Soil Mechanics ACTIVATING

Module 2 – SOIL TESTS AND INDICES PRIOR KNOWLEDGE

Before studying this unit, take the test to determine
how much you already know about soil properties.
LEARNING
Direction: Encircle the letter of the correct answer.
OBJECTIVES
1. What is the porosity of a soil sample having a void
After studying this module, you as a future Civil
ratio of 0.50?
Engineer should be able to:
a. 0.33
1. Apply the knowledge in physics to solve b. 0.50
various problems in soil mechanics. c. 1.00
2. Understand the different behavior of soils d. None of the above
subjected to loading.
3. Classify soil according to their indices 2. What is dry unit weight of a soil sample having a
void ratio of 45%. Assume Gs = 2.6.
a. 17.43 kN/m3
TOPIC b. 18.00 kN/m3
OUTLINE c. 17.59 kN/m3
d. 21.22 kN/m3
2.1 Consistency
2.2 Atterberg’s Limits
3. It is the ratio of the volume of water to the volume
2.2.1 Liquid Limit
of void spaces.
2.2.2 Plastic Limit
a. Water content
2.2.3 Shrinkage Limit
b. Porosity
2.2.4 Plasticity Index
c. Void ratio
2.2.5 Shrinkage Index
d. Degree of saturation
2.2.6 Consistency Index or Relative
Consistency
2.2.7 Liquidity Index or Water-Plasticity ratio 4. It is the ratio of the volume of the voids to the total
2.3 Determination of Liquid, Plastic, and volume of soil, it is expressed as percentage.
Shrinkage Limits a. Water content
2.3.1 Casagrande Cup Method for Liquid b. Porosity
Limit Test c. Void ratio
2.3.2 Plastic Limit Test d. Degree of saturation
2.3.3 Fall Cone Method for Liquid and Plastic
Limit Tests 5. It is the ratio of the weight of water to the to the
2.3.4 Shrinkage Limit Test weight of water to the weight of soils solids.
2.3.5 Soil Compaction a. void ratio
b. porosity
c. water content
d. specific gravity
OVERVIEW
2.1 CONSISTENCY
Module 2 is to expand the student’s knowledge about
the different soil properties. Students will also know
the different types of method to determine water Consistency is the term used to describe the
content. ability of the soil to resist rupture and deformation. It
is commonly described as soft, stiff or firm, and hard.

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 Water content greatly affects the engineering minimum water content at which the change in shape
behavior of fine-grained soils. In the order of of the soil is accomplished by visible cracks, when
increasing moisture content, a dry soil will exist into worked upon, the soil crumbles.
four distinct states: from solid state, to semisolid state,
to plastic state, and to liquid state. The water contents 2.2.3 SHRINKAGE LIMIT, SL
at the boundary of these states are known
as Atterberg limits. Between the solid and semisolid It is the arbitrary limit of water content at
states is Shrinkage Limit, between semisolid and which the soil tends to pass from the semi-solid to the
plastic states is Plastic Limit, and between plastic solid state. It is that water content at which a soil,
and liquid states is Liquid Limit. regardless, of further drying, remains constant in
volume. In other words, it is the maximum water
content at which further reduction in water content will
not cause a decrease in volume of the soil mass, the
loss in moisture being mostly compensated by entry
of air into the void space. In fact, it is the lowest water
content at which the soil can still be completely
saturated. The change in color upon drying of the soil,
from dark to light also indicates the reaching of
shrinkage limit.

𝒎𝟏 − 𝒎𝟐 𝑽𝟏 − 𝑽𝟐
𝑺𝑳 = − 𝛄𝐰
𝒎𝟐 𝒎𝟐
Atterberg’s Limits
Where:
Atterberg limits, then, are water contents at
critical stages of soil behavior. They, together with 𝒎𝟏 = Mass of the wet soil pat in the dish at
natural water content, are essential descriptions of the beginning of the test (grams)
fine-grained soils.
𝒎𝟐 = Mass of the dry soil in the pat
(grams)
2.2 ATTERBERG’S LIMIT
𝑽𝟏 = Initial volume of the soil in the pat (cc)

𝑽𝟐 = Volume of the oven-dried soil pat (cc)

The Atterberg limits consist of the following key
values of moisture content:
𝛄𝐰 = Density of water (g/cc)

2.2.1 LIQUID LIMIT, LL Another parameter that can be determined

from a shrinkage limit test is the shrinkage ratio, which
It is defined as the arbitrary limit of water is the ratio of the volume change of soil as a
content at which the soil is just about to pass the percentage of the dry volume to the corresponding
plastic stage into the liquid state. At this limit, the soil change in moisture content or,
possesses a small value of shear strength, losing its
ability to flow as a liquid. In other words, the liquid limit 𝒎𝟐
𝑺𝑹 =
is the minimum moisture content at which the soil 𝑽𝟐 𝛄𝐰
tends to flow as a liquid.
It can also be shown that
2.2.2 PLASTIC LIMIT, PL
𝟏
𝑮𝑺 =
It is the arbitrary limit of water content at 𝟏
𝑺𝑹 − 𝑺𝑳
which the soil tends to pass from the plastic state to
the semi-solid state of consistency. Thus, this is the

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2.2.4 PLASTICITY INDEX, PI 10 mm by a cam-operated crank.

It is the range of water content within which The dry powder of the soil is mixed with
the soil exhibits plastic properties; that is, it is the distilled water turning it into a paste. The soil paste is
difference between liquid and plastic limits. then placed into the cup to a thickness of about 12.5
mm and a groove is then cut at the center of the paste
𝑷𝑰 = 𝑳𝑳 − 𝑷𝑳 using the standard grooving tool. The crank operating
the cam is turned at the rate of 2 revolutions per
2.2.5 SHRINKAGE INDEX, SI second lifting the cup and dropped it from a height of
10 mm. The liquid limit is the moisture content
It is defined as the difference between the required to close a distance of 12.5 mm along the
plastic and shrinkage limits of a soil; In other words, It bottom of the groove after 25 blows.
is the range of water content within which a soil is in
a semisolid state of consistency. The required closure in 25 blows is difficult to
achieve in a single test. Four or more tests to the
𝑺𝑰 = 𝑷𝑳 − 𝑺𝑳 same soil at varying water contents are to be done for
12.5 mm closure of the groove. The results are then
2.2.6 CONSISTENCY INDEX or RELATIVE
plotted on a semi-logarithmic graph with moisture
CONSISTENCY, CI content along the vertical axis (algebraic scale) and
number of blows along the horizontal axis (logarithmic
It is defined as the ratio of the difference
scale).
between liquid and the natural water content to the
plasticity index of soil.

𝑳𝑳 − 𝒘
𝑪𝑰 =
𝑷𝑳

2.2.7 LIQUIDITY INDEX or WATER-PLASTICITY

RATIO, LI

It is the ratio of the difference between the

natural water content and the plastic limit to the
plasticity index.

𝒘 − 𝑷𝑳
𝑳𝑰 =
𝑷𝑰

If w is equal to the liquid limit, the consistency Casagrande Cup

index is zero, Again, if w = PI, then CI = 1
The graph is approximated by the best fit straight line,
usually called the flow line and sometimes called
liquid state line. The moisture content that
2.3 DETERMINATION OF corresponds to 25 blows is the liquid limit of the soil.
LIQUID, PLASTIC, AND
SHRINKAGE LIMITS

2.3.1 CASAGRANDE CUP METHOD FOR LIQUID

LIMIT TEST

The semispherical brass cup is repeatedly

dropped into a hard rubber base from a height of

Module 2 – Soil Tests and Indices in Soil Mechanics| Page 3 of 8

 period of 5 seconds. The water content that allows the
cone to penetrate for 20 mm during this period defines
the liquid limit of the soil.

Like the cup method, four or more tests are

required because it is difficult to find the liquid limit in
a single test. The results are then plotted into a semi-
logarithmic paper with water content along the vertical
axis (arithmetic scale) and penetration along the
horizontal axis (logarithmic scale). The best fit straight
line is then drawn and the water content that
corresponds to 20 mm penetration defines the liquid
limit.

Typical liquid limit results from the Casagrande

cup method

The slope of the flow line is called flow index and

may be written as

𝒘𝟏 − 𝒘𝟐
𝑭𝒍𝒐𝒘 𝑰𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒙, 𝑭𝑰 =
𝑵
𝒍𝒐𝒈 ( 𝟐 )
𝑵𝟏

Where:

𝒘𝟏 = moisture content of soil, in percent,

corresponding to 𝑵𝟏 blows

𝒘𝟐 = moisture content of soil, in percent,

corresponding to 𝑵𝟐 blows. Cone Penetrometer

2.3.2 PLASTIC LIMIT TEST

The plastic limit can easily be found by rolling

a small soil sample into thin threads until it crumbles.
The water content at which the threads break at
approximately 3 mm in diameter is the plastic limit.
Two or more tests are made and the average water
content is taken as plastic limit. In this test, soil will
break at smaller diameter when wet and breaks in
larger diameter when dry.

2.3.3 FALL CONE METHOD FOR LIQUID AND

PLASTIC LIMIT TESTS

Fall cone method offers more accurate result of

liquid limit and plastic limit tests. In this method, a
cone with a mass of 80 grams and an apex angle of Typical test results from the fall cone apparatus
30° is suspended above so that its pointed part will
The plastic limit can be found by repeating
just in contact with the soil sample. The cone is
the test with a cone of similar geometry but with a
permitted to fall freely under its own weight for a

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mass of M2 = 240 grams. The liquid state line of this Laboratory moisture density test on this soil
cone will be below the liquid state line of the M 1 = 80 indicated a maximum dry density of 1965.59 kg/m 3 at
grams cone and parallel to it. an optimum moisture content of 11%. What is the
percent compaction of the fill?
The plastic limit is given as
2. A soil sample in its natural state has a moist
𝟐 ∆𝒘 density of 155.1 pcf and a moisture content of
𝑷𝑳 = 𝑳𝑳 −
𝑴
𝒍𝒐𝒈 ( 𝟐 ) 34%. After compaction, its maximum dry density
𝑴𝟏
is 118.5 pcf. Determine the percent compaction
2.3.4 SHRINKAGE LIMIT TEST of the soil.

The shrinkage limit is determined as follows. 3. Eugene plans to build his house in Konoha. The
A mass of wet soil, m1, is placed in a porcelain dish building requires 10,000 m3 fill at a void ratio of
44.5 mm in diameter and 12.5 mm high and then oven 44%. Material for earthfill was available at the
dried. With oven-dried soil still in the dish, the volume backyard of Sir Crocodile at P400 per cubic
of shrinkage can be determined by filling the dish with meter. It was found that the average void ratio
mercury. The volume of mercury that fills the dish is from the site is 80%. Estimate the total cost of the
equal to the shrinkage volume. fill.

2.3.5 SOIL COMPACTION 4. Following are the results of a shrinkage limit test:
In most specification for earthwork, the Initial volume of soil in saturated state = 24.6 cc
contractor is instructed to achieve a compacted dry
Final volume of soil in a dry state = 15.9 cc
unit weight of 90 to 95% of the maximum dry unit
weight determined in the laboratory by either the Initial mass in a saturated state = 44 g
standard or modified Proctor test. This is a Final mass in a dry state = 30.1 g
specification for relative compaction, which can be
a. Determine the dry density of the soil in g/cc
expressed as
b. Determine the void ratio of the soil
c. Determine the shrinkage limit of the soil
𝒀𝒅 (𝒇𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅)
𝑹(%) = 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟎 d. Determine the shrinkage ratio
𝒀𝒅 (𝒎𝒂𝒙 − 𝒍𝒂𝒃) e. Determine the specific gravity of the solids

Also relative compaction in terms of relative density is 5. The following results were obtained from a liquid
test on clay using the Casagrande cup device.
𝑹𝒐
𝑹(%) = The natural water content of this clay is 35% and
𝟏 − 𝑫𝒓 (𝟏 − 𝑹𝒐)
the plastic limit is 19%.
Where:
Water
Number of
Content
𝒀𝒅 (𝒎𝒊𝒏) Blows
𝑹𝒐 = (%)
𝒀𝒅 (𝒎𝒂𝒙) 6 52.5
12 47.1
20 42.3
28 38.6
EXAMPLE
32 37.5

1. Field density test on a compacted fill of sandy

clay gives the following results: a) What is the liquid limit of this clay?
b) What is the plasticity index of this clay?
Weight of moist soil from the hole = 1050 grams
c) What is the liquidity index of this clay?
Oven-dried weight of the soil = 940 grams d) What is the flow index?
Volume of test hole = 465 cm3

Module 2 – Soil Tests and Indices in Soil Mechanics| Page 5 of 8

6. Given the laboratory results of the Atterberg Limits Test, Plot the water content versus the cone penetration.
a. Determine the nearest value to the Liquid Limit of the soil.
b. Determine the nearest value to the Plastic Limit of the soil.
c. Determine the nearest value to the Liquidity Index of the soil.

A. Liquid Limit
Test Number 1 2 3 4
Cone Penetration, mm 16 18 28 33
Weight of Wet Soil + Container, g 34.76 35.32 38.41 43.55
Weight of Dry Soil + Container, g 29.45 28.95 32.94 34.57
Weight of Container, g 11.60 11.82 11.40 11.45
Weight of Water, g
Weight of Dry Soil, g
Water Content, %
B. Plastic Limit
Plastic Limit Natural Water Content
Test Number 1 2 1 2
Weight of Wet Soil + Container, g 30.28 32.33 26.17 29.89
Weight of Dry Soil + Container, g 26.33 27.85 24.38 26.26
Weight of Container, g 11.71 12.68 11.47 11.32
Weight of Water, g
Weight of Dry Soil, g
Water Content, %
Average, %

Module 2 – Soil Tests and Indices in Soil Mechanics| Page 6 of 8

 SUMMARY 4. A sample of coarse sand was found to have void
ratios of 0.87 and 0.52 in its loosest and densest
states respectively. The in-situ density and water
content of the sand were 1.95 g/cc and 23%.
Let us see if you can remember the main points Determine the degree of saturation and relative
raised in this lesson. Below is a summary of these density of the sand in the field. Given, Gs = 2.66
points:
5. The following data were obtained from a specific
➢ Water content greatly affects the gravity test performed in the laboratory:
engineering behavior of fine-grained soils.
➢ Liquid Limit is defined as the arbitrary limit of Weight of empty pycnometer = 201.25 grams
water content at which the soil is just about Weight of pycnometer and dry soil = 298.76
to pass the plastic stage into the liquid state. grams
➢ Plastic Limit is the arbitrary limit of water Weight of pycnometer, soil and water = 758.92
grams
content at which the soil tends to pass from
Weight of pycnometer full of water = 698.15
the plastic state to the semi-solid state of grams
consistency.
➢ Shrinkage Limit is the arbitrary limit of water Determine the specific gravity of the soil.
content at which the soil tends to pass from
the semi-solid to the solid state. 6. The Atterberg limits of a given soil are LL = 68%,
➢ Plasticity Index is the range of water content PL = 37%, and SL = 22%. If the natural moisture
content of this soil at the site be 42%, then
within which the soil exhibits plastic
determine:
properties a. Plasticity Index
➢ Shrinkage Index is defined as the difference b. Consistency Index
between the plastic and shrinkage limits of a c. Liquidity Index
soil
➢ Consistency Index is defined as the ratio of 7. A single liquid limit test was performed with
the difference between liquid and the natural Casagrande’s liquid limit device on a soil sample
water content to the plasticity index of soil. with known Atterberg limits. The number of
blows required to close the groove was recorded
as 53. The corresponding moisture content of
the sample was found to be 28%. If the liquid
LEARNING ACTIVITY limit and plastic limit of the soil be 74% and 41%
respectively, determine its toughness index.
1. The Atterberg limits of a given soil are, LL = 60%,
PL = 45% and SL = 25%. The specific gravity of 8. The weight and volume of a fully saturated soil
soil solids is 2.67. A sample of this soil at liquid sample were 55.4 gram and 29.2 cc respectively.
limit has a volume of 20 cc. What will be its final After drying in an oven for 24 hours, its weight
volume if the sample is brought to its shrinkage and volume reduced to 39.8 gram and 21.1 cc
limit?
respectively. Find out the shrinkage limit of the
2. The consistency limits of a soil sample are LL = soil.
52%, PL = 35%, and SL = 17%. If a specimen of
this soil shrinks from a volume of 10 cc at liquid 9. If the dry density and unit weight of solids of a
limit to 6.1 cc at plastic limit, determine the soil be 1.6g gm/cc and 2.65 gm/cc respectively,
specific gravity of solids. determine its shrinkage limit.
3. An oven dried pat of clay weighs 26.20 grams and
10. A cylindrical soil sample of 7.5 cm in height and
displaces 190 grams of mercury when fully
immersed in it. If the specific gravity of solids be 3.75 cm diameter has been prepared at the
2.7, determine the shrinkage limit of the soil. shrinkage limit. If the sample is now allowed to

Module 2 – Soil Tests and Indices in Soil Mechanics | Page 7 of 8

 absorb water so that its water content reaches a. Determine the plasticity index of the soil
the liquid limit, what will be its volume? b. Determine the liquidity index of the soil if
Given LL = 62%, PL =34%, SL = 21%, G = 2.68. the in-situ water content is 26%.
15. A saturated soil has the following characteristics:
11. A cylindrical mould of 10 cm internal diameter initial volume Vi = 19.65 cm3, final volume Vf =
and 11.7 cm height weighs 1894 grams. The 13.5 cm3, mass of wet soil M1 = 36 g, and mass of
mould was filled up with dry soil, first at its dry soil M2 = 25 g. Determine the shrinkage limit
loosest state and then at the densest state, and and the shrinkage ratio.
was found to weigh 3273 grams and 3538 grams
respectively. if the natural soil existing at the
field be submerged below the ground water
REFERENCES
table and has a water content of 23 %, determine
the relative density of the soil. Given, G = 2.65.
AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR TESTING AND
12. Following are the results of a shrinkage limit MATERIALS(2007). Annual Book of ASTM
test: Standards, Sec. 4, Vol. 04.08. West Conshohocken,
Initial volume of soil in a saturated state = 24.6 Pa.
cm3
Final volume of soil in a dry state = 15.9 cm3 CUBRINOVSKI, M., and ISHIHARA, K. (1999).
“Empirical Correlation Between SPT N-Value and
Initial mass in a saturated state = 44.0 g Relative Density for Sandy Soils,” Soils and
Final mass in a dry state = 30.1 g Foundations. Vol. 39, No. 5, 61–71.

Determine the shrinkage limit of the soil. CUBRINOVSKI, M., and ISHIHARA, K. (2002).
“Maximum and Minimum Void Ratio Characteristics
of Sands,” Soils and Foundations. Vol. 42, No. 6, 65–
13. Following are the results from the liquid and
78.
plastic limit tests for a soil. Liquid limit test:
LADE, P. V., LIGGIO, C. D., and YAMAMURO, J. A.
Water (1998). “Effects of Non-Plastic Fines on Minimum and
Number of
Content Maximum Void Ratios of Sand,” Geotechnical Testing
Blows
(%) Journal, ASTM. Vol. 21, No. 4, 336–347.
16 36.5
20 34.1
28 27.0
Prepared by:
Plastic limit test: PL = 12.2%
ENGR. LEO GERARDO S. ROXAS, MME
a. Determine the plasticity index of the soil Civil Engineering Department
b. Determine the liquidity index of the soil if Faculty, College of Engineering and Architecture
the in-situ water content is 31%.

14. Following are the results from the liquid and

plastic limit tests for a soil. Liquid limit test:

Water
Number of
Content
Blows
(%)
15 42.0
20 40.8
28 39.1

Plastic limit test: PL = 18.7%

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