Soil Mechanics

Module 1 – Soil Properties

LEARNING
OBJECTIVES
After studying this module, you as a future Civil
Engineer should be able to: 2. It is a branch of civil engineering, which is
associated with the design, construction,
1. Apply the knowledge in physics to solve maintenance, and renovation of footings, foundation
various problems in soil mechanics. walls, pile foundations, and all other structural
2. Understand the different behavior of soils members which form the foundations of buildings
subjected to loading. and other engineering structures.
a. Geotechnical Engineering
TOPIC b. Structural Engineering
OUTLINE c. Soil Engineering
d. Foundation Engineering
1. Phase Relationship of Soil
2. Three-Phase System
3. It is the application of laws of mechanics and
3. Formulas used in Soil Properties
hydraulics to engineering problems dealing with
sediments and other unconsolidated
accumulations of solid particles produced by the
OVERVIEW mechanical and chemical disintegration of rocks
regardless of whether or not they contain an
Module 1 is to expand the student’s knowledge admixture of organic constituent.
about the different soil properties. a. Geotechnical Engineering
b. Structural Engineering
ACTIVATING c. Soil Engineering
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE d. Foundation Engineering

Before studying this unit, take the test to determine

4. It is caused by the physical agencies such as
how much you already know about forces.
periodical temperature changes, impact and splitting
action of flowing water, ice and wind, and splitting
Direction: Encircle the letter of the correct answer.
actions of ice, plants and animals.
1. It is considered by the engineer as a complex a. Erosion
material produced by the weathering of the solid b. Weathering
rock. c. Global Warming
a. Sand d. Greenhouse Effect
b. Gravel
c. Soil 5. It is the ratio of mass of water to mass of solid. It
d. None of the above is easily measured by weighing a sample of the soil,
drying it out in an oven and re-weighing.

a. void ratio
b. porosity
c. water content

Module 1 – Soil Properties in Soil Mechanics| Page 1 of 7

 d. specific gravity

INTRODUCTION

For engineering purposes, soil is defined as the

uncemented aggregate of mineral grains and
decayed organic matter (solid particles) with liquid
and gas in the empty spaces between the solid
particles. Soil is used as a construction material in It is referred to as a Soil Phase Diagram.
various civil engineering projects, and it supports Where:
structural foundations. Thus, civil engineers must
WS = Weight of soil solids
study the properties of soil, such as its origin, grain-
size distribution, ability to drain water, WW = Weight of water
compressibility, shear strength, and load-bearing
capacity. Soil mechanics is the branch of science Wa = Weight of air
that deals with the study of the physical properties
of soil and the behavior of soil masses subjected to W = Total Weight of the sample
various types of forces. Soils engineering is the
application of the principles of soil mechanics to VS = Volume of soil solids
practical problems. Geotechnical engineering is the
subdiscipline of civil engineering that involves VW = Volume of water in the
natural materials found close to the surface of the
earth. It includes the application of the principles of voids
soil mechanics and rock mechanics to the design of
foundations, retaining structures, and earth Va = Volume of air in the voids
structures.
VV = Volume of the voids

V = Total volume of the sample

1.1 PHASE RELATIONSHIP
OF SOIL The total volume of a given soil sample can be
PHASE RELATIONSHIP OF SOIL expressed as:

Take a soil sample from a borrow pit, place it in a V = Vs + Vv,

container. It is made up of Air, Water, and Solids.
Vv = Va + Vw
So if you separated the soil into its components it
would look like this.
V = Vs + Vw + Va

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Assume that the weight of air is negligible, the total 9.81 kN
Yw=
weight of the sample is expressed as: cu . m

W = Ws + Ww  The water content or moisture content (w) is the

ratio of the weight of water to the to the weight
of water to the weight of soils solids,

1.2 THREE-PHASE SYSTEM

THREE-PHASE SYSTEM

Soils can be partially saturated (with both air  The degree of saturation or saturation ratio (S)
and water present), or be fully saturated (no air is the ratio of the volume of water to the volume
content) or be perfectly dry (no water content). of void spaces,

In a saturated soil or a dry soil, the three-

phase system thus reduces to two phases only.

For the purpose of engineering analysis and

design, it is necessary to express relations between The degree of saturation can range between the
the weights and the volumes of the three phases. limits of zero for a completely dry soil and one (or
100%) for a fully saturated soil.

 The void ratio (e) is the ratio of the volume of

voids to the volume of soil solids, it is expressed
as a decimal,

 The porosity (n) is the ration of the volume of

DENSITY AND UNIT WEIGHT OF WATER the voids to the total volume of soil, it is
expressed as percentage,
 Density of water
1000 kg
Pw=
cu .m

1 kg  As V = Vs + Vv, void ratio and porosity are

Pw= interrelated.
liter

1 gram
Pw=
cc
 Unit weight of water,

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 Gs
Yd= Yw
1+ e
 The air content or air void ratio (Ac) is the ratio
of volume of air to the total volume  For a completely saturated soil (S = 1)

Va Gs+ e
Ac= Ysat = Yw
V 1+ e

Ac = n(1 – S)  Submerged unit weight, Ysub, Yb or Y’

It is the effective soil density.

 The bulk/moist or wet unit weight (y) of the soil
is the ratio of the total mass or weight to the
Y’ = Ysat – Yw
total volume.

m Gs−1
y= Y '= Yw
V 1+ e

W  Zero air void unit weight, Yzav

y=
V
It is the maximum Ydry, attainable for each
 The specific gravity of the soil particles (Gs) given moisture content of the soil at point of
is given by, saturation (S = 1)

Ps Gs
Gs= Yzav= Yw
Pw 1+wGs

Ys  The Relative Density (RD) is used to express the

Gs= relationship between the in-situ void ratio (e), or
Yw
the void ratio of a sample, and the limiting value
emax and emin representing the loosest and
For most inorganic soils, the value of Gs lies
densest possible soil packing states
between 2.60 and 2.80. The presence of organic
respectively. The Relative Density is defined as:
material reduces the value of Gs.

Other important relationships are listed below:

wGs = Se

e−w Gs
A=
1+e
Thus, the relative density of a soil in its
densest possible state (e = emin) is 1 (or 100%) and in
Gs+ Se its loosest possible state (e = emax) is 0.
y= Yw
1+e
 For a completely dry soil (S = 0)  Designation of Granular Soils

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 Se
Vw= V
1+e

o Weight of solid
Gs
Ws= VYw
1+e

o Critical Hydraulic Gradient

G−1
Icr=
1.3 FORMULAS USED IN SOIL 1+ e
PROPERTIES

These formulas may not be memorized. These can EXAMPLE

be derived from the previous formulas.
1. For a moist soil sample, the following are given.
Total volume: V = 1.2 m³
o Volume of voids Total mass: m = 2350 kg
Moisture content: w = 8.6%
e Specific gravity of soil solids: Gs = 2.71
Vv= V
1+ e Determine the following:
a.) Moist density
o Weight of water b.) Dry density
Se
Ww= VYw c.) Void ratio
1+ e
d.) Porosity
e.) Degree of saturation
o Weight of soil
Gs+ Se f.) Volume of water in the soil sample
W= VYw
1+ e
2. The following data are given for a soil:
Porosity: n = 0.40
o Dry unit weight
Specific gravity of the soil solids: Gs = 2.68
y Moisture content: w = 12%
Yd=
1+ w Determine the mass of water to be added to 10 m³
of soil for full saturation.
o Volume of solid
V 3. A saturated soil has a dry unit weight of 103
Vs= lb/ft³. Its moisture content is 23%.
1+e
Determine:
o Volume of water a.) Saturated unit weight

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b.) Specific gravity LEARNING ACTIVITY
c.) Void ratio
1. A sample of saturated soil with a mass of 60kg
and is contained in a box having dimensions,
4. In its natural state, a moist soil has a volume of
25cm, 30cm, and 40cm. If the void ratio of the
0.33 ft³ and weighs 39.93 lb. The oven-dry
soil sample is 0.70, calculate the following;
weight of the soil is 34.54 lb. If Gs = 2.67,
a.) Specific Gravity of the soil sample
Calculate the following:
b.) Dry unit weight of the soil sample
a.) moisture content
c.) Porosity
b.) moist unit weight
d.) Water Content
c.) dry unit weight
d.) void ratio 2. A clay sample has unit weight of 21 kN/m3 at
e.) porosity moisture content of 11%. When completely
saturated with water, its unit weight is 22.5
f.) degree of saturation.
kN/m3. Determine the porosity of the soil.

5. For a given sandy soil, emax = 0.75 and emin = 0.4. 3. A specimen of moist clay has a mass of 190
Let Gs = 2.68. In the field, the soil is compacted grams. After oven drying, the mass has reduced
to a moist density of 112 lb/f³ at a moisture by 15%. What is the moisture content of the
content of 12%. Determine the relative density of sample?
compaction.
4. A hand-carved sample of soft saturated clay
weighs 350 grams and has a volume of 200 cc.
SUMMARY
After oven drying, it weighs 250 grams.

Let us see if you can remember the main points

raised in this lesson. Below is a summary of these Determine the following;
points:
a.) Moisture Content in percent
 We discussed weight–volume relations and the
concept of relative density. b.) Specific Gravity of solids
 The volume relationships are those for void
c.) Porosity in Percent
ratio, porosity, and degree of saturation.
 The weight relationships include those for
moisture content and dry, moist, and saturated 5. A sandy soil has a natural water content of
unit weight.
27.5% and bulk unit weight of 19.2 kN/m3. The
 Relative density is a term to describe the
void ratios corresponding to the densest and
denseness of a granular soil. Relative density
can be expressed in terms of the maximum, loosest state are 0.55 and 0.85. Assume G = 2.7.
minimum, and in situ unit weights/densities of a Determine the following;
soil and is generally expressed as a percentage.
a.) In-situ void ratio of the soil

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 b.) Degree of Saturation of the soil in its natural
state.
c.) Relative Density of the soil

REFERENCES

Elements of Civil Engineering and Engineering

Mechanics - Prakash & Mogaveer

AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR TESTING AND

MATERIALS(2007). Annual Book of ASTM
Standards, Sec. 4, Vol. 04.08. West Conshohocken,
Pa.

CUBRINOVSKI, M., and ISHIHARA, K. (1999).

“Empirical Correlation Between SPT N-Value and
Relative Density for Sandy Soils,” Soils and
Foundations. Vol. 39, No. 5, 61–71.

CUBRINOVSKI, M., and ISHIHARA, K. (2002).

“Maximum and Minimum Void Ratio Characteristics
of Sands,” Soils and Foundations. Vol. 42, No. 6, 65–
78.

LADE, P. V., LIGGIO, C. D., and YAMAMURO, J. A.

(1998). “Effects of Non-Plastic Fines on Minimum
and Maximum Void Ratios of Sand,” Geotechnical
Testing Journal, ASTM. Vol. 21, No. 4, 336–347.

Prepared by:

ENGR. LEO GERARDO S. ROXAS, MME

Civil Engineering Department
Faculty, College of Engineering and Architecture

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