LINKING AND REPORTING WORDS

Linking words, or ‘transition signals’, show the relationships between your information and ideas. They
can show order, lists, comparisons and cause and effect. Using these words makes your writing much
clearer for your reader, as they guide your reader through your writing, and tell your reader about the
connections between your ideas and the evidence that you are using to support your ideas. Linking and
reporting words turn your collected research into a coherent unit.

What you need to know……

1. Using linking  There is no rule about when to use linking words or how many you should
words use: use one when you want to relate pieces of information, but you do not
have to use one in every sentence.
Example: Critical analysis of internet sources is crucial, because it is not
always clear who wrote the information or where the information came
from. To begin with using linking words can seem contrived; nonetheless, it
is worth the effort and your writing will become more interesting.
 Check the table on page 3 for more examples of linking words and phrases,
as well as the Critical Essay Planner in our Writing Libguide.
2. Grammar check  One rule you need to be careful of is that linking words relate two pieces of
information. You cannot write a sentence including a linking word like ‘but’
which has only one piece of information.
Example: The light from the Sun looks white. But it is really made up of all
the colours of the rainbow.
 The second part is a fragment not a sentence, because ‘but’ needs to link two
ideas in the one sentence. It should be ‘…white, but…’ with a comma.
 When using linking, hedging and reporting words and phrases, pay attention
to the grammar so that your sentences are grammatically correct.
3. Emphasis and  You need to be very careful of some words of in academic writing. Words
generalisations such as:
Apparently Generally Worldwide
Clearly Indeed Undoubtedly
Especially Obviously
Everybody Plainly
 These words make your argument easy to contradict. If you use ‘obviously’
about something that is obvious to you but not to others (or you have not
provided enough supporting information about), then your writing will sound
less academic and more like you are writing your own opinion.
4. Hedging words  Academic writing, particularly scientific writing, aims to be factual, and to
and phrases convey evidence-based information. However, an important feature of
academic writing is the concept of cautious language, often called "hedging"
or "vague language". You will need to make decisions about your position on
a particular subject, or the strength of the claims you are making. There are
common hedging words and phrases which are used in academic writing to
help you express your views.
Examples of hedging Verbs indicate, suggest, appear, propose, seem, tend, look like,
words appear to be, think, believe,doubt, be sure, indicate, suggest,
believe assume, should, would, may might, could
Adverbs often, sometimes, usually, probably, possibly, conceivably,
perhaps, generally, evidently,quite, almost, usually
Adjectives probable, possible
Nouns assumption, possibility, probability, tendency
Examples of hedging It should be the case that….. Viewed in this way……
expressions
It might be suggested that…. There is every hope that…
It may be possible to obtain…. It is important to develop….
It is useful to study……….. It is not known whether…
It is/it is not difficult to conclude from…
One cannot exclude from…….
5. Reporting words  These are useful words to integrate references into your writing. This is more
interesting than using ‘said’ or ‘wrote’, though both of those words are
acceptable to use too. You can use the words below to indicate your position
on the information or idea that it refers to. ‘Maintains’ or ‘claims’ could imply
that the person you are referring to is ignoring information or using to an out
of date theory. ‘Concludes’ or ‘established’ implies that the person has got
this information or theory through research or logical thought.
 Examples of reporting words:
according to establish(ed) by mention(s)
argue(s) that emphasise(s) outline(s)
assert(s) that explain(s) propose(s)
claim(s) that focus(es) on report(s)
conclude(s) that found that state(s)
define(s) maintain(s) that suggest(s) that
 Remember to make sure that you are using the correct form of the verb, so
that the subject and verb agree in number. Which form you use depends if
you are writing about a single person or a group.
Example: Smith and Sato maintain that the sky I green. Jones maintains that
the sky is purple.
References:
Gillet, A. (n.d.). Features of Academic Writing. Retrieved from
http://www.uefap.com/writing/feature/hedge.htm
Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology (2007) Learning links: Quick tips linking words. Retrieved from
www.rmit.edu.au/studyandlearningcentre.
Swan, M. (2009). Practical English Usage. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Useful links:
 Hedging: http://www.uefap.com/writing/feature/hedge.htm
 Reporting words: http://www.writing.utoronto.ca/images/stories/Documents/referring-to-
sources.pdf
Transition signals, hedging and reporting words: Critical Essay Planner
https://www.jcu.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0014/123026/jcuprd1_073144.pdf
 Benefit Examples
Can indicate processes or separate pieces of first, firstly, moreover next, last, finally
Sequence or information. Useful if your paragraph is a collection of second, secondly third, thirdly furthermore in conclusion
lists items which all support the topic sentence but don’t and also to summarise
relate to each other. in addition
Clearly shows the order of events. Especially useful if before while working on the project once
Chronology information, events or ideas are time sensitive or the during in 1927 till
result of a relevant action or event. after to begin with until
since next meanwhile
and like, likewise , just like just as
Similarity similarly similar to, the same as to compare to/with
also as be alike
Using these words shows that you understand how too correspondingly not only…but also
information supports or contradicts each other. however despite yet
Difference Showing these relationships is particularly important in nevertheless in spite of on the contrary
an argumentative work. nonetheless in contrast, in comparison on the other hand
still while but
although, even though, though or, nor whereas
as for since
Cause because of because to cause
if
Using these words show the reader clearly that one is so to result from thus
Effect the result of another. Relates to chronological and as a result as a result/consequence of consequently
sequence words. as a consequence to result in due to
therefore to affect hence
This is a useful way to introduce supporting examples for example including that is
Example for a theory or statement. for instance namely such as