steel and the pin is robust, but is not to be recommended
if the pin is of light section or the wheels are ca."t iron
There is a third error which is rarely met with uniess
the w~ee~s were not originally a pair, and that is when one
sh~ft ~s high and the .other low in the plane of the crankpin.
ThIS IS almost certalOiy due to the radius of the pin-hole
Whell checkillg a splilled mail/shaft for truth with a scriber These deliberately ex-
or dial gauge, all externally ground sleeve, which is a push aggerated diagrams
fit 011 the shaft, will prove of great assistance in making depict three faults which
accurate measurements. may be discovered upon
assembling the wheels.
deflected inwards by excessive pressure applied to the centres. Their causes and the
appropriate remedial
Next apply the indicator to each shaft as near as possible to actioll are outlined in
the ends, as all too frequently the centres in these shafts the text.
get knocked about; any defect will immediately be shown
by the indicator, and must be rectified by scraping, lapping
or re-turning the centres until concentricity is obtained.
A number of engines have one or both shafts splined, and
in such cases a tightly fitting; accurately ground concentric
sleeve fitted over each spline will greatly assist matters.
The 'next move is to check the shafts close up to the
wheels; this will probably show one shaft to be " high "
and the other " low" in a direction at right angles to the
crank pin. If this is the only error present the situation is
good, because bumping the wheels in the appropriate
direction will (albeit after quite a number of shots) eliminate
it entirely, but if in spite of all your efforts both shafts are ¥
"HIGH
.. high ". in the same direction, the whole assembly is in
(Top right) Wheels out
effect" bent" in the centre. 0/ parallel. (Above)
This may be due to swarf between wheels and pin, lack Wheels out of align-
of parallelism between the outer faces of the pin shoulders, ment, an easily cor-
. rected fault. (Right)
or similar causes. If not due to dirt, the trouble can Odd wheels, necessitat-
sometimes be cured by refitting the pin in a different posi- ing a difficult machining
tion should the oil-hole arrangements permit. Failing that, operation.
102 103
TUNING FOR SPEED
in one wheel differing slightly from that in the other and The Balance Factor
can only be remedied by a machine shop operation.
~he lowe~ half of the ~od can be considered as rotating
If a pair of centres is not available, or the shaft-centres are
weight, and It, together With the crankpin, can be completely
too badly damaged to be usable, another method of checking
balanc~d by an equal and opposite counter-weight, or by
is to support the assembly by its own or a s~milar ,Pair of
main-bearings resting in V-blocks. Alternatlvely, If there removm¥ m~tal from t~e crankpin side. But it is not possible
to do this WIth the recIprocating weight in a single-cylinder
are only two bearings the crankcase itself can be utilized,
parallel-twin engine for, if an equal and opposite weight
although it is rather laborious having to separate the whole
were added, the balance would be good in the direction
.issue in order to bump the wheels whilst carrying out the
of t?e cylinder axis, but j.ust as bad as before along a line
truing process-needless to say, it is a bad plan to attempt
at nght angles to the cylinder. Hence a compromise must
to shift them while supported in their own bearings. If there
are two fairly widely spaced bearings on either side of the be .effecte? by ~dding ~nly a certain percentage of the
reclprocatmg weIght, thiS figure being termed the balance
. case the job is a little easier, as then one shaft can be run in
these bearings, leaving the other wheel and shaft completely factor.
It is quite useless to postulate any particular balance
exposed for checking. These last two m~t.h~ds are, howe~er,
factor as being the ideal; so many considerations enter
only suggested as makeshifts where facIlitles for employmg
int~ the matter that it varies with almost every design of
one of the others are unavailable.· Another workshop
method is to bore out a block to a close running fit on the eng me, .or even the type of frame in which engines of the
~ame kmd are mounted. That being so, do not be misled
shafts and rotate the assembly with one shaft fitting in the
hole and the other in the air, a dial gauge fitted to an arm m.to rebala?cing ~our engine just because one of your pals
attached to the block indicating the truth or otherwise of With an entlrely different machine thinks he has some magic
the free shaft. One shaft is first tried, and then the other, formula of his own.
and this method is just as good as doing the job between The only s~u.rce of ;eliable information is the parent
factory but, fallmg adVIce from that direction, a factor of
centres except that one cannot check both shafts at the same
.66 of the reciprocating weight usually gives reasonable
setting. . results. Strangely enough, some makers use a smaller
The question now arises-how true should the shafts be?
Well, the correct amount of error is zero, but this is rarely factor for racing than for touring, while others do the
rev~rse; the idea in all cases, however, is to get an engine
attainable, and if the sum of the errors indicated on both
~hlch runs most smoothly in the speed~range at which it is
shafts comes to less than .002 in. there is nothing much to
grumble about. Two-bearing assemblies can run with a mtended to operate for the majority of its life. It does not
~atter much if the engine feels" rough" at 4,000 r.p.m. if it
greater error than those with three or four, particularly
IS t? be raced and feels smooth at 6,000, whereas such an
where the latter are housed in a very stiff crankcase. Having
made the shafts as true as they can be made, the nuts must be engme would be ~ery. undesirable for fast touring, where
given a last nip-up, and the shafts finally rechecked. !f.aU much of the runnm~ IS done at the lower r.p.m. Altering
i.s well, a couple of squirts of oil up through the feed dnllmg the balance factor wlll usually succeed in moving the rough
in flywheel and pin to clear out any possible grit will finish period, if any, well away from the most-used speed.
the job off, unless for any reason, such as a big change in The aforesaid balance-factor applies of course to the
piston weight, you wish to rebalance the engine. reciprocating parts only-Le., piston, ;ings, gudg~on pin
104 105
TUNING FOR SPEED TRUING AND BALANCING FLYWHEELS
and the top half of the connecting rod. A lot of weighing

and measuring can be eliminated by dealing with the com-
plete flywheel assembly only, thus-wise. Arrange it on a
level surface so that the con.-rod (minus piston) is lying
horizontally, with the small end resting on one side of a pair
of scales, or supported by an accurate light-spring balance.
If the balance pan is other than flat the rod must be sup-
ported in the plane of the gudgeon pin. This is be~t done
by passing a short bar through the bush and restmg the
former on the· edges of the pan. First, a few nuts and
washers can be placed in the other pan to counterbalance
the short bar and then there is no likelihood of getting con-
fused with the other weights used to find the weight of the
small end, which we will suppose is found to be 6 oz. Next A jig for checking balance call be made
weigh the complete piston assembly, which comes to, say, from two lengths of angle iron bolted to
15 oz. Thus the total reciprocating weight is 15 + 6= the bench and protruding sufficiently to
allow the assembly to revolve freely.
21 .oz. and employing a factor of .66 the amount to be If, with a weight to give the desired
balanced is, therefore, 14 oz. balance, attached to the small-end, the
The wheels are already bound to be balanced to. some crankpin comes to rest in the uppermost
position, the c,?unterweights must be drilled as shown on the left.
percentage, and if they are placed with the. sha~ts resting If the crankpm stops at the bottom the wheels must be drilled
on a pair of accurately horizontal metal straight-edges adjacent to the pin.
they will eventually come to rest with the crankpin vertical~y
upwards, although they may.show a tendency for the pm stra.i~t-ed.ges and show. no tendency to settle in anylone
always to be slightly to one side of the dead centre-hne. position; If not, the pm will go to the top or bottom
This indicates that the bob-weights are off-centre, a fault according to whether the bobweights are too heavy or too
which must first be rectified by drilling equal-sized holes light.
into the side of each rim, in a position at right angles to .the Correction is usually· made by drilling the rims in the
pin and, of course, on the "heavy" side of the vertical appropriate positions, being careful to take equal amounts
out ?f each wheel and on each side of the centre plane,
centre line. bu.t ~t can equally we!l be done by tapping and plugging
When symmetrical balance has finally been obtained,
attach to the small end a weight equal to the amount to be eXlstmg holes. If a bit of experimenting to find the best
balanced minus that of the small end; using the figures balau.ce is part of the tuning programme, it is a good idea
quoted above, this would be 14 - 6. 8.oz. The manner of to dnll or tap a few holes of, say, i-in. or i-in. diameter,
making up this weight or of attaching It to the small end into which plugs of the required weight can subsequently be
is purelv a matter of choice-it can be, for instance, a bag fitted or removed. In some engines it is possible to drill a
full of 'oddments, or a bolt with the requisite weight of hole somewhere in each crankcase wall below the main-
washers. If the balance-factor does actually correspqnd to bearings, and tap it! in. gas, (or more correctly, ! in. B.S.P.)
the figure desired, the wheels will roll freely along the thread which is the size commonly employed for drain
106 107
TUNING FOR SPEED
plugs, and drill several holes in the flywheels at the same

radius, tapping these out iin. B.S.P. Plugs of various lengths
in steel or bronze can then be inserted or removed from the CHAPTER VIII
flywheels through the crankcase holes in a couple of minutes
without disturbing the engine and experiments to find the
most satisfactory balance can be very rapidly conducted. WORK ON THE CRANKCASE
This is a very good scheme to employ when adapting engines
for use in 500 C.C. racing cars, because the different method THE primary duty of the crankcase is to provide a rigid
of mounting as compared to a motorcycle yery often leads mounting for the main bearings and a foundation for
to trouble in obtaining smooth running. the cylinder sufficiently solid as to maintain that com-
In closing, a word or two about those "horizontal ~onent square to the mainshaft axis at all times, irrespec-
straight-edges." For permanent workshop use it is nice to tlve of temperature changes or cyclic load variations. The
make up a proper jig, but there is no necessity to go to such rigidi.ty of the bearings is settled by the original design;
lengths. There are plenty of other ways: for instance, two thus III the search for speed little can be done other than to
lengths of angle iron can be bolted to the bench-top over- see that the outer races are a good fit in the case when the
hanging the latter by about a foot. The only vital qualifica- latter is hot. If they are not, the races will show signs of
tion is that the top edges must be flat, smooth and absolutely " creep" indicated by a polished appearance of the outer
horizontal and level with each other when the wheels are surface. If there is any doubt about the matter, each side
resting on them. A good spirit level is the best aid to check- of the case, complete with bearings, can be immersed in
ing this point, but failing that a dead-round bar such as a boiling water, after which the bearing rings should not be
piece of silver steel will prove the point, since it will free enough to turn by hand.
obviously tend to run towards whichever is the lower end.
Most machine-shops equipped with cylindrical grinders
possess a pair of straight edges on which the grinding wheels
are balanced and, with a little blandishment exercised in the
right quarters, it is often possible to obtain the use of such HolY lYorn main-
equipment. bearing housings
may be renovated
by the insertion ofa
shrunk-ill bronze
liner. (Inset) How
the edge of the .030" CHAMFER ON EDGE OF
liner is chamfered SLEEVE ALUMINUM PEENED
to permit of peen- INTO THIS CHAMFER AFTER
ing the aluminium DROPPING SLEEVE INTO PLACE
surround. J
BRONZE SLEEVE .002" PER
INCH OF DIAMETER LARGER
THAN HOUSING BORE
108 109
- TUNING FOR SPEED WORK ON THE CRANKCASE
Several methods are available for curing loose races, placed with the grooves visible and the retaining-plate
of which the easiest-tinning the surface-is not to be punched in to them in the prescribed manner.
recommended, as it is almost impossible to get an even
coating, and in any case it inevitably gives away after a Main Bearing Clearances
while. Chromium or nickel-plating the races is satisfactory,
provided that the finished outer surface is absolutely cir- If any bearings need replacement through excessive
cular and true to the bore; if only about .001 in. thickness of wear or pitting of the race tracks, remember that the outer
deposit is required to restore the fit it will not need to be races close in by approximately half the amount of inter-
finished to size if the job is done by a competent plating ference between them and the case. Consequently, the
shop, but deposits of greater thickness will need to be bearings should have a slight amount of slackness in them
finally sized by grinding owing to the tendency of these before fitting, otherwise the rollers or balls may be subjected
metals to build up more thickly at the edges than at the to a damaging overload, even though the inner races may
centre. Copper-plating on the other hand does not show still seem to turn quite easily. Some makers supply bearings
this tendency and can easily be cleaned up to size with a with various amounts of diametrical clearance to allow for
file whilst the race is rotated in a lathe chuck. Owing the tightness of shaft or housing, and mark the races
to its softness, copper plating does not always last very accordingly. Two small polished circles on the edge of a
long but is such a convenient method that it is often . Hoffmann outer race, for example, indicate that it has the
utilized. right clearance if the outer race is tight, but the inner a push
Probably the best method of effecting a permanent cure fit; three circles are visible if both races are intended to be
is to bring the housing back to its original size by boring it tight. Apart from this indication, the inner assembly of a
out and fitting a bronze sleeve about·nr in. thick and .002 in. roller bearing should just slide into place by hand if the fit
per inch of diameter larger than the housing. Having heated is correct, and ball-races, when free of oil, should spin for
up the crankcase to 200 0 C. (400 0 F.)-which can be done several turns. Most ball-bearings, rotated dry, emit slight
with the aid of a domestic oven-the sleeve can be dropped noise but, if the noise sounds irregular or rough, the
into place, and after peening the aluminium over the edge as condition of the bearing is open to suspicion and its replace-
shown in the diagram, the sleeve is then finish-bored to ment is the wisest course.
I
I
.001 in. per inch smaller than the race. A job such as this Another important matter is the alignment of the bear-
requires to be done extremely accurately; the crankcase ings, particularly if there are two in either or both halves
must be set up in the lathe with the join face and spigot of the case. The only check of any real value is to turn or
diameter both running dead true. In some instances, one grind a mandrel to a size (or sizes) which will just push
or more of the outer races are clamped endways, either by through the inner bearings without shake, and then insert
plates or ring nuts, in which event they cannot turn or work this through the whole set of bearings with all the crankcase
out sideways, and, provided there is no actual looseness bolts tightened up. The mandrel should push through
perceptible, the diametral fit need not be so tight. "Manx" without effort and turn freely when in place; if not, the
Norton bearing sleeves, besides being retained in this error must be tracked down and eliminated. .
manner are machined with grooves on the sides, into which Sometimes in old engines the spigot on one half-case is
the metal of the retaining plate is punched to form keys to a poor fit in the register in the other half. and relative move-
prevent rotation. When refitting these sleeves they must be ment which would alter the alignment can take place. This
110 111
TUNING FOR SPEED WORK ON THE CRANKCASE
THIS FACE TO BE DEAD FLAT at the joint. Presupposing that it is accurate as to flatness,
DIMENSIONS A AND B MUST parallelism can be checked by inverting the case on a sur-
BE EQUAL
face-plate and measuring the distance on each side between
the plate and mandrel. Should the bearings be of differing
The studs should be
removed, the case bores on each side, a short length of the mandrel at each
placed mouth dowlI- end can be turned to exactly equal diameters-which avoids
wards 011 a surface having to make allowance for varying sizes. If the face is
plate and the dis-
tances A and B thell not fiat it must be re-machined or trued up with file and
checked for equality scraper until it is correct in all respects. Lack of flatness
with a mal/drel. The is bad; it permits oil leaks. allows the barrel to rock about
end diameters of the
mandrel must be of under load, and can be an unsuspected cause of barrel
equal size. distortion or cracked base-flanges.
At this stage it is as well to cast a critical eye over the
cylinder studs-particularly if the compression ratio is
being raised considerably, because the gas pressures will
be greatly increased thereby; the accompanying graph
shows the actual rise of compression pressure with increase
. can be prevented by reaming out two existing bolt-holes of ratio, and as explosion pressures are some 3t to 4 times
to accommodate special oversize bolts acting as dowels;
before reaming, the cases must be tapped lightly this way 700
and that until the best position is attained, as indicated by
the freeness of the test-mandrel. 600
;I'
v
Fortunately, since it is a difficult fault to eradicate,
incorrect bearing alignment is a rare disease, but it should 500
V
be looked for just the same. :r
u 4 ALCOHOL
If plain bearings are included in the make-up and have /-
~"oo
been renewed, it is best to leave the bores a few thous. 6 ~
undersize and finally line-ream with the reamer piloted in '"ffi 300
",.
~
0..
the bearing on the opposite side. When a bearing of this
type is used to transfer the main oil supply to the crankshaft '"a PETRf5("
5o 200
the fit is particularly important and the maker's instructions ;/"'Ir~OMPRESSION PRESSURES
~
0..
regarding clearances must be rigorously followed. Naturally 100
// FOR VARIOUS RAT/OS
(Assuming 14 lb. per sq. in.
any communicating oil-holes must be accurately lined-up preuure in cylinder at end or inlet.)
and checked by injecting oil through them from a pressure o 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 1'1 15 16 17 18 19 20
can. COMPRESSION RATIOS
The test-mandrel also comes in useful for checking the
cylinder-base, which must be parallel to the main-shaft A study of this graph will reveal the reason why cylinder
studs should be examined when the compression ratio is
centre line in addition to being flat and free from any step raised.
112 113
TUNING-FOR SPEED WORK ON THE CRANKCASE
TAPPING SIZES POR VARIOUS THREADS
START OF LARGE THI\EAO
1/16t h BELOW fACE PITCH CORRECT NEAREST
SIZE THREADS DRILL FRACfIONAL
PER INCH SIZE DRILL SIZE
2 B.A. 31.4 No.23 5/32 in.

l/4-in. B.S.F. 26 No. 5 13/64 in.
1/4-in. Whit. 20 No. 8 13/64 in.
If cylinder studs are 5/16-in. B.S.F. 22 LetterG 17{64 in.
loose, internally and 5/16-in. Whit. 18 LetterF 1/4 in.
externally threaded STUD LOCKED BY THREADS 3/S-in. B.S.F. 20 Letter DorP 21/64 in.
sieeves will effect a TIGHTENING AT BOTTOM OF
good repair. Aftenw- 3/8-in. Whit. 16 LetterN 5/16 in.
HOLE
ave/y, double-diameter 1/8-in. B.S.P. 28 11/32 in.
studs call be made up l/4-in. B.S.P. 19 29/64 in.
3/8-in. B.S.P. 19 31/64 in.
the compression pressures, it will be appreciated that a good 7/16-in. B.S.F. 18 3/8 in.
deal depends upon the cylinder fixing in an ultra-high 7/16-in. Whit. 14 23/64 in.
compression motor. 1/2-in. B.S.F. 16 21164 in.
1/2-in. Whit. 12 13/32 in.
Almost invariably the studs are tapped direct into the
9116-io. C.E.I.
aluminium. As the latter metal is relatively weak, the length
of thread in engagement should preferably be twice-and
certainly at least one and a half times-the stud diameter. is any future likelihood of the studs being removed and
In addition, the threads should tighten at the bottom and not replaced at intervals.
at the top of the hole; in the latter case the run-out of the For the external threads on these sleeves, either rin. or
stud thread exerts a powerful wedging action on the sur- i-in. gas threads-both having 19 threads per inch-are very
rounding boss, which may be the cause of a crack making suitable. The table on this page, which may come in useful
an unwelcome appearance either at the first onset or .later for other jobs, gives the tapping sizes and drill designations
on when the engine is put to work. for a number of pitches.
Should the crankcase threads appear to be damaged or Still another scheme is to instal Armstrong "Helicoil"
partially stripped, there is usually enough metal present to inserts, which somewhat resemble springs made from steel
~ permit drilling and tapping to a greater depth. If not, two wire of diamond section, and are screwed into an oversized
courses are available. One is to re-tap to a size .f.tr in. tapped hole and finally locked in by punching or "staking"
larger and fit a double-diameter, or "bull-headed", stud; the end helice.
for example, a stripped hole previously -& in.-Whitworth
can be re-tapped to i in.-Whitworth, having first opened it
Timing-side Mechanism
out with a letter N drill. In other cases it may be preferable
to retain the existing size of stud by tapping out the hole to It is now time to give a little attention to the mechanism
take a bronze or steel bush, screwed inside and out to the contained in the timing-side case, to wit, the timing-gear
. appropriate sizes, this being particularly advisable if there and oil-pump. Despite their relatively small size and heavy
114 115
TUNING FOR SPEED WORK ON THE CRANKCASE
loading, the camshaft bearings in push-rod engines give occasionally a special jig-plate is really required to do the job
very little trouble, and unless they are in a very bad state properly. Failing this device, which is only worth having if
it is best not to disturb them. Provided the surfaces are not it is extremely accurately made, the bushes, after being fitted
torn or worn into ridges, clearances up to .005 in. are per- with the crankcase or cover heated, can be reamed a little on
missible, and ifnew bushes are needed they should be reamed the small side, and then eased out with a scraper, using
to .002 in. clearance, except in the rare instances where they prussian blue on the shafts to show up the tight spots. Do
form part of the lubrication system, when slightly less not attempt to lap the shafts in with emery powder, as this
clearance is necessary in order to prevent the escape of too will embed itself into the soft bearing metal and subsequently
much oil. cause rapid wear of the shafts. In the matter of end-play,
The modern tendency is to provide fixed spindles upon it is better to err on the generous side rather than have too
which the cam-wheels rotate, the spindles being drilled for little, except when the gears have helical teeth, in which event
lubrication and it is an easy matter to make sure that all oil- only .001 in. to .003 in. should be allowed. Excess play in
ways are ~lear and that the wheels spin fre~ly. D~si~ns the timing gears of Velocette engines is the frequent cause
in which the outer cam-bearings are located III the tlmIllg of harsh, noisy running.
cover are not so easy to check or to rectify if incorrect, the Several modern engines, the A.l.S., Matchless and Vincent r
chief difficulty being to get both pairs of bearings in line for example, employ porous-bronze bushes for camshafts
simultaneously. and also at other localities. These bushes should never be
If the cover is attached only by set-screws its location reamed if at all possible; the correct method is to size them,
may not be sufficiently positive as to ensure that it remains after fitting, with a planishing broach-i.e. one with no
in the correct position indefinitely when under the influence cutting edges-or else bore them with a sharp single-point
of irregular load and severe vibration. This contingency tool. The ordinary shop reamer almost invariably smears
can be entirely prevented by' fitting a couple of dowels, the surface instead of cutting and thus blocks up the pores
which need only be quite small-l-in. diameter will do if in the metal, though a very keen reamer will not do much
there is no room to fit a larger size-the holes being drilled harm if the amount of metal to be removed is very slight.
and reamed after the cover has been worked into a position
where the cam-wheels are at maximum freeness with all Increased Lubrication
screws tight; with journals and bushes free from oil, either
wheel should spin for several turns if given a sharp flick Lubrication of the timing-gear is not always well carried
with the fingers. out, and can frequently be improved by chiselling extra
The dowels should be a light drive fit in one component V-grooves leading to oil-holes in the bushes, or by arranging
and a good push fit in the other, otherwise it is difficult to get an extra oil-feed to the timing-chest. In dry-sump engines
the cover off subsequently. If there is no room to fit dowels, an easy way to accomplish this is to take a lead off the pipe
two of the existing holes can be modified to accept screws which returns oil to the tank and couple this up to a union
with close-fitting plain shanks, which will serve the same and internal jet in the timing-case placed where it will do
purpose. the most good-preferably so that the oil drops directly on
Replacement bushes are almost invariably bored slightly to the cams. Naturally there is a limit to how much oil
undersize to allow for reaming. This operation must be can be re-circulated in this way, and the flow needs to be
done with a piloted reamer to ensure alignment, and restricted, otherwise the scavenge pump will be overloaded.
116 117
TUNING FOR SPEED WORK ON TIlE CRANKCASE
A fixed jet with an orifice about .030 in. in diameter should . The ~il-pump in dry-sump engines is usually housed
suffice to start with, or alternatively an Enots adjustable ~hr~t1y m the ~rankcase, and in most o.h-camshaft designs
drip-feed can be used. Small jet orifices are rather prone IS tIghtly fitted mto a recess bored in the back of the timing-
to blockage when return-oil is being fed through them, but ches~. ~o .remove, it is necessary to heat up the case and
this can be largely overcome by using a larger hole into t~p It, tlmmg-chest down, on the bench-top. It may some-
which a loose wire or split pin is fitted. This scheme is used times be necessary to run a tap into two of the retaining
by Vincents in the rocker-feed jets, but, for racing, the scr~w holes, so that a couple of screws can be inserted by
restrict or wires should be removed from the exhaust valve WhIC~ the pump can be pulled out. The internal bore of the
feeds and also from the inlet-valve feeds if the valve guides housmg lI!ust neve: ~e enlarged to make refitting of the
are in good condition. pump eaSler, as thIS IS almost certain to lead to leakage
If the lubrication is of the total-loss type, it may be worth between the pressure and scavenge side of the pump. As a
while fitting an additional sight-feed pump, or if the rule, gear-pumps give very little trouble, unless a piece of
existing pump is of the single-delivery type, to replace it by metal has found its way in and damaged the teeth or the
a duplex pattern, the aim being to let one pump feed the gear-p~ckets, but in time side wear will develop and reduce
big-end while the second takes care of the timing gear. the delIvery rate.
Each supply can then be adjusted to suit its own department It is sometimes thOUght that backlash between the teeth
without risk of swamping or starving other parts of the affects the pumping, but it makes no difference at all-in
motor. This of course is the system used on J.A.P. Speed- fact, for smooth functioning at least .005 in. backlash should
way and 8-80 engines which are intended for short-distance be p:esent. ~he side .clearance, however, should not exceed
work, but full dry-sump systems are used on these engines .~O I m. (partIcularly If the gears are thin in relation to their
for long-distance racing and Formula cars. dIameter), and if more is present the faces of the pump
body should be very carefully dressed to the required
a.mount. Should a paper packing be a standard fitting, the
sI?lplest course.is to lap the pump-face on a surface-plate
OIL our WIth the gears ~n place until the whole surface, including
that of gears, IS . fiat and level; the paper packing will
subsequently proVIde the requisite clearance. Pre-war push-
Y~~~a_ SUPPLY rod Velo.cettes had double-gear pumps, somewhat similar
FROM_ ENGINE to those In the o.h. camshaft models, but driven at a much
OIL TANK
N~~a...:~ TANK sl?wer spee? by a sin.gl~-start bronze worm-wheel engaging
wIth. a stral.ght-cut pInIOn on the pump spindle, the pump
housmg bemg bored at a small angle to give correct
engagement between worm and pinion teeth. On later
models the pu.mp speed ~~s dOUbled by using a two-start
OIL IN worm and h~hcally-cut pInIOn; and it is possible to utilize
The efficiency 0/ a gear-type oil-pump depends upon the mini- the .later desIgn of geanng to increase the oil-flow of earlier
mum possible side clearance between wheels alld case. The engmes.
case/aces can be rubbed down when clearal/ce becomes excessive. In those pumps which have a plunger which rotates and
118 119
WORK ON THE CRANKCASE
TUNING FOR SPEED
in the outlet passage or pipes from either the pressure or
sca~enge ends, ~ither the worm. drive or the driving peg
which engages With the cam-slot m the plunger will fail in a
. ~ ECCENTRIC DRIVE
~ ON SHAfT NUT
fairly short time. Therefore this point must be carefully
watched both inside the eng me and in all the external
TRUNNION connections.
Apart from that eventuality, this form of pump lasts for
a long time and has the merit that it does not allow oil to
syphon back through it whilst standing, which is an annoy-
As in the case of the ing defect of the gear-pump.
double-gear wheel pump, When plain big-end bearings are used, it is essential to
the plunger type employs
a scavenge outlet with a ~aintain a high oil pressure, consequently they are lubricated
capacity larger thall that eIther by a gear-pump or one with purely reciprocating
of the feed pump. plungers as used on Triumph and some Ariel engines.
0& TO OIL TANK

These also give little trouble but the trunnion block should
be examined for we~r and care taken to see that the plungers,
ball-valves and sprIngs are all operating correctly.
~7 i) SPRING
NON-
LOADED
mu,," " " "

. Should an engine ever suffer the misfortune of having a
pIston break up badly, or have a hole burnt in the crown
the resulting mass of aluminium particles penetrate int~
~very nook and crevice with astonishing rapidity, and are
hkely to congregate in odd corners or pockets such as exist
reciprocates, the points to note are the cond~tion of ~he
where two drilled oil passages meet, or where unions are
gear-teeth, the fit of the plunger portions in their r~s'pectIVe
screwe~ into bosses. Flushing-out cannot really be guaranteed
housings at each end, and the state of the small dnvlI~g peg
which is screwed into the crankcase and engages WIth an to get nd of them all and the only safe way is to remove all
inclined groove machined in the plunger. As these pumps plugs and unions and make a thorough job of the cleansing
turn at a relatively low speed, wear is very. slow as a ~ener~l pr:ocess. When replacing these parts, remember that the
rule; it is a wise plan, nevertheless, to venfy that. alliS as ~t slightest trace of an air-leak on the suction side of the
should be for even a momentary shortage of 011 at maxI- scave?ge pump. is certain to ~ead to poor scavenging and,
mum revs: is fraught with the most expensive, and sometimes even If the engme does not 011 plugs as a result it will be
down in speed due to oil-drag. Consequently,' too much
physically painful, consequences. The drivi,ng. wor.m, if
renewable, should be replaced with0,ut heSItation If the care cannot .be. taken to see that every joint, or plug, is
teeth have worn thin, and, when the design has bee~ changed completely aIr-tight and locked up so that it will remain
from bronze to hardened steel, it is desirable to mstal the so indefinitely, this remark applying also the driving-pin of
a rotary pump whic~, after being fully tightened, should
new design in any event. . . have metal punched mto the screw slot as an insurance
Reciprocating plunger pumps are not deSIgned for
working against pressures of more than a couple of pounds against loosening.
or so to the sguare inch, and if any blockage should occur
120 E 121
REASSEMBLING CRANKCASE COMPONENTS
that any distance-pieces or washers. either next to the wheels

or between the various bearings, are in place in their correct
CHAPTER IX order; otherwise, there is a risk that some bearing not
intended to take end-thrust may be subjected to loading of
REASSEMBLING CRANKCASE COMPONENTS this nature, which, in addition to causing stiffness, will
rapidly destroy the bearing involved.
WITH the exception of the cam-fol!O\yers and .overh~ad In the G3L Matchless, for instance, two ball bearings,
gear, practically all the components ~Ithi~ the engIne whIch with a pair of spacing washers separating their inner races,
demand attention or possible modlficatl~n ?ave by ~ow are fitted on the drive side, and should these spacers be
been dealt with sufficiently thoroughly to IndIcate the hnes inadvertently omitted, the pressure of the shock-absorber
upon which to proceed. . . spring will put very heavy thrust-loads on the bearings, and
If everything has been done to your ow~ sa!lsfactlon- may ultimately cause the whole flywheel assembly to move
and the more self-critical you are the more likelIhood there out of position in the direction of the chain. In this design.
is of your beating other and more easily satisfied rivals- as in quite a number of others, the end-thrust of the shock-
a spot of assembly work can now be put in hand prior to absorber spring is ultilized to clamp the drive-side mainshaft
getting down to the vitally important matter of valve and in its bearing or bearings; thus, when verifying the flywheel
ignition timing. . location, the spring should be lightly tightened with the
It is probably unnecessary to me?tion the point agaIn, but, sprocket and face cam (or an equivalent distance piece) in
place.
to be on the safe side, let me remmd you that before com-
mencing this work the bench and its surroun.dings ~ust be In this condition there should be no measurable side play
swept clean of all foreign matter-dust, filmgs, cigarette
butts-and the crankcase halves, flywheels, bearings, ~nd
so forth laid out, preferably on sheets of paper, after havmg
been thoroughly cleaned. .
The first step is a trial assembly of the flywheels In the It is all easy matter to
crankcase in order to verify the centralization of the con.-rod mislay ar misplace essen- ..,J..-.,--":-'--.--.J BALL RACE
and the amount of end-float, if any, on the mainshafts. tial washers ar packing TO BE INSIiRTEO
pieces which vary can-
Lateral location of the flywheel assembly is normally ~ffected siderably with individual '-;;~;;;;;;;j;;:, WASHERS
by one of two main methods: either one of the mams?~fts makes. This draWing
is clamped endways in its bearings (~sual1y on the ?flvmg
side), or, alternatively, the main bearIngs on both SIdes. of
shaws the correct methadof
assembling drive-side bear- .
L
ings IIsed for many years
the wheels share the duty between them, each preventmg for the Matchless G3L
movement towards its own side of the engine: . series.
In the first-mentioned category the questton 0: get~lll:g
the amount of end-float correct does not arise, smc~ It IS
fixed and limited to a very small amount by the design of
the location bearing. Care must be taken, however, to see
122
123
TUNING FOR SPEED
present, but if the spring is then removed, there should be
a perceptible amount; if not, the bearing on the timing side
is too close in and appropriate measures must be taken to
obtain, say, .005-in. float and thus avoid the possibility of
undesirable end-thrust being placed on the bearing.
In other designs such as the post-war Vincent singles
and twins, a distance-piece is used between the inner and
outer main bearings. If this is inadvertently omitted, the
shaft will be locked up solid when the main shaft nut is
tightened up, an operation which may not take place until
the motor is almost completely assembled. It is therefore a
golden rule always to assemble all relevant components
on the mainshaft and tighten the nut fully early in the piece
just to make sure that all is in order. There is never very
much clearance to spare in this locality and it may be that a
new crankpin is a fraction longer than the original and fouls
the crankcase, though this might otherwise have escaped All.other method, employed ill the Ariel factor .
notice. In some engines, the crankpin nut runs so close to
the bearing housing that a portion has to be cleared away
with a chisel and this naturally must be done before
r
POlflter on the drive-side mail/shaft just touch;';" IS to fix a
Tt: :1 en e whe"ls are pushed/ully over to the~f!~lIc;~;~~-
clearall~: be~~e:1I e~a::~~~eiJ~:j~~f!:t~~it:h::k:Ji~':i/hIl1

proceeding further. feeler gauge.
In those designs in which the bearings on both sides of the
wheels assist in their location, it is not uncommon to allow li;lit\t~e :heels placed correctly in the case and the latter
up to .OlO-in. end-float, except in the case of o.h.c. Velocettes, y 0 te up, the small end of the connecting-rod oUght
in which the mesh of the bevel timing gears is partly con- ~o ble exactly central in the cylinder-barrel register but as
III a most every d '
eSlgn l'
~ In.
,
or more side c1earan .
trolled by the position of the mainshaft. End-play to the
extent of .010 in. would be very undesirable; indeed, it is ~lIowed.betw~en the small-end bUsh and the piston bOs~:s 1=
preferable for the wheels to be slightly tight sideways to the lIttle
ce t .latItude In centrality
. is permissible . The re IS
. a Iways' a
extent of two or three thou. when cold. The thermal ex- h r ~n amount of ~Ide play of the rod itself if the big-end
pansion of the crankcase, which will be four to five thou. :s ~eD correct~y fi~ted up, and so the simplest method of
greater than that of the wheels, is then sufficient to ensure c ec ~g centrality IS by callipering the distance between
freedom of movement at running temperatures. ~h~Jeglster ~nd each side <?fthe.small end, with the rod lightly
In o.h.c. Nortons, the assembly is located by the timing- e over In the OppOSIte dIrection. The two measure
side ball-race in order to limit the amount by which thermal mb enthit~ should not differ by more than .010 in. when checked
y s means.
expansion can affect the bevel mesh. Centrality adjustment
is made by fitting shims between bearing and flywheel and to Ift~he difference is pe~ceptibly greater, it is not a good idea
should be verified with all timing side components filled and a ~mpt to correct It by bending the rod over such a
pulled up tight. proc~ ure would simply undo the value of the work
preVIOusly carried out in truing up .the rod. Instead
124
125 '
TUNING FOR SPEED
employed for adjusting the end-float in the steering knuckles
of cars. The location of the shims varies, but the golden rule
is never to put them between two parts which rotate relatively
to one another, but only between faces which are relatively
stationary. Thus, they can be placed on the mainshafts
between the inner races and flywheel bosses, or between the
bearing outer rings and the inside of their housings.
The latter entails rather more work in fitting. but in some
designs is the only suitable place. For example, Velocette
mainshafts are ground with a very narrow taper, and the
races are designed to fit tightly thereon when hard up
against the flywheels; obviously, if shims were interposed
the fit of the inner races would be slack, so the shims must
be placed behind the outer races.
Again, in many J.A.P. models the rollers run direct on
the hardened shafts and end play is fixed by the clearance
between the faces of the outer rings and the flywheel bosses.
If this is too great, these rings must be shimmed up from
behind. At the same time, it is wise to verify that the rollers
have sufficient end clearance between the flywheels and the
hardened washer placed at the other side of the outer race
otherwise they cannot rotate freely and will rapidly destro;
the shaft surface. In the racing twins of this make, phosphor-
bronze thrust washers are interposed between the flywheels
The overhead-camshaft engine diflers fro/ll the o.h.v. alld and bearing sleeves and side-float can be regulated by using
side-vail'e types in that elld-float ill the jfywhee? assembly
must be avoided, otherwise the bevel gears wIll tend ~o shims of varying thickness.
mesh illcorrectly, thereby permitting backlash. Fill! details W~en building up an old engine with new parts, it will
of the correct treatment are given in the accompanYlllg text.
occaslOnally be found that there is no end play; there is,
so to speak, negative clearance. In that event, first heat the
correction must be effected by altering the lateral location of case, drop out the main bearings, remove any shims there
the flywheels-hence the reason for the trial assembly be~ore may be, and then try again. If this treatment is of no avail
finally adjusting the end-float. Should the latter be exceSSive, the only thing to do is skim the requisite amount of metai
obviously the side on which it is taken up should be the one off the flywheel bosses-the amount being determined by
which will tend to centralize the small end. measuring the distance between the main bearings with
There are various methods of adjusting end-float, but the case bolted up and subracting this from the width over
most of them entail the use of shims, which, if not available the flyv.'heel bosses. For this job a large pair of external
from the makers, can be cut from shim-steel stock or alterna- and internal caHipers (or an internal micrometer) are
tively, use can be made of the shim-washers commonly required.
126 127
TUNING FOR SPEED
REASSBMBLING CRANKCASE COMPONENTS
The use of iI/side alld
outside micrvmelers Some crankcase bolts are drilled for cylinder-base oil-
will determine the feeds and care must be taken not to overstress them. As
amount of end-float;
the mlilor reading is part of the checking routine, inject oil with the pressure can
subtracted from the through every oil passage there may happen to be to make
major olle. This is
a good method for absolutely cert~in all are. clean and to wash out any foreign
camshaft engines matter. Sometimes an oil hole may be blocked with excess
wldch employ "nil .. gasket cement and it is beter to clear it at this stage than after J
clearal/ce, bill the
amateur who has I/O
such elaborate equip-
melll will /ind II pair
some mechanical damage has been wrought later on.
The next step is to lit the piston, minus rings as a pre. i
i
of iI/side and oil/side
!iminary to checking its" lie " in the barrel. If'the piston
campers a reasol/- IS new or undamaged, the bottom edge of the skirt should
ably satisfactory 1
substitute. f
Having finally obtained a state of perfection in which the
rod is central and the end-float correct, the flywheels should
spin with the greatest ease as the rod is pumped up ~nd
All error ill workman-
ship may necessitate
setting ofthe connecting
f
l
down with the fingers, and there should be no perceptible

dilference in .. feel" with or without the sprocket and shock
rod; this call safely be
attempted if a block of
metal is first placed he-
I
tween crankcase and
absorber in place. If there is, the cause must be tr~cked
I
connecting rod, wilh
down and eliminated forthwith and not glossed over III the tlte latter at boltom
hope that it wm run off shortly in service. If all is well, the dead ceflfre.
crankcase can be joint-coated with the preferred f~rm of
jointing compound and reassembled .. The author s pre-
ference is for one of the non-hardenmg cements such as
be par~llel to the crankcase face in a direction parallel to
I
" Gasket-goo", which does not dry quickly so that there
. need be no undue haste to slap the case together before ~he the mamshafts, but. owing to the various amounts of side
compound hardens. Make absolutely sure that. nothing play present and the shape of the bottom edge, which is
has been omitted which should be filted at thIS stag~, frequent.ly by no means fiat, this is not an easy matter to
particularly in unit-construction engines in which certam check WIth real accuracy. In any case, it does not matter a
gearbox components play have to be in place before the great deal; what does matter is whether the piston lies cen-
trally in, and paraIlel to, the barrel.
case goes together. Even though some may h~ve to be
refitted subsequently, it is preferable to fit and tl?h!en all . T~is is che<:ked by lightly bolting the cylinder in place and
the crankcase bolts at this stage, but at all events It l~ very VleWlllg the pIston from the open end of the barrel under a
bad practice to put in a few in the region of the cylmder, good ~ght. It. is. then quite easy to see just where the piston
leaving the bottom ones out because they are not easy to does he, and If It shows any undesirable tendency to work
get at just at the moment. Subsequent joint leakage may be over to one side when the flywheels are rotated.
traced to this cause. If ~t ?~es so, it is a sign that an error-or, more likely, a
multipliCIty of small errors all tending the same way-is
128
129
TUNING FOR SPEED
causing trouble. Sometimes reversing the piston will effect
a cure, although this method, of course, cannot be adopted of flatness or ~quareness at the cylinder-base flange or
(except as a temporary method of checking) with a piston crank~ase face IS the most probable cause, and this can
which has unequal-sized valve clearance pockets in the sometimes be detected by observing the effect of loosenin
crown, or with the split-skirt pistons fitted to a few sports thedbolts one or two at a time. Final fitting is dealt with at th~
en of Chapter X.
models which must not be run with the split towards the rear,
or thrust, side. The} ~olden rules during assembly are always to check
e~'efyt llngyoudo a
Even if the top lands appear to be central, this provides . . s you go a long, Glut not to assume allY thin
no guarantee that the piston as a whole is lying parallel. IS. corre~t WII/lOut verifying it. Many hours of hurried mil
This can best be verified by turning the engine over several ~Ight toll woul? have been avoided time and again had these
times after coating the cylinder bore with a very light (almost SImple precautIons been observed.
imperceptible) smear of prussian blue. Both thrust faces
of the piston should then be symmetrically marked, but if
differences of only a minor nature exist, a little careful work
with a dead-smooth file will usually rectify matters. Severe
cases call for a little more drastic treatment, and it may be
necessary to set the small end slightly. although this will
be a reflection on the quality of the previous work. To
perform this operation, position the rod at bottom dead
centre and select a block of metal which will just jam into the
space between the crankcase mouth and the shank of the rod
about half an inch below the little end. Insert a mandrel
(not your checking mandrei!) into the small-end bush and
bend in the requisite direction, remembering that only a
very smaUamount is required to make a big difference to
the position of the piston, owing to the latter's relatively
greater length.
Once the piston is really true, it ought to be possible to
make it reciprocate (without rings) at least haIfa dozen times
by giving it a smart push with the thumb downwards
from t.d.c. and it should always come to rest at b.d.c.,
because the flywheel counterbalance weight is less than that
of the piston and rod.
Before finally completing the assembly, temporarily fit
the barrel and head and pull the nuts down to correct
tension to verify that no barrel distortion is thereby brought
about. If distortion is present, it will be shown up by the
engine not being quite so free to turn as it was before. Lack
130
131
"TOP-HALF" REASSEMBLY
ORIGINAL CROWN CONTOUR
.l,.
,. ~ l
,, ,
....
....
The masking effect of
deep recesses may be off- ,"
I "
I
I
CHAPTER X set by milling down the
original crowlI confour
and forming flats.
WE have now proceeded to the point where the barrel is

ready for final bolting-down, provided that there is no
further work to be done either upon it or the piston.
* in., but on the exhaust side as much metal as possible
must ?e left. Insufficient thickness at this point allows an'
If, however, larger valves or a high-domed piston have . . excessive amount of h~at t? pass through to the top ring;
been fitted, or the barrel shortened to any extent, It IS moreover, the upstandmg nm of metal will become very hot
essential to verify that the valve pockets in the piston crown and consequently weak and liable to crumble away if for
are sufficiently deep, and if not, to deepen them, which will any r~aso~ the carburetter is delivering a thin mixture.
mean that the barrel must come off again in order to carry This bnngs up the question of how deep the pockets really
out the re-machining or to get rid of swarf if the pockets are need to be, to w~ich the answer depends to a large extent on
deepened with the piston in place. Another matter which the type of ~ngme and the conditions of racing. In o.h.
can be attended to at this stage is the head joint, a vital camshaft designs (provided the springs are of the correct
factor which will be touched upon later. stren?th) t~e valves follow the cams very closely up to a
Reverting to the question of valve clearances, in them- cert~m designed speed. Provided, therefore, the revs. are
selves piston recesses are ~o earthly use-in fact, they are studIOusly kept below the danger mark by the use of a rev.
detrimental, inasmuch as they break-up the crown contour
and create pockets of gas in which detonation may take
place. In extreme cases they may even render a considerable
*
co~nter, the clearance need. be only a little greater-say,
lD.-than that necessary Just to clear the valve-heads at
the ~oi?t at w~ich the valves and piston are in the closest
portion of the valve-opening area inoperative for a few proximity. This. is no~ necessarily at t.d.c. but may be a
degrees before and after t.d.c., so .reducing the effectiveness few degrees on.el~her ~Ide, depending entirely upon the cam
of high-overlap valve timing at an exceedingly important contour and t.lmmg m relatIOn to the piston movement.
period of the cycle. The danger pomts can be determined by temporarily setting
Although this is only likely to be serious if ultra-high up the head with light springs on the valves and checking
compression ratios are being sought after, the tendency to the amount of clearance under each head at 10 intervals of
masking of the valve heads can be reduced by milling flats crank rotation, measured by a degree-plate on the main-
on the crown-to, say, half the maximum depth of the pocket shaft.
-and counterboring into the flats to make up the rest of the .Another method is to fill the pockets of an old piston
clearance required. WIth deep recesses with plasticine and rotate the engine
Another point to be watched is the thickness of metal so that the valves form impressions in the soft material
between the corner of the pocket and the top ring groove; These will be the minimum depths, and thermal expansio~
this can be quite thin on the inlet side, down perhaps to
133
132
TUNING FOR SPEED "TOP-HALF" RBASSBMBL Y
~f you are intend~g to experiment with compression

Recesses in the ratlOS and have provided for one or two packing plates
piston crown should beneath the cylinder, it is advisable to arrange the valve
be radiused off. If
they are too deep clearances to suit the highest obtainable ratio.
the top ring land As a final touch the edges of the pockets should be
will tend to o)'er-
heat. rounded ?ff and the piston crown polished, preferably on a
power-drIven cloth mop with Tripoli compound' small mops
or " bobs" which can be fitted in a drill-ch~ck, or to a
of the piston, any rocking of this component in the barrel

and take-up of bearing clearances, all tend to reduce the
safety factor.
Owing to the greater possibility of whip or spring in push-
rod mechanisms, particularly if the rockers are not too well
supported, a little more clearance is desirable in o.h.v.
units, even for road racing work where the rev. counter can
be kept under observation. In other varieties of racing,
particularly scrambles or sprint events where, in the he~t c:f
battle, engines are liable to .be grossly over-revved, It IS
best to play safe and to cut the pockets sufficiently deep to
clear both valves at their fuIllift.
Failing the use of a miiling machine, the common
method of deepening the pockets is to file cutting-teeth on
the heads of an old pair of valves and, after bolting the Unduly deep recesses tend to decrease the effective area
cylinder head on with the piston locked at t.d.c., to rotate of the inlet vah'e.
those valves with the aid of a tap-wrench or similar tool
damped on the stems. This scheme has the merit that the flexible ~h~ft as used for port-grinding, can be purchased
actual clearance can be measured as the work proceeds; but, for a shllImg or two, and this form of polishing gives a
of course, the radius of the pocket thus formed is exactly s~rface superior to anything which can be obtained by hand
equal to the valve head. It is obvious that in running con- wIth the aId of metal-polish.
ditions the rim of the valve head will almost certainly scrape . The value of Cr?WD polishing, li~e that of port polishing,
the pocket sides, therefore it will be necessary either to use IS a debatable pomt, as some engmes do not give of their
valves (or, better still, a proper cutter, which can easily be best until a perceptible film of carbon has formed. The
made from a piece of hardened tool-steel) about -h in. larger sequence of events is actually this; a bright, highly-polished
in diameter than the real valves, or else to remove the surface absorbs less heat than a dull black one and as less
necessary amount of metal by scraping, a laborious and not hea~ is extracted by it from the burning mixt~re. more is
very easy job to do nicely. avaIlable for conversion into mechanical work. This is the
134 135
TUNING FOR SPEED "rOP-HALF" REASSEMBLY
state of affairs when the engine is first run, but shortly after, bet~een t,:,o areas (but .at different pressures) is widely used,
if using fuel other than alcohol, a film of carbon forms and IS, particularly ~ood If the head is not very robust and there-
which greatly increases heat absorption, thereby reducing fore I,lable ,to be distorted by the tension of the head-bolts.
power and increasing the piston temperature. Carbon, ThiS desIg~ takes the form of a recess in the head which
however, is a very bad conductor of heat; therefore, as the fits over. a spIgot on the barrel, recess and spigot being of
thickness increases the heat able to pass through the substantially equal depths. To form a gas-tight joint the
deposit to the metallic surface becomes less, and so the two components ar: ground together, with fine grinding
power returns almost to its former figure. paste between the spigot faces and coarse paste between the
If using alcohol a polished crown will remain bright for a broa~ outer faces through which the bolts pass. The result
long time, and, whatever the fuel used, is much easier to of thIS mefhod is to leave a minute gap hetween the broad
decarbonize. Generally speaking, a high degree of polish is faces when the ~pigot faces are in actual contact; thus when
preferable. the bolts are tIghtened heavy pressure is applied to the
When an extremely high dome is used in an endeavour to latter to form the gas-seal, but distortion is prevented by
obtain a very high compression ratio, there is a danger that the broad faces coming into contact.
the plug will be badly masked. The close proximity of the During grinding the coarse paste should be continuously
crown to the plug points blocks the rapid spreading of the renewed, but as the spigot faces approach perfection the
flame-front which is vital to good power production at high fine paste can be gradually reduced in quantity by wiping
speed, and this masking may commence quite a long way the barr~l spigot ~lean and adding a drop or two of oil,
before t.d.c. measured in crankshaft degrees, particularly af~er which, attentIOn the process is continued until the
if the shape of the head approximates a hemisphere rather SPl~ot a~d Its recess acquire a bright, smooth finish over
than being flat. The result will be that engine power their entire ~rea. The broad faces will have (when the
will fall off badly at high r.p.m. unless the ignition is coar~e paste IS cleaned off) a matt surface which oUght to be
advanced an· excessive amount, and even this expedient is cont1OUO~S, although ~ne or two small patches of indifferent
no real cure as it is merely trying to eliminate one error by contact WIll not be sertously detrimental.
putting in another. . In the.tu:alasse~bly no jOin;ing compound is necessary-
Sectioning a wax cast of the combustion space as re- 10 fa~t. It IS ~des1rable. BeSIdes being gas-tight, this type
commended in Chapter IV will clearly show the true state of JOInt perrmts a good flow of heat from the underside of
of affairs which can be improved by forming a local de- th~ exh~ust valve seat to the barrel, and so assists in keeping
pression in the crown near the plug, or even making the thIS ,regIOn of the cylinder head cool. On the other hand
whole crown· unsymmetrical. In any event, it is better to f~edl~g.he~t back locally into the barrel IS not good practice:
use a lower compression and obtain good combustion SInce It IS ha ble to cause distortion therein.
than to aim only at maximum compression)atio. , This sn.a~ is avoided i~ some of the later designs (employ-
Ing alummlU:n heads With thick basic sections and parti-
Cylinder-h~d Joints cularl~ effective finning) by permitting the two components
to be In contact ?nly o~er a s~all area, preferably at the top
Next,attention can be given to the head joint, which can of the barrel regIster, SInce thIS method eliminates the smal1
be made gas-tight in a variety of ways. The" double- annular gap which would be present if contact took place
ground" variety in which simultaneous contact is made on the outer faces.
136 137
TUNING FOR SPEED
10° top rake, a slow cutting speed and a comparatively
heavy feed. On no account must the tool be allowed to rub
or skid on the work; if this happens the surface will im-
The principle ofthe mediately become hard and impossible to cut unless the
"double-ground" tool is run back and then dug in under the skin.
head joint, to be
found ill several The coefficient of expansion of the steels mentioned is
successful racing .000017-18 in. per degree C., but there is another type-
designs. the Firth-Brown product called N.M.C.-which has .a
UP UNDER BOLT coefficient of .000022 in. per degree C., nearly equal to that
PRESSURE
he~d studs on KIT Velocettes are only *
of many aluminium alloys. Owing to space limitations the'
in. in diameter and,
bemg tucked away under the rocker boxes necessitate a
For this type of joint laminated copper gaskets ,are special short-headed T-spanner, which mu~t be handled
excellent, but they should always be ~nnealed. every ~nne with care to avoid overstressing the studs, which if replaced
they are fitted. Annealing of copper 1S done 10 precIsely must be of ~igh-tensi1e steel. Early-pattern Vincent engines
the reverse way to steel-i.e., the gasket is supported on a are fitted WIth large hollow bolts, through which pass the
flat metal surface, heated to redness, and then dropped, smaller bolts that carry the frame stresses. The large bolts
edge-on, into cold water, from which it emerges in a dead- have large nuts but must not be tightened to more than 30
pound-feet torque, otherwise they may break when the
soft condition. cylinder expands; the later-pattern solid bolts are not sub-
In cases where long bolts extending from head to crank-
case are used, and particularly if the he~d and b~rrel a:e of jected to this restriction.
light alloy, the bolt tension with the engme hot IS consIder- In some engines it is necessary to fit the head before
ably greater than when cold,. possibly to such an extent that assembUngthe rocker gear, but in others it is more convenient
unsuspected distortion may take place, or the bolts may to reverse the procedure. In view of work described in
Ch~pter XI, dealing with valve mechanism as a separate
actually yield and become permanently elongated. These
conditions should be suspected (a) if the engine does n~t subject, let us suppose your engine to be in the first cate-
hold its compression as well when hot as when cold; (b) If gory and that it is, therefore, now ready to have the barrel
the head-bolts frequently have to be re-tightened. and head bolted on.
c. If the engine on which you are working is known to The procedure is quite straightforward. First, just make
possess tbese faults, it may be as well to make up a new set sure that the gudgeon circlips are all in place, then, with
of bolts in high-expansion austenitic steel ~uch ~s K.E. 965 clean fingers, smear the rings and skirt of the piston with oil
or Jessop's G2-which conform to SpecliicatlOn D.T.D. of the sa~e grade you intend to use for racing, making sure
t~at the nng grooves are full, for this will provide a store of
49B-or the" 18/8" grade of stainless steel to Specification
od to cover the starting-up period. Smear the whole sur-
D.T.D. 176A. . fac~ of the. bar~el likewise, .then slip it over the piston,
Each of these steels has a tensile strength of 37 tons or
more but all are a little difficult to machine due to their easmg the rIngs mto place With their gaps staggered round
work~hardening propensity. A tip to remem~er ~hen the circumference; do not omit the base gasket or packing
\Working on them is to use keen-edged tools With 8 to washers if any are to be used.
138 139
TUNING FOR SPEED
On some engines it is not easy to handle the rings as they

enter the barrel, due perhaps to the presence of a forest of
studs and none of the conventional ring compressors are CHAPTER XI
much use either. The simplest and handiest tool is a strip
of thin sheet metal, about 1t in. wide, bent to the circum-
ference of the piston and pulled up wit~ a small ?olt t~rough LIGHTENING THE VALVE MECHANISM
the ends. The top-edge is lightly cnmped WIth pliers to
prevent jamming in the chamfer of th~ barrel, and after the IRRESPECTIVE of any air of finality about the reassembly
piston has entered half-way, the s.tnp c~n be pulled off work comprising the last part of Chapter X, if cams
. simply by removing the bolt. A.ll pIston rmgs, and slotted giving a modified timing are to be used it may pay to
oil rings in particular, are fragile, but as one cannot tell make a trial assembly with only a single spring on each
whether they are broken or not once the barrel has gone valve, or to put in only one rocker at a time when
on, the operation cannot be carried out too carefully. Afte~ checking the opening and closing points. Otherwise
wards rotate the engine a few times to spread the all it may be difficult to measure the top overlap with exacti-
evenly and wipe excess from the piston crown. tude, because near t.d.c. the exhaust valve, as it closes,
Next, after making sure the contacting faces of ?ead ~nd tries to tum the camshaft forwards, thus taking up all the
barrel are clean, bolt the head down by carefully tlghtClll~g backlash in the drive in the wrong direction.
each bolt a fraction of a tum in rotation in order to obtam The best sequence of operations for any particular engine
an equal amount of tension on each. depends entirely upon the design, but in any case the points
Finally, check your compression rati? exactly and enter to watch closely in connection with the rocker gear are
it up, together with any relevant detaIls suc~ as type of similar. In addition to operating correctly in relation to the
piston, number of packing plates and so forth, In your note- valve stems, all the moving components must be as friction
book , and one more stage will have been
. completed. free as possible and all sources oflost motion, such as flexure
in the rockers or rocker supports, must be ~liminated.
Friction in valve gear comes into a different category
from that of friction in the rest of the engine. The latter,
while being very undesirable, simply subtracts from the
amount of power the engine is potentially capable of
developing at any speed. The former, even though seemingly
insignificant in amount, can have the much more serious
effect of limiting the maximum revs. by lowering the speed
at which the valve gear can be returned from fuHlift by the
springs, which have to overcome any friction present before
the valves commence to close.
At low speeds the inertia of the valve gear is small, and
there is plenty of excess spring-force available to overcome
friction, but as the speed rises towards the peak the excess
of spring-force over inertia becomes progressively less. The
140 141
LIGHTENING THE VALVE MECHANJSM
TUNING FOR SPEED
which they bear. In addition to causing noise, this wear
diminishes the valve-lift and should be taken up by renewing
the washers and shortening the hardened central roller-
race until the side clearance is reduced to .001-.003 in.
The length of the needle rollers must also be reduced if
necessary so that there is no chance of their being nipped
endways when the rocker pins are fully tightened.
Wear may be oc-
casioned by cross- . Lightness is. a very desirable quality in valve gear, but it
loading on the IS fatal to achieve it at the expense of rigidity. Where the
rocker mechanism latter is lacking at high speeds, when the loads are heaviest
of semi - radial-
valved Rudge and the motion of the valves will be quite different from th;
Python engines.
A typical overhead
~
UNDERNEATH VIEW
AS SEEN IN DIRECTION
OF ARROW
ill-effect of friction thus becomes proportionately greater rocker with hexagon-
headed adjuster and
and either or both valves cease to follow the cams on the lock nut in standard
closing side at a much lower speed than one would think form.
without giving the matter some consideration.
Rockers and cam-followers must, therefore, be absolutely
the~retical figures; in fact, !he rockers in some racing
free on their pins and have enough end-float to ensure that
engmes are actually made heaVier than those in their touring
they cannot possibly bind at running temperature. Oc-
coun~erparts t~ ensure maintenance of power at high r.p.m.
casionally spring washers are fitted to take up end-play and
In thIS connection one of the main advantages of the double
eliminate a possible source of rattle, but for racing it is
o.h. camshaft layout is the elimination of places between
better to replace these by distance pieces of the appropriate
cams and valves where flexure or lost motion might occur.
thickness. Felt washers are sometimes used to retain oil,
and these can be an unsuspected cause of binding if they Br?adly speakin¥, the arms of a rocker are subjected to
bendmg loads which are heaviest close to the point of
are too thick or made of insufficiently resilient material.
Radial-valve Rudge and Python engines have an unusual support and fade out to zero at the points of contact at each
form of rocker layout which puts a certain amount of cross- extremity. The central part of the Z-shaped rocker usually
fitted to push-rod engines is subjected mainly to torsion or
loading on the bearings of those rockers which act at right-
angles to each other. After a while wear occurs on the twisting of constant value from end to end.
sides of the central bosses and the hardened washers against The only safe places to remove metal are those at which
142 143
TUNING FOR SPEED LIGHTENING THE VALVE MECHANISM
HEXAGON HEAD REMOVED AND in the ma~g ~oles. Some editions of the Python engine
POLISH THESE SURFACES
TWO FLATS ADDED were poor. III thiS respect, the cross-rockers being held in a
/
\ steel pressmg attached to the head by rather inaccessible set-
screws which were both difficult to tighten and inclined to
.~ work .loose. The sovereign remedy is to have the pressings
electncally arc-welded to the head, this process being prefer-
able to acetylene welding because oftbe absence of distortion
CONTACT FACE risks.
SHAPED TO MATCH Push rods are normally made either from Duralumin or
Judicious removal of TOP OF VALVE STEM high-tensile steel tube. It is important to check that they are'
metal saves weight; absolutely straight (by rolling them along a surface plate)
polishing minimizes
the risk of fatigue. and. also that they have not been badly bent and re-
straJghtened, because a rod which has been so treated is
~lways liable to go again. If spares are not obtainable,
lIght-alloy ~ube ~o spe~ification 4 T 4 is the correct grade,
stress is clearly low or non-existent,paying most attention the usual size bemg i-m. diameter by 16 S.W.G. This is a
to the ends of the arms, since these portions move at the
han~y gauge because the bore is slightly under t in. and
highest speeds. It is often possible to grind a sizeable amount can Just be reamed out to that size to take the end-fittings.
off the faces which contact the valves, or to reduce the
Wh~ther these a;e fitted internally or externally, they must
weight of the screwed adjusters sometimes fitted. Although be .tlght, ?therwlse the end.s of the tube will hammer away
reducing the section of the arms is not to be recommended, qUIte r~pldly. If the tube IS steel instead of light alloy the
it is a good plan to polish the whole rocker in order to end-fittmgs should be securely sweated in place with tin-
minimize the chance of fatigue cracking. man's solder, completely penetrating the whole joint.
Flexure may occur in the rocker mounting unless this is
In. some designs the push rods are of considerable length,
bolted very firmly to the head. Anyone tuning one of the and It n:ay pay to experiment with tubes of larger diameter
older engines with the rockers held between sideplates o~ heaVier gauge; unsuspected buckling may take place at
should verify that the attachment bolts are a really good fit high speeds, and this will have the same bad effect as
flexure in the rockers.
NEEDLE ROLLERS MUST Tappets or push-rods ~re occasionally on the heavy side,
BE SHORTER THAN
due to the presence of adjusters. If you are well acquainted
CENTRAL SLEEVE The U-shaped rocker-
brackets of Rudge and with the engine's habits when cold and hot with regard to
Python radial- valve ~orrect valve clearances, something is to be gained by mak-
gear can seldom be mg up a set of non-adjustable components, finally setting
kept tight with the
ROCKER standard bolt. An the clear~nces either by adjustments to the push-rod length
effective cure is to weld or by usmg hardened caps of the appropriate thickness
them to the head.
fitted to the ends of the valve stems. These components are
very often fitted as standard to minimize stem wear but for
making them up individually K.E. 805 steel harden~d in oil
145
TUNING FOR SPEED LIGHTENING THE VALVE MECHANISM
at 830 0 C. and tempered by quenching in oil from 550'" C.

cannot be bettered.
An additional advantage of using fixed tappets for long·
distance racing is that there is no possibility of the adjusters
coming loose when there is only a lap or two to do before
the finish! The scheme is very easy to apply to side·valve
engines with their fiat·topped tappets; the method is to use
the existing adjustable pair, set to the correct length, as
. gauges from which to obtain exactly the length of the non·
adjustable pair, which can be made up out of silver steel,
hardened on the ends by quenching in water from a bright (1) Pinion and crown wheel ill pel!ecl mesh, with slight back/ash.
red heat. (2) If excessive backlash, raise pillion. If no backlash, move
Sometimes shims of the correct thickness for placing under crown wheel to left. (3) If too much backlash, move crown
wheel to right. I{lIo backlash, lower pillion.
the valve stem cap are not available when making adjust·
ments to o.h. camshaft engines which employ this system.
Satisfactory substitutes can, however, be made by cutting that a slight whine, noticeable when the engine is cold, will
discs from a set of feeler gauges, this material being suffi· cease as running temperature is attained.
ciently hard to withstand the rigorous duty entailed. Another point to notice is the fit of the tongues of the
Oldham couplings in the bevel-shaft slots; they should
be just free enough to slide, but have no trace of clearance
Camshaft Drives sideways. If any shake has developed, new couplings are
Even in o.h. camshaft engines, motion can be lost in the required, or, alternatively, the originals can be built up
valve gear unless all is as it should be. If bevels are used with hard nickel plating as in the" Fescol " .process.
they must be in rcorrect mesh, which means the minimum Conversely, a small amount of end·clearance must be
of backlash consistent with absence of whine. Fortunately, present in the vertical shaft assembly. If this is not pro-
neither these gears nor their bearings wear very rapidly, vided. severe thrust load will be applied to the bevel shafts
but if the adjustment is faulty it may not be possible to when the head is bolted down, and this point must be closely
rectify it by moving only one of a mating pair of gears. watched if the barrel has been shortened appreciably. If
As an approximate guide, the inner ends of the teeth on each no clearance exists it is possible to gain a little by grinding a
pair of gears should be just level with each other as they small amount off the ends of the bevel shafts and vertical
pass through the point of intersection. shaft. This process, however, must not be overdone or the
If this is not the case, one or both gears must be moved in area of contact of the coupling tongues will be seriously
the appropriate direction, either by adding shims or skim· reduced. If at a future date the barrel is packed up again on
ming a small amount off the face of the vertical shaft bush compression plates, it will be necessary to obtain either a
housing, or the bush itself. Since the camshaft, and hence its longer shaft or some couplings with thicker centres, other-
crown wheel, is usually located by a ballrace some distance wise the uppermost tongue will not run fully in engagement
from the gears, thermal expansion has the effect of increasing with the top bevel-slot. This condition is likely to lead to
the backlash by a small amount, and it will often be found failure as the metal in the tongue will be subjected to a
146 147
LIGHTENING THE VALVE MECHANISM
TUNING FOR SPEED
'HACC
WHEN <''''ANe<
HEAD IS \ §
TOP BEVEL SHAFT
TONGUE NOT
Fol;owe;s.which are only slightly :vorn can be reshaped
to their ongmal curvature by hand With an oil-stone, but if
,,;,ear to a depth.~eater than .030 in. is present, there is very
8.
httle of the ongmal hard case left and new rockers are
G) C
BOLTED DOWN , fULLY ENGAGED
required-unless the originals can be re-casehardened and
(Left) The essential' . ground, a process which some service departments are
small clearance above
willing to carry out.
the.J. upper universal
joint. (Right) A com- If it is desired to embark on the project of making a
mon fault which can new set of followers, 3i% case-hardening nickel steel is
be. cured by a longer,::;~
shaft or a thicker . an excellent material; the hardening should be .045 in.
universal joint as to .055 in. deep on the contact faces, but the remainder of
shown in the centre.
the surface should be kept soft by copper-plating before
h~rdening.. An even better j.ob c~n be made by using 5%
destructiv~ combination of shear and bending loads instead
atr-hardenmg steel to SpecificatlOn S 28 with a coating
of pure shear as intended by the designer.
There is a small opportunity for saving weight in the of "Stellite" welded to the contact faces.
vertical tube and its retaining ring-nuts by making these in Following the application of the "Stellite" the com-
light alloy, using Duralumin or R.R. 56 for the tube and ponent is heat-treated by cooling in air from 830 0 c., after
any reasonably strong aUoy, such as L 1 or D.T.D. 423, for :-;hich. t~~ . faces are finally ground to shape. Welded
the nuts and possibly the bevel-shaft housings. Stelhte IS not very hard but will withstand very arduous
treatment without appreciable wear as, unlike case-hardened
steel, it does not soften under the influence of heat
Attention to Cam Followers .. Stellited" faces must be finished by polishing to a dead~
Coming back to push-rod and S.v. motors, freeness of smooth surface, otherwise the cams will suffer undue wear.
the cam followers is important. The procedure with lever
followers is similar to that for the overhead rockers; in Points to Bear in Mind
addition, if any of the rocker bearings or pins show patches
which are unduly rubbed or worn, indicating lack of When reconditioning or making new followers (or o.h.
camsh~ft r~ckers) with curved feet two things must be
lubrication, an additional oil hole or a nick ground into the
borne m mmd. One is that the radius' of curvature does
end face of the bush may improve matters.
A little weight may be saved by judicious reduction here not affect the timing at aU, but that it does affect the rate of
and there, but it is a mistake to remove too much from the acceleration; in other words, if you substitute a radius of
region of the follower-foot, as this may lead to local over- , in. for one ?f i in. t.he opening and closing points measured
heating with consequent softening and rapid wear. Depend- m degrees wlll remam the same, but the initial acceleration
ing on the shape of the cam and the foot, there is a certain will be gn~ater with tbe larger radius. The second point is
minimum area over which rubbing contact takes place, and that the dIstance between the rocker pin centre and the line
it is an advantage for the foot to be appreciably longer than ?f contact with the. cam does affect the timing. A difference
this, as the excess portion acts as a lead-in for oil and thus m length of .004 m. makes one degree difference with a
cam base circle of 1 in. diameter; obviously, therefore, the
improves lubrication at a vital spot.
148 149
LIGHTENING THE VALVE MECHANISM
TUNING FOR SPEED
a
~resence of fiat due to wear at this point will lengthen
"¢he period of opening in proportion to its width. This
matter will be gone into in greater detail later, when
'Valve timing comes up for discussion.
Varying Types of Follower

A few designs employ lever followers with fiat feet and
-with these the rate of wear is usually lower owing to the
,greater area over which the rubbing action is spread. Eventu-
.ally grooves will appear near the middle of the faces t~en temper at 200 0 C. for half an hour and allow to cool in
"but except in extreme cases the parts can be reconditioned aIr.
-simply by smoothing on a fiat oil-stone, taking care . "Dire~t impact" tappets bearing on the cams without the
1:hat the faces are maintained parallel with the rocker-pin mterventI?n of followers are used in many s.v. and a few
:ilioles. ) o.h.v. deSIgns. Th~y are usually of the mushroom type offset
The only other common variety of lever follower is fitted fro~ the cams ~ h~tle .so t?at a slow rotation is continually
-with a roller in place of a solid foot, and as the bearing in the takmg place, thIS dlstnbutmg wear over the entire surface of
Jroller is necessarily very small, heavily loaded and not too the ~ead, which in consequence remains flat almost in-
-well lubricated, wear develops after a period. Replacing the defimtely. Non-rotatable patterns wear, of course. in just
pins 'usually effects a cure, but while the parts are dis- the sa~~ ,~ay as lever followers, and require the same
. mantled it is advisable to check the rotler holes for recondltIOnmg treatment.
.ovality. If they are out of round they can be lapped out Working loads on the stems and tappet guides are heaviest
, with a mild steel bar and emery paste, after which oversize at the ends an~ become zero in the central portion; thus
pins will be required of a size. giving .002-in. clearance in the a ~m~Il reductIOn ?f weight. can be effected by heavily
"lapped-out holes. relIevmg the tappet In that region. This will also reduce the
The holes in the follower itself must be enlarged to a light ef!'ort necessary to shear the oil film between the surfaces and
. drive fit on the new pins, which can be made from silver WIll have no adverse effect except, perhaps, to increase oil
,steel hardened and tempered to a straw colour in the centre leakag~ from the top of the guides, which will not matter
but blued at the ends to enable them to be riveted over after much 10 competition work.
_assembly. Some racing J.A.P. engines employed rollers
running on needle-roller bearings which were quite an
. improvement over the plain variety. . Watch the Exhaust Lifter
If some serious defect, such as extensive fiats or pitting of The exhaust lifter is not required for racing. In the case of
_the circumference of the rollers, is in evidence it is best to s~a~dard A.J.S. and Matchless the control lever in the
replace them. If spares ara unobtainable the 1% carbon-l% tlmmg case can be disposed of. and after extracting the guide
. chrome steel known as ballrace steel (Spec. EN 31) is about and tappet from the crankcase, the valve-lifted collar can be
,. the best material from which to make new ones; heat-treat removed through the slot cut in the side of the guide; a small
0
'; by quenching in oil after heating to 820 C. for one hour,
151
150
'L
TUNING FOR SPEED
point, but one which illustrates further how the odd fraction
of an ounce of unwanted weight can be saved.
In any case, it is wise to verify that the exhaust lifter is not CHAPTER XII
holding the follower off the base-circle or fouling the cam
nose if any change on cam form or type is made. As an ADJUSTMENTS TO VALVE GEAR
instance .. Lightning" cams when fitted to a Vincent
" Rapide" or" Shadow", foul the exhaust lifter levers: the
latter .must therefore be filed away to clear the cam-nose, THIS and the next chapter are closely related and may well
though it is probably better for most racing to remove the be studied in a single reading. My aim is first to deal with
entire lifter mechanism and block up the hole through which standard valve settings and, in Chapter XIII, to indicate
the lifter rod passes with a tin. B.S.P. plug, the same as that adjustments which may result in improved performance.
Newcomers to speed work would be well advised to stick
used in the crankcase drain hole. I
to the maker's timing for a start, and it is also a wise plan
for more experienced riders to follow the same course if
major modifications have been made elsewhere to the engine.
As a general rule, it is a bad policy in experimental work to
alter more than one thing at a time, otherwise it is difficult to
assess the value of any single modification.
Engines usually have their timing gears clearly marked by
dots on the mating teeth or lines inscribed on the rims of the
gears. When taking notes on the engine before commencing
the initial dismantling, a diagram of these marks should have
been included, together with any information relating to the
position of the small timing pinion on the mainshaft since it
. . '
IS a. common practIce to use a number of keyways, anyone of
which may be selected, in order to provide a fine variation of
timing at this point. If this is the case, it is usual to mark the
"standard" keyway in some manner, though this may not
be visible when the pinion nut is in place.
By no means do all engines employ a keyed-on pinion. In
Rudge and Python power-units, for example, the pinion fits
on a plain taper, and thus can be set readily in any position
desired.
. .Marks or no marks, before finally fitting the timing cover
It IS best to play safe and to check the setting with a timing
disc and pointer set to zero with the piston at top centre. It is
not too easy to detect exactly where this occurs to within a
degree or two just by feeling the movement of the piston
152 F 153
TUNING FOR SPEED ADJUSTMENTS TO VALVE GEAR
practice and specify closer clearances for setting than for

An excellent timillg stick for ellgilles running, giving the appearance of greatly increased overlap
fitted with a COlltrol plug call be made compared to some other makes, whilst a special system is
up from all old plug body, a steel rule
marked ill. illches or millimetres, a adopted on Yincents because the design is such that it is
piece of rod, a bicycle brake draw impossible to measure the clearance accurately. This does
bolt alld a simple poillter. not matter for normal adjustment, because then the cle,ar-
ances are simply set to zero when the motor is cold. For
timing, the figures are taken with the valves lifted .005 in.
crown through the plug hole, but it as measured by a dial gauge in contact with the valve.
can be determined quite accurately
by means of a depth gauge of such
a length that it contacts the crown a
few degrees-the precise number is
immaterial-before top centre. If the All alternative timlllg stick
pointer is correctly set to zero, the for inclined plug apertures
is made by drillillg a
readings at which the crown touches sparkillg plug outer body ill
the gauge on the upstroke or down- this mallller.
stroke on each side of top centre
will be equal. Another method
is to apply a film of thick soap
solution over the plug-hole, or better
still over a small hole in a dummy Whatever clearances are used, it is very rarely that the
plug body; the point at which the figures obtained will agree absolutely with those quoted by
film balloons out to its maximum the maker, so that a little common sense has to be used to
extent as the piston is rocked over obtain the closest approximation. Generally speaking, the
centre will clearly be t.d.c. least illlPortant point is' the exhaust valve opening, and the
With this important matter settled, most important is the relationship between inlet opening
the timing can be determined and and exhaust closing with reference to t.d.c. Sometimes it
compared with the maker's figures, if may be found that the timing is several degrees out on one or
this knowledge is available, not forgetting that many makers more points at the specific clearance but the error is reduced
specify valve clearances for checking which are wider than if the clearances are set a trifle wider; whilst not being a hard-
those at which the tappets are eventually set for running. and-fast rule, this at least gives an indication that the error
This is done because with some cam contours the rate of is not so serious as it appeared and may even be disregarded.
lift over the first few degrees is so gradual that it is very It is often difficult to get an equal timing diagram for both
difficult to determine the precise instant at which the valves cylinders of a twin unless some allowances of this nature are
open or close. As was pointed out in Chapter I, this must made, particularly if some wear has taken place in the cams
be borne in mind when making comparisons between the or cam followers. It is as well, while the timing disc is fitted,
timing diagrams of various makes. Nortons reverse this to obtain some more figures for future reference, and as an
154 155
being to show how the timings vary according to the type of

performance required.
The checking and running clearances are also given-it
being understood that .. running" means "as set for
running" with the engine cold, although at operating
temperatures the clearances will probably be very different.
Some simple form of handle to
screw on to or grip the main- As a general rule when hot, the clearances of both valves in
shaft will prove invaluable when push-rod engines tend to widen, though more on the inlet
carrying alit experiments with than the exhaust. On camshaft engines both clearances close
the timing gear. If screwed on,
up, though more on the exhaust than the inlet, and in side-
,
a lock 1IIIt will be required.
valve engines the inlet widens, whereas the exhaust closes up
-the latter point in particular must be watched carefully if .
aid to getting a clearer picture of the valve-lift diagram, a K.E.965 valve has been fitted in place of one of silchrome
without which any subsequent experimenting will be simply or some other steel with a much lower expansion coefficient.
like taking leaps in the dark. It is best when measuring valve lifts, to have the clear-
The more obvious additional things to measure are the ances set to the "running" figures, otherwise serious
amount each valve is open at top and bottom dead centres; errors will be introduced over the early portions of the lift-
the actual amount of lift (which is not necessarily the same curve when the valves are rising only a few thou. per degree.
as the height of the cam on account of leverage-ratios wh~ch Each valve should be measured separately, with the other
may exist in the rocker gear); the crankshaft ang!es ~t WhlC~ one rendered inoperative by leaving out its pushrod or
the valves reach full lift, and the dwell at full 11ft, If any IS rocker so that the backlash in the drive is not taken up in the
present-" dwell" representing the number of degrees of reverse direction by the cam not under consideration.
movement during which the valve is on full lift. The rockers on MatchlessjA.J.S. twins and KSSjKTT
The best way to measure lifts is by means ofa dial-gauge Velocette units with fully enclosed valves are mounted on
rigged up in contact with the valve-spring collar. With this eccentric spindles, as a means of adjusting the clearances, and
simple apparatus a really painstaking individual can draw a either rocker can be removed, even if the valves are fully
complete lift-curve for both valves by taking readings at assembled, simply by unscrewing its spindle, the rocker in
intervals of, say, two or five degrees. These results are plotted
on squared paper as vertical measurements, cranks~aft
degrees being measured horizontally. The graph so obtamed
can be made to give quite a lot of information, as will be A dial gauge, contacting
shown later on. with the valve-spring and
There has been such an enormous number of engines cap, read in conju1lction
with the timing disc, will
manufactured in various types and editions that it is not enable the tuner to prepare
possible to quote all their timing figures. even if they were an accurate valve-opening
available, but I have compiled a list of quite a few, not all diagram.
of which are modern. Included are a number of figures for
both sports and racing engines of the same make, the object
156 157
INLET EXHAUST some cases the inlet angle is a few degrees less than the
exhaust. The reason for this is that better low-speed
perform~ce and fuel economy are thereby obtained, and, of
course, lU standard production machines these aspects,
although perhaps not so important as flat-out performance
have to be given a fair degree of attention. •
Engines with "short" timings will respond to some
extent to the fitting of an open exhaust system and an inlet
pipe of the correct length, but they cannot be expected to
perform as well as those with racing timings in conjunction
INLET OPENS T.O.C I EXHAUST CLOSES

'3S. BEFORE 9 m.m. 1 m.m. 30· AFTER T.O.C
Bya series of hole-and-peg locations, Norton" Manx" cams T.O.C
" I\[
can have vernier setting ill five different positiolls.
I 1 :
.,,
I
HolY to convert
degrees to linear
&0
"l.m.
88
STROKE',
-m~m
'H: 1
60 M.m ..
the process partially lifting the valve at each revolution. measurement. First If/ ~
When finally setting the clearances, care must be taken to
see that the plane of eccentricity lies in the right direction,
describe a circle the
diameter of which INLET CLoses,
-IEIi lJlI'-d+
I I; : ~. EXHAUST OPENS
'
equals the length of 60· AFTER a.D.C '" I ! \ : E -65' BEFORE B.O.C
otherwise the timing will be badly out and the rockers will piston stroke. With _l.... . .1., ,-1:
• B.O.C.
not contact the valves properly. Arrows are stamped on the a compass set to the
rocker spindle ends to indicate their correct positions, but
any doubts can be settled by checking that the rocker-ends
length of the con-
necting rod between
celltres, strike arcs iI
II
/ I
, ,I
II '.': ~ ~
•-
;:
contact the valve steins centrally; if not, the error will be on the vertical line .i j .~•
from top and bot- I.
quite noticeable and can be cured by moving the pins half a i! i
tom points on the
turn in either direction. Circle: Next strike /1 ~.
A glance at my timing data shows that there is fairly arcs from valve ji !l
opening alld closillg ii '3 ~\\
close agreement between the timings used by various makers points and measure
""1.<) ••
'\...v:~ .... -. -.~.
-Jo" . . l I •
for fast main-road work or for racing, and an engine which distances betweell
does not figure in the list is bound to perform reasonably well these arcs and top
,.1
, .
:' •I
; '.
~, \
"
and bottom-centre ,I .
if timed in a similar fashion. A closer study shows that, on arcs respectively. : ! 1 \
the whole, not only is the overlap on engines intended for \
use with a silencer much less than on those made mainly or I
wholly for racing, but it is also split up differently. I
In the latter case, the crank angle at which the inlet valve i
opens before t.d.c. is usually several degrees greater than /"" I .r-
the angle at which the exhaust valve closes, whereas in
'>"'- <::----....-----::
~ ! -;,.//
"'V'
GOo ...... _":.~-:'~.""::.'
sports engines the angles are more nearly equal; indeed, in
158 159
with the correct pipe lengths. Conver-sely, if maximum

performance with a road silencer fitted be the aim, there is
nothing to be gained-in fact, a good deal may be lost in
speed, economy and acceleration from low speeds-by
attempting to utilize cams of the T.T. variety. If it were
otherwise, manufacturers would not go to the trouble of
developing different cams for various types of engine.
In road-racing engine speeds can almost always be kept
high by proper use of a mUlti-speed gear-box; good torque
~ I--~~~···························· ---~.---------------------
at low speeds is not essential though it isrvery desirable on ~
short circuits where time lost in gear-changing may become
too high a proportion of the actual running time. In
scrambles and trials in which a speed test is incorporated,
conditions are very different because one needs an engine
which is fast but can put up with large variations of speed .---~---.-----.----------.--- ..-- ex
because of the fairly wide ratio gear-boxes which have to be
used. On speedways it is also essential to have an engine
i I g~:;,:g gg ~:;':!2!2~ g!2!2 ~ g~g!~ 5l!2 !2
~==i'--===~~-~~=~~:~ . . . . . . . . . ----
with good pulling power from 3,000 r.p.m. upwards, and
for aU this sort of work overlaps are not generally greater ~~I ot"'lt'-"d--
\C~\O"
00
I't-.
Vlco\nOM
Vl\O\Ot"--\O
V)V)V\
,....\0\1)
M
r... ~
OV)f1")""'"N
QO(;()r-...~\O
oW')
V\\D
V)
'"
than 80", and may be much less for competition models --+--------... ~.---- . C1
~I
where flexibility is as important as sheer power.
Engines with separate inlet and exhaust cams, as for in-
stance the Triumph twin and the double o.h.c. Norton, lend
themselves well to variations in the respective cam settings. :::_::::: ....". ..
~
In fact the Norton is specifically made so that the inlet cam . ~.

........
.....
can be set to the best position for the exhaust system in use
by means of a vernier device; as shown in the table, the inlet
cam is set to open 10° earlier (and close earlier by the same
amount) when a megaphone is fitted than it is with a straight-
through pipe.
Actually. the timing figures given do not convey any
real information as to the efficacy of the opening diagram-
which varies, of course, with the valve lift and the steepness
of the cam contours-but assuming a reasonable degree of
similarity in the height of lift in relation to the capacity of
the cylinder between various designs, they do indicate the
lines along which to proceed in the search for speed.
It is frequently possible to utilize cams from one type of
160 161
SPI!Cl!dEN VIJ..V/I. SE'ITINaS WTI'H Cot.iPLEMENTAIlY DATJ.-..cQn~d
I ~I ~usr
00Br ~NaS
MAKl! MODEL
_ _ _ _ _ _ _:--:_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 1 OPENS
10
I~~I ~ II----t---I----t---·f~--------I
J A.P. contd. 1.100 o.ll.v. W/c 60° twin .002 .002 .002 38·
8/75 h.p. touring •• •• 15 65 65 2.$ .002
175 and 2SO D.h.v. Standard 65 65 2.$ .002 .002 .002 .002 45'
and Racing.. .. •• 27
1,000 o.h.v. and 1935/37 Racing 67 67 27 .002 .002 .002 .002 4SO
Standard 2.$ >-l
2.3 .002 .002 .002 .002 45·
15
66
6()
65
63 23 .002 .002 .002 .002 45· c::
1.000 o.h.v. Racing (1932/34) ..
3SO. 500 and 8/75 o.h.v. Racing 45 65 70 35 .002 .002 .002 .002 38' z
3S·
500 Dirt Track .. .. .. 45 65 70 35 .002 .002 .002 .002 52
350 (high.lift cams) . 25 60 60 2.$ .002 .002 «I" o
,.... Levis ••
500 (high-lift cams) 30 78 66 30 .002 .002 35· "1
0\
tv .. ,122mm.] 170.mm.11 170mm.1 80 IDJD.II .008 .008 .006 .010 8Omm. o
Guxz;· Albatross ~
3SO G3L (early) •• 20 67 18 2.8 •016 .016 nil nil 7/16 in. en
Matchless 30 .016 .016 nil. nil 7/16 in. "d
350 03L (late) •• 32 63 65
080 .. •• 32 63 65 30 .016 .016 nil nil lin. I:I:!
55 68 70 44 .004 .008 .004 .008 45· I:I:!
04S (9.5 C.R.) •• t)
2SO and 3SO OrandJ'rix 2.8 62 60 30 nil nil nil nil 14mm.
Newlmp<!rlal
35O'al1<1'soil International •• 471 70 8S 42; .004 .004 .010 .020 42io
Norton
SOO Modd 18 and ES2 and 42°/47°
6'00 Modd 19.. .. 2.$f30 43148 60165 2.$/30 nil nil
350 Modds SO and S5 •• 30/35 35/«1 nil nil 48'/SO'
30M, «1M straight pipe 47! 10 SS 42i
30M. «1M megaphone 51-% 60 8S 42i
Double o.h.c. 30 M. «I M. 6() 67t 85 4S .007 .019 .024 34°.371"
30M short stroke 74 94 72 64 .002 .002 .028 34"
«1M short stroke 82 95 94 70 .002 .002 .028 39"
• Millimetre dimensiona are aJ measured at rim of flywheel.
SPECIMEN VALVE SETTINOS WITII CoMPL£MENTARY DATA-continued
INLET EXHAusr Cl.EARANCIlS
IdAK.t MODEL CHECKING RUNNING IGNITION

AOVANCE
OPENS OPENS I EX.
>-
t)
Un.
....
Paotber SOO and 6'00 ··1 25 10 70 30 .001 .002 .001 .002 c::
til
Roc!p' Ulster •• 10mm. t3mm. 16mm.110mm. .020 .020 nil .003 ISmm. >-l
3SO Replica.
500 Replica
9mm. 14.4mm. 14.4mm. 9 mm.
9mm. 14,1/,mm. 14.4mm. 9 mm.
.008
.010
.008
.010
nU
nil
.003
.003
16mm.
18mm. e::I:I:!
Suohellm Model 9() (Wolverhampton) 30 60 30 .002 .012 .002 .012 44' Z
...,
til
..... Triampb 250 and 3SO o.h.v. s:lngle 36 70 36 .001 .001 .001 .001 iio. ...,
~
SOO o.h.v.ling1e.. •• E 75; .001 .001 .001 .001 ~"'in.
0\
W Speed Twin and Tiger 100
Grand Prix ••
TIOO (Racing Kit)
W
52
E 61
47
n
32
SO
.001
.020
nil
.001
.020
nil
.001
.002
.001
.004
t.u.
:7"
42'
o
<:
Velocette 43 68 48 .012 .012 .012 .022 42'
>-
t"'
KTT.. 1931 ."
KSS. (iron head) •• 39 69 60 «I .012 .020 .012 .020 42· <:
KTT. Mark IV and V •. 51 51 71 43 .020 .020 .01S .025 35· I:'ll
KTT. Mark VI •• •• 55 65 75 45 .020 .020 .01S .025 32,"
KSS. (alwninium head) 34 47 64 29 .025 .025 .012 .012 38' otll
MOV., MAC. •. •. 50 60 70 «I .010 .01.5 .003 .006 «10
MSS•. early SO 60 70 «I .oIS .020 .003 .006 «I' >-
MSS.,late 30 60 60 30 .02.$ .025 .OOS .010 «I' ::0
VIIIOOIt Rap/de, Black, Shadow and I
Comet •• •• 42 68 Valves lifted oil nil 39"
Ligbtning. Flash S6 68 .OOS off seats nil nil 38'
• J>istanc:cs ~ 00 stroke of piston

ADJUSTMENTS TO VALVE GEAR
TUNING FOR SPEED
engine in another type of ppwer unit from the same stable compression actually begins. That does not occur, if the
and thus obtain either a longer timing or higher lifts, or cylinder filling is not too good, until the piston is well up
both. As an example, the "45°, 65°, 70°, 35°" cams used on the compression stroke. This subject of cam design
in the 350 c.c. and upwards racing J.A.P.s can be fitted is very complex and will be dwelt upon at greater length
to the 250 c.c. model. Again, some of the push-rod, in the next chapter.
Velocette cams are interchangeable, although the helical If the timing has been altered from standard, or there is
teeth gears, unique to this make, have been made with any reason to doubt the markings, set the engine by means
two or three different angles of helix and may not, there- of the degree plate with the crankpin in the position corres-
fore, be interchangeable. However, the camwheels are a ponding to the "inlet opening" point. The tappet clear-
press fit on the cams and can therefore be pressed off and ances having previously been set to the amounts specified
changed over; if each pair is marked before being separated for use when checking the timing, the cams (or cam, if two
by scribing a line radially inwards from the marked tooth, separate shafts are used) are rotated until the clearance is
and then refitted with the marks in line, the timing should just taken up, and the half-time pinion is then fitted to· the
be correct. Vincent camwheels are also pressed on, but main shaft in the appropriate position by means which vary
in this instance the holes are parallel and not tapered as in according to the detail design. On J.A.P. engines there
the Ve1ocette. Slight variations in shaft or bore diameters a.re five k~~ays in the pin~on and the most favourable posi-
may lead to insufficient tightness if shafts and wheels ~lOn for It IS found by tnal and error, using each keyway
are interchanged; the interference fit must be at least mtum.
.001 in. requiring 1 to 1t tons fitting pressure. If less than (\ ~imilar sch~me is used on Vincent engines, the key in
this the shaft should be nickel or chrome-plated up to thiS Instance bemg parallel so that it can be tapped into
.the requisite size, otherwise the wheel may move on place after the best position for the pinion has been found .
the shaft when running and damage to the valve gear Normally the key is fitted in the keyway marked with a
will result. Rudge cams ate yet another example of inter- punch-dot.
changeability, in this instance for the 500 c.c. and 350 c.c. B.S.A. cams are listed, paired up by part numbers, with
capacities. the appropriate pinion to give the correct timing, but
The flexibility and low-speed pulling of side-valve engines pinions are also supplied which advance the whole timing
is due in large measure to the "slow" timing usually by 10°.
employed, but there is no reason why quite an appreciable I~ t~e ~esi~n. allows of but one position for the pinion,
amount overlap should not be used. Here, again, it is often vanatlOn m tImmg can be accomplished only in steps of one
possible to substitute the original cams by a pair from a tooth at a time, which is usually far too great. An exception,
corresponding o.h.v. engine. Many years ago, I remember however, is found in some Velocette push-rod models'
fitting the cams from a " big-port" A.J.S. into a 350 side- very fine-pitch helical teeth, of which there are 48 on th~
valve of this make with really remarkable results. half-time pinion, giving a variation of 7t 0 per tooth.
Owing to the comparatively poor breathing and lower One method of surmounting this difficulty is to make up
compression ratio inseparable from any side-valve design, some stepped keys, remembering that at 1 in. radius 1 0
its volumetric efficiency is low at high revs, and it pays to equals .017 in.; from this data the amount of "step"
hold the inlet valve open a few degrees longer than on an to be filed on the key for any particular diameter of shaft
. o.h.v. unit, since it is no use closing this valve until true and angular variation required can be worked out by direct
164 165
proportion. Keys so filed must, of course, fit the keyways If you have gone to the trouble of dowelling the timing
in both shaft and gear closely, otherwise looseness may cover in correct alignment, it can now be put in place with
eventually develop. the appropriate gasket or any good-quality jointing cement
If the engine has separate camshaft for inlet and exhaust, thinly applied, and the screws or bolts finally tightened. If
next turn the flywheels until the crankpin is at the" exhaust not dowelled, the cover may have to be juggled about a
opening" position and insert the exhaust camshaft so that little to ensure that the cam spindles are not binding.
the valve is just about to lift (or at the nearest tooth to this Incidentally, although brown paper is commonly used for
position), and slip the timing cover into place to steady the gaskets, a higher-grade material, such as "Oakenstrong,"
outer ends of the camshafts-a precaution which is not is to be preferred for high-class work, as it is less likely to
necessary if the shafts run in the modern manner on fixed require renewal if the engine has to be worked upon when
studs though it is advisable to fit the steady plate tempor- far away from its rightful garage. If the joint faces are in
arily to eliminate spring. . good condition, perfectly oil-tight joints can be made by
The complete timing figures can now be checked. It will omitting the gasket and using only a thin application of
probably be found that they do not come out exactly as .. Gasket-goo."
anticipated owing to small differences here and there in the
mechanism, or because an error has been made in position-
ing the half-time pinion. Usually a compromise has to be
effected, bearing in mind that the overlap points are more
importanf than the others. In this connection it is better,
in most instances, to have the inlet valve opening earlier
rather than later than intended.
Several attempts may have to be made to obtain the most
favourable figures, particularly if the cams have been
modified. The stepped-key dodge may be very helpful in
such cases. For future reference, make a careful record in
the note book of the timing eventually obtained, together
with any remarks, such as clearances used at the time of
checking, the valve lifts, and so forth.
Then oil all bearing surfaces copiously and fit the timing
cover, after making dead certain that everything is correctly
in place. At this juncture it is all too easy to omit perfectly
obvious things, such as distance pieces or thrust washers on
the rocker spindles, any rubber washers for the transfer of
lubricant, or perhaps the small spring-loaded jet which
feeds oil to the big-end of certain J.A.P. models, or even to
overlook the elementary precaution of fully tightening the
half-time pinion nut and locking it by whatever means are i
.j
provided in the design.
166 167
I
I
L
IMPROVED CYLINDER FILLING
stop. The effects are similar to the inertia of the valve

gear, inasmuch as they become increasingly serious at high
speeds. Fortunately, the expedient of lengthening the valve~
CHAPTER XIll opening period, used to reduce the valve gear stresses,
is also of the greatest value not only in overcoming the
IMPROVED CYLINDER FILL1NG adverse effects of gas inertia, but in turning it to good
account.
When the exhaust valve opens, the pressure in the cylinder
ONE reason for providing much longer periods of valve is quite high, somewhere in the region of80 lb. per sq. in. (the
opening on racing engines, as shown in the tables in exact figure depending, of course, upon the characteristics
Chapter XII, is purely a matter of mechanics, for the loads of the engine), and the bulk of the exhaust products are
in the valve gear are diminished (or, alternatively, higher entering the pipe as a "slug" of gas at well over atmospheric
speeds can be attained with the same stresses) if the angular pressure. Towards the end of the exhaust stroke, i.e. as the
periods of opening and closing are increased. Provided that piston is slowing down, the column of exhaust gas tends,
the lift is kept the same, an increase in speed from 6,000 under the influence of its own inertia, to continue travelling
to 7,000 r.p.m. puts up the loads in the ratio of 36 to 49, along the pipe and to draw the gas still remaining inside
an increase of 36%, but if the angular periods are increased the cylinder out through the valve. Superimposed upon this
in the same proportion-for example, by increasing the so-called extractor action is an even more valuable effect
duration of opening from 260° to 283°-the loads in the . created initially by the "slug" of high-pressure exhaust
gear will be brought back to their original values and the gas.
higher revs. can be attained with the same valve springs This "slug" forms the starting-point of a pressure-wave
with no potential loss of reliability, as might be incurred if which travels down the pipe at the speed of sound, until it
the spring strength were to- be increased from, say, 120 lb. reaches the open end. Here it is reflected back up the pipe
to 150 lb. but is reversed in the process, becoming a wave of low
Lightening the valve gear, of course, reduces its inertia pressure instead of high. This low-pressure wave travels
and consequently the force required to operate it, but this back to the valve and augments to a considerable extent
. can be done only to any marked extent in the design stage. the extractor action already mentioned, provided that it
Apart from the minor savings which have been previously reaches the port at the right time, which is of course at or
described, a really desperate attempt to reduce the weight near top dead centre. It is possible for the wave action to
of a well-designed mechanism by one-third would, in create negative pressures of up to six pounds per square
addition to introducing a distinct risk of failure, almost inch in the port and almost all of the residual gas can be
certainly defeat its own object by bringing in a much greater evacuated from the cylinder head if the exhaust valve is still
amount of flexure under load. open by a considerable amount at t.d.c. and does not close
Despite their seeming lightness, all gases possess quite until 45° or 50° after. Furthermore, the inlet valve can
appreciable weight (as a matter of interest, the air in a room commence to open long before t.d.c. without fear that the
10 ft. square and 10 ft. high weighs 80 lb.) and consequently spent gases will try to get out of the cylinder by flowing back
also possess inertia; that is to say, they resent being rapidly through the inlet tract: in fact if everything is correctly
accelerated, and when they are on the move are reluctant to proportioned the depression created in the exhaust port by
168 169
TUNING FOR SPEED IMPROVED CYLINDER FILLING
the combination of column inertia and wave action will even is very complex and not a great deal has been writt~n about
cause a fresh charge to start moving into the cylinder before it. For those who wish to delve into the matter further
the piston begins to move downwards on the induction Dr. ~chweitzer's book, The Porting of Two-stroke Engines:
stroke. The inlet valve can be lifted t in., or more, off its prOVIdes some very useful information, and in Volume
seat at t.d.c. and can attain fu1llift nearly as soon. as the XXXIV of the Proceedings of the Institution of Automobile
piston reaches its maximum speed, near mid-stroke, without Engineers there is a very informative paper on exhaust
undue stress in the cam gear such as would be caused if the systems written by J. O. Morrison.
valve had not commenced to lift so soon. By mid-stroke the iqcoming charge is rushing through the
The speed of sound in exhaust gas-surroundings varies inlet pipe at several hundred feet per second, and it will
with the temperature and pressure, but, for practical pur- continue to do so until the piston has commenced to travel
poses, can be taken as 1,500 fto per sec., considerably faster upwards again on the compression stroke. If the valve and
than its speed in air which is 1,100 ft. per sec. The time inlet pipe areas are inadequate in size, or of poor aerodyna-
taken for a wave to travel down any given pipe and ~c shape, t~e cylinder will not be completely filled by the
back again to the port is practically constant, so that tIme b.d.c. IS reached, and holding the inlet valve open
the effect of the wave action just described is most beneficial for a further 60° gives a little more time for filling to
'Only over a limited range of speeds. At other times the be completed. But, of course, as the piston has by then
effect will be absent or can even be adverse, when there is a risen some distance, the amount of new charge taken in
pulse of high pressure instead of the required low pressure will be considerably less than the swept volume of the
in the exhaust port at t.d.c. Such a pulse will cause a back-. cylinder-,-in other words, the volumetric efficiency will be
flow of gas out through the inlet valve and may upset low.
the carburation to such an extent that the engine cuts out On the other hand, if the valve area and pipe size are large
completely. enough the cylinder should be very nearly filled by b.d.c.,
Altering:the natural frequ.ency of vibration of the exhaust and after this the high-speed column of gas will continue
system by altering the pipe length, or diameter, or adding a under the influence of its own inertia to travel into the
plain or lipped megaphone, will alter both the maximum cylinder. It is possible by making full use of this "ramming"
power range and the minimum usable speed. Shortening the effect to obtain a small, but very useful, amount of super-
pipe and, to a lesser extent, reducing its diameter, raises charge at certain speeds.
the frequency. Adding a megaphone accentuates the wave The distance from the valve seat to the outer end of the
effect considerably but tends to narrow down the usable air-intake of the carburetter has a large influence on this,
range of speed. High-revving, road-racing, or record-break- and on most racing machines is of the. order of 8 in. to
ing engines, therefore, employ short pipes with megaphones, 10 in. This is several inches longer than is usual on
but, where greater flexibility and a somewhat lower peak or~inary o.h.v. ~nd s.v. engines-particularly the latter, in
power· speed are required, a longer, straight pipe is better. which the whole Inlet tract is frequently very short-whereas
For extremely high r.p.m. the correct pipe length may be ~eader~ with long memories will recollect the much greater
too short to be practicable or it may not comply with regula- InductIOn length used on fast side-valvers such as the long-
tions, and it is then necessary to use double the optimum stroke Sunbeam. The excellent results which used to be
length. obtained from fitting a Binks " mouse-trap" or " rat-trap ,.
The whole subject of wave formation in exhaust systems carburetter were possibly attributable as much to their extra
170 171
TUNING FOR SPEED
0
a)
length as to the variable choke-tube which was the main .L $

feature of these instruments.
This may seem somewhat of a digression from the subject
V / ~ .......
~Jl~
~ l;.f ...... 1:::
- of cylinder-filling, but it has to be mentioned because filling ~ ~ : _~ 's:,
"...
~,. ~:::~
and pipe design are to a large extent interdependent. ..... ~ u
0
a>
·5 ~ 1::: ,,
...-
00 1::1
If all the factors involved are mutually in harmony a very ~.,
......1/ $ Q~~ ,
large amount of overlap can be employed, and the long
valve-opening periods so obtained will,. in turn, permit - K'" " -........'"
~-", 0
~
~~ 3:
~.o~
higher lifts to be used without unduly stressing the valve
,.---, 7
~f-:t:
....
~""
<~ ~
... ~'~
<:. ...
- .. 1::1
gear, thus leading the way to a further increase in volumetric
efficiency. The extent to which one may go is well illus- ~ ~ o:J
"
~ tuo~
-' ~ .
z<x 8 ~~E'
'tl:::"a
-
~~........
-0< :::
trated by the 500 c.c. Norton timing diagram, originally - «1: g 1::1,5
published in an I.A.E. paper read by Mr. J. Craig during the '\~ ~.S·~
war. The Norton diagram also shows very clearly the ...
0
~~7
" ~-1::1 ..
oZ • ... 3<
...
higher lift, longer -duration of opening and larger port TO "",1;; <:>
diameter of the inlet valve in comparison with equivalent ........ ~ 1'". 0<
.... 1-
j:::
~~~
9.'- 1:::
figures for the exhaust. It is also noticeable that the exhaust r...... ...... U 0
0'"
t:S .. ,~ q)
C>.~<::s9.
cu .0
opening point is a little earlier and the inlet closing point ~ ~
"-
,.tJ}
,00 ~ 1::1 00
I..;.
a few degrees later than usual, but the outstanding features ./ 0<
.... VI
:r: i:i's:,~.5
are the 115° overlap and the amount by which each valve is . / V" .... :::'- s
6 ~3<<:.
... <z""
0
~ cu~ "'"
away from its seat at t.d.c. Since that time, further re-
search plus the ability to run at still higher r.p.m., gained
/ ;' ...
0
«
u .... :5:2J!
~~~"'"
by using larger valves in "square" engines, have permitted
I/~;"a)
...
..,
T
.- '!::. :
- r-- 0
~<:.~
.5'!i ~
a)
j:":~ ~
even longer timings to be employed. Reference to the valve- I-

",:!~'-
"\
Vl
<.!!:: VI . 0
> 1-1 I-
~o-'
:l ,< f- - I--
.-< - u. ~ ~~.§
timing tabulation in the previous chapter shows that the :i
> r---I
If-X
x« ~ :r: 0:::;
'-- ~ "'=:::9.
inlet valve on the 76 mm. by 76.7 mm. "Manx" Norton ci v; ~ ~x - -§.~~
model 40M, after allowing for clearance, opens at 75° \:l
Z 0
« I-- \~ 1:
....
0<
~1: - - 0
~
~!1 ~
?\.~ C)
~~~
before t.d.c., which is actually when the piston is just half- Z < ~
0
Z 0
~
way up on the exhaust stroke, while the exhaust valve does ~ Z
<
.........
t..... t::':. i"~
'- .. 1::1
.00
not close until the piston is nearly half-way down the inlet ..: ~
VI '~
U
0 ~~ :a
.stroke. It would be impossible to get an engine to run at all
..:
~ ~
r...... ~,
a>
0
....
...:~~
§-..,~
. . . 1'-.
,
c- o-
1...~-..
on such a timing unless full advantage were taken of \. §!
.., ...
0 Oo.()
0 0
correctly proportioned inlet and exhaust systems. ..... :?3 ~.s
Diagrams of this nature are most easily obtained without
0
0
:il
0
8 18 ~ "'E ..
.g~~
~
VI
loss of mechanical reliability on engines with valve gear of 0

'~.g, ~
the double overhead camshaft type-and at the other end 8@ a)
8
~~,~
of the scale, in side-valve engines-where the best possible -.:
("oINM-
<'j ~
__": <'j
....
0..;~~~ <'j
combination of lightness and rigidity is attained by reducing (S3H:>NI 'Os) Y3't1Y 3AWA
172
173
TUNING FOR. SPEED IMPROVED CYLINDER FILLING
the number of components between each valve and its cam

to a single tappet in direct compression. With such a layout
the actual motion of the valves follows very closely the motion
theoretically imparted to them by the cams, whereas in
designs where flexure exists, even to a limited extent, this is
not the case and the valve-motion departs more and more BLEND IN
from the theoretical as the speed rises. BY OIL.STONING
NOTE THINNING OF HARD
Extremely good results can be obtained from push-rod CASE OVER HEAVILY.lOAOED
engines if this fact is recognized, and legislated for in the FLANKS
cam design or timing, by making allowance for the loss in -INCREASE IN VALVE LIFT
motion which occurs most noticeably at the commencement
of opening of each valve. This can be done by (a) advancing (Above) A method of increasing simultaneously the valve lift
one or both cams by, say,S"; or (b) modifying the cam and period ofopening by grinding the cam base circle (Below)
contour to give a slow initial rate of lift commencing 10° To obtail' increase in lift whils! retaining the origindl opening I·
,
;
perIOd.
or 15° before the actual point at which the valve is desired to
open. Scheme (a) has the merit of being simple to carry into
effect, and comparative tests with various cam settings are (; ....---r-- "6:s.
~,..V"'.rlt
easily conducted, but there are limits to what can be done
in this direction, since any alteration in the opening points
START OF tifT ..
ORIGINAL CONTOUR/;::'\O
....y I
100>""\t .
END OF OROI'
ORIGINAL CONTOUR
NEW
'0.' . 10· CONTOUR
automatically changes the closing points by an equal NEW '"
CONTOUR
amount.
However, an engine with "30, 60; 60, 30" timing will
almost certainly perform better at high speed with an open
exhaust if the inlet can be advanced 5°, making the tim-
f-=~+-'
AMOUNT GROUND OfF
ing .. 35, 55; 60, 30," particularly if the inlet porting has SASE CIRCLE
been improved and the compression raised, for which -INCREASE IN VALVE LIFT
improved volumetric efficiency given by the two latter
factors the inlet valve' should not require to be held open
for so long as it was before such improvements were effected. Cam design is, in fact, quite a cO.mplicated business.
Scheme (b) is standard practice with some makers whose A~art from determining the most suitable lifts and opening.
~ngines are notable for their good all-round performance;
pomts. the contours of the cams and followers need to be
It has the effect of taking up all clearances, and part of the very carefully worked out in order to give the minimum
unavoidable flexure, comparatively steadily and before the s~resses in th~ gear consistent with the type of valve-lift
valve has lifted off its seat by any appreciable amount. At diagram reqUll."ed; the most that the majority of private
low speed the valve will leave its seat a little earlier than owners can do is to experiment with different settings or to
it does at high speed, but the actual area of opening is so f obtain a set of racing cams.
small that there is scarcely any adverse effect on the low- . There.ar~, h0'Yever, on~ or tw~ simple methods of modify-
speed performance. mg the tmung dIagram Wlth ordinary workshop equipment,.
174 175
although experiments of this nature must, of course, be which is the same size as the grinding-wheel, to the bed of
conducted solely at "owner's risk"! the machine and mounting the cam to be copied and the
One of these methods, which has as its objects increasing rough cam-blank on a mandrel held in the swinging head
both the lift and the angular period of the valve opening, normally used to carry the tap when it is being sharpened.
is to reduce the radius of the cam-base circle, a process which The master-cam then rotates against the fixed disc, and
needs to be done very accurately to achieve good results, moves the head in and out as the spindle is rotated with the
and requires the use either of a proper cylindrical grinder or blank in contact with the grinding wheel. This process
a lathe equipped with a tool-post grinding attachment. The gradually forms the new cam, with a high degree of accuracy
base circle is reduced a thou. or so at a time in successive if the work is not rushed.
cuts, the cam being partially rotated by hand between the A simple method of generating cams with longer timing is
centres of the grinder or lathe. to cut through an existing cam and rotate one half backwards
To avoid grinding too far in either direction, and thereby in relation to the other by the desired amount, perhaps 8°,
ploughing a hollow into the flanks, it is advisable to deter- then sweat or dowel the halves together with a thin piece
mine beforehand-by rotating the cam in contact with a dial- of steel between them. This filler piece is then filed to
gauge-the points at which the cam-flanks join the base make the contour and to provide a smooth radius at the nose
circle, and to mark these iIi some manner which will not of the cam and the resulting article makes a very satisfactory
subsequently become obliterated. Being dead-hard, it is master for use in a conventional cam-grinder or in the conver-
next to impossible to mark the surface with a scriber. ted tap-grinder just described. It is possible to make up a
The best method is to make up a solution of copper sul- whole family of cams in this way without much trouble, and
~ phate (or " bluestone ") in water and apply it to the cam the scheme eliminates all calculation or guesswork in deter-
surface. Instantly a very thin film of copper will make its mining the correct lift curves.
appearance, and scriber lines will show up on this surface The majority of cams are hardened to a d~pth exceeding
very clearly. .040 in. As there is practically no load on the base circle
A carrier should be attached to the cam spindle and two (unless the tappets are wrongly adjusted, or heavy push-rod
rigid stops rigged up so that the wheel cannot grind beyond return springs are fitted) it is feasible to grind off as much
its allotted area-in fact, it is necessary to run out the cut as .025 in. and still retain sufficient hardness to give satis-
some distance before the' marks are reached, and subse- factory running, if not for an indefinite period at least for
quently to blend the new base circle into the existing flanks long enough to prove the success, or otherwise, of the
by handwork with an oil-stone-an operation requiring no experiment.
little skill to carry out in such a manner that a gentle rise Unless the new contour blends correctly into· the base
is obtained without forming any suspicion of a flat or circle, valve clatter may be caused and, worse still, surpris-
hollow at the new junction of the flanks with the base ingly heavy loads may be generated. The final shape should
circle. be checked with a dial-gauge and a degree-plate attached to
Many workshops are now equipped with tap-grinders the cam-spindle, and supposing .020 in. has been ground off
which form the lead-in portion of the tap with the correct and it is desired to increase the total angle of the cam by
cutting clearance. These machines can be adapted without 20° (10° on each flank), quiet operation will be obtained
much trouble to modify cams and can even be used to grind if the .020-in. rise is split up in the manner suggested on the
on new cams completely from master-cams by fixing a disc, following page.
176 177
Measuring the lift directly.off the cam with a dial-gauge through destroying the accuracy of other dimensions,
does not give necessarily the actual lift which will be imparted although the latter might be restored by grinding after
to the valve, so this should finally be determined by assemb- being built up with hard chrome plating by the " Fescol .,
ling the valve gear and measuring the lift curve off the valve process or kindred methods.
itself. In passing, a good idea of how much flexure exists in It has already been mentioned that altering the cam-
the system can be obtained by first plotting the lift curve with follower radius affects the acceleration rate but not the
a very light temporary spring, and then with the correct timing, and this offers a method of varying the opening
springs; the result is sometimes rather surprising! When diagram without altering the timing or the lift. A curved
running at high speed the difference will be greater still, follower foot, even though it is non-rotating, is moved by the
particularly at the start of lift, because of the valve inertia, cam exactly as if it were a portion of a roller which does
which is, roughly speaking, about equal at peak revs. to the rotate. The lift imparted to the follower is determined by
spring strength. plotting out tb,e path of the centre of curvature of the foot or
axis of the roller, as the case may be.
DIlGREES FROM RISE OF CAM II DEGREES FROM I RISE OF CAM
START OF LIFT IN INCHES START OF LIFT I IN INCHES
1
2
3
"':-1---:-~-~-5 --II 1 I\--r-~-!-- (Right) Plotting the posi-
tions of an imaginary
roller moving around a
4 .005 9 .017 cam will determine the
5 .007 : 10 .020 path of the centre of cur-
vature and, correspond-
ingly, the lift imparted (see \
For quiet' operation, the cam-lift modification sketch below) to the cam
described above sho.uld be graduated. follower. \ ;-_-I-~L--+\__j+-'-(~/-
If this modification is correctly performed, a greater lift . '- -~ / '" 'j-.-/

ROLLE'" OF EQUIVALENT ''''-.
will have been achieved without the necessity for an increase DIAMETE'" TO l ~
in spring-strength. Should the period already be of satis- fOLLOWER FOOT
/
factorily long duration but the lift somewhat inadequate,
the latter can be increased by itself if the base circle is ground
off right up to the marks denoting the original start and
~
i
I: I I
if .:.~
"
IMAGINA"'Y POSITIONS
OF ROLLER MOVING
finish of the flanks, after which a lot of stoning will be
necessary to avoid a sudden and undesirably rapid rate of /
rise at the junction of flank and base circle. The final effect LENGTH Of THESE
will be to reduce the case-depth over the heavily loaded "'. RADIAL LINES GIVE LIFT
flanks and as, in general, stronger springs will be required, \. \./ I '-.1) AT INTERVALS OF S'
subsequently the running life will probably be short. In - \ , /" . ~PATH OF CENTRE OF
some designs it is possible to overcome this defect by re- ~r CURVATURE OF fOOT
hardening the cams, but this may bring about difficulties \.J OR ROLLER
178 179
.Even if the follower is flat, the same statement applies, '-rT r-r-r-
'/16"
as a flat surface can be considered as part of a cylinder with
) ....
an infinitely large radius. The lift curve can be depicted, I.J
I~l
r---r-,.
first by plotting out the rise of the follower-centre as it V 1\

traverses the cam, and then, in effect, straightening out the '/u"
curved line so obtained; this has been done in the accom- I V 1 •.1 1\
I,;,~.
V \
panying graphs (see page 181), which show the effect of / '\.
different follower radii. While the rate of rise or fall is
1"'""1/ I r"-r---"
greater with the larger follower at the start of lift and finish 1
65> 60"" so·' ~o' 30> 10' 10' 6 10' 20" 30' ~' 50' 60' 65'
of the drop (which increases the stresses in the gear at those
times), the accelerations and decelerations near the crest
of the cam are less and higher revs. can be attained with Above is plotted the lift curve of a cam operating the valve
via afollower with ai-ill. radiusfoot. Below is the lift curve
the same strength of spring. The main gain, however, is to provided by the same cam operating via a follower with a
be expected from the increased valve-lift at the vital period i-in. mdillS foot, the shaded area representing the increase
extending for a few degrees before and after t.d.c. in valve opening.
Followers can be ground to shape by hand on an emery-
wheel, using a sheet-steel template previously made to the I 1 ', .. - I
I
l..r
I
desired curvature as a gauge, but care must be taken to see I ~j..o' ~~ 1 I
that the surface is at all points parallel to the axis of the t-H ~~. Ii I I~~
follower-pivot, otherwise highly concentrated loads and IJ '/,,"
rapid wear will ensue. A good method is to make up a
simple swivelling jig, which can be clamped to the machine-
1 •
Ll1l~ j..I I~~
I bfilrV' I I I~~
table and fed in to the required depth. If more than .020
in. is taken off, the follower will definitely require to be re-
casehardened.
I ~~~,. "tnT r~~~
65' 60 SO ~o )0 10 10 '0 10 20 30 ~o SO 60 65'
A factor which must be allowed for when lever followers ot OF CAM
are used is the effect of their angular swing; if the cam is

symmetrical, the effect of the swing will be to make the lift- this effect will be. The distortion of the lift curve varies
curve unsymmetrical and the flatter the follower the greater according to whether the follower is leading or trailing the
cam, and occasionally the effect is turned to good use to
\
obtain a rapid lift and slow drop (or vice-versa) with a
. \ symmetrical cam contour.
r lA~GE "j Varying the radius
of a cam-follower Ir: this volume it is possible to touch on the fringe of the
/ ' T-I'{ADIUS J base circle serves
---r--~-tJ 1 /1 to alter the acceler- subject only. It cannot be emphasized too strongly that
ation rate but not cam .m~dification is a thing not lightly to be undertaken,
/ the overall valve and IS ltkely to do more harm than good unless carried out
timing.
with extreme care and with the aid of good equipment.
180 181
IGNITION TOPICS
is, of course, a modern B.T-H. or Lucas instrument, but

failing these one of the old M;L. models will give excellent
CHAPTER XIV results if properly reconditioned.
Given everything in order in the sparks department, the
magneto can be attached to the motor and, if driven by
IGNITION TOPICS chain, adjusted so that the chain has! in. up-and-down play
in the middle of its run. Turn the engine over several times,
IF there is any doubt about its internal condition, the feeling the chain meanwhile to check if its tension varies.
best plan is to get the magneto overhauled by the makers This will be the case if the chain is worn unevenly, or the
or a reputable specialist in the art. Symptoms such as heavy sprockets are eccentric, or one or both shafts are not dead
sparking at the points, a noticeable grey deposit in the region true. Uneven tension in the magneto drive means that the
of the points which this malady causes, or slackness or tight- ignition timing will be perpetually varied over a small range;
ness of the armature spindle would justify such a course of thus the cause should be discovered and eradicated.
action, since they are indicative of actual or impending If the magneto holding-down bolts pass through slots,
troubles which are beyond the ability of most amateurs to adjustment is effected quite easily, but in other cases (mainly
rectify. When having a magneto tested, particularly if it on o.h.c. engines) where there is no such provision the base
appears to be correct but the engine misfires or just refuses will have to be packed up on steel or brass shims of the same
to run up to speed after a period of running, get the test area as the base and suitably driUed. Owing to the high
conducted after the instrument has been heated up to expansion of aluminium, the chain will usually tighten a
around 100°C. in a stove. This sometimes shows up a little as the engine warms up, and some allowance must be
fault which was not obvious before. made for this; besides wasting power, an overtight chain will
Dead-certain starting, even with fully retarded ignition, is ruin the armature bearing in a very short time.
absolutely essential. The magneto must, therefore, give a Frequently there is little or no provision for preventing
good spark even when just flicked over with the fingers. If it grit entering the slot provided in the chain case to allow for
does not do so, although otherwise in good condition as adjustment. This omission should be rectified by cutting out
regards the points, brushes and slip ring, observe whether a piece of felt large enough to cover the slot and a little
there is an appreciable magnetic resistance to rotation just thicker than the gap between the case and magneto. The
prior to the points opening. If this " armature pull" is weak, felt is slipped over the shaft before assembling the magneto,
it indicates, in conjunction with the poor spark. that re- and is of particular value if racing on sand or dirt is con-
magnetizing is necessary. This is not a usual malady with templated.
modern instruments having cast-in magnets of the" Alnico" Gear-drive magnetos invariably have some form of oil-
type, but it does occur in older patterns and also in flywheel retaining device fitted behind the pinion. This should be
magnetos. '. examined and, if necessary, components such as felt washers,
While not wishing in the slightest degree to cast any which have a limited life, should be renewed. There is
aspersions on them, combined magneto-dynamo instruments a number of 100% efficient proprietary oil-seals on the
are intended primarily for touring purposes. For racing it is market to-day.' They cause only a negligible amount of
best to discard these devices and obtain one of the several friction, and in obstinate cases of oil leakage it may be worth
types of magneto which have been built for the job. The ideal while looking into the matter of fitting one, although this
182 183
TUNING FOR SPEED IGNITION TOPICS
will, in all probability, entail some additional machining 35" advance, will usuaUy start quite well with no method of
operations. If a gear-driven magneto is found to be full of retarding but, if petrol is used, or much more than 35° is
oil, probably the seal surrounding the mainshaft has be- required, the engine may be prone to kick back, and sO
come ineffective, so that cleaning out will be merely a some form of retard control may be essential.
temporary measure. The seal should be renewed; this c.an With the adjustment of the drive correct, and the contact-
be done externally in B.T-H magnetos, but Lucas lQ- breaker points set to the correct gap (.012 in. in the case of
struments must be first dismantled. In this event, make racing instruments), the ignition can be timed in the usual
sure that the new seal is of the type which has a garter manner, making sure that the cam-ring is in the fully
spring to contract it on the shaft, and not one of the early advanced position and that the points are just breaking, with
pattern which does not possess this feature. all ,the slack taken up in the drive. With automatic advance,
There is little else to check in a gear drive unless the wheel it IS also necessary to wedge the device into the fully-
is made of some non-metallic material such as " Tufnol " or advanced position, as this is more accurate than setting at
"Fabroil." In such a case, if any teeth appear to be damaged full retard and trusting that the extra advance will be as
it is advisable to obtain a new wheel, as if one tooth fails stated by the maker!
completely the rest will follow suit very shortly. Owing to The metlfod of using a fiashlamp battery and bulb to
the high expansion rate of these materials the teeth should determine the exact point of breaking is very good, but the
have a perceptible amount of backlash, even when new; time-honoured scheme of inserting a cigarette paper between
also the tips of the teeth must be well clear of the roots in the points and noting when this just comes free has the
the other gear, otherwise an annoying whine, which .will not advantage of being available in almost any circumstances.
cure itself as time goes on, will be set up when runnmg. Whichever method is used should be adhered to regularly-
Racing magnetos are commonly equipped with manual mixing up two schemes is bound to bring in discrepancies.
advance mechanism, but on many sports machines fixed When one finally tightens the magneto drive nut,the spindle
magnetos are used in conjunction with a centrifugal A.T.D. frequently creeps on a little way and thus retards the timing
These are quite satisfactory, but for racing the schem,e ~as a degree or so; it is therefore essential to check the timing,
two disadvantages: one is that the accuracy of the tImmg and, if necessary, to reset it, if some particular" spot on"
cannot be checked when running; the other is that it is not advance is being aimed at. The vernier device used on A.J.S.
possible to drive a rev-counter direct from the magneto
nut, which is one of the accepted methods, because the
power absorbed by the drive, though slight, might prev~nt
full advance being obtained. There are methods by WhiCh The flashlamp
method of
the drive can be taken off the fixed stops on the pinion. checking igni-
allowing the advance mechanism to work freely, but this tion-timing
is rather a matter for personal ingenuity. Some riders referred to.
NOle that the
prefer to lock-up the device by welding together the fixed centre screw
and moving stops after taking out the bob-weights, and must either be
either convert the magneto to hand advance, or use fixed removed or ;n-
su[atedjromthe
ignition. block holding
Engines running on alcohol, and not requiring more than the fixed point.
184 G 185
TUNING FOR SPEED IGNITION TOPICS
Rapid combustion is aided by high compression-pressure,

a clean mixture (the result of good scavenging) and a high
rate of turbulence within the cylinder. All these factors are
present to a greater extent in racing power units than in
touring engines. Matters of detail design, such as the shape
of the combustion chamber, the location of the plug and the
angle of inclination of the inlet port, exert ap. effect and
account for the big differences in timing found in engines
A great aid towards obtaining op~imum .timing of ignitio~1
and valves is provided by a vermer adjustment. Here IS which, to a casual glance, appear to be fairly similar.
the simple but excellent system applied to the magneto As a general rule, if an engine has had its compression
sprockets of certain early A.J.S. models, also to the cam- raised from, say, 6 to 8 to 1 and has been otherwise attended
shaft drive.
to as regards its ports and exhaust system, the ignition point
will need to be brought back by about 5°, and possibly
machines does not suffer from this trouble and provides a more. The spark advance also varies according to the fuel or
very simple method of setting or altering the timing. more accurately according to the flame-rate or speed of com-
On twin-cylinder engines the timing after bei~g set o~ one bustion of the mixture. The rate of burning of methanol is
cylinder must be checked on the other one. It WIll very hkely slow compared to petrol and for this reason requires nearly
be found to be a degree or two different owing to small as much advance at 14 to 1 compression as petrol-benzole
variations or errors in the contact breaker or cam. If the does at its maximum permissible compression ratio in the
error is only slight, the easiest way is to split the difference same engine. But with blended fuels such as Shell 811 or
between the two cylinders; if more serious, careful grinding Shell M. which contain a proportion of petrol and benzole
or oil-stoning of the cam rin.g will effect a cure. On single- yet can be run at over 12 to 1 C.R., the ignition point may
carburetter V-twins the rear cylinder filling is rarely so good be perhaps 4° later. Some representative examples may be
as that of the front one; consequently it will stand a little seen in the table .overleaf. The only way to discover the
more advance and thus a difference between the two timings, best setting-and even an error of lOin either direction
provided it is not more than a degree or so, ~11 n.ot be a will make quite a big difference in a highly tuned engine-is
disadvantage. This does not apply to V-twlllS wIth two by test under power, preferably on a brake, a method of
carburetters, which should take the same advance on both which few amateurs can avail themselves.
"lungs." Vincents, prepared for fast road work, run Failing that, the best method is by road test using a rev.
rather more sweetly low down if any difference is arranged, . counter, the ignition being first set a little on the early side.
give the front cylinder less advance than the rear, rather When the engine is at its maximum revs. in top gear, retard
than vice-versa. the ignition very slightly. If the revs. increase, retard a little
In Chapter XII various makers'. timings are qu~te~. more until the needle begins to fall back again. Then leave
These· should provide a useful gUIde so long as It IS the control in its last position, check the timing, and reset the
appreciated that in many cases they are intended ror use ~ith magneto to give the same timing, but with the lever at full
comparatively slow engines. Broadly speakin~, rac~ng advance. For this test it is best to select a road which is
engines require less, not more, advance than theIr tounng slightly uphill, so that the engine is definitely pulling hard.
counterparts for the following reasons. Another method is to leave the ignition at full advance and
186 187
TUNING FOR SPEED
MODEL FUEL COMPo

RATIO
j
;
IGNmON
ADVANCE
CHAPTER XV
!
B.S.A., B32 Petrol-benzole 9 38t·
Alcohol 13 34!O TWIN-CYLINDER ENGINES
B.S.A., B 34 Petrol-benzole 9 4!W
Alcohol 11 38tO So far as the cylinder 'head and valve gear are con-
NORTON30M Petrol 7.5 37tO
(79.6 x 100 mm.) Petrol-benzole)
cerned there is no fundamental difference between the
7.5 to 10 36· work to be done on a single-, a twin- or even a four-cylinder
or Shell X f
Shell A or 811 12t 34° engine, provided that they all have individual inlet and
NORTON40M Petrol 7.5 37-1° exhaust ports and pipes of equal length. Multi-cylinder
(71X88 mm.) I petrol-benzole} engines built in that way act simply as a collection of
7.5 to 10 36°
, or Shell X singles and will give off power proportionate to the number
I Shell A or 811 13t 34° of cylinders. However, when a single carburetter feeds
NORTON30M Petrol up to 80 9.5 34° more than one cy1inder, the inlet passages are necessarily
(86 x 85.6 rom.) Octane less direct and, therefore, offer more restriction to flow,
NORTON40M Petrol up to 80 9.7 39° whilst slight differences in the manifold shape frequently
(76 x 76.7 rom.) Octane
cause the mixture supplied to one cylinder to be richer than
VINCENT Petrol up to 80 9 38° the other.
Octane
Shell 811 12t 34° If for reasons of cost, or because the race regulations
Shell A 13t 34° demand it, a single carburetter has to be retained, there is
the choice of running one cylinder at correct mixture
strength and the other too lean, or of increasing the jet size
make several runs, altering the contact-breaker gap in stages to make the weak cylinder correct and possibly dropping
by one-sixth of a turn on the points. A good magneto will speed by reason of the other being over-rich. If the difference
fire perfectly between the limits of .010 in. and .014 in. gap is slight, the last-mentioned expedient is the best alternative
measurement. If a notable increase is gained by, say, the as there is less risk of damage to the engine. but it is
wider gap, check the actual timing, then reset the gap to the usually possible to eliminate the trouble by inclining the
correct figure of .012 in. and re-time the magneto to ~he carburetter towards the weak side. For initial experiments, a
same figure. This is about the only satisfactory method with thick gasket of medium-hardness rubber can be fitted and
a fixed magneto or when using an A.T.D . the inclination can be adjusted by tightening the flange bolts
.Unfortunately, though the correct 'advance can be de- more on one side than the other. This enables rapid
termined very accurately by either of these methods, they comparisons to be made in a short period but, when the
cannot be applied until the whole machine is ready for the angle has been established, a solid gasket should be made up
road. In the meantime a fairly accurate estimate can be for permanent use.
made from the maker's figures, taking into account the effects Most parallel twins have a manifold with fairly sharp
of any modifications which have been made to the engine b~nds. forcing the mixture to turn two right-angled corners,
internally. this arrangement having been found to give better all-round
188 189
TUNING FOR SPEED TWIN-CYLINDER ENGINES
rods, but can be for earlier engines with iron heads which
are quite satisfactory on alcohol fuel. The rods in these
engines were of a lighter pattern than those fitted to the
genuine" Grand Prix" engine and it is best to obtain a pair
of the latter type if possible. The change of rods and
pistons will call for some re-balancing and, though the
factory balanCe factor is 62%, some riders find that 70%
gives better results.
Triumph camshafts are driven by wheels which are a tight
Special tools are fit on the shafts and have three keyways for accurate adjust-
necessary to remove or ment of timing. When fitting racing camshafts, the wheels
replace (see clutches
above and below re- are pulled off with a special remover (part number D 178)
spective(v) the cam and forced on again with a replacer (part number DI82),
wheels of Triumph and it is wise to obtain these tools before commencing the
twin-cylinder models.
Similar tools are avail- change-over. TIre sequence of re-assembly is to fit the
able from other crankshaft and camshafts into the drive side, not forgetting
manu!acture,:s.
to place the rotary breather-valve disc and spring in the
inlet cam-bush, then the timing-side case with the usual
precautions for making an oil-tight joint and again not
forgetting the two internal bolts just inside the crankcase
mouth. Assemble the pistons, cylinder block and head in the
normal manner, but fit only the exhaust rocker-box and
push rods with the clearance adjusted to zero so that the
rockers are just free enough to slide sideways.
Replace the key and half-time pinion, fit a timing disc
and pointer, accurately adjusted to t.d.c.; set the crankshaft
at 70° before b.d.c. and rotate the exhaust camshaft
results than one in which the two ports blend together at a forwards until one rocker is just tight enough to resist side
narrow angle close to the carburetter flange. Formaximum movement. Without allowing anything to move, offer up
power, it is of course best to fit two carburetters mounted the camshaft wheel so that one of the three keyways is in
on spacers of the sam~ thickness as the manifold, or possibly line with the key at the same time that the teeth line up with
a little greater. As the head studs and the carburetter bolt those on the intermediate wheel. Pull the wheel into place,
holes do not coincide, a little ingenuity is required in making and rotate the crankshaft backwards until the rocker
tip the spacers if it is not possible to buy them as spares. again becomes tight. This is the closing point and should
Owners of late-model Triumphs are fortunate in that be 52° before t.d.c.
they can purchase a racing kit containing all the necessary Check the figures on the other cylinder and if the discre-
bits and pieces. This is intended for engines supplied as pancy between the two is greater than 4° it should be
standard with aluminium heads and "Grand Prix" type con- equalized by re-positioning the wheel. It is unlikely that
190 191
the exact figures quoted will be realised at all four points As a rule parallel twins utilize forged aluminium rods,
on both cylinders, but aim to obtain the nearest approach, and though those in up-to-1955 Triumphs run direct on
remembering that the exhaust opening point is the least the shaft with white-metalled caps to provide a measure
critical and a degree or two early will make little difference. of safety in the event of lubrication failure, it is usual to
Before worrying too much about minor differences, check employ precision-type thin-wall renewable steel big-end
again with the clearances set to, say, .005 in. The figures will, shells, such as are commonly used on cars. These com-
of course, then be different, but may be more consistent ponents must be handled with care and, in particular, must
between the two cylinders, in which event the difference . not be assembled unless the locating nibs are snug in their
between the figures at zero clearance is not unduly serious. recesses in rod and cap. If the clearance with the bearing
Procedure for timing the inlet valves is exactly the same dry exceeds .003 in. the shells should be renewed; the tempta-
as for the exhaust, after which the rocker-boxes are fitted tion to file the faces of the rod and shells must be firmly
permanently and the clearances set to .002 in. inlet and .004 resisted, as the amount of "nip" or pinch on the shells has
in. exhaust. The ignition timing varies according to fuel been very carefully determined and it is extremely difficult to
and is 42° for petrol or petrol-benzole, or 38° for methanol, maintain the same fit' exactly. In addition, once a rod or
or alcohol-rich, fuels with the appropriate high-compression cap has been filed, replacement shells cannot be fitted
pistons. If alcohol is used with low-compression pistons correctly unless they also are filed, and, thus, the valuable
just for the sake of cooler running then an advance of up to feature of interchangeability is lost.
45° may be necessary. Plain bearings must be given a greater quantity of oil at a
Triumph crankshaft assemblies are built up with the fly- higher pressure than roller-bearings; they are more easily
wheel sandwiched between flanges. This is a very rigid damaged by fine abrasive which embeds itself in the white
construction but, with the main bearings spaced very widely metal and acts as a lapping compound. The greatest care,
apart, flexure is bound to occur to some extent and it is therefore, must be taken to see that every vestige of dirt
prudent to avoid exceeding the maker's recommended is removed from oilways and filters; morever, the efficiency
limit of7,500 r.p.m. When working on an engine of unknown of the oil-feed mechanism to the crankshaft must be checked.
history, get the crankshaft tested for cracks in the region The "Dominator," for instance, has a rubber oil-seal in-
of the junction of crankpin and web and, if any defect is stalled in the timing cover; it fits over an extension of the
found, replace the component. The halves are accurately crankshaft. This cannot be removed without it being
spigotted and dowelled to the flywheel and alignment will be destroyed completely, but it is a simple matter to fit a new
accurate provided cleanliness is observed during the change- one, which is pressed into place with the metal-covered face
over. This precaution should be taken with any make of two- visible.
bearing shaft after a considerable period of use. Matchless and A.J.S. twins employ a three-bearing shaft,
The Norton "Dominator" shaft is of similar three-piece which imparts extra rigidity and permits oil to be supplied
construction and it is wise, when tuning an example which through the centre main bearing, and with little likelihood
has done much road work to dismantle the shaft and clean of over-supply to one big-end at the expense of the other.
out the large cavity which forms a sludge-trap in the centre When working on an early A.M.C. model it is worth con-
of the flywheel assembly. Mark all three components before- sidering changing the original head with small fins to the
hand so that they can be refitted exactly as they were so as to later large-finned pattern, which affords considerably
preserve original accuracy of alignment and balance. greater cooling:area. Similarly several pounds of weight
192 193
Davidsons and Indians from which formidable power can

be wrung.
Dealing first with current J.A.P. engines, the 1,000 c.c.
model, known as the "8.80," is virtually two speedway
singles on a common crankcase, and has cast-iron heads and
barrels with shallow finning and therefore can only be run
on pure methanol, Shell" A" or J.A.P. fuel consisting of
97!% methanol,2% octane and !% Castrol "R." Lubrica-
tion is either on the total-loss system with sight-feed pump,
or on the dry-sump system, according to model; the former
is usually used for pure sprint work and sidecar racing on
speedways, the latter is superior for longer distances, as
some measure of internal cooling is obtained from the oil
circulation. Being designed expressly for speed, this engine
does not call for much work apart from the routine assembly
procedure described in previous chapters.
One major constructional feature is the con-rod arrange-
ment, the rear being forked and the front one plain and
running on needle roller bearings on the outside of the sleeve
which forms the outer race of the main big-end. The two
rods cannot be separated unless the sleeve is pressed out,
and as it has three diameters, it can only be pressed out in
one direction. This scheme is adopted mainly to simplify
assembly as the sleeve can be pushed in by hand for two-
All extellded impressioll ofthe A.J.S.,Matchles~ crallkshaft thirds of the full distance.
layout showillg the camshaft alld celltre bearl1lg support.
A.M.e. Ltd. are ullique ill providillg this desigllfeature. When reassembling, locate the needle rollers in the plain
rod with thick grease or with a dummy disc which can slide
out ahead of the sleeve as the latter is pressed home.
can be saved by fitting the late-pattern aluminium head to The 1,100 c.c. version was designed for use in cars and
an early Norton "Dominator" with a cast-iron head. has alUlninium heads with inserted seats, and aluminium-
There are three examples of V-twins in current use, namely jacketed barrels; though usually used with alcohol fuel at
the 1,100 c.c. and 1,000 C.c. J.A.P; engines, built ex~ressly around 14 to 1 C.R. it can also be run on petrol merely by
for racing, mainly in sprint events, and the 1,000 c.c. Vmcent changing to 7.5 to 1 pistons and tuning the carburetters
in its various guises, "Rapide," "Black Shadow" and to suit. The crankpin has parallel ends and shoulders, in-
"Black Lightning." Additionally, there must ~till be. in stead of the usual J.A.P. tapers, and floating thrust washers,
existence a number of obsolete makes, of deslgn which which must not be omitted, are used to locate the rod
could be well worth working on-in the light of present-day assembly. Similar washers are also used on each side of
knowledge. There are of course also the American Harley- the flywheel assembly and their thickness can be varied if
194 195
necessary to adjust the end-float to the design figure of "Black Shadows" have the same cams as " Rapides, " except
.0lD in. that they are selected to give "long" timings within the
The overhead rockers and also the valve guides are lubri- limits of manufacturing tolerances, and con-rods are
cated by a suction system common to o.h.v. engines of this selected for 65-tons minimum tensile strength and polished.
make; oil-mist, escaping past the rotary release valve which "Black Lightnings" have different cams, 85-ton "Vibrac"
ventilates the crankcase, condenses in a box below the con-rods, and a steel idler wheel is used in some early
timing-case and is drawn thence up small-bore pipes to the examples; larger inlet ports, and of course racing car-
rocker-boxes by virtue of the depression which exists within buretters and a special racing Lucas magneto are used,
the engine. This system only functions if the rocker-covers with fixed timing pinion instead of the A.T.D. used on the
are in place and are reasonably air-tight, so that it is not two touring engines. It will be seen therefore that either of
possible to check the flow of oil to the rockers by inspection these can be "Lightningized" so far as performance goes,
with the covers off. The rotary release valve is driven by without too much expenditure of time or money, and
the rear camshaft at engine speed and must be replaced with without fear of overtaxing the "downstairs" section.
the timing marks in line. In the unlikely event of having to Standard heads have It in. inlet ports which can be
renew the bronze bush, this must be fitted with the slot opened out to any size up to 1-& in. according to the size
vertically downwards so that the valve actually closes when of carburetters to be used-Iii- in. T.T.IO Amals are the
the crankpin isa few degrees past its lowest position in the usual choice, for which a pair of flanged adaptors, part Nos.
crankcase, or about 300 after rear cylinder b.d.c. The tim- ET32/6 and ET 32/7, are required. The ports can be enlarged
ing can be verified by inserting a piece of wire into the on the lines described previously, taking care not to go
outlet pipe after removing the screwed plug in the bottom of through into the rocker box. As the guide is very short, it
the oil-box. The two rocker-oil pipes projecting into this is not advisable to cut it off, and a streamlined boss leading
compartment clear the flQor by s1z in.; this dimension is to the guide must be left to avoid cutting through into the
important and must not be altered. recess in which the guide lock-ring is screwed. When
The duplex pump controls both the pressure and scavenge ultimate in power output is desired, obtain another front
oil supplies, the latter being drawn from the sump by an head and a pair of In- in. carburetters if you can' manage
external pipe. The slightest air-leak in this suction line will to do so, though very good results can be achieved with
impair the scavenging much more than one would think, and 32 mm. carburetters. The reason for using a front head on
it is vital to make sure thatthe unions are seating properly the rear cylinder is that as the port is not positioned on
and that the nuts are undamaged, otherwise the engine wHl the same side as the rocker box, it 610 be opened up to 1t
be sluggish and prone to oil the rear plug. in. diameter.
As two magnetos are fitted, each cylinder can be timed These engines are very suitable, for short sprint work such
individually. The recommended figure is 360 for the 1,100 as speedway sidecar racing, and quite good results can be
c.c. engine and 340 for the smaller one both at a 14 to obtained by retaining the standard port size and using
1 C.R. ordinary~ 1t type 29 carburetters as fitted to the "Black
The three versions of the Vincent unit are basically the Shadow," but suitably modified for alcohol fuel. "Black
same; crankcase, flywheels, barrels and timing gear are Shadow" adaptors, which are bronze, are also required, as
identical, except for the cams, and so are the heads and valve the standard aluminium ones are rat1:ter too thin for safety
gear, except for the port shapes and polishing of the rockers. when opened up to suit the larger carburetters. Inlet valves
196 197
with the heads ·1 lin.-larger than the standard Ii in.- .062 in. thick may be used, or a small amount-not more
-diameter can safely be installed and the seat-ring tapered to than .?30 in.:-may be turned off the jacket, though. generally
-suit; it "is, in fact, preferable to do this rather than 10 fit new speaking, this should be avoided. There is not much free
seat-rings if the latter are badly worn. length on the rocker adjusters, neither is there much room
The inner valve guides are normally of aluminium bronze between the head of the adjuster and the inside of the
·and held in place with lock-rings. When alcohol fuel and rocker inspection cap at full lift, and damage to the valve
castor-base oil are used, guide-wear may be excessive due to gear will result if the adjuster cannot lift freely which will
lubricant being washed out by the fuel and cast-iron guides be the case if the barrels are shortened excessivel;. However,
may be a better proposition. Their reduced heat ~on the pushrods are easily shortened by grinding up to .030 in.
ductivity is not a detriment owing to the cool running nature off either, or both, ends, and, if necessary, new ones can be
. of the fuel. A special tool is required to remove the lock- made from ~ in. silver steel, with the ball-ends hardened
rings, which only need firm pressure when being replaced, simply by heating them to redness and plunging into water.
but must be retained by punch-dots at two points other than Apart from polishing, do not endeavour to lighten the rockers •
-opposite the slots. "Black Lightning" cams have about more will be lost in flexure than will be gained by th~
.040 in. more lift than standard cams and, unless the seats reduction in weight.
have :sunk considerably, the guides must be shortened by The rocker spindles are .497 in. in diameter and, if one
•050 in. to avoid any· chance of the collar contacting the loosens in the rocker, it is often possible to fit a .500 in.
guide. This job can be done in situ with a spot-facing tOQl gudgeon pin shortened to suit, or else use a piece of
cutting the guides back until there is "* in. space between
the guide ·and the step on the valve stem. Do not use an
hardened silver .steel which is simply driven into place,
though, naturally, the rocker-bearing bore must be reamed
ordinary drill for -the work, as the countersink which it will
form in the bore acts as .an oil~collector and plug-.oiling.may
result. I---~--"'''/..' .± '/"""-I ---11 DEAD SMOOTH FINISH
_ _-r-_ON ROLLEjI. .RACKS
Six types of piston are available, ,giving ra.tios between 6.8
.765' 2.215" .093" MAX., .
and Ui .to:1. The latter ratio can :be used with Shell "M," .750" ----1.218': i--:OBo- MIN., GROUND FILLET
.but Shell 811 gives slightly more .power. Although the ./.... Ii 2 CROSS HOLE$" I .~.r 'of
T---+--r--.-~~_
difference in weight ,between the extremes in the range.is
,over 3 ounces thechange~over causes noperceptable rough-
ness up to t6,800r.p.m., .and, therefore, the motor can be
.changed from petrol to alcohol without beingre-balanced. ~ 15·. i .
Although the ring equipment is apparently :the same, the SCREW 7/ ur--1·-.
'040"
I .....L--+.""'/~".I-"""
: ' SCREW. '/," X 20 T;";;.P:O.I•
U:t:t1J
1'/." 020" R ,. ~
·.compression :rings in pistons E 7/9, 10 and 11, which are X 20 T.P.!., • • ! ROCKWELL HARDNESS;. • ~
the three highest, are of thicker radial depth than those in .'. • C60-G2 ON 1.500" 0 .. DRILL./>
HOLD THESE!.~ '/,'
E 7/6, 7 and 8,and, while iUs possible but not advisable WIDTHS CLOSELY' MATERIAL 3% C.H. NICKEL STEEL
to use standard rings in the racing pistons, it is fatal to use CASEI-iARDEN .O·W DEPTH ON ,1:500' AND 1.57"'- DIAS.
THREADS TO BE SOFT
thick .rings in standard pistons astheyTproject above the
:ring lands. The oil ring, however, is jdentical. Details of a modified crallkpill suitable for use ill a 1,000 c.c.
For adjusting the compression ratio, base washers up to . Villcellt ellgille.
198 199
rr~6r 003" As the big-end oil is fed into an annular space, the oil
L .' ..
.952" .570" CENTRAL. WITHIN. '- supply cannot be cut off by incorrect assembly, but the two
...'1-.( O:;!:lAl1fE~' oil holes leading to the rollers should be placed at a three
ON ALL CORN:E:R~S_:..~~~ 1 o'clock position looking towards the drive side. If placed
at 12 o'clock, the additional oil pressure created by
J i::tJ,7
M
1.575" -1-+--,;--;- 1.810" • centrifugal force causes almost all the oil to pass out through
;'/,,;' . L5 77" .8 • 1.815" I
the first hole, thus starving the drive-side big-end .
I
I
I L =
I I
t
=~-1J-8-E:-:Q~U~AL:-:-L::-Y'-:S::;PA:::CED SLOTS
In the timing-gear department, the front exhaust cam-
spindle should be locked, after fully tightening, by angle-
'f---!11'"'1' ~ ~ EXACTLY PARALLEL TO <t drilling a small hole from the end of the slot in the head back
~::::J
}"-o. -x 'Ill"
.S70"
SLOT LENGTH
TO. FIT x 'i,,~ '/;~"
.ROLLERS towards the camshaft and fitting therein a split-pin. Worn
WOODRUFF CUTTER cam followers can be trued by grinding or oil stoning, but
ALfERNA'TIVe METHOD OF FORMING SLOTS MATERIAL-WROUGHT ALUMINIUM H the face must be kept parallel with the hole. Care must be
BEFORE FINISHING TO SJ.ZE. .
taken to note the positions of all the thin hardened washers
behind the steady-plate and to replace them in exactly the
Dimensions a/the MSS-type bearing cage• a/which are .used .tw.0 same order. The lowest hole in the plate is purposely made a
itl conjunction with the modified crankplll Illustrated earlier.
loose fit on the idler wheel spindle to allow for adjustment, but
it is best to cut a strip of soft aluminium as wide as the plate
out to suit beforehand. Looseness of the rocker-bearing in thickness and ~ in. thick, wrap it into a circle round a 1«- in.
the head is of no consequence so far as speed is concerned. bar and pull· it into position in the steady plate with the
In the crankcase section, the standard big-end bearing with idler-spindle nut. This holds the outer end of the spindle
three rows of 3 mm. by 5 mm. rollers works satisfactorily positively in position, the soft bush being able to flow some-
for a long period if revs are .kept below 5,800, but prolonged what to accommodate itself to any slight eccentricity of the
work above that speed shortens its life, so also does racing hole and spindle.
the engine from cold before the oil has a chance to warm up Better crankcase ventilation is obtained by filing straight
and circulate freely. If genuine spares cannot be obtained, a across the breather-valve sleeve until the slot is fully i in.
very satisfactory big-end can be made by making a new ~in wide, then rounding the outer edges of the flat so that the
18 ftr in. by *
as per the diagram, using two MSS Velocette cages. ~Ith
in. rollers in each. Four of the ongmal
roller spacers must be ground down to .078 i~. thicknessa~d
outgoing air has a clearer passage; the edges of the slot
should be left sharp to act as oil scrapers. Replacing the
external banjo and pipe with a straight union and a large-bore
placed one each side of the cages to centrahze them, whIle
pipe running upwards and rearwards also helps ventilation.
the original sleeves which. are har,d all through can be. ground Cams and camwheels are press-fitted together and are
out without moving them froIn the rods to 1.875m. The regarded by the factory as inseparable units. Consequently,
MSS cages must be bored out to slip neatly over the shoulders "Black Lightning" cams are only supplied with the wheels
of the pins but, if these components are not available, cages attached, but· it is possible to change cams and wheels
may be made up. Their width should be .950 in. so that the provided that the interference fit is between .001 in. and
steel spacers can be omitted altogether, although, of course, .002 in., otherwise either the wheel may slip or itmaycrack
the centrat'distance-piece must be retained.
through overtightness. All cams are ground in relation to
200 201
the slot in the end-face, which must be placed in correct Before replacing the timing cover. see that all four of the
relationship to the marked teeth. This can be accomplished synthetic rubber seals are in place in the recesses provided,
by scribing lines on both the faces of each gear, and and in no circumstances omit to fill the filter chamber with
accurately lining up the new cams with the lines before the correct oil before fitting the banjo plug in the cover.
pressing them home level with the face of the gear. There Failure to observe this precaution may lead to damage
are timing dots on both gear-wheel faces, so be careful to occurring in the time lag before the pump fills the-chamber.
place each gear on the same way as it was originally; t~e In final assembly, verify that all shock-absorber springs
timing should then be correct when all the gears are agam are nestled in the recesses in the spring plate and then get
assembled to the marks. the mainshaft nut really tight. The hexagon size is t-in.
A rev. counter cannot be driven from the magneto-pinion Whitworth (the same as the crankpin nuts), and an S.A.E.
nut satisfactorily, partly because it is a clockwise magneto spanner 1-.& in. across fiats also fits. The tube spanner in the
and the nut would tend to unscrew, and partly because the kit is inadequate for the job, which requires a solid steel
automatic advance would not operate correctly. It is box or ring spanner.
possible to devise a component which fits loosely over the The best scheme is to hold the crank assembly with a
A.T.n. and is driven from the fixed stops on the fibre i-in. bar through one small-end eye; in any case it is always
pinion. but the better scheme is to obtain a fixed pini~n.,as advisable to tighten up the shock-absorber assembly before
used on the "Black Lightning." together with the dnvmg reassembling the cylinders, so being able to verify that all
dog and special magneto pinion cover. . is correct down below, and to measure the centrality of the
Strictly speaking, the magneto should be conve~ted ~o small-ends in the crankcase bores. The foregoing notes
manual advance, but with high-alcohol fuel the engme Wlll are in the nature of underlining some features of this power
start at the full advance of 34° at a 121 to 1 C.R. unit which are a little unusual to those not familiar with its
. As there is no provision for measuring tappet clearance construction, and must be read in the light of what has been
the method adopted for checking valve timing is to attach said elsewhere in this volume.
a dial indicator to one head stud and screw the tappet
adjusters down until the valve is just lifted from its seat by
c Twin-cylinder Carburation
.002 in. to .003 in., the exact amount being immaterial as it
merely serves to take up all backlash. Re-set the dial gauge Mention has been made already of the advisability of
to zero and turn the engine until the valve is lifted a further using separate carburetters on a vertical twin, and the need
..005 in.-this is important. The point at which this lift is even greater on a V-twin since It is virtually impossible
occurs is taken as the opening or closing point of the valve to obtain equality of mixture with a single carburetter
according to whether the valve is lifting or dropping, and owing to the unequal periods between induction strokes. A
all the points so obtained should agree with those quot~d duplex instrument with a separate choke for each cylinder,
in the Table in Chapter XII. If there is an average dIS- or preferably two individual carburetters, should be fitted.
crepancy of more than 4° between the two cylin~ers. an~ When experimenting with two carburetters on a V-twin
there is still a discrepancy when re-checked at .010 m. lift, It it may be necessary to use different forms of instrument on
may be necessary to re-fit one of the two camwheels; the the front and rear cylinders, in which case the main jets,
timing as a whole can of course be set by re-positioning the throttle slides and needle positions are almost certain to be
half-time pinion on anyone of its five keyways. different. As an example a horizontal 1Ttr in. carburetter was
202 203
used on the front cylinder of the pre-war Vincent-H.R.D. using horizontal mixing chambers because the main jet is
"Rapide," with a 6/3 slide and 180 jet, whereas the rear not fully submerged and the mixture strength, therefore, is
carburetter was of the same size but had a vertical mixing very affected by fuel-level. For that reason, post-war
chamber, a 6/4 slide and 170 jet. For racing 11 in. instru- Vincents were designed to use carburetters with vertical
ments could be fitted with slides and jets to suit. mixing chambers, although the example which first raised
Generally speaking, on special layouts it is best to avoid the American record to over 150 m.p.h. had both its car-
buretters bolted straight on to the heads with the mixing
chambers only 10° from horizontal, which was just sufficient
'I'"~ GROOVE TO TAKE
DRILL 'h" DIA. 1 CABLES SIDE BY SIDE 1,. to bring the main jets below the fuel-level and ensure a
FOR SPECIAL NIPPLE t -j ~/t tJ stable mixture.
11ALMOST
1 CABL; H. OLEoS ~
TOUCHING ,
The usual method of operating two carburetters is by
EACH OTHER I means of a single wire from the twist-grip to a junction
SPECIAL :1 CABLE NIPPLE box, from which separate wires run to each throttle. This
system sometimes causes the grip operation to be rather
heavy and some riders are persuaded to shorten the throttle
springs as the easiest way out. This is a bad idea because, if
the slides do not cJose properly, erratic tick-over results.
Pay attention to the run of the wires, leaving off all clips
BORE .1:0 FIT GRIP SLEEVe- -•.- so that the wires can adopt their natural position. This usu-
ally effects a cure, but the best method is to obtain a dual-
OUTSIDE DIAMETER AS ORIGINAL GRIP cable twist-grip or modify the existing one to take two
FLANGES TO BE CUT. AWAY ALSO A$
ORIGINAL GRIP wires.
It is essential to adjust each control so that both cylinders
accelerate absolutely in unison. The best method with
~ i"-1 1 HOLE~ FOR CAB~ES standard Amals is first to slacken both cables and set the
AS EXISTING"~-
CABLE ST01
- -tm---,
~
tick-over on each cylinder by means of the throttle stops
and pilot screws until even running is obtained. Next set
the cable adjusters so that the slightest grip movement
causes a rise in engine speed with. each cylinder firing
-l i" t- 2 SLOTS CUT ON ANGLE
equally.
i" L.:EC. / 'HOWN '0' CAm,

If with both slides apparently moving simultaneously,
firing is still uneven, try the effect of closing each air lever
in turn. If, say, one cylinder is missing or does not fire at
all yet cuts in when its air control is closed, less cut-away is
I cr::=J required on the throttle slide. In border-line cases, an
enriching of the pilot mixture may help the offending
Conversion kit necessary to adapt a standard Arnal twist-grip cylinder to come off the pilot at the expense of slightly
assembly for dual carburel1er control. erratic slow-running. It is, of course, essential to have an
204 205
TUNING FOR SPEBD
individual air control to each cylinder; by intelligent use of
that control equal carburation can be obtained throughout
the entire range. CHAPTER XVI
As there are no throttle-stops on racing-type carbur-
etters, this system cannot be used; the idling speed can only TWO-STROKE ENGINES
be adjusted by varying the cable lengths but, if cut-aways
on both slides are equal it is essential to verify that they both TWO-STROKE engines differ fundamentally from four-strokes
disappear simultaneously at the tops of the choke as the insofar as the charge is not induced directly into the
grip is opened, otherwise acceleration will not be good. If cylinder, but is transferred to it from the erankcase, or
there is a big difference it will be necessary to check for air from a separate pump which may be either a rotary
leaks or fuel blockage which may have affected the idling blower or a cylinder-and-piston mechanism. Either of the
speed. Incidentally, it is quite useless to attempt to adjust two last-mentioned devices are permissible for record-
the idling setting on one cylinder only with the other cut breaking but, under the rule that prohibits the use of super-
out by shorting the plug. The amount of throttle required chargers in road-racing, an auxiliary pump which has a
to pull the engine round with only one lung operating is so greater swept volume than that of the cylinder is definitely
much greater than with both in action that the scheme gets "out" and so are additional pumping pistons which act to
you nowhere. increase the volume drawn into the crankcase.
. Accuracy of the main jet settings must be verified finally Of recent years, therefore, the tendency has been to dis-
by the appearance of the plugs, in exactly the same way as card supercharged, or augmented-induction, designs which
for a single-cylinder machine. were in vogue before 1939 and to concentrate on the much
simpler forms, relying solely upon straightforward crank-
case compression such as are commonly used for touring
work. Some really amazing results have been achieved by
working upon these engines, speeds of 85 m.p.h. and over
being obtained by private owners from 125 C.c. B.S.A.
U Bantams" without recourse to fuels such as nitrobetlzine.
and good results can also be obtained from Villiers engines,
which are used in the Dutch Eysink machines, and the more
complex but still relatively simple split-single E.M.C. and
Puch designs.
The basic line of development remains the same as for the
four-stroke, namely to get the maximum quantity of fresh
charge into the cylinder at the highest possible r.p.m., but
it is more difficult to carry out because there are two sources
of loss in volumetric efficiency-one in getting the fresh
mixture into the crankcase and the other in transferring it
to the cylinder. Consequently every endeavour must be
made to reduce any losses in breathing ability to a minimum.
206 207
TWO-STROKE ENGINES
TUNING FOR SPEED
Dealing with the crankcase first, the initial step is to used over a limited speed range to augment the ramming
reduce the clearance space within it as much as possible by effect very considerably. Whether the problem is amenable
using disc flywheels or by building up existing flywheels or to calculation with any accuracy is rather doubtful because
crankwe bs until they almost fill the surrounding space and of the number of variables involved, so the solution is best
only just clear the connecting rod. This procedure may arrived at by trial and error.
introduce some problems of balancing which may have to Widening the port around the circumference is quite
be solved later, but, at the outset, filling must be done in the permissible and has little adverse effect because the piston-
lightest fashion either by using magnesium blocks or by rings do not usually traverse this port, and naturally all the
sheet metal work, though in the latter case all joints com- interior surfaces must blend well into each other and be
municating with cavities must be air-tight, otherwise the value polished. Provided that one is prepared to sacrifice low-
of the scheme is largely lost. There must however be some speed torque, relatively enormous carburetters can be used;
clearance between moving and stationary surfaces. A 1i in. or I,\- in. type 29 Amals give very good results, and
certain amount of gas movement takes place therein,' so it are less expensive than the R.N. or T.T. patterns.
is advisable to' polish both the flywheel assembly and the From the crankcase, the gas, after compression, enters the
whole interior of the crankcase to assist this movement. cylinder through the transfer ports, and the angle of entry of
When, as is usual, the inlet port is controlled by the these into the cylinder is of great importance in all flat-top
piston skirt, the time available for induction is extremely piston designs. The early versions used two opposed
short, less than 1/300 sec. at 6,000 r.p.m., which can be exhaust ports and four transfer ports, the latter being so
considered a comparatively low speed for this type of arranged that the streams of gas from each impinged at the
engine in highly-tuned form. The ability of the port to pass centre-line and deflected each other up towards the top of
gas depends upon its "time-area integral"; that is the the cylinder whence they curled downwards towards the
combination of the area open at any given instant and the exhaust ports. In later versions with only a single exhaust
total amount of time elapsing between opening and closing port there are only two transfer ports, which direct the fresh
points. Widening the port around the circumference gives gas across the piston crown almost in the opposite direction
a greater area, without altering the timing; deepening the to the outgoing exhaust gas. The streams then combine,
port increases both the area and the time of opening, but travel upwards towards the head and then downwards
must be done with great care, because the effective com- towards the exhaust ports, the principle being referred to
pression stroke of the piston in relation to the crankcase as loop-scavenging.
does not commence until the inlet port closes, unless the The angles of the entering gas streams are most important
induction tract is of such a length that an appreciable to obtain best scavenging with least loss of fresh charge out
ramming effect is generated by the fast-moving column of through the exhaust port and, though the ports can with
gas. To some extent, this ramming action is always present, advantage be enlarged a little, this process is best done in
but unless it comes at the right time, which is just towards stages. In some designs, small cover-plates are provided
the latter end of the closing period, it will be of little assist- through which access to the ports can be obtained but in
ance. Actually, the combination of the crankcase and others the casting is solid. In the case of the latter it is
induction pipe (including the carburetter) constitutes a possible to build up around the elbow of the transfer passage
resonant system equivalent to a closed vessel with extension with bronze, then machine the surface off level and break
pipe and has a natural vibration frequency which can be into the passage. The holes can finally be closed by fitting
208 209
TUNING FOR SPEED TWO-STROKE ENGINES
screwed-on cover-plates with internal extensions shaped to to 4,000 ft. per sec. may be attained in a short exhaust
conform exactly to the interior contour. Any obstruction system with a rapid discharge of high-pressure gas through
to gas-flow in this region is extremely detrimental, so that piston-controlled ports. This factor alone would make
the whole of the transfer passages must be smoothed off and calculation of suitable exhaust-pipe length difficult, to say
particular care taken to improve the entry into them from the least, and that factor, in conjunction with the other
the crankcase by rounding off all sharp comers. variables, accounts for the wide diversity of systems in use.
Exhaust ports in touring engines are usually made with The Lambretta, for instance, has, in effect, a curved mega-
the top edge inclined or angular; this gives a gradual phone which starts right at the port and widens to about
opening and, by taking some of the "crack" out of the 4 in. diameter in 16 in. length, whereas the Eysink Villiers
exhaust noise, simplifies the silencing problem to some has two pipes, of more normal length, exhausting into fish-
extent. The inclined edge gives the rings an easier passage tailed expansion boxes. B.S.A." Bantams" operate well
as they pass over it on the upward stroke. For racing, it is with a It in. pipe about 20 in. long, but for r.p.m. in excess
desirable to obtain the quickest possible rate of opening of 8,000 the pipe can be shortened to about 10 in. if the
in order to make use of what is termed the" Kadenacy regulations will permit a system of that length.
effect." Kadenacy discovered that, if the ports are large The functioning of a two-stroke exhaust is more complex
enough and are opened with sufficient rapidity, escaping gas than that of a four-stroke; it must first assist in evacuating
rushes out with such vim that the cylinder pressure drops the cylinder rapidly and in so doing is almost bound to draw
several pounds below that of atmosphere, and, by adding an a certain amount of freSh charge out through the port. By
exhaust pipe of the appropriate length, fresh gas is drawn correctly proportioning the exhaust system, this charge can
into the cylinder through inlet ports even without the aid of not only be retained in the pipe but can be rammed back
crankca~e compression or an external blower. In fact, one into the cylinder by a wave of positive pressure arriving at
industrial engine, the Petter "Harmonic," after being the port towards the end of its closing period. Conversely,
started on crankcase compression, is run thereafter purely if the system is incorrect or the relationship of the transfer
on air induced through the agency of tuned exhaust and and exhaust closing points is wrong, a considerable portion
intake pipes. This engine, being a Diesel, operates all the of the charge may be lost irretrievably. Poor power devel-
.time with a full air supply to the cylinder and is thus not opment with a high fuel consumption and the strong smell
directly comparable with the carburetter-type engines under of unburnt fuel in the exhaust are all signs that serious
discussion, but it is mentioned to indicate the great influence charge-loss is taking place. If the work is being conducted
and importance of the exhaust system. under laboratory conditions, an Orsatt gas analyser is an
During the period of port-opening we have a cylinder, invaluable instrument for determining charge-loss as, by
with its capacity continually varying as the piston moves its use, an accurate measurement of the amount of free
towards b.d.c., connected by an orifice (the exhaust port), oxygen in the exhaust is obtained. There is bound to be
also of varying area, to an exhaust pipe, which is the only some free oxygen, up to perhaps 2%, due to combustion
non-variable item in the system. As a further complication, not being absolutely complete, but anything above this
the natural frequency of any system depends upon the speed figure (provided the mixture is correct) represents an actual
of sound in the gas contained in it, and though it is usual charge-loss of five times the amount of excess, because, of
to take 1,500 ft. per sec. as being a reasonably close figure course, only! of the atmosphere is oxygen. With the aid of
for a normal four-stroke engine, sound-wave velocities of up the Orsatt device, therefore, the effect of port- or exhaust-
210 211
pipe modifications can be determined quickly. But without stroke. Consequently the heat-loss to the walls is high, yet a
it, recourse must be had to the time-honoured "cut-and- large part of their area is occupied with ports which cause
try" method which, fortunately, is not too difficult or costly unequal temperatures and local distortion. Some riders go
with a small single-cylinder engine. to the trouble of turning off the fins above the ports and
A general scheme which has possibilities is to raise the shrinking on a finned aluminium jacket, but this does not
upper edge of the inlet port until it is t in. or so higher than really get down to the root of the matter and it is doubtful
the edge of the piston crown at b.d.c.,. so placing the if it is worth doing on an engine used on road circuits where
carburetter in direct communication with the cylinder for a the greater cooling required by the increase in power is
few degrees of crank-travel when the exhaust port is almost automatically supplied by the increase in air-speed.
fully open. The reduction of cylinder pressure which comes Cylinder-heads with larger fins and a smaller combustion
about by the Kadenacy effect then causes fresh mixture to be space giving compression ratios of about 12 to 1 are be-
induced through the inlet port at the same time that the coming commercially available for B.S.A. "Bantams";
normal supply is being fed into the cylinder via the transfer as the pattern-work is relatively easy these are not difficult
ports. There will be no supercharging created thereby, but a to make, though trouble with cracking round the plug-boss
gain in power will result because of improved scavenging may be experienced unless the material is good. Heat-treated
of the residual exhaust products. This device is essentially Y -alloy or R.R.53 will be perfectly satisfactory. In designing
one which will work well only over a limited speed range such a head it is easy to obtain an impressive appearance
and may result in very poor power output at other speeds. without much gain in cooling; to be of real value, fins must
When modifying port heights, the simplest method for spring directly from the actual metal around the combustion
trial purposes is to alter the cut-off edges of the piston instead space, there being little or no virtue in putting a fin on a fin.
of altering the barrel. The effect is not exactly similar be- The old Villiers system of radially-disposed fins is excellent
cause whilst the port timing is altered the actual area is not, as the positioning of the fins is good and the air-stream has a
but it will at least give an -indication, and if a mistake is clear path past each one, which is not always the case with
made, it is cheaper to replace a piston than to start all over deep parallel fins.
again with another barrel. One of the most exasperating Flywheel magnetos appear to be able to run satisfactorily
things about two-strokes is the difficulty of duplicating at any speed which can be got out of the engine but some
results; two barrels with ports which appear to be identical experimenters prefer to utilize a 180° twin-cylinder magneto,
will rarely give equal power, possibly because small differ- running at half-engine speed with both leads going to one
ences in port contour, which are difficult to measure, create plug, which is standard practice on the E.M.C.-Puch, or
differences in the direction of gas-flow and modify the with each lead going to its own plug in a special two-plug
degree of scavenging to a much greater extent than might be head, a scheme which gives the plugs an easier life. The
expected. The moral of this is that if you do get a good reason for using a half-speed magneto is simply to reduce
barrel, look after. it; do not think that all you have to stresses· in the instrument, as a normal magneto is not
do when the experimental one is worn out is make another ordinarily called on to run at more than 4,000 r.p.m. It is
which looks the same. essential, however, to have the magneto checked electrically
One of the difficulties with a two-stroke is cooling; the to verify that the sparks do occur precisely at 180°, otherwise
cylinder does not have the benefit of the idle inlet stroke, nor correct ignition cannot be obtained as a one-degree varia-
is the fuel vaporized actually in the cylinder as in a four- tion on the magneto means 2° variation on the engine.
212 213
TUNING FOR .SPEED TWO-STROKE ENGINES
It is general practice to use uncaged roller big-ends, there make to make. The system common to all modem Villiers
'being insufficient lubrication to permit the use of cages. In engines consists of flanged bronze bushes which are a sliding
:some Villiers engines, the steel rollers are alternated with fit in the crankcase and have a slight clearance on the shafts.
bronze rollers of slightly smaller diameter, the idea heing that The flanges are pressed lightly against the crankcase by
-the bronze rollers do not carry any load but merely separate star-washers; none of these parts can be examined unless
'the steel rollers and rotate backwards; other models use the the case is heated and the bearing tapped out but they give
.conventional crowded-row system. The big-end assembly of little trouble unless the engine has been run with loose main
tbe B.S.A. was enlarged in 1954 and the later pattern should bearings. .
;be used as a replacement on early models. On B.S.A. "Bantam" engines there is a number of shims
Interference-fit crank-pins without retaining nuts are arid one collar on the mainshafts; these must be replaced
-commonly employed and can be assembled either in a press in exactly the same order; so their initial position should be
·or a stout vice with parallel jaws. As there is some loss of remembered.
interference-fit caused by removal and refitting, the replace- Mention was made in an earlie~' chapter of the necessity
ment pins should be .001 in. larger than .the originals. for accuracy of fit of two-stroke pistons, which have to be
Villiers spares are supplied as .standard with this amount reasonably gas-tight on the skirt and must not run with
Jof oversize. Greatcaremust betaken to start the pin squarely excessive clearance. One line of attack is to fit the piston
in the hole to avoid any chance of damaging 'the surface, deliberately a little on the tight side, and give the motor a
,.and a piece of.-shim steel.OlO in. thick should be interposed short burst on full throttle after sufficient running to warm
between the rod and one crank-web to limit the final position everything up thoroughly. Then strip down and very care-
-of the crank-web ;and provide the necessary amount of side fully e'ase off piston areas on which excessive pressure is
.clearance. For finally truing-up the shafts, the easiest way evident; a fairly rough file is better than a smooth one for
us to holdtheassembly in one hand and knock one crank-web this work, as the file marks act as oil reservoirs and may save
'in the required 'direction with a copper hammer; this is more a bad seizure. This process should be repeated several times
.effective with small assemblies than the "bumping" method until the motor will hold full throttle for a
,employed with much heavier four-stroke flywheels. couple of miles with no sign of tightening.
Although seemingly simple, the design of a twin two-stroke It is useless attempting to run-in a two-
..crankshaft is .not easy, because of the necessity to provide a stroke piston by covering a long distance at
~sealed bearing between the crank chambers. On the part-throttle openings; it is almost bound to
Exce1sior"Talisman" the right·.handassembly is built up seize the first time it is given a prolonged
, and fitted to the case; one-half of the left-band assembly burst at full bore, because the temperature
'follows and the central retaining nut fully tightened. Then
. the con-rod is fitted to this assembly and the last crank-web
is placed in position. To facilitate this part of the work,
A step in the crankcase-transfer
"the crank-pin is not a very tight fit in the web, the necessary port joint hinders gas-ftow
,rigidity being provided by supporting the main-shaft in two and, therefore, impairs per-
:rrelatively widely-spaced bearings. formance.
Crankcase ;pumping efficiency depends largely upon the
~seals provided at the main bearings, and which vary from
214 215
TUNING FOR SPEED
distribution and, consequently, the shapes and dimensions

of piston and barrel are then quite different from what
they were during the light-load running period.
When using alcohol fuel, Castrol "R" or a similar type of
lubricant must be used because it is soluble in the fuel,
whereas mineral oil is not. The proportion of fuel to oil
should be raised from the usual 16 or 20 to 1, to about 10 to 1,
at which strength a continuous faint blue haze will be visible
from the exhaust. For distance racing, where full throttle is
held for long stretches, an auxiliary drip-feed from a gravity
tank could be arranged to supply oil into the carburetter
intake, the feed being put into action either by a separate
control or by utilizing the last part of the throttle cable travel
in some manner which the reader can puzzle out for him-
self!
The foregoing is essentially of a general nature. Specific
data regarding the B.S.A. "Bantam" was the subject of
"Speed from a Two-Stroke," a two-part article featured in
Motor Cycling in 1954, at a time when the revision of this
book was being prepared, and I noted then that the writer,
A. E. Rose, imparted considerable wisdom. Some of his
text overlaps, or enlarges upon, my own remarks earlier
in this chapter but, for the -benefit of" Bantam" owners, it
will stand repetition. Mr. Rose advised noting carefully the
crankshaft angles at which the ports open and close on
standard "Bantams." They are as follows:
Exhaust opens 70° b.b.d.c.

Transfer ports open 60° b.b.d.c.
Exhaust fully open 10° b.b.d.c.
Transfer ports fully open 10° b.b.d.c.
Transfer ports close 60° a.h.d.c.
Exhaust closes
, 70° a.b.d.c.
Opening period slightly later on recent engines.

The carburetter inlet aperture has a V-notch at the bottom.
and for this port the timings are:
216 H 217
TUNING FOR SPEED
TWO-STROKE ENGINES
Closes t6 bottom of rectangle 50° a.t.d.c. (130 0
(4) Layshaft sliding pinion (C.R.) 25-t. Part No. 90-449.
b.b.d.c.)
Closes to bottom of V-notch 60° a.t.d.c. (120° b.b.d.c.) (5) !:thaft gear-meshes with (1)-28-t. Part No. 90-
Opens to bottom of V-notch 60 0 b.t.d.c. (120° a.b.d.c.)
Opens to bottom of rectangle 50° b.t.d.c. (130° a.b.d.c.) Use. the standard layshaft but remove the 19-t. gear, ob-
Fully open but shrouded by:fz in. of piston skirt at t.d.c. servIng correct way round, and press on the 23-t. gear pinion.
The standard "Bantam': engine has a quoted b.h.p. of
For these checks an ordinary timing disc is necessary; 4.5. at 5,000 r.p.m. and this corresponds with a maximum
it is attached to the mains haft and, in conjunction with a speed of almost 50 m.p.h. in good conditions. Without
fixed pointer, indicates the crankshaft angle at which the going too deeply into technicalities, it can be said that an
piston reaches the upper or lower port limits. Having ~ppreciabl~ increase will not be obtained unless the engine
recorded the standard port timing, start dismantling the IS able to Induce a high charge of mixture which with a
head, barrel and primary drive in the usual way. ~tanda.rd i in. choke carburetter, is not pos~ible. I~creased
Further extract from" Speed from a Two-stroke" covers InductIOn volume automatically demands an enlarged
practical work. In planning port modifications it is sug- c?oke. Comparison of the values here can be assessed by a
gested that it is best to bolt the cylinder to the offside crank- SImple squarIng of choke diameters.
case half, using the head, or two distance sleeves, to pull it
For example, a choke of i in. diameter compares with the
down into the normal position. Inspect the junction of the standard size as follows:
transfer port in the crankcase with that of the cylinder at
the joint faces. Probably it will be found that a step exists ixi=gQ
between the two and that the corners do not blend. Carefully iXi=~=25: 49
note these conditions and log the measurements involved.
Repeat by bolting cylinder to the nearside crankcase half. Therefor~ a choke diameter only slightly larger than
Repeat the whole procedur~ with the crankshaft assembly standard ~ves nearly double the choke area. It might well
and piston in position and observe how the cut-away of the be that a slightly smaller choke than i in., or a slightly larger
piston and cylinder mate at b.d.c. Probably they will not
STANDARD "BANTAM" RATIOS
line up with each other and the condition must be noted.
It may be of interest at this stage to note standard "Bantam"
SLEEVE SilDING
ratios and the "close" alternatives. These are shown in INTEGRAL RATIOS
the Table opposite. Mainshaft 28-t 22-t lS-t Top 7 :1
The parts required for a conversion to close-ratio gears Layshaft 19-t 2S-t 32-t 2nd 11.7 :1
in the "Bantam" are: 1st 22 :1
As above with 15-t gearbox sprocket and standard
(1) Gearbox main shaft and fixed pinion with 19-t. 47-t rear wheel sprocket.
B.S.A. Part No. 90-445. CLOSE RATIO
(2) Layshaft pinion 23-t.meshes with (3). Part No. 90-447. Mainshaft 24-t 22-t 19-t Top 7 :1
(3) Mainshaft primary gear (sleeve gear) with 24-t. Layshaft 23-t 2S-t 28-t 2nd 8.4:1
Part No. 90-474. 1st 10.78 :1
218
219
TUNING FOR SPBBD TWO-STROKE ENGINES
one, would give equally good results; the fonner would, no

doubt, be better for grass-track or similar purposes where
better acceleration from comparatively low engine revolu- An exaggerated ex-
tions is required. A choke of about 11 in. is recommended for ample of irregularity
this purpose, while a choke of up to 1 in. could be used for in the mating of the
piston cutaway and
fast circuits but acceleration might be affected until 4,000 cylinder port areas.
.r.p.m. or so was reached.
The Amal T.TAype carburetter is not available in choke
sizes below t in. There are certain advantages in using this
type of instrument; it is easier to determine and maintain . The object is to get the engine running at maximum r.p.m.
the correct mixture with the T.T. pattern and the writer's
~n top gear and to choose a main jet which will cause it
experience has sh«wn that it provides very easy starting, no Just to begin to four-stroke when the air lever is moved
flat spots. good acceleration and a satisfactory maximum to the i-open, from the fully-open position. It may be
speed when fitted to "Bantam" engines with a suitably that the jet initially chosen will cause four-stroking right
modified inlet port. Settings for this instrument are: pilot from the start, even with the air lever fully open, or prevent
jet, 1t to 2 turns open; slide, No.4; needle position, 2nd
a smooth take-over from the pilot jet. The cure is obvious
groove from top. and smaller jets should be fitted progressively until rea-
Main jet recommendations vary considerably according
sonably clean running is obtained with the air lever fully
to fuel and exhaust-pipe lengths. Jets larger than 300 can
open.
be fitted to highly-tuned engines, intended for fuel of around
When this is achieved, give the machine a few runs and
80 octane value, with a greater increase still for alcohol fuels.
try ~losing the air lever down to the i-open position. If the
If the older type brass T.T. instrument is used, the main jet
e!lgme four-s!rokes badly ~ reduction of 10 or 20 c.c. in jet
sizes required may be 25% smaller than with the modern
SIZe should give a clean nuxture at the fully-open position.
alloy T.T. Amal component. Be careful not to go too low in jet sizes. If one of 220 is
found to be too rich, try setting the needle in the top groove
Carburetter Tuning before going down farther in jet size. Spitting-back indicates
In order to keep all information about carburation a very weak mixture. New experiments should also be
. compact and to avoid splitting these notes into disjointed carried out whenever inlet or exhaust-pipe lengths arevaried
paragraphs later on, the carburetter-tuning technique to be however slight these variations may be. If possible, a tuned
employed when the engine is ready to run is given now. two-stroke should be run on a slightly rich mixture rather
The method recommended by A. E. Rose is an adaptation than a slightly weak one, as the former keeps the engine
of that used by the well-,known exponent of two-strokes, cooler and the occasional stutter through richness will not
John Hogan, and a great deal of time is often saved by adopt- reduce speed appreciably.
ing it. It is assumed that a t in. alloy T.T. Amal is used and The air lever is best fitted on the left handlebar as it is
that the pilot jet, slide number and needle settings, as given much easier to manipulate there; this leaves the right hand
above, are adhered to. A No. 260 main jet is suggested to free to hold open the throttle, which race regulations require
commence with, but the engine may accept a larger one. to roll back on release.
220 221
In order to minimize the amount of grinding work and

filing, and to improve access to the port, the inlet stub
should be sawn off to within .fo in. of the rear fin tips. Three \ OPTIONAL
first-class riffler files, double-ended and of assorted shapes, \STIFFENING
should be obtained by people not in possession of a grinding PLATE
shaft. The standard port outline, where it enters the
cylinder,is shown sketched with the new shape superimposed.
Gradually open out the port and blend it into a 1 in. diameter Details of modifi-
cations to the inlet-
orifice at the cut-off stub. port stub.
No more than ~ in. should be removed from the top of
the inlet port. The sides may be swept out up to i in. and
the base curved around to about ~ in. below the original
"V." Do not exceed a total depth of ! in. or the width
shown, for the piston-ring ends lie comparatively near to
this port at the bottom of the stroke. Owing to the size of
the "Bantam" cylinder casting at the cut-off stub, it may
not be possible to attain a truly circular port of i in. dia-
meter but this may be overcome by introducing a slight ~ in.~thick) and bronze-welded (not brazed) to the cylinder
ovality, blending into the increasing width of the port. barrel. The bore of the tube may then be blended into the
A piece of Ii in. O.D., ~ in. LD. tube should be counter- port so as to leave no step. A further sketch illustrates this
bored at one end to accept the iii in. stub (here only about job. Alternatively a flange may be welded on.
The shape and position of their upper orifices at the
cylinder bore determine the "opening" and .. closing" of
, --
'\.. PISTON SKIRT
the transfer ports, and the behaviour of the jets of mixture
issuing from them. In standard form they are not capable of
passing the greatly-increased quantities of mixture now
induced into the crankcase and it will be necessary to modify
them. This can be affected in two ways, (1) by greatly
The original inlet-port increasing the width circumferentially, or (2) by moderate
profile and (shaded) the increase of the whole cross-section 'of the ports, very
area of metal to be re-
moved to procure a slightly altering the height of the cylinder orifices and
modified outline sug- reshaping the width to a streamlined form. The latter
gested to improve course is preferable.
" Bantam" induction.
Be careful not to leave a lip at the rear of the transfer port
exit; this will cause the incoming column of gas to swing to
the front of the cylinder, which is undesirable. It should
.' be noted that the orifices are offset to the rear of the bore
:~
'..
centre line for a distance of i\ in. This assists the new gas
222 223
TWO-STROKE ENGINES
TUNING FOR SPEED
to move toward the rear of the cylinder to displace the certain engine revolutions, but it is not a characteristic
residual rgases. One further point remains. The cylinder which should be encouraged. At the same time it is impor-
cutaway at the spigot should be streamlined where it is tant that pressure, caused by the burning charge should
bevelled at the lower entrance to the port. Later "large drop quickly, and the exhaust be expelled at th~ earliest
possible moment without the serious loss of fresh mixture
fin" barrels have transfer ports adequate in size. or thrust on the piston.
Therefore, it is suggested that the top edge of the port be
modified only by straightening out its curved outline and the
area of the port increased by radiusing the sides. The shape
to be attained and the dimensions concerned are as shown
in one of the sketches. The cleaning of the top edge will
alter the timing slightly. It is most important that the widths
shown are not exceeded; failure to follow this advice may
lead to broken piston rings.
It is now feasible to consider the crankcase and the modi-
fications to be carried out in order to increase volumetric
efficiency. First apply a smear of engineer's blue around
Modified port dimensions. The reference the bottom of the transfer ports at the cylinder base and
.. A" denotes the point of commencement of lightly bolting the crankcase halves together, pull the cylinde;
swell.
down on the bolts so that a blue impression of the ports is
left on the crankcase.
Dismantle again and, tackling each crankcase half
sepa,ratc:ly, file back the aluminium until the cylinder port
outline IS reached. Do not overdo it. At the same time, the
_comers of the crankcase ports should be nicely radiused to
i·§HAUiJ
'----
blend. Do not ma~e too large a radius as the cylinder spigot
has to be blended mto the crankcase radius later on. Now
;
•.1 1
1", INLET j bolt the cylinder on to each crankcase half in tum and finally
l, . . ___ ,
?lend the, whole por~ length, leaVing no steps or rapid
mcreases In cross-section. Use a small electric torch and a
The timing of the exhaust port, as determined by its upper Removal of the lip
boundary, presents a problem. If the port is opened con- of metal facilitates
siderably earlier, its closing is similarly delayed, with the gas-flow from the
tra1lsfer port.
result that, when using a highly extractive exhaust system,
a proportion of the hard-won fresh mixture may follow the
exhaust gases. No doubt this does occur, anyway, at
224 225
dentist's mirror will assist vision. File back the cylinder cut-
aways and radius the edges to blend into the crankcase port
radii. Polish off finally with emery paper. A small additional
improvement may be made at this stage by opening out the
entrance to the main bearing oil-feed holes a trifle.
Where the last ounce of power· is desired it is possible to
pad out the crankcase a little. Two aluminium discs should Driving out the crank-
be made to fit inside each crankcase half to reduce the pin and parting the fly-
volume. These should be a little less than iF, in. in thickness wheels in order to get
in order to clear the flywheels and they should be cut away access to the big-end
bearing is simplified by
in the centres to permit main bearing replacement and also Service Tool 61-3206.
at the top so as to coincide with the" step" in the crankcase.
Fix the plates to the crankcase walls by drilling in suitable
positions, tapping and using fs B.S.F. set-screws. The discs
should be drilled and countersunk; screws with countersunk
heads should be used. The heads should be filed flat if they
protrude in order to clear the flywheels. Coating the threads
with jointing compound will eliminate the chances of leakage
should the walls be penetrated when drilling, and also help
to secure the screws. port when the piston is at t.d.c. This factor in addition to
It may appear that these discs have little practical value. reducing the effective area of the port, also ca~ses turbulence
Calculation of their volume will show that they account around the skirt, reducing the port efficiency.
for several cubic centimetres and an appreciable percentage If necessary, t~erefore, the skirt should be cut away i in.
of the crankcase and under-piston volume. The general at ~he rear ?r fo m. ~up to. the base ring of aluminium) for
effect will be to maintain higher crankcase pressures, possibly racmg. ThIS alteratIOn WIll have the following effects: (1)
increasing carburetter blowback at low engine speeds, but to open the P?rt earlier and close it later. (2) to eliminate the
assisting proper transference of the charge at useful racing port obstructIOn. (3) to allow a "dwell" period offull open-
speeds. mg of the port as the crankpin swings across its top arc.
Piston shape determines, with the port positions, the
timing of the engine, and perhaps the most important
dimensions are those which operate over the inlet tract. It NEW OLD
INCREASED
PERIOD
will be seen that the longer the rear skirt is, the later it will
uncover the inlet port when ascending and the sooner it will Exhaust opens, b.b.d.c. 75° 70°
close it when descending. Provision has already been made Exhaust closes, a.b.d.c. 75° 70° 10°
Transfer ports open, b.b.d.c. 65° 60°
for "longer" timings by bringing down the bottom of the
Transfer ports close, a.b.d.c. 65° 60° 10°
inlet port and a further improvement may be made by filing Inlet port opens, a.b.d.c. 115° 120°
away the bottom of the piston skirt at the rear. It can be Inlet port closes, a.t.d.c. 65° 60° 10°
seen that, in a standard engine, the skirt does not clear the
226 227
The next operation is to build up the flywheel assembly,
piston and cylinder on one crankcase half and mark the
piston so that it may be radiused at each cut-away to blend A sectional impres-
sion of a modified
with the cylinder and crankcase ports which have already high-compression
received attention. Repeat on the other side and then bevel cylinder-head
showing filling
the front of the piston skirt slightly and put a i in. radius on material machined
the base of each cut-away corner. It is the writer's practice to the required
to use second-hand pistons, suitably polished; they have hemisphere.
settled down and. therefore, have little tendency to seize.
Having described various methods of facilitating the
introduction of extra mixture into the combustion space, the 11 to 13 to 1 a Lodge R47, or equivalents, in my experience,
next aim must be to extract as much power from the charge are satisfactory.
as possible, and here the question of compression ratios A further factor related to the combustion phase is the
arises. Generally speaking, the compression ratios may be length of time the charge is burning prior to release through
kept quite high without incurring risk of detonation or hot the exhaust port. This time can be varied only by selecting
running; standard ratios vary from 6.5 to 1 to 8.25 to 1. the moment of ignition. If the standard C.R. is retained,
For all purposes except racing it is suggested that the C.R. there is no need to alter ignition timing; experience has
be increased to about 9 to 1; this should produce speeds up shown that standard ignition setting is satisfactory with a
to 65 m.p.h. from a 125 c.c engine. For more serious pur- C.R. of 8 to 1, especially if fuel of high octane value is
poses, or when petrol-benzole mixtures or 80-0ctane fuel employed.
are used, the ratio may be stepped up to 11 to 1 to 13 to 1 Any further C.R. increase may call for slight retarding of
with confidence. In modifying a "Bantam" to a compression the ignition because the higher ratio and gas temperature
ratio of 11.25 to 1, the capacity of the head should be 15 c.c. at the normal ignition point, cause the flame to spread at a
and this takes into account a raised piston-<:rown volume quicker rate. The resulting knocking, or pinking, is not
of 3 c.c. i.e.: always readily apparent in a two-stroke engine and it may
_ 123
C.R. -
+
12
12 _ 135 _ 11 25
- 12 - . to
1 occur "silently" and unnoticed.
One cannot lay down hard and fast rules about a suitable
degree of spark retardation, for a great deal depends on the
The head should then be drilled through the centre to volumetric efficiency of the engine and the fuel. For racing,
accommodate the plug and turned out to the correct size for with C.R.s of 11 to 13 to 1 an ignition timing of 21° to 19°
a 14 mm. tapping later on. The head should then be reversed b.t.d.c. is worth trying. This may be achieved by cutting
and the fins carefully turned away so that a 14 mm. plug and away the contact-breaker housing in the region of the three
spanner can be inserted. This turning should be deep enough slots and clamping down by means of short distance pieces
to provide a tapped hole just sufficiently long to allow the and washers and the original screws. The breaker points
sparking plug (with washer) to reach the inside of the should separate with the piston at .110 to .096 in. b.t.d.c.
combustion chamber. A centrally-disposed plug increases according to the 21 ° or 19° advance setting required. It is
maximum speed slightly and does not oil. With a C.R. of . vital to check the contact-breaker gap first.
6.5 to 9 to 1, a Lodge HNP plug gives a good result; from Earlier it was arranged that the exhaust port and the
228 229
exhaust stub should have increased cross-sectional area in An improvement to magneto-side main-bearing lubrica-
order to pass the exhaust gases but it is necessary, also, to tion can be carried out by drilling the duralumin distance
arrange the exhaust system so that gas-flow is unobstructed, coilar, which fits against the bearing, so that the holes line
and so that the lowest possible pressure-even a negative- up with the balls in the bearing. Ten i in. holes will do. If,
may prevail in the pipe at the moment when the port is un- when reassembling the crankshaft and case, there is a sense
covered by the piston. This can be achieved by experiments of stiffness, or a tight spot, suspect your initial inspection of
with varying lengths of exhaust pipe and by the use of the the bearings. New bearings will be slightly stiffer in rotational
well-known megaphone component. movement. Or possibly the shafts are not in line; they should
Experiments have been carried out with a 12-in. long be tested in the usual way between centres. True them by
megaphone and a 12° pipe divergence, the exhaust pipe tapping-before the covers are put in position-and re-test.
being shortened gradually. Sometimes a length which gave Obviously, gearbox bearing and bushes should be
good power at high revolutions introduced a "miss", or checked; the splines and dogs should be inspected because
flat spot, in the carburation at other speeds. A fairly sound
scheme is to have an exhaust pipe which terminates at the
"Bantam" front chain-cover studs, or up to 3 in. shorter
if a megaphone is attached.
If the big-end is in good order, there is not much more to
do. An improvement to the lubrication of the "Bantam" Special tool No. 61-
3191, in conjunction
big-end is possible, however, by belling out the slots of the with a screwdril'er
connecting-rod eye on the outside. This can be done by facilitates the dis-
running the lip of a grinding wheel around the edges. The mantling of the "Ban-
tam" clutch-retaining
1953-type rod is cut away at the big-end faces to achieve the cir-clip and main
same result. This, with the more liberal oil supply coming clutch assembly.
from the new, larger jets, results in bearing reliability.
Attention is drawn to the fact that the" Bantam" 1953 big-
end bearing is !- in. wider than its predecessors and, there-
fore, has a better load capacity.
the increased power it is hoped to attain may reveal weakness

Belling out the oil slot
in the transmission component. Irrespective of condition
in the connecting-rod the fol!owing improvement is suggested. The second-gea;
big-end eye of pre- notch III the selector should be deepened to a i\ in. "V"
1953 model "Ban- and ~he selector spring shimmed to a depth of i in. in its
tams", tends to im-
prove lubrication at hOUSIng. The gear selector-arm retaining spring, located
this highly stressed by a cup and secured by a split-pin, should be reinforced
point.
b~ adding a short spring inside. This spring should be about
i m. O.D. and care should be taken that the coils do not bind
at normal movement of the selector mechanism.
230 231
certain port-timing or C.R. data, hased on the T.T. "works"

~ntries of such-and-such a factory upon which to draw. It
lS all a matter of compromise founded on commonsense-
and therein lies all the fascination of two-stroke tuning.
For removing and re-

p/acing the B.S.A.
"Bantam" flywheel
mogneto components
the spec/alfactory tool
No. 61-3188 is useful.
Alternatively. a heavier main spring may be fitted but this

"mod" must not prevent the change mechanism from
functioning properly. These improvements to a .. Bantam"
box are necessary to avoid the tendency for second gear to
be forced out of engagement due to the selector mechanism
side-thrust under racing loads.
The clutch on the average two-stroke unit is quite up
to its job and will perform well under racing conditions
without any increase being made in spring pressure.
Inspection should be made, of course, to ensure that the
friction inserts are not worn. Running under oil-bath con·
ditions, these clutches are most reliable and heat-resistant.
The magneto flywheel is fitted with the engine installed;
care should be taken to see that it is well home on its taper
and tightly locked up. The Wico-Pacy instrument will give
very good service and the engine can be revved to well over
7,000 r.p.m. without misfiring.
Now it remains only to test your handiwork on the road-
assuming you are not one of the select few with access to the
services of a dynamometer and skilled operating staff.
The result of your tests may inspire further modification to
any, or, indeed, all, of the components previously dealt with,
for the art of extracting speed from a two-stroke is one of
continual trial and error. There are no recorded and
232 233
ASSEMBLING THE ENGINE IN THE FRAME
taken out and replaced several times in a season. For such

bolts, heat-treated K.E. 805 steel cannot be bettered; this
CHAPTER XVII material is very strong and tough, and is not liable to strip
the threads if tightened by an over-zealous hand. A less
ASSEMBLING THE ENGINE IN THE FRAME expensive grade, such as 3% nickel steel, is a good substitute.
A not inconsiderable saving in weight can be effected by
waisting the bolts down to a diameter equal to the bottom
ASSUMING that the frame of the machine is not suspected diameter of the threads, leaving a short parallel portion at
of having been damaged or is not out of line in any way, each end to centralize the bolt or act as a register for the
the next step is to assemble the engine into it; this is engine plates if required; alternatively, if the bolts have
usually a fairly straightforward matter calling for little
comment in itself. TABLE OF DRILL SIZES
If the design is such that the unit can be built up as a whole
on the bench and then dropped into the frame, that is the CORRECf I i NEAREST
DRILL
best sequence to employ, because it pe~its t~e rear eng~ne
BOLT SIZE HOLBl
DIAMETER
SIZE I!FRACfrONAL
i SIZE
plates and bolts to be fitted without any Jug~l~g ?r forcmg
into line. Whatever the method, however, It IS Important 1/4 in. B.S.F. (26 T.P.I.) 0.151 No. 25 I 9{64 in.
5116 in. B.S.F. (22 T.P.I.) 0.185 No. 13 3/16 in.
that those bolts and others which connect the plates to the 5/16 in.x26 T.P.I. 0.174 No. 17 11/64 in.
frame lugs really are a good fit in their respective holes, and 3/8 in. B.S.F. (20 T.P.I.) 0,208 No. 4 13/64 in.
that all mating holes are accurately in line. Slack-fitting 3/8 in. x26 T.P.I. 0.185 No. 13 3/16 in.
bolts are very prone to work loose, however tight the nuts 7/16 in. B.S.F. (18 T.P.I.) 0.239 SizeB 15/64 in.
may be, and if the holes are out of line to an extent, calling 7/16 in.x20 T.P.I. 0.228 No. 1 7/32 in.
for a considerable amount· of levering (and perhaps a few 7/16 in. x26 T.P.I. 0.202 No. 7 13/64 in.
hammer blows) to work the bolts into position, peculiar 1/2 in. B~S.F. (16 T.P.I.) 0.271 Size 1 17/64 in.
internal stresses are created, which accentuate any tendency 1/2 in. X 20 T.P.I. 0.244 SizeC
I
1/4 in.
there may be for vibration to be set up at certain speeds. 1/2 in. x26 T.P.I. 0.217 7/32 in. 7/32 in.
I
Commercial engine bolts are generally made from mild I
steel, but for serious racing something better is .worth while, solidiheads they can be drilled down the centre, as shown in
particularly in view of the fact that the bolts wIll have to be the diagram, the hole (which must be accurately concentric
with the outside) extending very nearly to the beginning of
Waisting bolts down to a the thread. Far from weakening the bolts, this treatment
diameter equal to that of actually makes them less prone to fatigue-failure and, if
the bottom of the threads, carried out consistently throughout the whole machine,
leaving a central paraUel
portion for registering pur- a perceptible mass of excess metal will be eliminated.
poses, or, if a bolt has a The Table above gives the right drill sizes to employ for
solid head, drilling down the
centre makes for lightness the varying diameters and thread pitches which are
'11th without sacrificing strength. commonly used for engine and frame bolts.
When making up those engine-securing bolts which also
234 235
TUNING FOR SPEED ASSEMBLING THE ENGINE IN THE FRAME
With all engine and gearbox bolts tight, the chain align-
ment should be carefully checked. Two straight edges
should be used in preference to one, since this method shows
Spigot nuts made to fit up any errors more clearly. The most common error is for
enlarged engine-pJate the ~prockets, though paraliel, to be displaced sideways
holes cwe wear and relative to each other; in some designs this may be caused
obviate the risk of by clutch inserts of incorrect thickness, for which the remedy
vibration.
is obvious, but in other patterns (such as the Burman in
which the insert thickness cannot influence the chain-~e)
the spacer-washers between the clutch body and the shoulde;
on the gearbox mainshaft may be of incorrect thickness.
Another cause met with when an engine-shaft shock-
pass through the engine plates, the length of the thread
absorber is fitted, is wear on the inner face of the engine-
should be such that the platesbave at least half their thick-
s-,?rocket, but. in. any event this form of error is usually not
ness bearing on the full bolt diameter and not on the crests of dIfficult to elimmate. Lack of parallelism is rare which is
the thread. otherwise the latter will rapidly hammer down fortunate, as it is more difficult both to trace the s~urce and
and looseness will develop. Occasionally in old machines effect a cure.
some of the plate holes will be found to be oval or enlarged,
If the engine plates are interchangeable a quick check
in which event they can either be reamed out to tin. over-
can be made by swopping them over, side for side, and if
size, and bushed to bring them back to original size, or else
~e er;or has yanished, or is still there but in the opposite
special spigot nuts can be made up to fit the enlarged holes.
dlTectlOn. obViously the plates are at fault. If this course
The latter is a good idea, particularly if the plates are thin,
cannot be a~opted, or yields negative results, the faces of the
because the bolt threads are then protected from further box lugs may not be square to the mainshafts which can
damage from the action of the plates. be verified by bolting the box down on to a 'block on a
surface plate and checking the parallelism of the sprocket
CRANK CAse
with the plate.. Should an error thereby be brought to light,
the lug faces WIll have to be carefully filed up to eliminate it.
;\\'hen under load, the pull of the chain has a tendency to
den~ct the shafts towards each other and, consequently,
a sli.ght outward divergence of the shafts is not necessarily
detnmental. But if the shafts are inclined towards each other
when at rest, both sprockets will be badly out of line when
under load. It is not sufficient merely to check the align-
ment along the top run of the chain; the bottom run should
Whether or not a bolt, or stud, is waisted, be also be checked, and any noticeable difference between the
care/ullo see that at least half the width of the tw~ is evidence that the box is twisted relative to the engine.
engine plates bear on the /ull boit diameter-not !hlS c~n be caused by lack of flatness of the engine plates, or,
wholly 'on the thread crests which will rapidly
wear. m deSIgns where the box is mounted on a bracket separated
236 237
ASSEMBLING THE ENGINE IN THE FRAME
CLUTCH
from the engine, there is a possibility that the frame itself
SPROCKET
HARDENED is twisted. t,~
m>."""r--- WASHERS Accuracy of alignment is particularly important at speeds
h~~ ALTERING THICKNESS
of 6,000 r.p.m. and over; for instance, on A.J.S. racers of
recent manufacture, provision is made to obtain almost
dead accuracy by the addition of shims behind the sprocket.
It is somewhat confusing, therefore, that speedway J.A.P.
engines are fitted with floating sprockets with about i-in.
laterial movement, but this is to allow for the flexure which
is inherent in the very light frames employed for this work.
AT LEAST fr~ OF SPLINE
So long as the chain does not come off the sprockets, it does
MUST BE IN ENGAGEMENT
not matter much if its life-span is short.
Chain lubrication is vital for high speed; the best scheme
with an open chain is to adopt the Norton practice of feeding
mineral oil through a suitable jet to a divided pipe from which
the oil drips on to the side-plates just before the chain starts
Self-explanatory methods of (above) adjusting to run on to the clutch sprocket. The aim is to get the
chain line from the clutch end, alld (below)
making similar alteratioll to the ellgille sprocket lubricant directed into the actual joints, as the rollers them-
assembly. selves need little lubrication externally.
When adjusting a primary chain in a layout employing
aluminium engine plates, or in a unit-construction plot,
CLEARANCE TO ENABLE CAM allowance must be made for thermal expansion, by per-
TO MOVE OUTWARDS mitting about 1 in. up-and-down play; a little too much slack
TOWARDS NUT does not harm a chain nearly so much as too little. The best
WASHER ADDEO TO
MOVE SPROCKET OUTWARD
plan is to adjust a little on the tight side then to operate the
SHOCK ABSORBER 1X'~~~,.m.; adjuster to bring the box slightly forward: the adjuster then
CAM SLIDING holds the box forward against the pull of the rear chain, and
ON SPLINES
there is no possibility of the box being shifted rearwardly.
SPROCKET INWARDS
OBSERVE POSITION OF THIS

SHOULDER AFTER BORING OUT
238 239
MAl NTENANCE OF RACING CARBURETTERS
The more devious fuel passages in the R.N., however,

·render it rather more sensitive at low engine revs., which
CHAPTER xvm means that the T.T. pattern offers more foolproof carbura-
tion and is a little easier to tune than the R.N. The latter also
occupies more space (due to the presence of the remote-
MAINTENANCE OF RACING CARBURETIERS needle chamber), which sometimes makes it difficult to
house.
THE standard needle-jet Amal carburetter is a very
simple instrument which, owing to its "straight through"
construction, gives a higher power output, size for size,
than other types which make use of butterfly throttles.
From the standard pattern there have been developed a
number of special racing editions with the object of obtain-
ing maximum power and acceleration throughout the whole
of the speed range. Of these the best known are the T.T.
type and the remote-needle or R.N. type. In addition, The position ofthe taper
non-needle models have been produced for track and dirt needle, which is "re-
mote" from the main
racing, where engines are operating at full bore most of intake tract, gives the
the time. initials R.N. to this
In the T.T. pattern the needle-which meters the fuel at type of racing car-
buretter. Being carried
certain throttle openings-is suspended from the top of the in a separate chamber
throttle slide, and thus hangs ~cross the centre of the choke. off-set from the main
In the R.N. pattern-as its name implies-the needle is barrel ofthe instrumelll,
the needle offers no ob-
suspended from an extension on the throttle slide and is struction to the air-f/ow.
housed within a chamber cast on the side of the carburetter
body; thus the needle offers no obstruc-
tion to air-flow, and as a result the R.N.
type is slightly faster than the T.T.
pattern for any given choke size.
PRIMARY
CHOKE
In both types the diameter of the main choke, at the point

The main choke, showing the small where the small primary choke protrudes upwards into the
primary choke protruding into tIre air- airstream, is usually bigger than the bore of the instrument
stream. The block is of the standard
type but T.T. and R.N. types are immediately on the engine side of the throttle. This latter
similar in principle. and smaller diameter is actually the choke size and corres-
240 241
TUNING FOR SPEED MAINTENANCE OF RACING CARBURETTERS
ponds to the figure stamped on the outside of the mixing.

chamber for identification. REPRESENTATIVE CARBURETrER TyPES AND SElTINGS
The increase in diameter referred to is provided (a) to
minimize the 0 bstruction to air-flow caused by the uprush of MODEL
CARBlJREI'nR
----,------
I
---~--
JETS I FUEL
liquid fuel from the primary choke, and (b), in the case of _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ i_~T~Y_PE_ _ CHOKE_~I NEEDLE _ _
the T.T. type, to help overcome the obstruction caused A.J.S. 498 e.e. TIOTr9 Ii. in. '12S0 .120 Ale.
by the needle. Therefore, when discussing choke sizes, A.J.S.7R lORN 1'>". in. 320 .109 Petrol
Ariel 350 c.c. "Red Hunter" ISIT38 j"m. 260 .107 Petrol
it is important to remember that the choke size refers Ariel SOO c.c. "Red Hunter" IOIT38 It in. 320 .109 Petro!
to the diameter of the bore just past the throttle valve, and
BoS.A. 350 c.e. "Gold Star"
B.S.A. 3S0 c.e. "Gold Star" ~\~~ .1,,1, in. I~gg ::ro ~~~ol
*
BoS.A. SOO c.e. "Gold Star" IOIT38 1,. in. 3S0 .109 Petrol
not to the larger diameter at the point where the throttle- B.S.A. 500 c.c. "Gold Star" RN 113• in. 520 .109 Petrol
B.S.A. 500 e.c. "Gold Star" TIOTr9 Ii. in. ; 360 .109 Petrol
valve works. In 1 in. and 32 mm. carburetters, however, B.S.A. 500 c.c. "Gold Star" TIOIT9 It. in. I 1700 .120 Ale.
this reduction in diameter is not present. J.A.P. 500 c.c. Speedway
and 8·80 V·Twin
27/013 r
I in. i 960 NIL Ale.
Matchless G45 I 240
The normal R.N. type is essentially a petrol-benzole Norton 350 c.c. "Manx"
10GP
IOIT38
t!i\ in.
l!i\ in. i 350
.109
.109
Petrol
Petrol
instrument, and cannot be used with a main jet size larger Norton 350 c.c. "Manx" IOITRNI ts; in. ! 500 .109 Pelrol
Norton 3S0 e.c. "Manx" 1946 TlOIT l~j !n. 350 .109 Petrol
than 900, whereas simply by fitting a larger size of needle Norton 350 c.c. "Manx" 1946
Norton 350 c.c. "Manx u
TlORN I:I.z m. 500 .109 Petrol
TIOGP Ii in. 230 .109 Petrol
jet, the T.T. type can be used with straight alcohol up to a Norton 3S0 c.c. Short stroke TIOGP Ii. in. 350 .109 Petrol
Norton 490 c.c. "Manx" 10IT38 t!'i'IJ in. 460 .109 Petrol
jet size of around 1500. The needle jet is formed by the Norton 490 c.c. "Manx!) 10ITRNI 1:1\ in. 600 .109 Petrol
Norton 499 c.c. "Manx" TlORN It\ in. 560 .109 Petrol
hole in the upper end of the brass component into the lower Norton 499 c.c. "Manx" tORN9 It'h in. S60 .109 Petrol
end of which the main jet is screwed, and is varied for Norton 499 c.c. "Manx" TlOGP trill in. 260 .109 Petrol
Norton 499 c.c. Short stroke SGP 1~~ in. 310 .109 Petrol
different sizes of carburetters. Triumph Tloo
Vincent "Bluck Lightning"
76
TIOTr9
tin.
I
190 .109 Petrol
lih in. 360 .109 Petrol
Up to I-in. choke diameter, the standard size is .107 in.,
I {m
Vincent "Black Lightning" T10Tf9 t1'1, in. .120 Ale.
Vincent "Black Lightning" TIOIT 32mm. .120 Ale.
and over I-in. diameter it is '.109 in. For alcohol fuel the Velocetto KIT TIOTT HI, in. .109 Petrol
.107-in. jet must be replaced by one of .113-in. diameter,
while the .109-in. jet should be replaced by one of either For various alcohol-blend fuels, the following percentage increase in
.1l3-in. or .120-in., according to the size of main jet which jet sizes over those fitted for petrol-benzole may be used as starting
the fuel necessitates. Incidentally, alcohol fuels vary con- points for tuning purposes.
siderably in their chemical make-up and some require a
much larger jet than others; one characteristic of these FUEL JET INCREASE
fuels is their relative insensitivity to jet size as compared Discol P.M.S.2 60%
with petrol, and excessively rich mixtures can be handled Discol R.D.l 80%
without the loss of power which would be associated with J.A.P. Racing Fuel 100%
petrol. Straight Methanol 150%
A special type of R.N. carburetter has been evolved for
use with alcohol, primarily for use on the dirt; this has a For an increase in altitude, the percentage decreases in jet sizes
.160-in. needle jet, as opposed to the .109-in. size fitted in over those used at sea level are 5 %at 3,000 ft., 9 % at 6,000 ft., 13 %at
9,000 ft., 17 % at 12,000 ft. It will rarely be necessary to alter the jet
the petrol-benzole edition. But other considerations are more than one size for conditions as widely different as those found in
involved, and if the two sorts of fuel are to be used, then Holland and Switzerland.
two R.N. carburetters will be required, whereas a single
242 243
mixture control provided by an air jet, situated between

the air control slide and the needle-jet passage. This jet,
which can be unscrewed after removing the hexagon plug at
the base of the air slide, is made in two sizes, .100 in. and
.125 in bore and the appropriate size is fitted to each
carburetter by the manufacturers. Normally no alteration
is necessary but, if difficulty is found in obtaining absolutely
precise mixture control, it may be advantageous to alter
On the T.T. pattern the size from that already fitted. Increasing the size weakens,
carburetter it is the and decreasing it richens the mixture.
air slide only which
operates in a separate The main jets are interchangeable with those used in
chamber.. the taper R.N. and T.T. carburetters, but the needle jets, throttle
needle is centrally dis- valves and needles are different. There are three basic
posed as in the stand-
ard illstrument. models in the G.P; series, the 15 G.P. in choke sizes from
i-in. to It\in, 10 G.P. from 1,.\ in. to 1~ in. and 5 G.P. from
liz in. to Ii in. which is considerably larger than that of any
R.N. or T.T. previously obtainable commercially. The two
smaller groups utilize similar needles, designated and marked
G.P. (standard) and G.P. 6 (weak) and are flange-mounted
with bolts at the regular 2 in. centre distance, but the 5 G.P.
range uses its own needles, marked 5 G.P. (standard) and
5 G.P. 6 (weak) and has flange bolts spaced at 65 mm. or
2.56 in. Hence, while all the other types are interchangeable,
T.T. type will suffice for both fuels with the requisite change sO"far as the flanges are concerned, the 5 G.P. cannot be
in needle and main jets. fitted directly unless the head has been drilled especially for
To obviate this situation, and also to incorporate some . it, as in the case of the short-stroke "Manx" Nortons.
design features which render the carburetter less sensitive G.P. instruments are fitted with long air-intakes and although
to "megaphoning" and yet retain an unobstructed choke, less bulky laterally than the R.N. types, may be difficult to
the G.P. type has been evolved. The salient feature of this instal on account of extra length. In this connection it is
type is that the needle is suspended from the throttle-valve essential to place the mouth of the intake in a position where
so that it is just to one side of the choke, and the fuel enters carburation cannot be upset by stray air currents blowing
the choke through a spray-tube inclined at an angle instead across or into it. Some odd effects can be created by, for
of directly underneath'as in the R.N. and T.T. types. The instance, the flat surface of an oil tank within an inch or so
passage from the needle jet to the end of the spray tube is, of the intake; carburation trouble was prevalent on the
therefore, quite short and direct, a most desirable ~eat~re. early A.J.S. "Porcupine" owing to the air whistling at high
To furnish a more precise tuning control, the metenng Jets velocity through the tunnel in the saddle tank in which the
are supplied in two tapers but there are only five adjusting carburetters were placed.
grooves in each, instead of seven, and there is an additional
244 245
Float Chambers and Location P.V.C. plastic tubing, making sure that it is not bent so
sharply that it may kink and shut off the flow. A bronze
Both T.T. and R.N. carburetters use orthodox single spri~g pushed inside the tube will obviate kinking.
float chambers, with enlarged passages capable of passing It IS preferable to place the float chamber fairly close to the
as great a flow of fuel as the double float chambers which carburetter, but the hose must be long enough to absorb
were popular some years ago, and which are still used at engine vibration without undue flexing and possible damage
times with alcohol fuel.
With twin floats, the fuel lines also can be duplicated and
there is less risk of complete fuel supply failure. But it
must be remembered that, if one side blocks, the other
cannot pass enough methanol to supply the engine and a
hole may be burnt in the piston crown very rapidly, this
being the inevitable outcome of running with a weak
mixture at ratios of more than 12 to 1.
Twin-jloat carbur-
etters offer advan-
tages where alcohol
fuel is used.
Variation in fuel level,
caused, for example,
by cornering with a
. ..-., sidecar, gives this
effect, and causes
"cutting-out. "
The latest Amal single-float chamber, type 302, as fitted to the lining; the relative movement which occurs between
to.all G.P. carburetters can handle all the fuel required for the cylinder head and frame on some machines is much
the largest jets ever used, and are also equipped with an larger than might be imagined. .
anti-frothing baffle. Frothing can be a puzzling reason for One method of remote mounting is to clamp the bowl
loss of revs., owing to the rich mixture which it causes, and bodily t.o an object such as the tank; another, and very neat
to minimize this possibility, it is advisable to mount the system IS to screw a rod into the chamber top or union nut
float chamber on adjacent part of the frame connecting it to and hang the chamber from a flexible rubber mount bolted
the jet block by a flexible petrol-proof hose, or a piece of to some convenient spot such as a tank bracket.
246 247
TUNING FOR SPEED
MAINTENANCB OF RACING CARIWRBTTERS
The float should not be placed appreciably to the rear of
the jet, as the fuel will tend to lag behind. during vi~Ient
acceleration, and this may cause the engme to heSItate
when opened up on the road. Somewhat the same effect
occurs when cornering sharply on a sidecar outfit, and can be The tendet/cy men-
entirely eliminated only by using a double float chamber, tioned above may
or by the addition of a" swill pot" (which resembles a small be corrected by
Jilting what is
float chamber minus the float, needle valve and petrol knowil as a "swill
union) placed' at the side of the mixing cha~ber farthest pot."
from the main float chamber, the latter bemg remotely
mounted in the approved fashion. Under the action of
centrifugal force the fuel level drops in one chamber and
rises in the other; thus the level of fuel at the jet remains
approximately constant.
Carburetter Tuning plug condition caused by the slow-running mixture or excess
On page'243 is given a range of carburetters an~ approxi- oil. The sparking plug is then removed and examined.
mate main-jet sizes which have been found sUItable on If the end of the body is of a grey or lightish colour then
various machines but it must be understood that any such the ~ixture is weak and a larger jet is required. If it is
list can form oniy a very rough guide. So many varying heavIly coated with soot, the jet is too big and a smaller one
characteristics are involved that hard-and-fast rules cannot is required. With a correct mixture, the end of the plug
be laid down and every racing engine must be treated as should have the appearance of polished ebony; but, of
an individual' unit when fin,al tuning is being performed. course. this condition will be achieved only if the plug was
Note that the main jet sizes for G.P. carburetters are very clean (and preferably lightly polished) on the face before
. much smaller than for any of the other type? . fitting. "Reading" a plug is quite an art which takes a
The fuel used, the nature of the course and Its geographIcal little ~xperience to acquire. Also. modern plugs with
position all have their effects, which can be allowed for only ceramIC Insulators are less easy to read than the now almost
by ex~ence coupled with trial-and·error metho~s of . obsolete mica patterns. The former exhibit a rather harsher-
obtaining the optimum settings. The exbaus7system 1:' use
also exercises a profound effect on carburatlon; as Will be
looking brown colour with a correct mixture instead of
the ebony of the mica type, but, in either case, any suspicion '· ·.~ Ii
<1
.'.
:~
i·
o~ greyness on the electrodes or body is a sign of weak

I
seen later, a larger jet is requir,:d with a me~ap?one ~an

with a straight-through pipe, whilst a smaller Jet 1S reqUIred mIxture and the jet ~ize must be increased. Some people
if any form of silencer is fitted. . prefer to go up one SIZe further as a safety precaution if the
The best method of determining the correct main jet IS . race is on a course with long sections calling for full-
to drive the engine (after it is fully w~rmed up) "flat ~ut" throttle work unless they are able to check the plug reading
on the actual circuit during practice.
over a distance of at least a quarter-mde, and at the finIsh to
slam the throttle shut, cut the engine dead and immedi!t;tely On T.T., R.N. and G.P. types the air-lever-or more
lift the clutch, thus avoiding any alteration to the sparking- accurately, the mixture control-operates an air-v;Zve on
the side of the carburetter, and so controls the depression
248
249
TUNING FOR SPE'ED MAINTENANCE OF RACING CARBURETTERS
on the main jet via the primary choke tube; consequently,
this control can be used as a mixture-correcter without
reducing the effective bore of the carburetter. The effect on
mixture-strength between the fully open and fully shut 61S 612
positions is approximately equal to three or four jet sizes. It
can therefore be used as a rough indication of correctness of
jet size; if the engine runs happily with the control shut, the
jet is too small, whereas if it sounds woolly or misfires
with the control fully open, or nearly so, the jet is too large.
This, however, is not in any sense a true test of mixture
correctness, for which the sparking-plug test is- the only
safe method. The real value of the air control is in its use A diagrammatic explanation of the tuning
rule referred to in the text, With (lelt) a
as a correcter for temporary conditions. In the Isle of Man, straight:through exhaust pipe, the jet
for instance, it can be used for the first mile or so on the first needle IS fitted higher and the throttle-
lap, when both the motor and air temperature are definitely slide cut-away is greater thall when (right)
a megaphone exhaust is employed,
cold. To permit of such use the main jet should be of a
size which provides a correct mixture with the air control Eventually, a setting for both can be arrived at which
fully open when the engine is hot. gives a reasonably good tick-over, erring, if anything, on the
Having 'satisfied oneself that the main jet. is correct, fast side, and with the mixture strength slightly rich. If
attention must next be given to obtaining clean running and pains are taken to obtain a really super tick-over it is some-
acceleration throughout the entire throttle range. The three times .found that snap acceleration suffers; ciearly, it is
factors which affect this are: (1) the pilot adjusting screw, essentIal that the engine should never fail to respond
situated on the side ofthe mixing chamber; (2) the cut-away instantly if the throttle is slammed open.
of the throttle valve; (3) the adjustable taper needle. The throttle valve cut-away (i.e., the bevel milled on the
The pilot adjuster screw on these racing instruments sli~e on the side farthest from the engine) controls the
controls the amount of fuel supplied to the engine for slow mIxture strength from low openings up to about half-
funning; its operation must not be confused with the
standard-type pilot air-screw, which controls the amount of
throttle. The cut-aways vary in steps of nr
in. in height;
the No.5, for instance, has fir-in. cutaway, and conse-
air to the pilot jet. On the racing types, screwing the pilot quently allows more air to enter than a No.3, which, as its
adjuster clockwise weakens the mixture, and, conversely, number indicates, has a *-in. cut-away. Generally speaking,
screwing it out enriches it. The adjuster should be set as the lower the cut-away can be kept, consistent with clean
rich as possible consistent with a good tick-over; the rate running, the better will be the snap acceleration, and this
at which the engine turns is controlled by adjusting the should be borne in mind when tuning. It is advisable,
throttle-cable stop to give the necessary small opening of therefore, to have on hand a range of slides varying from,
the throttle valve when the twist-grip is shut, but as the say, No.2 to No.6, and to select from them the one which
position of the valve also affects the slow-running mixture is the most suitable.
strength, the cable adjustment and the pilot adjuster These racing slides are very delicate, and a close fit in the
position are to some extent inter-related body; if they are handled roughly or assembled in a diTty
250 251
MAINTENANCE OF RACING CARBURETTERS
TUNING FOR SPEED
condition, binding may occur, and it may be impossible to excessively rich setting it is usually necessary to employ a
get even running at small throttle openings. very weak needle setting; for instance, in conjunction with
a No.2 slide one may have to lower the needle to position 1,
i.e. with the clip in the topmost groove.
Position of the Jet Needle Unless the increase in lap speed gained by fitting a mega-
The taper needle is adjustable to five or seven positions in phone really warrants its use, the carburetter people ad-
the valve by a spring clip; the lower the needle the weaker the vocate straight-through pipes every time; but if a megaphone
mixture, and the higher the richer, for any particular throttle has to be used the foregoing instructions should be followed,
position. Any flatness or tendency for the engine to eight- otherwise a chaotic setting will result.
stroke at over half-throttle can always be eliminated by Racing carburetters are made in brass or light-metal, the
needle adjustment. A very common position on both T.T. latter being most usual. When used with alcohol, a pre-
and R.N. types is 4 : that is, the fourth groove down from the cipitate in the form of white powder gradually accumu-
top; the final setting should, if anything, be on the rich side. lates; thus it is very necessary frequently to dismantle and
By systematic attention to the adjustments described, a clean the whole instrument, paying particular attention to
setting can be obtained which furnishes clean and lively the small fuel passages and preferably blowing them clear
running from tick-over right up to full-throttle, particularly with compressed air.
when the engine is being used with a straight-through Alcohol fuel is prone to leave a deposit of jelly which
can block the fuel flow completely, and it should be a firm
exhaust system.
As is well known, the fitting of a megaphone exhaust rule to drain the carburetter by loosening the jet-plug after
affects the running of the engine adversely at low and every race meeting.
medium speeds, a disinclination to run at anything below Throttle slides in light-alloy carburetters are very sensitive
3,000 r.p.m. and a tendency to cut right out when the throttle to grit and before a slide is pulled right out, the interior
is opened rapidly from low speed being typical symptoms. of the mixing chamber must be cleaned, for if a grain of
Almost invariably the carburetter is blamed unfairly for these sand does get in and jam the slide, the only safe course will
troubles-a change over to a straight-through pipe will be to dismantle the whole thing, including removing the
prove otherwise--but it is necessary to alter the carburetter jet-block from the body, in order to remove the offending
tuning in order to minimize the ill-effects as much as possible. particle from the narrow annular gap in which the throttle
A megaphone exhaust system usually requires a main jet valve works. For very dusty conditions brass bodies are
about 40 c.c. larger than that used with a straight pipe-in, superior to those made of light alloy, but, in either case
cidentally, Amal jets are calibrated in c.c.'s., the numbers efficient air filters should be made up, not only to prevent
stamped on them indicating how much fuel the jets will premature wear, but as a safety precaution to obviate a
pass under a given standard set of conditions, although not jammed throttle. To be fully effective, this filter or a small
necessarily in the carburetter. To counteract the tendency auxiliary one, must also cover the slot in the side air-control.
to cut out, it is necessary to fit a throttle-valve with greatly On light metal carburetters the threads of screwed parts
reduced cut-away. Very often a No.2 slide has to be used. tend to seize rather easily, and any brute force exerted will
but whilst this helps appreciably in getting the.engine to result in a scrapped component. The correct treatment,
open up from low r.p.m., it may introduce a rich spot at when partial seizure is detected, is to dose the thread with
small throttle openings. To attempt to balance out this penetrating oil, leave it for a few minutes and then carefully
252 253
ease the component out in a series of quarter-turns. Before the standard models is screwed in, not out, to enrich the
replacement, the threads should be smeared lightly with mixture; as a general rule a setting of one to one and a half
graphite grease. To conclude these remarks on racing turns "out" is about right. The tick-over speed is first
carburetters, it cannot be emphasized too strongly that they set by means of th.e throttle-stop on the side of the mixing
are precision instruments which will not perform properly chamber, after whICh the throttle cable is adjusted so that
unless well cleaned and nicely adjusted; it is, unfortunately, the engine responds immediately to grip-movement. It is
a common sight at race meetings to see riders putting jets, surprising how much a well-adjusted and smooth-acting
throttle slides, etc., down on a dusty road, forgetful of the throttle control helps in improving the general" feel" of
fact that any dirt or grit picked up may, a few minutes later, the carburation.,
be the cause of trouble in the race. The standard air control differs from the racing type in
that, except when fully open, the air slide obstructs the air-
flow, and thus simultaneously enriches the mixture and
Tuning a Standard Carburctter
throttles the engine. It is, therefore, not of the same value
In the absence of one of the racing carburetters described, a,s a mixturc-c,orrector, but it can be used as a guide to jet-
a standard model can be made to perform quite well if it sIze when tUlllng. If the speed increases when the lever is
is sufficiently large in the bore. Most sports engines will closed slightly, the jet is too small; if the speed falls off. the
accept a choke size slightly larger than that normally fitted jet is either correct or too large. '
for touring use, particularly if a lot of work has been done to Here" again, the appearance of the sparking plug is the
improve the breathing ability of the engine. (An indication only rehable guide to correct jet size, but when conducting
of the sizes which can be employed was given in Chapter II plug tests it is essential (unless a magneto cut-out is fitted)
of this book.) On the other hand, it is easy to make the to have the carburettcr so adjusted that the engine stops
mistake of fitting too large a carburetter; this will result in i'lstant.'y whe,n the throttle is snapped shut; even a few
an engine which can only scream around at high revs., explOSIOns WIth the engine idling are sufficient to mask
lacking bottom-end power and acceleration. the true appearance of the plug.
A small amount of hand-work in smoothing and polishing Plug tests must be conducted with whatever exhaust
the bore and carefully blending-in the junction of the air- system is to be used when racing; the' removal of even an
intake with the carburetter body will improve the air-flow, effi,cient s,ilen.cer usua.uy necessitates an increase in jet size, a
but care must be taken to see that the tiny slow-running POInt whIch IS sometimes overlooked to the great detriment
mixture hole (drilled at an angle into the bore immediately of the engine. .
on the engi~ side of the throttle) is not blocked in the Tuning for Alcohol Blends
process. As with the racing instruments, it also. pays to
dismantle the mixing and float chambers completely to Standa~d touring Amals are not suitable as they stand
make sure that the small fuel and air passages which control for use WIth alcoh~I blend,S, for none of the passages is large
the idling mixture are fnie from dirt or sediment. e?ough to cop: WIth the Increased fuel flow, but it is quite
Basically, the principles of operation and tuning are SImple to modIfy them to use any blend containing up to
similar for racing and touring models, thus the tuning se- 60% alcohol such as Shell "X", "Y", or "M". Fuels such
quence already described holds good for the latter. It is as 8 I 1 or '.' A ", containing much methanol, are rather beyond
important to remember, however, that the pilot adjuster on the capacIty of these instruments.
254 255
TUNING FOR SPEED
MAINTENANCE OF RACING CARBURETTERS
The first step in conversion is to enlarge the area of every advisable. The trouble with drilling is that jets opened out
fuel passage from the connection to the fioat-bowl right up with the same drill do not necessarily pass the same quantity
to the jet. Double the number of drilled holes in the banjo of fuel owing to variation in the diameter, length, and
connection and remove all sharp corners of the holes. roughness of the hole and the only course open is to make
~ Bottom-feed, fioat chambers need the fioat-needle hole up a number of jets and go through the tuning sequence
enlarged to a size only .030 in. smaller than the head of the previously described, starting first with the largest sizes to
fioat needle; drill out the hole in which the head is housed avoid premature damage to the engine.
about .030 in. larger. Careful lapping-in of the head and Other factors, however, may be limiting the flow of fuel,
seat may be necessary after this operation. . and the precautions to be observed if the engine does not
Enlarge the holes leading from the needle valve seatmg respond to variation in jet size are dealt with in the chapter
into the fioat chamber, being very careful not to damage the on Testing the Finished Work.
seat, as there is not much room in this region. Remove the
small hexagon screw in the banjo end of the fioat bowl and
open out the hole right through about .005 in. larger, which Multi -cylinder Carburation
will still leave enough thread for the screw, and double-up Although the basic tuning sequence is the same as for a
the number of holes in the jet-plug. A good check on the single, carburation can be somewhat more difficult on
efficacy of the work can be made by rigging up a pint tin multi-cylinder engines, and their special problems are dealt
with a piece of hose to couple up to the fioat bowl, and with in Chapter XV.
timing the interval required to pass a pint of fuel: it should
eventually be reduced to less than 40 seconds.
With top-feed bowls, the rate of fiow is limited by the
feed hole which obviously must be smaller than the needle.
It can be enlarged a little, butthe best scheme is to make up a
large head for the needle and drill the needle seating to suit.
The next step is to remove the needle jet and jet block
from the mixing chamber. Enlarge the idling jet, which is
the tiny hole at the bottom of a larger hole in the engine side
of the jet block, to about twice its present diameter and drill
out the needle-jet to .113 in. for" X" or "Y" fuels and .118
in. or .120 in. for" M"; it may be necessary to experiment
later on with these sizes if tuning proves difficult.
Main jets of the size required are not very readily obtain-
able and, although the makers hate the idea, the only
scheme is to drill out some standard jets, the size for" M"
being in the region of .068 in. (No. 51). For this work, a set
of number size drills (ranging from No. 48 to No. 55) is
necessary, and a set of jet reamers (whicb can be obtained
from suppliers of tools to the watchmaking trade) is also
256 257
"HARD" AND "SOFT" TYPES OF SPARKING PLUG
to and from the start or when not actually racing. These

CHAPTER X1X types are usually detachable, and so can be taken apart for
cleaning, whilst the non-detachable racing versions can only
" HARD" AND "SOFT" TYPES OF be properly cleaned by the makers. Conversely, long-reach
SPARKING PLUG plugs should never be used in short reach heads; even the
expedient of using several plug-washers to shorten. the
effective length is bad, because they are seldom gas-11ght
THE correct selection of sparking plugs is of the utmost and, besides causing loss of power, gas-leakage heats the
importance in high-speed work; the time has long plug excessively.
passed when one could stop for a plug change and still have Just prior to 1939 plugs with sintered aluminium-oxide
sporting chance of winning. Prior to 1939, special racing insulators, such as Sintox, Corundite and Sillimanite, made
plugs were produced which were able to stand up to con- their appearance and are now here to stay. This is not the
tinuous full throttle with unfailing regularity, and in most place to enter into a discussion as to the merits of mica or
cases they were of the non-detachable type, with mica the newer type of insulation, except to say that the former
insulation. Then" hardness," or ability to withstand heat, cannot be used for any length of time with fuels containing
was conferred by the use of heavy, high-conductivity, central much tetra-ethyl lead; the lead salts formed during com-
electrodes, by reducing the internal area of the plug body bustion react with the mica to form a conducting coating
and by minimizing the amount of insulation exposed to which it is almost impossible to remove. Apart from this,
flame round the central electrode. The insulation was also it may be taken that, provided the selection of type is correct,
protected to some extent by almost closing the end of the any of the known makes of plug will function satisfactorily.
plug body, and the path by which heat could escape from the However, although various grades are supplied in each make
central electrode to the plug boss was kept as small as none are directly comparable with each other in their charac-
possible. teristics, and it may be found that a change of make is bene-
Unfortunately, all such measures designed to keep the ficial (or otherwise) merely because the heat value of one
plug cool also have an adverse effect in that they make the type is intermediate between two types of another make.
plug much more sensitive to oil, which may either lodge There may be a few engines still using 18 mm. plugs, but
between the points, and so prevent the passage of a spark, the 14 mm. size is at the moment almost universal; a des-
or may give rise to a conducting coating on the insulation, cription of the method of conversion from 18 to 14 mm.
through which the current may leak in preference to jumping was given in Chapter T. In addition, 14 mm. plugs are
the gap. available with two lengths of thread, known as " short-
Speaking very broadly, a hot-running engine is not usually reach" and "long-reach," the latter being generally
oily, but there are always occasions, such as when starting employed in engines having aluminium heads. Short-reach
or at the end of a long downhill stretch, when the engine is plugs should not on any account be used in long-reach heads,
not really hot, and it is at these times that the susceptibility except as a purely temporary measure, otherwise the exposed
of the plug to oil is an important factor. threads in the hole become filled with carbon. When next the
Each plug maker produces a range of plugs which can plug is changed there is every chance, then, of the threads
cover almost all known engine types and, in addition, supplies becoming seized, and it may be very difficult to extract the
what are known as warming-up plugs, for lISe when riding plug without ruining the thread in the hole.
258 259
TUNING FOR SPEED "HARD" AND "SOFT" TYPES OF SPARKING PLUG ~I
I
The accompanying tables give 14 mm. types made by pre-1939 grades are quoted only as a guide to assist those !
Lodge, Champion, and K.L.G., arranged in order of
hardness-i.e., those at the lower ends of the tables will
who were familiar with those grades but not with the later
types. I
stand the most heat and the least oil; the grades of different The symbol denoting the plug-type indicates whether it is
makes are, however, not necessarily equivalent. and the of short or long reach, but when ordering it is essential to
quote the full symbol or to mention which length is required.
For warming-up. any of the softe<;t plugs in the ranges
LODGE
quoted, i.e., those at the upper end of each group, are very
1
REMARKS
suitable, but one of the "hard" varieties of sports plugs, such
SHORT REACHI":ONG REACH
as the Lodge HN or HHN, can be used quite satisfactorily.
For actual racing, the correct plug is that which will stand
R47 RL47
R49
R50
RL49
RL50
l~ Current production with Sintox
up to the engine under the conditions prevailing, which in
this sense embraces the length of race and severity of the
R51 RL51 I insulation. course, and the fuel in use. There is nothing to be gained by
R52 RL52 ! I
using a harder plug than is necessary, and by so doing one
R53 I'
jJ runs the risk of the plug failing through oiling-up halfway
through a race, when, perhaps, the piston rings are not as
good as they were when they started.
CHAMPION Courses where full throttle is held for long stretches will
call for harder plugs than short courses, such as that at
i
SHORT REACH, LONG REACH REMARKS Cadwell; but the most careful choice has to be made for
-----1----1----------·----- long-distance races, such as the T.T., where it is not unusual
i NA8
i to hear engines missing or cutting-out entirely after shutting
LAlO NAlO
LAII NAI2 cu.rrent production with Sillimanite
off for Creg-ny-Baa corner. This happens less often to top-
LAI4 NA14 } insulation. flight riders who come down the Mountain really hard than
LAI5 NA18 to those who start to ease back a trifle up near Kate's
NAI9 Cottage. As an initial choice, a plug near the middle of the
range should be selected, such as K.L.G. 646 or 689, or
Lodge R49. It has been found, however, that, owing to their
K.L.G. construction, the latest Lodge plugs with Sintox insulators
have a very wide heat range, and even the hardest, R51 or
SHORT REACHjLONG REACH REMARKS RL5I, will deal with a range of conditions which once had to
be covered by four types, BR48 to 54, in the old mica series.
690 I 690LR } All mica insulation and exactly On the other hand, when conducting mixture tests, as
646 I 646LR similar to ore-I 939 grades. Available
689 '689LR also in "New Corundite" material in described in the part dealing with carburation, these plugs
731 731LR the 250, 280, 290, 303, 310, 320, 340 will appear, even with a correct mixture, to be running much
FE series. hotter than would be considered advisable with the mica
875 875LR
variety. This point must be borne in mind when tuning,
260 261
TUNING FOR SPEED "HARD" AND "SOFT" TYPES OF SPARKING PLUG
otherwise too large a jet may be fitted in an attempt to attain open ends protected, to prevent damage to the threads or
the correct appearance of the plug. the ingress of dirt or fluff, which may get up inside the plug
and cause an internal short. Spare plugs should always have
K.L.G.
(Ceramic S.749)
K.L.G.
(Mica.) I LODGE. I CHAMPIOt'.
fresh washers in place, the best form of washer being the
solid copper type, as this provides the best heat conductivity,
----1-----1----
"HARD" ! I and does not pack down and allow the plug to loosen, as
F.340
FE. 340
I . either the copper-and-asbestos or rolled-copper varieties can
do; a loose plug will overheat very rapidly.
F.320 875 I
I R.53 Racing plugs are invariably supplied with the correct gap,
F.E.320 875LR I RL53 and in many instances the gap cannot be altered; in others
F.310 I R52
RL52
LA15 this is not the case, but if the gap has to be set, it must be
F:E.310 I NA19 done by bending only the earth electrode, for attempting to
F.300 731 R51 LA!4
bend the central electrode is almost certain to damage the
FE. 300 731LR RL51 NAI4 insulation. Non-detachable racing plugs are not easy to
clean: the best method, if convenient, is to return them to
.MEDIUM
F.290 689 R50 the factory for reconditioning, which is done for a moderate
FE.290 689LR RL50 fee. They can also be cleaned by sand-blasting in an ordin-
ary garage plug cleaner, using a low air pressure to avoid
F.280 646 R49 LA1!
FE.280 646LR RL49 NAI2 damage to the surface of the insulator and subsequently
taking particular care to see that every vestige of sand is
F.250 690 R47 LAlO removed from the thread and from the small annulus between
FE.250 690LR RL47
insulator and body.
'''SOFT'' For most work, there is nothing to beat the K.L.G. spring-
F.220 (detachable)
FE.220 (detachable) wire clip for retaining the high-tension lead, but when
excessively wet conditions are the rule it is better to use one
'''HARD'' of the proprietary types of umbrella terminal which protect
T.280
the plug from water or mud.
'''MEDIUM'' Another point is the plug spanner; it pays to obtain a
T.260 really good example, which fits the hexagons properly and
"'SOFT" with the shank bent to the minimum amount necessary to
T.240 clear the adjacent head fins. A badly fitting spanner can
easily cant over in use, until it bears on the upper end of the
Having settled by experiment on the most suitable plug, it plu.g, and may then either bend or crack the insulated core.
is not a bad scheme to carry, as the spare, another which is
·one grade softer, for obviously if the hard one oils up, another
of similar grade is likely to do the same thing. Spare plugs
·should be looked after very carefully both when in store and
'when being carried, and always kept with their threads and
262 263
TESTING THE FINISHED WORK
the advance is too great, but if it falls there is insufficient

advance. The ideal setting for bench-testing is one which
CHAPTER XX
gives maximum power when the lever is pulled back just
a trifle, as then you can always check the effect of giving a
Uttle extra advance at any time. It is, however, not a good
TESTING THE FINISHED WORK plan to run continuously with the magneto considerably
retarded, as the spark then being delivered is not of maxi-
THE ideal method of testing an engine is, of course, on mum intensity; it is wiser to stop the engine and re-set the
a brake. With just a small Heenan and Froude brake, timing to the correct figure. Incidentally, when observing
type DPXl for preference, an accurate rev.-counter and an the effects of adjustments to ignition or mixture, it is better
Amal flowmeter, much information can be collected, and the to watch the pointer on the load dial of the brake rather than
effects of varying induction and exhaust pipe lengths, the tachometer, because the former is far more sensitive to
ignition and valve timing and compression ratios can be a slight variation in speed than the latter.
studied and tabulated. Naturally, to do this sort of job The brake does not give a direct reading of the horse-
thoroughly takes a fair amount oftime, and is rather beyond power; this has to be calculated, but the arithmetic involved
the scope of this book, but apart from such development is very simple. All one has to do is multiply the load in
work, a brake is invaluable simply for determining whether pounds shown on the dial by the r.p.m., and divide by a
an engine is, or is not, developing its correct horse-power, fixed figure, called the "constant," which depends upon the
and for finding out its peak r.p.m.-that is to say, the type of brake in use; on modern DPX1 brakes the constant
speed at which it gives off its maximum power, not neces- i.s 4,500. Put into the shape of a formula:
sarily maximum speed at which it wiII turn over. R.P.M. x load
Very briefly, the method is to run the engine against a B•H .....
P 4,500
light brake load until it is thoroughly warmed up, and during As an example, if the engine is pulling 28 lb. at 5,000
this period the lubrication system can be checked to ensure
that oil is reaching everywhere it should. Then the throttle r.p.m., It . then d eve1opmg
. IS . 5,000 x 28 311 b h.
4,500 ... • • p.
is opened up and the load on the brake increased until the
engine is pulling the maximum load it can at a medium It will be seen that the accuracy of the b.h. p. figure depends
speed of, say, 3,000 r.p.m. (most racing engines do not like upon the accuracy of the rev. counter; should this be at
. full-throttle at anything below this speed). fault, the whole business is worse than useless, it is most
Readings are then taken of the r.p.m., brake load, and misleading, and it is easy enough to. delude oneself into
fuel consumption, and by means of the air control an indica- believing an optimistic result without the added complica-
tion can be obtained as to the correctness of the jet size. tion of inaccurate instruments. Consequently it is best
Obviously, if closing the air-control causes the speed to rise, always to have at least two separately driven rev-counters,
the jet is too small and should be increased before proceeding one which, preferably, w~ll.be used on the motorcycle itself.
further, as much damage can be done by running for long This serves as a check on the proceedings and avoids sub-
on a lean mixture. sequent discrepancies in readings when the model is tested
Likewise, the ignition setting can be checked by operating on the road. A simple method of checking the speed indica-
the ignition control: if the speed rises as the spark is retarded tion stroboscopically consists of painting a white mark on
264 K 265
TUNfNG FOR SPEED TESTING THE FINISHED WORK
the drive coupling, and observing this solely by the light to eliminate a flat spot in the power curve; for instance, on
from a neon lamp. In England and all countries using dirt-track machines, which are single-geared, it is essential
50-cycle mains frequency, the mark will appear stationary to have plenty of power available to give traction and keep
at 3,000 and 6,000 r.p.m. while in the U.S.A., Canada and the rear wheel spinning when coming out of the corners, and,
all countries with 60-cycle current, the stationary speeds therefore, good pulling power at around 4,000 r.p.m. is a
will be 3,600 and 7,200 r.p.m. There are, of course, more vital necessity. Then, again, the comparatively great weight
accurate methods of checking such as by Strobotac or the of a 500 c.c. motorcar demands wider gear ratios, par-
Ashdown Rotoscope, and these devices can also be used for ticularly for standing-start hill climbs, and if the engine
observing the behaviour of valve springs etc. torque is inclined to fall off rather badly with a diminution
By manipulation of the brake, the horse-power developed in speed, the acceleration following a change to a higher ratio
at various speeds at intervals of, say, 500 r.p.m. can be may suffer.
determined and from the figures so obtained the power Mention was made earlier of taking fuel consumption
curve can be plotted on graph paper. Readings should readings on a flowmeter, of which the Amal pattern is the
always be taken after the engine has settled down to a steady one most frequently used. This instrument indicates the
speed; "snap" readings can be deceptive and are usually rate, in pints per hour, at which the engine is consuming
optimistic. It may be found that the ignition timing and jet fuel and from this the " specific consumption" can be found
size which are correct at low speeds are not necessarily by dividing the consumption by the power being developed.
correct at high r.p.m., and if so, it is best to re-set them to For short-distance racing, a lavish consumption does not
suit the latter condition. The effect of varying the induction matter greatly, but if the specific consumption, when using
and exhaust pipe lengths can be determined very easily, and petrol, works out at much more than .8 pint per b.h.p. per
sometimes quite surprising results can be achieved by hour, there is something wrong somewhere. Probably the jet
obtaining just the right combination. Sometimes, of course, is too large; but if reducing the jet also reduces the power or
such a combination cannot be used on the eventual installa- causes overheating of the plug, then either the valve timing
tion, either for structural reasons or because of regulatio~s is not correct, the exhaust system is of the wrong length. or
which restrict or define the layout of the exhaust system, In the compression ratio is too high necessitating a large flow
which case the next best combination which does comply of fuel to keep the internal temperature down.
with the rules must be sought. In this connection, builders The flowmeter may show also that an increase in power
of 500 ,c.c. racing cars are somewhat better off than motor- gained by some alteration has been accompanied by a dis-
cyclists, because they have room to use almost any con- proportionately great increase in consumption, this being
ceivable arrangements, and are not restricted by regulations particularly liable to happen with two strokes. That may be
regarding pipe lengths. ' a serious matter for long-distance work, as the increase in
Usually a gain in power at the upper end of the speed performance may, or may not, be nullified by the necessity
range, where it is mostly required, is accompanied by a drop for carrying more fuel, or perhaps making an extra pit
in power somewhere lower dowI!, although this is not of stop. In such cases the alternative settings should be care-
much consequence on a racing motorcycle, where the revs. fully noted, so that subsequent experiments can be con-
are always kept up by use of a close-ratio gearbox. There ducted in practice on the course, to determine which is the
are, however, conditions where it may be better to sacrifice a better of the two over the distance of the race.
tUttle at the top end in order to get more power low down, or Arguments frequently arise as to the power which various
266 267
TUNING FOR SPBED TESTING THE FINISHED WORK
engines can or have developed. Few motorcycle engines of speed provided the factors stated do not vary. Air re-
are subjected to officially observed tests as aero engines are, sistance depends upon the frontal area and the aerodynamic
and' such arguments are likely to continue. It may be said, shape, and increases as the square of the speed, and, there-
however, that-anything over 45 b.h.p. for a 500 C.c. engine fore, the power absorbed in overcoming it increases as the
and proportionately less for other capacities, is very good cube of the speed, whereas that required to overcome rolling
indeed. Atmospheric conditions exert quite a large effect resistance increases only directly as the speed. In conse-
on power, which increases when the barometer reading is quence, on a good surface, the power absorbed by wind
high, or when the air temperature is low, and vice versa. pressure at speeds in the region of 100 m.p.h. is nearly 10
For that reason, it is always advisable, particularly in a times that absorbed by rolling resistance. hence the necessity
changeable climate, to correct all power readings to N.T.P. for adopting the most compact riding position possible.
-i.e. normal temperature and pressure, which are res- The air resistance can be found from the formula:
pectively internationally fixed at 150 C. and 29.92 in.
mercury. Correction is made by the following formula: Resistance (pounds)=A.V2.C.
Corrected B.H.P.= where A = the frontal area in square feet.
V = velocity in feet per second.
Observed B.H.P. x 29.92 x 400 ... air temp. (degreefl C.)
barometer reading 415 C = a constant called the" drag coefficient."
From this it will be seen that a drop of 1 in. in the baro- A, the frontal area, is difficult to determine accurately for
meter reading lowers the horsepower by approximately such an irregular shape as a motorcycle and rider, but it can
3%, and although the effect of temperature change is be taken as being about 5 sq. ft. for'a rider of the average
less important Over the ranges normally met with in an
enclosed room with the engine running, it is certainly obviously be less, perhaps 4,
physique, lying down on a Senior T.T. machine; it would
sq. ft. for a small man on a
125 C.c. model. For the factor C, a figure of .0008 has been
advisable to correct the readings fully to avoid subsequent
confusion. found by experiment to give results which tally reasonably
Other figures, such as the torque of the engine and its well with known performance figures, though it may be
B.M.E.P. can also be obtained from the brake test, and for slightly less for a clean design of machine with the rider
those who are interested the relevant formulae are included exceptionally well tucked in.
in an appendix.l Using these figuJ;'es. the air resistance to a Senior T.T.
model at 124 m.p.h. (equal to 182 ft. per sec.) is
Power Requirements
The power required to propel a vehicle depends upon two
5 x 1822 X .0008=1321b.
main factors-rolling resistance and air resistance. The Taking the total all-up weight as 520 lb. and rolling re-
former depends upon the gross vehicle weight, the state of sistance at 2 per cent, which is a good average figure to
the road surface and the size and inflation pressure of the employ. then the rolling resistance is approximately 10 lb.•.
tyres, but it remains substantially constant over a wide range a very small figure compared to the air resistance. The total
1 For those who are really interested in this work, A. W. Judge's resistance is therefore 132 plus 10=142 lb.
book The Testing ofHigh-speed Ihternal-combustion Engilles (Chapman The horsepower required to overcome a known resistance
and Hall Ltd.} provides a wealth of information. at a known speed is found from the expression
268 269
TUNING FOR SPEED TESTING THE FINISHED WORK
70
= resistance x feet per second
H .P . 550
A. -VERY LIGHT, STRIPPED MACHINES
B - ROAD·RACING MACHINES WEIGHING ABOUT 300 lb.
60 f - C -HEAVYWEIGHT MACHINES /
V
m thi S Instance,
. H .P. 142550
x 182 = 47•
/~
&"
t heretore,
This is the power required at the rear tyre; assuming 96 50
~
per cent transmission efficiency; 49 B.H.P. would have to V
be developed by the engine to achieve the quoted speed of
124 m.p.h. This result agrees very closely with the power 17
development and maximum speed of known racing
machines, particularly the 1938' Senior Norton, but there is 30
/' 8/
always bound to be a certain amount of guesswork in
E:7V
,... ~ V
estimating the factors involved. The drag coefficient" C "
for instance can be brought down to .0003 by full stream~ 20
./
lining and though this usually results in a simultaneous

increase in frontal area, the net gain is very considerable.
, To avoid much laborious calculation, the accompanying
graph has been compiled from a number of known per-
formance figures and gives a fairly accurate guide to power
10
a.:
:i
-- ...---;:
ai
requirements; the lower curve is for light, small-capacity 60 70 eo 90 100 110 120 130 140
MP~
machines in track condition, the middle curve being for
In graph form this approximate guide to the tie·up between
heavier machines in road-racing trim, and the upper curve is b.h.p. and m:p.h. gives the tuner an idea of the results his
for large, heavy mounts in the big-twin class. These curves efforts should produce-always bearing in mind wind and
do not appear to rise so rapidly as might be expected with other resistance factors.
increase of speed, but this is because in the examples chosen it is almost impossible to duplicate them on the bench. For
greater efforts had been put into reducing wind resistance by this work a correctly gearedfront-wheel-driven speedometeris a
streamlining, and rolling resistance, partly by reducing great help, although so far as the indirect gears are concerned
weight, and partly by using special tyres. With the aid of it is not so useful as a rev. counter, because it is difficult at
this graph and the performance figures of the engine an racing speeds to convert m.p.h. into r.p.m.The rev. counter is
estimate of the speed attainable and of the gear-ratio to also considerably more sensitive to small variations in speed.
employ can be obtained which will be sufficiently close to Runs can be made over a stretch of the course, or a similar
serve as a " jumping-off place" pending final settlement on piece of road, using the correct exhaust system and the
the course. " official" fuel, if any is stipulated. First of all, the correct
Most amateurs will, of course, have to do what they can jet size should be determined by the method described in
without the advantage of knowing the actual developed Chapter XVIII and experiments made, when the jet is ap-
horsepower, unless they can get their engines tested for proximately correct, to check the accuracy, or otherwise,
them. In any case, even if the figures. are available, final of the ignition timing.
tuning has eventually to be done under race conditions, as This is done when running on full throttle by moving the
270 271
TUNING FOR SPEED
lever back a very small amount in progressive stages, and

noting the rise or fall of the r.p.m. Alternatively, the timing
can be altered very easily over a range of about 4 degrees APPENDIX
by opening or closing the contact-breaker points, remem-
bering that one-sixth of a tum on the adjustment is roughly
equivalent to two degrees. Care must be taken to see that USEFUL FORMULAE
the effect of one adjustment does not mask the effect of the
other; for instance, if the advance is too great, the plug tends FRACTIONS OF AN INCH INTO DECIMALS OF AN INCH
to run hot and an over-large jet will have to be fitted in an
attempt to obtain the right appearance of the plug-face; 1/1000 ............... =0.001 1/2 .................. =0.5
speed will suffer, both on account of the excessive advance 1/100 ............... =0.010 33/64 .................. =0.515625
and the over-rich mixture. 1/64 .................. =0.015625 17/32 .................. =0.53125
1/32 .................. =0.03125 35/64 .................. =0.546875
When using alcohol fuels, it is not uncommon to find that 3/64 .................. =0.046875 9/16 .................. =0.5625
an increase in jet size has no effect on the mixture strength. 1/16 .................. =0.0625 37/64 .................. =0.578125
This is a sure sign that the fuel flow is being restricted else- 5/64 .................. =0.078125 19/32 .................. =0.59375
3/32 .................. =0.09375 39/64 .................. =0.609375
where; possibly the needle-jet is not large enough, or else 7/64 .................. =0.109375 5/8 .................. =0.625
the float chamber or fuel pipes cannot deliver a sufficient 1/8 .................. =0.125 41/64 .................. =0.640625
quantity to keep the jet supplied. If this symptom is noted 9/64 .................. =0.140625 21/32 .................. :=0.65625
5/32 .................. =0.15625 43/64 .................. =0.671875
it is useless to continue going up in jet sizes. The real cause 11/64 .................. =0.171875 11/16 .................. =0.6875
of the trouble must be found and cured, because, although 3/16 .................. =0.1875 45/64 .................. =0.703125
13/64 .................. =0.203125 23/32 .................. =0.71875
an engine runs very cool in a correct alcohol mixture, piston 7/32 .................. =0.21875 47/64 .................. =0.734375
failure will take place with great rapidity if the mixture 15/64 .................. =0.234375 3/4 .................. =0.75
becomes weak through any cause, and there may be no 1/4 .................. =0.25 49/64 .................. =0.765625
17/64 .................. = 0.26562~ 25/32 .................. =0.78125
premonitory symptoms of engine distress to warn the rider 9/32 .................. =0.28125 51/64 .................. =0.796875
of the impending trouble. 19/64 .................. =0.296875 13/16 .................. =0.8125
Modem testing plant and the wealth of technical data 5/16 .................. =0.3125 53/64 .................. =0.828125
21/64 .................. =0.328125 27/32 .................. =0.84375
now available do much to obviate trial-and-error methods 11/32 .................. =0.34375 55/64 .................. =0.859375
of eliminating the minor snags enumerated in this con- 23/64 .................. =0.359375 7/8 .................. =0.875
3/8 .................. =0.375 57/64 .................. =0.890625
cluding chapter. Such facilities, however, must be regarded 25/64 .................. =0.390625 29/32 .................. =0.90625
as going hand in hand with the skill of the man doing the job, 13/32 .................. =0.40625 59/64 .................. =0.921875
and in putting finishing touches to work assembled carefully 27/64 .................. = 0.421875 15/16 .................. =0.9375
7/16 .................. =0.4375 61/64 .................. =0.953125
down to the finest detail, it is patience and perseverance 29/64 .................. =0.453125 31/32 .................. =0.96875
which ultimately produce the desired result. 15/32 .................. =0.46875 63/64 .................. =0.984375
31/64 .................. =0.484375
272 273
TUNING FOR SPEED
Power CalCulations
B.H.P. xC
B.M .B.•
P R.P.M.
C depends upon size and type of engine, though not
~ upon the number of cylinders, and i~ as follows:
For 250 c.c. 4-strokes • • 52460
350 c.c. 4-strokes .. •. 37480
500 c.c. 4-strokes} 26230
250 c.c. 2-strokes ••
350 c.c. 2-strokes . . 18740
1,000 c.c. 4-strokes} 13125
500 c.c. 2-strokes .•
For other capacities the value of C can be obtained by
direct proportion. .
. PLAN
B.H.P. = 33,000
where P ==Brake Mean Effective Pressure (B.M.E.P.).
L - Stroke in feet.
A = Area of one piston in square inches.
N Number of explosions per minute.
:2
B.H.P. x 5,250
T orque . R.P.M.
Therefore at 5,250 r.p.m. the torque in lb. per ft. is numeri-
cally equal to the b.h.p.
Fronde Brake Calculations

== P x R.P .M.
B•H •P • C
where P -Pull in pounds shown on dial.
C = A constant, usually either 4,500 or 5,500, de-
pending on type of brake.
THE BESTM()TORCYCLE IN THE "UJ'ffl'"
To find Torque or B.M.B.P. directly from the" pounds-
pull" reading, multiply by the following factors, irrespective
of the number of cylinders in the engine: TRIUMPH ENGINEERING Co. Lid., Meriden WorkJ, Allule,. Covenlt)'.
274 275
APPENDIX
AR HUR HEELE ENGINE SIZE

;
BRAKll CONSTANT
4,500 5,500
THE RIDERAGENT TORQUE ALL CAPACITIES 1.167 .965
The successful privateer, winner of many races 250 c.c. 4-str. 11.56 9.46
Including 1954 ITALIAN GRAND PRIX 250 c.c. and 350 c.c. 4-str. 8.26 6.76
1955 Hutchinson "100" 250 c.c., offers you personal 500 c.c. 4-str. } 5.78 4.73
attention on all your problems and requirements. B.M.E.P. 250 C.Co 2-atr.
350 c.c. 2-str. 4.13 3.38
A&ent for I 1,000 c.c. 4-str. } 2.89 2.36
A.J.S., ARIEL, D.M.W•• EXCELSIOR, JAMES, NORMAN, 500 c.c. 2-str.
PANTHER, TRIUMPH, VELOCETTE. CANTERBURY,
. WATSONIAN, SURREY, BUSMAR, SWALLOW, SPARES,
ACCESSORIES and RePAIRS Example: If a 500 c.c. four-stroke engine is pulling 30 lb.
at 5,000 r.p.m. on a 4,500 constant brake, it is developing
30 x 5,000
WHEELER MOTORS 4500
, ==33.3 b.h.p.
45 & 51.AWATERLOO ROAD, EPSOM
Phone: 4505/6
Its torque is 30 x 1.167 .... 35 pounds-feet.
Its B.M.E.Pis 30 x 5.78 -174poundspersq.in.
Engine Calculations
REBDRES, Mean Piston Speed (ft. per min.) ...
R.P.M. x stroke in inches
SlEEVING
R.P .M. x stroke in mm.
Specialists In the manu- or ....----~~~------...
fa(:ture of all known
roller bearing replace- Mean Gas Velocity Through Port (ft. per sec.) ""
ment assemblies for
British and most
Piston speed Dl1
Foreign engines. 60 x
WORLD'S LARGEST Mean Gas Velocity Through Valve Seat (ft. per sec.) ...
BIG END STOCKISTS
Piston speed DII x 22
Valves, guides, 60 xd v xLx7
springs, main bearings,
pistons, etc. where D = Diameter of piston.
d ... Diameter of port.
C • F• SMITH & CO ., 83/85 ST. JOHN'S HILL
OLAPi-lAM JUNO., S.W.11 d v == Diameter at throat of valve.
T.I.phone, Battetseo 0871 L =Lift of valve.
276 277
TUNING FOR SPEED
(Either in. or mm. can be used on the right-hand side of
these equations, provided the same scale is used for each of
the dimensions used.) C:R. COLLIER
Inertia Load of Reciprocating Parts

Load at T.D.C. (in pounds)=.OOOO142WN2S (1 + 2i)
Load at B.D.C."".OOOO142 WN2S (1- 2i)
where W=Weight of components in pounds.
N =R.P.M.
S -Stroke in inches.
L = Length of connecting-rod in inches.
Centrifugal Load on Crankpin

Load == .OOOO142WN2S
where W = Weight of big-end and rollers.
N =R.P.M.
S = Stroke in inches.
To calculate speed in m.p.h. when time and distance

factors are known :
Distance (in miles) 3600
Time (in seconds) ,x ,
For speed over quarter miJe, divide 900 by the time in
seconds.
Conversion Factors
To convert- Multiply by-
Miles to kilometres 1.609 (or 815 approx.)
M.p.h. to k.p.h. •. 1.609 (or 8/5 approx.)
Kilometres to miles .. .621 (or 5/8 approx.)
K.p.h. to m.p.h. .621 (or 518 approx.) Manufacturers 01 Highly Successful
Gallons to Htres 4.536 (or 4t approx.)
Litres to gallons •• .2205 (or 2/9 approx.) Motor Cycles for over Half a Century
Pounds to kilograms .• .• .4536 (or 9/20 approx.)
~
~I1I.1
Kilograms to pounds .• •• 2.205 (or 11/5 approx.)
Cubic centimetres to cubic inches •• .061 (or 1/16 approx.)
Cubic inches to cubic centimetres .• 16.39 (or 33/2 approx.)
M.p.h. to feet per second •• 88/60 (or It approx.)
MATCHLESS MOTOR cYCLES' PLUMSTBAO" ROAO .! LONOON.-S.E;llS
278
279
APPENDIX
CoBFFlcmNTS OF TtmRMAL EXPANSION
(per <> Centigrade for temperatures between 0 and 200° C.)
MATI!lUAL COBFFlCIl!NT
.. Iovar" .0000009
Cast Iron· .000011
Mild Steel .000011
Hardened Steel .000012
Phosphor Bronze .000018
Aluminium Bronze .000018
Austenitic Valve Steel
(D.T.D. 49b, K.E. 965. Jessops G2) ..000018
Austenitic Cast Iron .000019
Austenitic Stainless Steel (18/8 grade) .000020
BURMAN &: SONS LTD WYCHALL LANE BIRMINGHAM 3() .. Lo·Ex " Aluminium Alloy .000019
L 33 High-silicon Alloy .000019
White Ad 3124 R.R.S3 B .000022
Y-alloy .000022
D.T.D. 424 Aluminium Alloy .000022
Most Wrought High.strength Aluminium Alloys .000024
VALVE 8 %Copper Aluminium Alloy, L8 .000026
SPECIALISTS Heat-treated Cast Magnesium Alloys .000024/26
Contractors to the Magnesium Alloys as Cast .000029
leading Manu-
Wrought Magnesium Alloys .000029
factu rers. Also
valvesprings, collets.
big ends, piston
Multiply coefficient by 5/9 to obtain coefficient per
rings and liners.
degree F.
Example: To find expansion at 200° C. of a 3 in. bore in a
Cylinder boring and jacket case in L33 material.
sle.ving
Assuming the bore to be measured at 15° C. (normal
G. &. S. Valves and Guides atmospheric temperature) the temperature rise is 185 0
are stocked by all leading C. Expansion therefore is 3 in. X 185x .000019=.0105 in.
dealen and beton.
HI LFORD, nr.Godalming,
Surrey. Phone: lOIfalmlne 1844
(2I1net>
280 281
SPIlEO AND R.P.M. FOR 3.25-lN. AND 3.50-lN. X 19-IN. RACING TyRES
R.P.M. Difference Table

-- -60- - I -- - ---- --
m.p.h. 30 40 50 70 ! 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 1 2 3 4 5 6 1-7-[ 8 I 9
- -----
Gear
ratio 277 323 367 41S
3.5 1,382 1,844 2,304 2,765 3,226 3,688 4,146 4,608 5,068 5,530 5,990 6,452 46 92 138 184 230
1,422 2,370 2,843 3,316 3790 4,264 4,740 5,210 5,686 6,160 6,632 47 9S 142 190 237 284 332 379 426
3.6 1,895 439
3.7 1,462 1,948 2,436 2,930 3,410 3:896 4,386 4,872 5,360 5.846 6,334 6,820 49 97 146 195 244 293 341 390
3.8 1,500 2,()()() 2,500 3,002 3,502 4.002 4,503 5,003 5,503 6,004 6,504 7,004 SO 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
3.9 1,540 2,054 2,566 3,080 3,593 4,108 4,620 5,134 S,646 6,160 6,673 7,186 51 103 154 205 257 308 359 411 463
1,580 2,106 2,634 3,160 3,687 4,212 4,740 5,266 5,794 6,320 6,847 7,374 53 lOS IS8 211 263 316 367 421 474
4.0 432 486
4.1 1,620 2,160 2,700 3,240 3,180 4,320 4,860 5,400 5,940 6,480 7,020 7,560 54 108 162 216 270 324 378
4.2 1,660 2,212 2,764 3,318 3,870 4,424 4,978 5,S30 6,082 6,638 7,188 5S 111 166 221 276 332 387 442 498
4.3 1,698 2,264 2,830 3,391 3,963 4,528 5,096 5,660 6,227 6,794 7,360 57 113 170 226 283 340 396 453 SIO
4.4 1,738 2,318 2,896 3,476 4,055 4,636 5,214 5,792 6,372 6,952 7,530 58 U6 174 232 290 348 405 464 521
4.5 1,777 2,370 2,964· 3,SSS 4,148 4,740 5,332 $,925 6,520 7,110 59 118 178 237 296 355 415 474 533
4,6 1,817 2,422 3,030 3,634 4,240 4,846 5,450 6,057 6,664 7,268 61 121 182 242 303 363 424 485 54S
4.7 1,856 2,476 3,094 3,713 4,332 4,952 5,570 6,188 6,807 7,426 62 124 186 248 309 371 433 495 557
4.8 1,896 2,528 3,160 3,792 4,424 5,056 5,688 6,320 6,952 7,584 63 126 190 253 316 379 442 506 569
4.9 1,935 2,580 3,226 3,871 4,515 5,161 5,805 6,452 7,096 7,742 65 129 193 258 323 387 452 516 580
5.0 1,975 2,634 3,292 3,950 4,608 5,267 S,925 6,584 7,242 66 132 197 263 329 395 461 527 592
5.1 2,015 2,686 3,360 4,030 4,702 5,372 6,045 6,716 i 7,388 67 134 201 269 336 403 470 537 604
S.2 2,054 2,738 3,424 4,108 4,793 5,476 6,162 6,847 7,532 68 137 205 274 342 411 479 548 616
5.3' 2,093 2,792 3,490 4,187 4,885 5,584 6,280 6,979 7,677 70 140 209 279 349 419 488 SS8 628
S.4 2,133 2,844 3,556 4,266 4,977 5,688 6,400 7,110 7,822 71 142 213 284 356 427 498 567 640
S.S 2,172 2,896 3,620 4,345 5,070 5,792 6,517 7,241 - 12 145 217 290 362 434 507 579 652
5.6 2,212 2,950 3,686 4,424 5,160 5,898 6,636 7,372 - 74 148 221 295 369 442 516 590 664
5.7 2,251 3,002 3,752 4,503 5,253 6,004 6,754 7,504 - 75 ISO 225 300 375 450 525 600 675
5.8 2,291 3,054 3,818 4,582 5,345 6,109 6,873 7,636 - 76 153 229 305 382 458 534 611 687
5.9 2,330 3,108 3,884 4,661 5,438 6,216 6,990 7,768 - 18 ISS 233 311 388 466 544 622 699
6.0 2,310 3,160 3,950 4,740 5,530 6,320 7,110 7,900 - 79 158 237 316 395 414 55l 632 711
---
Note.-For 3.25-;0. and 3.50-io. x 20-io. tYl"'$ subtract 4% from T.p.m. figures, for speeds intermediate between even u.n.,
add r.p.rn. from" Difference Table.·' For ratios lower than si~ select any sub-multIple and multiply r.p.m. accordingly.
i.e. For 12 to I, select speed for 6 to 1 and multiply by 2.
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GEOFF MONTY & DUDLEY WARD
The Speed Specialists
INDEX
OFFER
Air resistance, formula and Cadwell Park, 261
Complete Tuning Facilities calculations, 269, 270 Cams, basic design and modifica-
A.).S., 18, 96, 117, 161; three- tions, 175, 181
bearing crankshaft, 193, 194; Cam-followers, offsetting to mini·
Machining and Welding Vernier device for ignition mise wear, 151
The Finest Selection of Genuine Racing Machines timing, 186 Cams, Vincent" Black Lightning"
.. Allin", 63 type, 152
and Spares Allen screws, 34 Camshaft drives, correct meshing,
"Alpax",59 146, 147, 148
HIRE PURCHASE INSURANCE & EXCHANGES "Alnico ", cast-in magnets, 182 Carburation, Amal G.P. instru·
Showroom Amal, types of carburetter, 240, ments, 245; modifications for
250 "Twins"; 203,206; R.N. and
. 47 HAMPTON ROAD, TWICKENHAM Ariel, 161 T.T. Amal instruments, 240,
MIDDX. Austenitic valve inserts, 12, 63 249; representative settings,
i Phone: Popesgrove 5040
243; various modifications, 248,
Big-end bearings, various modifi- 257; "Swill pot", 249
cations, 85, 86 Champion plugs, 260, 262
Binks "mouse-trap" type of "Cobalite",30
carburetter, 171 Co-efficients, comparison in vary-
"Birmabright," 59
Supertllne Black and Decker tools, 12
Brake Horse Power, cordination
ing materials, 281
Compression ratio, adjustment,
48, 49, 55; measuring proce-
with m.p.h., 271; formula and
. Motors calculations, 265, 269, 274
Brake Mean Effective Pressure,274
dure, 2, 5; ready reference
table, 53
Conversion factors, 280
"Brico", 10 Craig, )., LA.E. paper, 172
226 CLAPHAM ROAD, LONDON S.W.9 . "Brightray", 30 Crankcase details, the use of test
B.S.A., 161 mandrels, 11, 112
FOR. HIGH SPEED B.S.A. B32/B34, 188 Crankpin, centrifugal loading,
B.S.A. "Bantam", 207, 215; a 280
TUNING modified cylinder head, 229;
conversion to close-ratio gears,
Crankpin modifications, 96
Crankshaft, checking end-play.
ROAD AND RACING 218; exhaust-pipe length, 211; 125, 126, 127
MOTOR CYCLES modified choke sizes, 219; port Creg-ny-baa, 261
modifications, 221,226; stand- "Cromard ", 58
Ride away H.P. Terms ard port timing, 216; various Cylinder filling, improved induc-
TELEPHONE compression ratios, 228-229 tion,168,181
REL·lance 6420 B.S.A. "Bantam", modified ex- Cylinder-head joints, 136; copper
haust arrangement, 230; work gasket annealing, 138; elonga-
on the transmission, 231, 232 tion of bolts, 138; the "double-
B.T.H. type of magneto, 183, 184 ground" principle, 138
284 285
INDEX
Detonation, a limiting factor, 54, J.A.P., 16,35,62,94,161,162
55 J.A.P., model "8.80",118: split- READ WHEREVeR
"Dope" fuels, 2, 44 type collet, 40; type of fuel, 44,
D.T.D. steel specifications, 138, 195 MOroRCYCL.ES ARE RIPf)EN
148 Jessop G2 type of steel, 8, 9, 138
Duralumin, light-alloy, 41, 92, Judge,A. W.,The Testing ofHigh.
145, 148 speed Internal-combustion
"Durex", abrasive tape, 23 Engines, 268
Dykes ,type piston ring, 74 "K-Monel",]l
Kadenacy, 210
n.
"Elektron 59 Kate's Cottage, 216
E.M.C., 207 KE 9651 type of steel, 8, 9, 29,138
EN, steel specifications, 81, 92 KoL.G., 260, 262, 263
Engine assembly, 234, 239
Engine ,balayce, calculating bal-
ance factors, 105, 108 Lambretta, 211
"Enots" adjustable drip-feed, Laystall Engineering Co. Ltd., 58
118 Levis, 162
Excelsior "Talisman", 214 "Limalloy" piston rings, 74
Exhaust port, modifying work, "Listard' chrome7process, 58
26,28 Lister, R. A. and Co. Ltd., 58
Eysink,207 Lodge, 260, 262
"Lo-Ex ", 59, 62
"Fabroil", 184 Lubrication, gear-type oil pumps,
Firth-Brown N.M.C. material, 118, plunger-type oil pumps,
139 120; reciprocating plunger-type
Flywheel aligmnent, methods of oil pumps, 120; total-loss type,
checking, 100 118: Velocette double-gear oil
pump, ]19
"Gasket-goo", 128, 167 Lucas types of magneto, 183
Giiera,18
Guzzi, 18, 1~2 Main bearings, removal and Every week, Moto Cycling is packed with ~he
refitting, 97, 98 latest news of every aspect of the motorcyclmg
Heenan and Froude, 264 Mainshaft aligmnent, method of sport and pastime. Results of races, trials and
Hepworth:and GrandageLimited, checking, 101, 102,103 scrambles; descriptions of new machines,
74 accessories and clothing; touring news, club
"Manx" Norton, 18, 89; Vernier news and general interest items-all these
"Honeychrome", 58 settings, 158; valve timing, 173 aspects of motorcycling find their place in the
Matchless, 117, 162; G3L main journal. Motor Cye/ing's team of expert
Ignition advance, co-ordination bearings,12]: G3L main bear- writers and on-the-spot cameram~n ens!lre
with compression ratio, 188; ings, method of assembly, 123: that you get something new and mterestmg
"hard" and "soft" plugs, 258, _ three-bearing crankshaft, 193, every week.
263;Itiming, an electrical check, 194
185 Mean gas velocity, formula 277
EVERY THURSDAY EIGHTPENC£
Induction, improved o.h. v., 21,22 Mechanical condition, an initial
Inlet port" modifying work, 18, check,6, 7,8
]9 Monochrome Limited, 58 TEMPlE PRESS LIMITED .' BOWLING GREEN LANE' LONDON EC1
286 287
L. E. RTLE
The well-known engine development consultant
Morrison, J. G., 171
INDEX
R.R.56 type of alloy, 41, 92,
M.T. 80 type of fuel, 50 148
is able, as the result of over 35 years' ungrooved R.R.77 type of alloy, 41
experience with many engine types, to offer New Imperial, 162 Rudge, 163
unbiased advice on preparation and modification, "Ni-Resist" nickel-iron alIoy, 10
for all racing, trials, or touring purposes. Nitro-benzine type of fuel, 207 S.A.E., American steel specifica-
Norton, 162; "Dominator" tions,82
HARTLEY "GROOMED" ENGINES crankshaft details, 192; 30j40M Seat grinders, Black and Decker,
12
have taken over 4,500 awards. Varying from fastest time models, 188; main-bearing
Brooklands Hutchinson Hundred and over 100 other details, 124 "Seeger" type of piston circlip,
Brooklands awards, to records and awards at Cadwell, 76,77
Alton Towers, Oulton Park, Brands Hatch, Osmaston Side-valve engines, 16, 19
Orsatt type of gas analyser, 211 Sifbronze welding 13
Manor, Warminster, Silverstone, Abridge Aerodrome,
Brighton Speed Trials, Shelsley Walsh, and S.E. Centre SmalI-end bearings, modification
Grass Track Championships (solo and sidecar). Panther, 162, 163 to con-rod eye, 89
Petrol-benzoIe, 7, 50 Speed from a Two-stroke, article
HARTLEY FUEL USERS Petter "Harmonic" type of in Motor Cycling, 216
have taken over 5,000 awards. engine, 210 Steels, expansion co-efficients,
WHY NOT GET IN TOUCH NOW? "Phormicast" piston rings, 74 139
"Pickavant" hydraulic extractor, "Stellite". 30, 149
289, PI umstead High Street, London, S.E.18 79
Telephone: Woolwich 1895 Sunbeam, 163
Piston crown, detail modifica-
tions, 133, 135 Tappet adjustments, 41, 42
Piston, essential clearances, 68, Tappets, direct-impact type, 151
69; speed formula, 277 Tetra-ethyl lead, fuel additive, 50
P.M.S. type of fuel, 44 "Thermochrom " , piston rings,
Porting of Two-stroke Engines, 74
The, 171 "Top-half" modifications, 132,
Proceedings of the I.A.E., 171 135
The rider agent enthusiasts will be pleased Progress in Motorcycle Engines, Transmission, lining up chain
to supply your new, competition, racing or 1.A.E. paper by J. Craig, 172,
standard machine. drive, 238
173 Triumph, 163; crankshaft
Puch,207 assemblies, 192; special ex-
Let our long experience be your gUide Python engines, 29 tractor tools, 190
Our well equipped and expertly manned "Tufnol", 184
workshops at yo.ur disposal for major over- Rocker mechanism, Rudge type, Twin-cylinder engine tuning
hauls, repairs or tuning. 142 methods, 189, 206
Rocker modifications, lightening Two-stroke engine tuning modi-
Personal service and attention given at all times o.h.v. mechanism, 143, 144 fications, 207, 233
Rockwell diamond hardness
Advice and estimates given freely numbers, 81 "Unbrako",34
Rolling resistance, 269 Useful formulae, 273, 282
264, MILLBROOK ROAD Rose, A. E., Speed from a Two-
stroke, 216 Valve gear adjustments during
so UTHAMPTO N 27744/5 R.R. light alloy specifications, 11, reassembly, 154-159
12 Valve-seat angles, 31
2RR 289
INDEX TWO OUTSTANDING BOOKS
Valve settings, representative data Vincent, 117, 163, 188; adjusting FOR PRACTICAL MOTORCYCLISTS
161,163 the compression ratio, 198.-
Valve springs, an auxiliary return "Black Shadow" and "Black ••••••••••••••••••••••••
device, 38 Lightning", 197; big-end MODERN
Valve springs, hairpin type, 36, 37 details, 85; details of a modi-
Valve timing, degree/linear con- fied crankpin, 199; main MOTORCYCLE
version, 159 bearing details, 124; rocker
Van der Horst chrome process, lubrication, 118 MAINTENANCE 2nd Edition, 2nd Impression
58 By Bernal Osborne of "Motor Cycling"
Velocette, 163; KTT head studs,
139; types of rocker box, 37; Wellworthy Limited, 63 An ideal book for those who take pride in the reliability
MSS, crankpin details, 200 Wellworthy pistons, 10, 74
and efficiency of every component of their machine, out-
Villiers radially disposed finning, lining the efficient use of tools, the overhaul of working
213 Y-alloy, 11, 12 parts, carburetter adjustment, lubrication, and the repair
and maintenance of electrical equipment.
Of equal interest to novice and expert alike, the practical
value of this up-to-date handbook is much enhanced by the
numerous explanatory illustrations and cutaway drawings.
Crown 8vo (paper boards) Illustrated 68. net, by post 6.>. 3d.
"MOTOR CYCLING"
ELECTRICAL
MANUAL 1st Edition, 2nd Impression
By Bernal Osborne o/"M%r Cycling"
This practical and informative book deals with most of the
electrical problems likely to confront the motorcyclist.
First principles of electrical theory are explained, together
with the functioning of the ignition and lighting equipment
of the modern motorcYcle. The Manual is written through-
out in simple, non7 technical language and the text is
supported with many line drawings and a supplement of
wiring diagrams of post-war BritIsh machines.
CrowlI 8vo (paper boards) Illustrated 5s. net, by post 5s. 4d.
••••••••••••••••••••••••
Obtainable from your Bookseller or by post from the Publishers
TEMPLE PRESS LIMITED

Bowling Gl"een Lane, London, E.C.I
290 291

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•

Now in its third edition, this book has been

TEMPLE PRESS LIMITED

. 'I '. .. 'j

or in the bottom face. Local damage of this sort is almost

indication that cams giving longer valve openings are

The lift must also be considered and should be slightly

CARBURATION AND INDUCTION FACTORS *

gone to these e~tremes; the twin AJ.S. had one 1i in.

How to reduce the width of the seatings on

paratively fiat, straight port-a shape which directs the gas

flexible shaft chuck, and a strip of emery cloth or better

port requires a flattish underhead profile, but a combina- MINIMUM CLEARANCE

• .. "! :. " .~! . ,;" :

in stem diameter, and have cast-iron guides; an improve-

the carburetter and porl bores can then be blended into

reached. After that, the spring accelerates the valve back

The simple construction

ADJUSTING COMPRESSION RATIOS

THE previous note on compression ratios suitable for

at . greater efficiency and (b) the high latent heat of o \

vided with a flange at the upper end which can be gripped

important point to watch is squareness of the shoulder and

think that ultra-wide clearances are essential or even

RING EXPOSED CONTACT AT

A correctly fitted piston, after running at racing speeds for

Bi-metal barrels with shrunk-in liners have a slightly \

after rough gapping, lap the rings in to the barrel with

\ :, .,: wire type is perfectly satisfactory provided the ends of the

and in a short period of running the corners would dig in

The Velocette slow-taper crankpin:!fywheel assembly calls

blL HOLE DRILLED HALF WAY

One method of check-

the sleeve in the bore and in service it would revert to its

~e pin ~n the w?eels. If parallel, these are usually made a

assembly is easy with no danger of scoring. ~he~ a hard

Where a pair of centres is 1101 available, the flywheel assembly

and the top half of the connecting rod. A lot of weighing

plugs, and drill several holes in the flywheels at the same

2 B.A. 31.4 No.23 5/32 in.

0& TO OIL TANK

mu,," " " "

that any distance-pieces or washers. either next to the wheels

clearall~: be~~e:1I e~a::~~~eiJ~:j~~f!:t~~it:h::k:Ji~':i/hIl1

down with the fingers, and there should be no perceptible

WE have now proceeded to the point where the barrel is

~f you are intend~g to experiment with compression

of the piston, any rocking of this component in the barrel

On some engines it is not easy to handle the rings as they

at 830 0 C. and tempered by quenching in oil from 550'" C.

Varying Types of Follower

practice and specify closer clearances for setting than for

being to show how the timings vary according to the type of

INLET OPENS T.O.C I EXHAUST CLOSES

with the correct pipe lengths. Conver-sely, if maximum

In fact the Norton is specifically made so that the inlet cam . ~.

• Millimetre dimensiona are aJ measured at rim of flywheel.

SPECIMEN VALVE SETTINOS WITII CoMPL£MENTARY DATA-continued

INLET EXHAusr Cl.EARANCIlS

clearall~: be~~e:1I e~a::~~~eiJ~:jf!:tit:h::k:Ji~':i/hIl1