30 ENGINEERING HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER

E T T
Q d =Q + (Q ) r sin d = mC = (dr rd r sin d )C
r sin d t r t
...(vii) T
= C (r2 sin ...(2.36) d d dr)
Net rate of heat conduction into the element in r, t
and directions : Making the energy balance on the element :
Qnet = (Qr + Q + Q ) Net rate of heat gain by conduction + Rate of
energy generation
– (Q r dr Q d Q d )
= Rate of change of internal energy.
Using eqns. (v), (vi) and (vii), we get Using the quantities from eqns. (2.34), (2.35) and
(2.36), respectively :
Qnet = – (Qr ) dr (Q ) rd
r r 1 T 1 T
k r2 sin
2 r r 2
(Q ) r sin d r r sin
r sin d 1 T
2 2
Using eqns. (i), (ii) and (iii), we have r sin
× r2 sin d d dr + g r2 sin d d dr
T
Qnet = – k (rd r sin d ) dr T
r r = C (r2 sin d d dr)
t
T
+ k (dr r sin d ) rd 1 T 1 T
r r or r2 sin
2 r r 2
r r sin
T 1 2
T g
+ k (dr rd ) r sin d
r sin d r sin d 2
r sin 2 2 k

T C T 1 T
=k r2 dr sin d d = = ...(2.37)
r r k t t
It is a the general heat conduction equation in
T
+ sin r dr d rd spherical coordinates.
r r
In absence of any heat generation, the steady
T state one dimensional heat conduction equation in r
+ dr rd r sin d
r sin r sin direction, the eqn. (2.37) reduces to :
or Qnet = k 1 T
2
r2 =0
1 T 1 T r r r
2
r sin
r2 r r r 2 sin It is a unidirectional Laplace equation, derived
earlier by eqn. (2.20).
1 T
+ r2 sin d d dr
r sin2
2 Note: The eqn. (2.37), the general heat conduction equa-
tion in spherical coordinates can also be transformed from
...(2.34) Cartesian coordinates by using
If heat is generated within the element at the x = r sin cos
rate of g (W/m3), then the volumetric heat generation
rate : y = r sin sin

Qgen = g dr rd r sin d z = r cos

= g r2 sin d d dr ...(2.35)
Due to these heat transfer rates into the element,
the internal energy of the element may change. The rate
of change of internal energy of the element is : To determine temperature distribution in a medium, it
is necessary to solve the general heat conduction
 CONDUCTION—BASIC EQUATIONS 31

equation. However, such solution depends on physical

conditions existing at the boundaries of the medium and
if the situation is time dependent (unsteady), some
initial conditions are needed.
The mathematical expressions of thermal
conditions at the boundaries of an object are called
boundary conditions. The boundary conditions are
several common physical effects, which are simply
expressed in mathematical form.
The temperature at any point on the medium at
a specified time also depends on the condition of the
medium. The initial condition at the beginning of the Fig. 2.6. Prescribed heat flux boundary conditions
heat conduction process is a mathematical expression Heat flux is given by :
for the temperatue distribution of the medium initially
i.e., t = 0. dT
qx = – k
Since the general heat conduction equation is dx x

second order differential equation in spatial coordinates, Suppose, at x = 0, qx = qo = (the left face)
in any direction at least two thermal conditions are
and at x = L, qx = qL (right face)
needed at the boundary surfaces. Because the equation
is first order in time, only one initial condition must be dT
where, qo = – k ...[2.39(a)]
specified. dx x 0
Following boundary conditions commonly ap-
peared in heat transfer are discussed below. dT
and qL = – k ...[2.39(b)]
dx x L

For a plane wall of thickness L, whose left face (x = 0) is If the direction of heat flux at the right face is
maintained at uniform temperature of T1 and right face opposites i.e., towards face, then qL should be considered
at x = L at uniform temperature of T2 as shown in negative.
Fig. 2.5. Then the boundary conditions at two faces are There are two special cases of prescribed heat flux
written as : boundary condition.
(i) Insulated boundary
In some engineering applications, the system
boundary is insulated in order to minimise the heat loss
from the system. Although this insulation is not perfect,
but in thermal analysis, the heat loss is assumed
negligible from the boundary with thermal insulation.
dT
i.e., qx = 0 = – k ...(2.40)
dx x

Fig. 2.5. Prescribed temperature boundary conditions

At x = 0, t = 0 T(x, t) = T1 ...[2.38(a)]
and x = L, t = 0 T(x, t) = T2 ...[2.38(b)]

Sometimes, the rate of heat transfer to a boundary is

constant. For example, an electrically heated surface,
the rate of heat supply (capacity of heater) is constant.
Such conditions are called prescribed heat flux boundary
condition as illustrated in Fig. 2.6. Fig. 2.7. Plan wall with left face insulated
 32 ENGINEERING HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER

dT
or =0
dx x

dT
For left face =0
dx x 0

dT
For right face =0
dx x L

(ii) Thermal symmetry

Fig. 2.9. Plane wall exposed to convection
In many situations, the boundary conditions im- boundaries at both sides
posed on two sides of plane wall, or solid cylinder or
solid sphere are identical, then heat flow from the centre At the right surface, i.e., x = L
to two sides is also identical and centre of the plane is dT
treated as plane of symmetry. This plane is equivalent –k dx
= h2 (Tx=L – T 2) ...(2.43)
x L
to insulated boundary.
These are the convection boundary conditions at
Centre plane of solid cylinder or sphere as shown the faces of the plane wall. Similarly the boundary con-
in Fig. 2.8 ditions can be written for cylinders and spheres.

In some practical cases, for example, in space and

cryogenic applications, the outer surface is surrounded
by evacuated space in order to minimize conduction and
convection heat transfer. In such cases, only radiation
Fig. 2.8. A solid cylinder exposed to convection heat transfer can take place from surface and
environment at its outer surface
surrondings and boundary conditions are specified as :
dT Heat conduction to surface = radiation heat
=0 ...[2.41(a)] transfer from the surface to surrounding
dr r 0

So for centre plane of plane wall of thickness L ;

dT
=0 ...[2.41(b)]
dr x L/2

In most practical applications, the heat dissipates by

convection with a known value of heat transfer coeffi-
Fig. 2.10. Radiation boundary conditions on both surfaces
cient h at one or both boundary surfaces. The energy
balance at any boundary surface can be written as : For one dimensional heat conduction in a plane
Convection flux from the fluid to the surface wall of thickness L and thermal conductivity k, the
radiation boundary conditions on both surfaces can be
= Heat flux conducted into the body
expressed as shown in Fig. 2.10.
from the surface
At left surface
For one dimensional heat transfer in x direction
of a plane wall of thickness L, the convection boundary dT
= 4 4
conditions on both surfaces (Fig. 2.9 ) can be expressed –k
dx x 0 1(T 1 – T x = 0) …[2.44(a)]
as :
At left surface, i.e., x = 0 At right surface

dT dT 4
h1(T –k = 2(T x = L – T4 2) …[2.44(b)]
1 – Tx=0) = – k dx
...(2.42)
dx
x 0 x L
 CONDUCTION—BASIC EQUATIONS 33

Where 1 and 2 are the emissivities of left and 3. Uniform heat generation rate in the plate.
right boundary surfaces, respectively. = 5.67 × 10–8
W/m2.K4 is the Stefan Bolzmann constant.

Note: The temperature in radiation calculations must

be used in kelvin (K) (not in °C).

When one or more layers in perfect contact made a com-

posite wall, then both body will have same temperature
at interface, because flow rate will be same through both
layers. (Fig. 2.11)
dT dT
– kA – kB
dx A dx B Fig. 2.12. Schematic for example 2.1
and TA(x) = TB(x) ...(2.45) The governing one dimensional steady state heat
conduction equation with heat generation in cartesian
coordinates
d dT g ( x)
+ =0
dx dx k
Assuming uniform heat generation at g0 W/m3,
then
d dT g
=– 0
dx dx k
Subjected to boundary conditions as shown in
Fig. 2.12.
Fig. 2.11. Boundary condition at interface of two layers At left face i.e., x = 0, T = T1 = 180°C
These are some boundary conditions at the faces At right face i.e., x = L = 0.025 m, T = T2 = 120°C
of the plane wall, these boundary conditions can also be where T = f(x) only.
written on surfaces of cylinders and spheres.
Example 2.2. Develop the mathematical formulation
The boundary conditions explained above do not of one dimensional steady state heat conduction for
cover all possible boundary conditions, that may be hollow cylinder with constant thermal conductivity k.
imposed on the surfaces. However, in other situations, The heat is supplied into the cylinder at inner surface at
the boundary conditions can be designed by applying r = r1 at a rate of q W/m2 and heat is dissipated by
the energy balance at the surface that is : convection from the surface at r = r2 into an ambient at
Rate of heat entering in = Rate of heat going out. temperature T with heat transfer coefficient h.
Example 2.1. The temperatures on two sides of a 25 mm Solution
thick steel plate with constant thermal conductivity Given :
having uniform heat generation are at 180°C and 120°C. 1. Steady state heat conduction in radial direction.
Develop a mathematical formulation of one dimensional 2. Constant properties.
steady state heat conduction in the plate.
3. No energy generation.
Solution
Given : A steel plate with constant thermal con-
ductivity and uniform heat generation
L = 25 mm = 0.025 m
T1 = 180°C, T2 = 120°C
Mathematical Formulation :
Recognition of Problem :
1. Constant thermal conductivity.
2. Specified temperatures at two faces of plate. Fig. 2.13. Schematic for example 2.2