Inductive and Deductive Reasoning - discover that the time required for a pendulum to

complete one swing, called the period of the

 Inductive Reasoning pendulum, depends on the length of the
pendulum.
- type of reasoning that forms a conclusion based
on the examination of specific examples is called Use Inductive Reasoning to Solve an Application
inductive reasoning.
- is the process of reaching a general conclusion - Use the data in the table and inductive
by examining specific examples. reasoning to answer each of the following
questions.
 Conjecture
- The conclusion formed by using inductive If a pendulum has a length of 49 units, what is its period?
reasoning is often called a conjecture, since it b. If the length of a pendulum is quadrupled, what
may or may not be correct. happens to its period?

Use Inductive Reasoning to Predict a Number Solution

Use inductive reasoning to predict the next number a. In the table, each pendulum has a period that is
in each of the following lists. the square root of its length. Thus we conjecture
that a pendulum with a length of 49 units will have a
a. 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, ? b. 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, ? period of 7 heartbeats.

Solution b. In the table, a pendulum with a length of 4 units

has a period that is twice that of a pendulum with a
a. Each successive number is 3 larger than the length of 1 unit. A pendulum with a length of 16
preceding number. Thus we predict that the next units has a period that is twice that of a pendulum
number in the list is 3 larger than 15, which is 18. with a length of 4 units. It appears that quadrupling
the length of a pendulum doubles its period.
b. The fi rst two numbers differ by 2. The second
and the third numbers differ by 3. It appears that the  Counterexamples
difference between any two numbers is always 1
more than the preceding difference. Since 10 and 15 A statement is a true statement provided that it is true in
differ by 5, we predict that the next number in the list all cases. If you can find one case for which a statement
will be 6 larger than 15, which is 21. is not true

Use Inductive Reasoning to Make a Conjecture  Deductive Reasoning

Consider the following procedure: Pick a number. distinguished from inductive reasoning in that it is the
Multiply the number by 8, add 6 to the product, process of reaching a conclusion by applying general
divide the sum by 2, and subtract 3. principles and procedures.

Solution the process of reaching a conclusion by applying

general assumptions, procedures, or principles.
Suppose we pick 5 as our original number. Then the
procedure would produce the following  Basic Puzzle Solution Strategies

results: Original number: 5 Multiply by 8: Single-Square

8 x 5 = 40 - Cages Fill cages that consist of a single square

with the target number for that square.
Add 6: 40+ 6= 46
Cages with Two Squares
Divide by 2: 46 divide 2 =23
- Next examine the cages with exactly two
Subtract 3: 23-3 =20 squares. Many cages that cover two squares will
only have two digits that can be used to fi ll the
We conjecture that following the given procedure cage.
produces a number that is four times the original
number. Large or Small Target Numbers

 Galileo Galilei - Search for cages that have an unusually large

or small target number. These cages generally
- Galileo’s study of pendulums assisted in the have only a few combinations of numbers that
can be used to fi ll the cage.
development of pendulum clocks.
Duplicate Digit in a Cage first differences

- Consider the 3 cage shown at the left. The digits - The differences in row (1) are called the
1, 1, and 3 produce a product of 3. first differences of the sequence. In this
- Thus the only way to fi ll the squares is to place case, the first differences are all the
the 3 in the corner of the L-shaped cage as same.
shown below.
- Remember: A digit can occur more than once in second differences
a cage, provided that it does not appear in the
- These are shown in row (2). These
same row or in the same column.
differences of the fi rst differences are
Remember the Following Rules called the second differences.

Make a List of Possible Digits third differences

- For each cage, make a list of digits, with - The differences of the second
no regard to order, that can be used to differences are called the third
fi ll the cage. differences.

Guess and Check nth-Term Formula for a Sequence

- In most puzzles you will reach a point An= 3n^2 + n

where you will need to experiment.
The Fibonacci Sequence
Assume that the possible digits in a
particular cage are arranged in a - explained why the Hindu-Arabic
particular manner and then see where numeration system that he had learned
your assumption takes you. about during his travels was a more
sophisticated and efficient system than
 Problem Solving with Patterns the Roman numeration system.
Terms of a Sequence Leonardo of Pisa
sequence - also known as Fibonacci (c. 1170–
1250), is one of the best-known
- An ordered list of numbers such as 5,
mathematicians of medieval Europe. In
14, 27, 44, 65, ... is called a sequence.
1202, after a trip that took him to
Terms of the sequence several Arab and Eastern countries,
Fibonacci wrote the book Liber Abaci.
- The numbers in a sequence that are
separated by commas are the terms of recursive definition
the sequence.
-for a sequence is one in which each
nth term of a sequence successive term of the sequence is defi
ned by using some of the preceding
- It is customary to use the subscript terms.
notation an to designate the nth term  Fibonacci Numbers: Cropping Up Everywhere!
of a sequence.
Fibonacci’s rabbit problem is not a very realistic
difference table model of the population growth rate of rabbits;
however, the numbers in the Fibonacci sequence often
- which shows the differences between occur in nature. For instance, the seeds on a sunfl ower
successive terms of the sequence. are arranged in spirals that curve both clockwise and
counterclockwise from the center of the sunfl ower’s
head to its outer edge. In many sunfl owers, the number
of clockwise spirals and the number of counterclockwise
spirals are consecutive Fibonacci numbers. In the sunfl
ower shown at the left, the number of clockwise spirals - particularly intrigued by the number 5
is 34 and the number of counterclockwise spirals is 55. and the shape of a pentagon.

It has been conjectured that the seeds on a  Problem-Solving Strategies

sunflower grow in spirals that involve Fibonacci
numbers because this arrangement forms a uniform Polya’s Problem-Solving Strategy
packing. At any stage in the sunflower’s development,
its seeds are packed so that they are not too crowded in - Ancient mathematicians such as Euclid
the center and not too sparse at the edges. and Pappus were interested in solving
mathematical problems, but they were
Pineapples have spirals formed by their hexagonal also interested in heuristics, the study
nubs. The nubs on many pineapples form 8 spirals that of the methods and rules of discovery
rotate diagonally upward to the left and 13 spirals that and invention.
rotate diagonally upward to the right. The numbers 8
and 13 are consecutive Fibonacci numbers. René Descartes

Additional information about the occurrence of - the mathematician and philosopher

Fibonacci numbers in nature can be found on the René Descartes (1596–1650)
Internet. contributed to the fi eld of heuristics.
He tried to develop a universal
 Polygonal Numbers problem-solving method.

They called the numbers 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, ... the triangular - he did publish some of his ideas in Rules
numbers. for the Direction of the Mind and his
better-known work Discourse de la
The Greeks called the numbers 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, ... the
Method.
square numbers.
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz (1646–1716)
the numbers 1, 5, 12, 22, 35, ... the pentagonal
numbers. - mathematician and philosopher,
An nth-term formula for the triangular numbers is: planned to write a book on heuristics
titled Art of Invention.
T = (n)(n + 1) / 2

The square numbers have an nth-term formula - Leibnitz wrote, “Nothing is more
important than to see the sources of
Sn= n^2
invention which are, in my opinion,
The nth-term formula for the pentagonal numbers is: more interesting than the inventions
themselves.”
 Pn = (n-1)n + n(n+1)/2.

 Pythagoras
George Polya (1887–1985)
The ancient Greek philosopher and mathematician
Pythagoras formed a secret brotherhood that - He was born in Hungary and moved to
investigated topics in music, astronomy, philosophy, the United States in 1940. The basic
and mathematics. problem-solving strategy that Polya
advocated consisted of the following
The Pythagoreans
four steps.
- believed that the nature of the
universe was directly related to Polya’s Four-Step Problem-Solving Strategy
mathematics and that whole numbers
and the ratios formed by whole 1. Understand the problem. 2. Devise a plan.
numbers could be used to describe and
3. Carry out the plan. 4. Review the solution.
represent all natural events.
lya’s four steps are deceptively simple. To become a Carry Out the Plan
good problem solver, it helps to examine each of these
- Once you have devised a plan, you must
steps and determine what is involved.
carry it out.
Understand the Problem ■ Work carefully.
- This part of Polya’s four-step strategy is ■ Keep an accurate and neat record of all your
often overlooked. You must have a clear attempts.
understanding of the problem. To help
■ Realize that some of your initial plans will not work
you focus on understanding the
and that you may have to devise another plan or modify
problem, consider the following your existing plan.
questions.
Review the Solution
■ Can you restate the problem in your own words?
- Once you have found a solution, check
■ Can you determine what is known about these types the solution.
of problems?
■ Ensure that the solution is consistent with the facts of
the problem.
■ Is there missing information that, if known, would
allow you to solve the problem? ■ Interpret the solution in the context of the problem.

■ Is there extraneous information that is not needed to ■ Ask yourself whether there are generalizations of the
solve the problem? solution that could apply to other problems.

■ What is the goal?

Devise a Plan

- Successful problem solvers use a variety

of techniques when they attempt to
solve a problem. Here are some
frequently used procedures.

■ Make a list of the known information.

■ Make a list of information that is needed.

■ Draw a diagram.

■ Make an organized list that shows all the possibilities.

■ Make a table or a chart.

■ Work backwards.

■ Try to solve a similar but simpler problem.

Carry Out the Plan
■ Look for a pattern.
- Using the pattern discovered above, we see
■ Write an equation. If necessary, defi ne what each from the figure at the left that the number
of routes from point A to point B is 20+ 15
variable represents.
=35.
■ Perform an experiment. Review the Solution
■ Guess at a solution and then check your result.
- Ask yourself whether a result of 35 seems
reasonable.