The Project Management Activity Pack: Eddie Davies

Project management pages 3 2/13/06 10:09 AM Page i
The Project
Management
Activity Pack
• Plan your work effectively and
efficiently
• Managing the budget and
your time
• Develop your team-leading and
interpersonal skills
• Develop a systematic approach
to problem solving
• Selecting, motivating and leading
a project team
Eddie Davies
The author and the publishers have taken all reasonable care to ensure
that all material in this resource is original, or is in the Public Domain, or
is used with the permission of the original copyright owner. However, a
number of ideas and practices have become widely known and used
within the training profession and their origin is not always possible to
trace. If any person believes that material for which they own the
copyright has found its way into this resource without permission, will
they please contact the publishers who will act in good faith to
investigate and remedy any inadvertent infringement.
All persons, businesses and place names included in any case studies, role-
plays, or invitations to or materials for mock training programmes, and
mock stationery items, in this resource, are entirely fictional and any
resemblance to real persons living, dead or corporate, business names or
actual places is purely coincidental and we make no representation that
we are in any way connected with, or that our products are endorsed by,
any such person or business.
The Project Management Activity Pack
Published by Fenman Limited 1998 © Eddie Davies

Revised 2006
CD-ROM Version 1.0 © Fenman Limited 2006
Published by Fenman Limited

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Project management pages 3 2/13/06 10:09 AM Page iii
Contents
About this resource ix
A word about copyright xi
How to use this resource xii
How to use the CD-ROM xiv
Applications grid xvi
Learning review diary xvii
Certificate of attendance xviii
About the author xix
Further resources xxii
1. An introduction to project management

What's involved in managing a project?
Enable your participants to distinguish what is
meant by the term project and identify some of
its key features.The session acts as an ice-
breaking activity on a learning event that gives
the participants an opportunity to rate their
current competence as project managers.
2. The role of the project manager

What skills do I need to display during the phases
of a typical project?
This activity introduces participants to three
key strands of activity – the ‘content’,
‘structure’ and ‘processes’ – that must be
managed concurrently in order to maximise
the success of any project.
3. Define the end product

How do I clarify where the project is going and
why I want to get there?
An activity which introduces participants to the
need to develop a project statement that
clearly defines the goals of the project.
Furthermore, it enables them to develop the
skills of writing effective goals and completing a
SWOT analysis of the project.
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4. The power of planning – part one

How do I start the journey to success?
Participants are introduced to the benefits they
will accrue from planning their projects.The
activity gives them an opportunity to learn and
develop the skills associated with two planning
techniques – Fishbone Analysis and Work
Breakdown Structure (WBS).
5. The power of planning – part two

How do I work out who does what and when?
This session continues the introduction to the
planning process. It aims to develop the
participants’ skills in presenting planning
information in a visual form that is clear and
useful.The technique of drawing up a
Responsibility Assignment Matrix (RAM) –
a device for showing who is responsible for
what activity identified in the WBS – and how
to construct a Gantt chart are also introduced.
6. Critical Path Analysis

How do I plan and schedule more complex
projects?
Participants are shown a popular technique
(Critical Path Analysis) for managing projects,
enabling them to identify the length of time the
critical project activities will take and the
impact that any delays in delivering these
activities will have for successfully completing
the project as a whole.
7. Managing risk
How do I identify and manage potential risks to
my project's success?
An action which improves participants’ project
management skills and their ability to identify,
assess, action plan and control risks throughout
their projects that may have a significant impact
in delivering the project objectives on time and
budget.
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8. Managing money
How do I work out and control the project's
budget?
This introduces participants to some of the key
concepts and techniques needed to successfully
manage a project budget.
9. Making a project presentation

How can I persuade others to back my project
proposal?
Participants are shown the techniques and skills
required to make an effective presentation
whose objective is to gain commitment to
support a proposed project.
10. Selecting the right person for your

project team
How do I choose the best person for the project?
Effective selection relies on using a customised
person specification for each job on the project
team.This activity provides clear guidelines
which will enable the participants to write a
person specification and test its effectiveness in
a recruitment interview.
11. Developing your project team

How do I encourage an effective project team
spirit?
The session enables participants to recognise
and practise the ingredients required for
effective teamwork.They then develop an
action plan to strengthen the performance of
their own work teams.
12. Project leadership style

How do I develop an effective project leadership
style?
An activity which helps to make participants
aware of the key differences between
management and leadership. As well as
introducing them to the essential ingredients
for developing an effective leadership style, it
gives them the opportunity to rate their
current levels of leadership and to identify ways
they can build on and develop these qualities.
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13. Motivating your project team

How can I get my project team to work hard and
effectively?
It is important that participants understand
what is involved in motivating individuals in a
project team.This activity helps them establish
what methods they are currently using at work
and assists them in developing action plans to
increase future motivation and job satisfaction.
14. Oral communication skills

How can I communicate effectively with others
involved in the project?
Participants are introduced to the essential
skills they need to carry out effective face-to-
face project management discussions.The
session gives them the opportunity to practise
and develop those skills.
15. Writing project reports

How can I express myself clearly when writing?
An essential skill is expressing oneself clearly
when writing project reports.The ground rules
explored here are common for all types of
writing, and similar structures will apply for
other types of report.
16. Managing performance

How can I ensure that my project team members
are working effectively?
Participants are introduced to a five-stage
process which will ensure that their project
staff perform the essential activities to an
agreed standard.The session ends with a
consolidation exercise during which each
participant prepares an action plan aimed at
developing their expertise in managing
performance.
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17. Managing conflict

How do I constructively confront a poor performer?
A vital skill for line managers. Participants are
shown the strategy and style necessary to run
a discussion with a job holder who is not
performing to the required standard.Three
main types of behaviour and four predominant
styles for handling conflict are discussed.The
benefits of an assertive style are identified.They
are then given the opportunity to try out the
approach and style in a series of mini role-play
exercises using real work-based incidents they
have experienced.
18. Negotiation skills

How can I achieve a win–win outcome to my
negotiations?
Particular skills and techniques are required to
negotiate successfully. The session gives
participants an opportunity to try out and
develop their skills in this area. It introduces
The expectation test and the type of
information needed to complete it.
19. Time management

How do I plan my day and then work my plan?
This activity encourages participants to
appreciate the importance of managing time as
a resource for project managers. It introduces
them to some of the techniques associated
with effective time management, giving them
the opportunity to develop these in a project
setting.
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20. Managing project meetings

How do I ensure that my project meetings are
productive?
This session is concerned with what managers
can do to improve both the structure and
process of their meetings in order to make
them more effective. It provides an opportunity
to try out key points by participating in two
linked exercises: the first being a preparatory
meeting for the second – a full meeting.
The activity ends with a review of the exercise
which allows the key learning points to be
surfaced and turned into an action plan for
each participant’s continued development at
work.
21. Problem solving

How do I resolve the problems which arise when
I implement my project plan?
Here participants are introduced to a
systematic approach to problem solving.They
identify how they currently approach problem
solving at work and compare this with the
Systematic Approach to Problem Solving, a
well-established seven-step approach.The
session gives them an opportunity to practise
the skills involved in using the approach on a
real work-based problem.
22. Continuing Professional Development

How can I continue to develop my project
management skills after this event?
This session enables the participants to rate
their progress in developing the competencies
needed to be effective project managers.They
generate ideas for a number of opportunities
they could use to develop their skills, before
finally putting together an action plan for
turning their ideas into practical action when
they return to work.
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About this resource

Project Management is a practical activity pack that provides you with a
training resource of 22 activities which have been tried and tested on a
wide variety of training programmes within organisations of various sizes
and orientation. Each activity is free-standing and contains all you need to
prepare and run it.
The resource is based around the essential skills and attitudes that an
individual, new to the role of project manager, will need to master in order
to deliver the project successfully, on time and to budget. It does not set
out to teach the content knowledge that will be the focus of each
individual project – this can usually be developed through training, study,
experience and qualification in the particular discipline required.
The main focus of the resource is based on the premise that regardless of
the technical or professional discipline involved (the ‘content’ of the
project), success cannot be achieved without having a ‘structure’ (a game
plan) which you use to foresee how the project will unfold as you progress
from your starting point to your ultimate goal. Many subject matter experts
come unstuck because they don’t sit down and anticipate the problems and
the pitfalls they may encounter along their chosen path.The early activities
in the resource take the project manager through the prerequisite steps
needed to develop an effective project plan.Whether you are building a
river bridge, introducing a computer network or planning a team-building
conference, you will find a host of tips distilled from the classic approach to
managing a project.
The second half of the resource focuses on the ‘process’ skills that you will
need to make your plan work.These are sometimes called the ‘soft’ skills to
distinguish them from the ‘hard’ skills which produce a physical end product
such as a budget forecast or Gantt chart – but there is nothing soft about
them. Indeed they usually represent some of the hardest challenges a
project manager has to face. In these activities, you will be asked to
consider such issues as ‘How do I keep my team on track?’, ‘How do I keep
them motivated?’ and ‘How do I deal with individuals who are
underperforming?’ You will not find any easy and prescriptive answers in
these activities. Individuals are different and, just to make it even more
interesting, their responses can vary from time to time, depending on a
variety of factors such as who they are with, what happened last week or
even what side of bed they got out of this morning. In these activities, you
will learn a set of principles that you will be able to apply flexibly to suit a
number of changing and complex situations.
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The activities are designed to be led by someone in the central role of

trainer.The person fulfilling this role does not have to be someone whose
main role is in the training field.The activities can be run equally well by the
line manager or their direct staff.The approach used does not require a
great deal of expert input. It is based more on acting as a facilitator –
establishing a Iearning climate, using the previous experience of the
participants to develop their awareness and identify plans for their
continued development as project managers.
It is always advisable for anyone taking the lead training role to have
experienced the activities involved before they attempt to introduce them
to others.We strongly advise working through each activity before you
actually use it with your staff.The experience of working through each
activity will give you some real-life examples based on your own
experience which you can then use during each activity. Use as many
examples as you can from real-life projects you have been involved in, to
illustrate the main teaching points in each activity.
The ‘Further resources’ list contains references to books, videos and DVDs
you may find helpful as part of your preparation.
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A word about copyright

1. Reservation of rights
This Trainer’s Activity Pack is copyright © Eddie Davies 1998, and its
accompanying CD-ROM is copyright © Fenman Limited 2006. All rights
reserved. No part of this Trainer’s Activity Pack or its CD-ROM may be
reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by
any means including, but not limited to, electronic, mechanical, photo-
copying, recording or otherwise without the prior permission in writing of
Fenman Limited except strictly as permitted under paragraph 2 below.
2. Limited licence to copy
2.1 THE LICENCE IN PARAGRAPH 2.2 BELOW:
(a) ONLY APPLIES TO CUSTOMERS WHO HAVE PURCHASED
THIS TRAINER’S ACTIVITY PACK AND THE
ACCOMPANYING CD-ROM FROM FENMAN LIMITED (OR
ITS DULY AUTHORISED AGENT OR RESELLER) and does not
apply to anyone else. If you have purchased or otherwise
obtained this Trainer’s Activity Pack and/or its CD-ROM from
the original purchaser, you do not have any licence to copy any
or all of this Trainer’s Activity Pack or its CD-ROM (even if you
are a company in the same group as the original purchaser or
otherwise closely related to the original purchaser) and must
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(b) DOES NOT APPLY if this Trainer’s Activity Pack and its
accompanying CD-ROM have been made available to you on
hire or for the purpose of preview.
(c) IS CONDITIONAL UPON and only applies with effect from
payment in full of the purchase price and all other sums due
under the contract for supply of this Trainer’s Activity Pack and
its CD-ROM.
(d) APPLIES ONLY TO PAGES OF THIS TRAINER’S ACTIVITY
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You may not copy any other pages.

2.2 Subject to paragraph 2.1 above, you may make copies, both
electronic and as hard copy, of pages of this Trainer’s Activity Pack
and of its CD-ROM marked with an icon and distribute them:
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(a) to employees of yours who are attending any course that is

being run using this Trainer’s Activity Pack, but not to anyone
else; or
(b) if you are an independent training consultant (but not
otherwise) to employees of your client who are attending any
course that is being run using this Trainer’s Activity Pack, but
not to anyone else.
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How to use this resource

The activities in this resource do not have to be run as a single course
starting with number 1 and finishing with number 22.You can ‘pick and mix’
any combination of activities to meet your precise needs. You may choose
to run them over a number of consecutive days or use them as stand-alone
sessions to fit into the time you have available for training.
Although these activities have been designed as stand-alone exercises, some

of them will be more effective if the participants have already completed
other specific activities in the resource. We have indicated in each activity
where we consider it appropriate that it should follow on from another. If
you want to run the session without this prior experience, we give advice
on how to adjust the session accordingly.
The resource is designed for flexible use. On further investigation you will
find you have the choice to:
● run each activity as a separate session

● combine it with other activities in the pack
● use it in combination with your existing resources.
Each activity has been designed to give participants the opportunity to

work their way around the learning cycle (although, for variety, not always
in this strict sequence). This allows them to:
● have an experience
● stop and review what happened
● make sense of the experience and relate it to other past experiences
● produce a plan of action on how they can use the insight gained back at
their workplace.
To facilitate this final stage we recommend that you issue a ‘Learning review
diary’ (see example on page xvii). Allow participants time to review the
activity and record not only what they have learned, but also what use they
intend to make of it. This progressive and considered approach will ensure
the utility of the lessons learned and avoid the end-of-event rush when
participants may start to focus on more mundane matters such as catching
their train or beating the rush-hour traffic.
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Participants will be introduced to new experiences, some of which will

require them to try out new skills in front of you and their colleagues.
Please remember that learning anything new will invariably result in
mistakes being made. It is most important to manage the learning
environment in such a way that everyone feels that experimenting with
their behaviour and taking risks to identify new ways of working are
essential ingredients to learning and moving forward. In many of these
activities we stress that the process by which you facilitate the session is at
least equal to simply following a structure and is often more important to
the outcome. It is essential that you act as a good role model and develop
the participants in a facilitative and flexible style throughout each activity.
Training is invariably an exhilarating and learning process for both the

participants and the trainer. Treat the learning event as a project, and apply
the lessons and tips described here to that event.
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How to use the CD-ROM

How to load the CD-ROM
Place the CD-ROM in the CD drive of your computer. Wait a few seconds
and the contents of the CD-ROM will be automatically displayed on your
computer screen.
The contents of the CD-ROM

Once the contents of the CD-ROM are displayed, you will have a choice of
files:
PowerPoint® slides of OHTs and handouts

Click this button to open the OHTs and handouts contained in this
Trainer’s Activity Pack as PowerPoint® slides. (Note: if you don’t have
PowerPoint® installed on your computer, go to the Help section below.) You
have all the OHTs and handouts ready to use as you wish – without having
to copy them on to acetate.
You can create your own PowerPoint® presentation and select the relevant
slides to use in it.You can add slides, change the order, change the
background or colours as you desire.To do this, you must open the slides
in PowerPoint® rather than the default screen in which they will
automatically appear. Either:
– open PowerPoint® on your computer, then select the file on the CD

drive through your computer’s explorer, or
– open the .ppt file from the Browse the contents of the CD-ROM button.
This should automatically open in PowerPoint®.
The PowerPoint® slides are designed for projection. If you want to print
copies of the OHTs and handouts, you are advised to use the PDF version
(below) because print quality will be superior.
Please ensure that your use of the pages is subject to the

Copyright conditions on page xi of this resource.
Searchable Adobe® Acrobat® file of the whole resource

Click this button to open a PDF file of all the pages in this resource. (Note:
if you don’t have Adobe® Acrobat® installed on your computer, go to the
Help section below.) This file is handy for printing the ‘OK to copy’ pages,
or to search electronically for a particular concept or phrase.
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To make navigation easier in the PDF document, there are two tabs on the
left-hand side of the PDF screen.
The first is called Bookmarks. If you click here, you will see a listing of all the
activities in this resource.To move instantly to an activity, simply click on
the number.
The second tab is called Thumbnails. Clicking here displays a small image of
each page, providing you with a fast, visual reference without having to
scroll.
Please ensure that your use of the pages is subject to the

Copyright conditions on page xi of this resource.
Browse the contents of the CD-ROM

If you want to navigate around the CD-ROM without using the menu,
simply click on this button. All the files will be displayed in your computer’s
explorer window.
Help
There are two sections provided here:
1. PowerPoint® Reader or Adobe Acrobat Reader® installation.
If you don’t have Microsoft PowerPoint® or Adobe® Acrobat® programs

installed on your computer, then you’ll need to load the complimentary
viewer programs provided in order to view the files.
For PowerPoint®, click the Install PowerPoint® Viewer and follow the
instructions.
For Adobe® Acrobat® (PDF), click the Install Acrobat Reader® and
follow the instructions.
Loading these programs on to your computer will enable you to read

the files contained on the CD-ROM, but will only provide you with
limited editorial capabilities.
2. Loading the PowerPoint® or Adobe® Acrobat® files outside the

browser window.
If you wish to view the PowerPoint® slides or Adobe® Acrobat® PDF

pages outside the automatic default window, you can change the
settings by following the instructions.
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Applications
grid
Fundamentals of project management

The activities in this resource
Time and stress management

Analysis and problem solving
Introduction to management
can be used to meet a number
Recruitment and selection

Performance management
Assertion and influencing

of objectives. This grid provides
Budgeting and finance

you with a speedy reference to
Communication skills
Team development
Managing meetings
each activity.
Leadership skills
Application
Motivating staff
Coaching skills
Writing skills
Sales training
Activity
1 An introduction to project
management ✓ ✓
2 The role of the project manager ✓ ✓

3 Define the end product ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
4 The power of planning – part one ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
5 The power of planning – part two ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
6 Critical Path Analysis ✓ ✓ ✓
7 Managing risk ✓ ✓
8 Managing money ✓ ✓ ✓
9 Making a project presentation ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
10 Selecting the right person for
your project team ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
11 Developing your project team ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

12 Project leadership style ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
13 Motivating your project team ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
14 Oral communication skills ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
15 Writing project reports ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
16 Managing performance ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
17 Managing conflict ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
18 Negotiation skills ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
19 Time management ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
20 Managing project meetings ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
21 Problem solving ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
22 Continuing Professional
Development ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
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0.1
Learning review diary
Please record your personal reflections on this activity.
Activity Key learning points Application to work
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0.2
Certificate of
Attendance
This is to certify that
attended the
training course on
at
Signed
Date
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About the author

Eddie Davies MA CMCIPD
Eddie is a Human Resource Development specialist with over 25 years’

experience as a manager, trainer and coach gained with national public
sector organisations. He is skilled in:
• Identifying training needs.
• Designing development programmes to meet specified objectives.
• Writing comprehensive training and tutor manuals.
• Delivering training and coaching in a lively facilitative style.
• Ensuring the transfer of learning to the workplace.
Eddie is well qualified to write this pack from both his academic and
professional background:
• MA Management Development.
• Registered PRINCE2 (Project Management) practitioner.
• Chartered Member: Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development.
• Member: British Association for Counselling and Psychotherapy.
• Member: Association for Coaching.
Licensed psychometric test user of:

• Occupational Personality Questionnaire (OPQ)
• Myers Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
• Belbin Team Types (Interplace).
The activities in this Trainer’s Activity Pack are based on his experience of
designing and delivering project management training on both public and
in-company training programmes to a variety of organisations including:
• The Department for Transport.
• Office of the Deputy Prime Minister.
• Department of Environment Food Rural Affairs.
• Marine Coastguard Agency.
• Westminster City Council.
• The Highways Agency.
• Henley Management College.
• PriceWaterhouseCoopers.
• Hawksmere plc.
• GBS Training.
• Kingston University Business School – MBA programme.
• Training Journal’s master workshop programme.
• London Business School.
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His recent project management training delivery experience includes:
• Fundamentals of Project Management – Government

Department
A two-day bespoke programme which provided delegates with the
fundamental skills of Project Management.This ensured their projects
were completed on time, within budget and specification whilst using the
PRINCE2 methodology to ensure success.
• Project Management – International Training Consultancy

A two-day public course attended by delegates from leading commercial
organisations.The aim was to gain an overview of project management
tools and techniques and understand the importance of financial control
and effective communication with senior management.
• Introduction to Project Management – Executive Agency

A three-day tailored programme designed for delegates managing major
projects being delivered by external contractors.The sessions included
The Human Aspects of Project Management, incorporating Belbin’s Team
Roles analysis.
• Project Planning – Privatised Utility

A one-day introduction (or refresher) which covered the needs and
benefits of planning. Including Work Breakdown Structures; Network
Analysis; Critical Paths and Gantt Charts.
Eddie is the author of many publications and articles on management

training and development.These include:
Publications for Fenman:
Interviewing Skills
Unlocking Your People’s Potential
The Manager as Trainer, Coach and Guide
The Essentials of Management
Light Bulb Learning
Motivation in Practice
Essential Interpersonal Skills for Outstanding Managers
Management Essentials
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Articles published:
‘Commitment to coaching’ Training Officer,Vol. 34. No 1, 1998.

‘How to write training materials’ Training Officer,Vol. 34 No 2, 1998.
‘What do you say after “Hello”?’ Training Journal, July 2003.
‘Introduction to coaching’ Coach the Coach, 2005.
‘Workplace coaching – structure and skills’ Coach the Coach, 2005.
Eddie is always keen to receive feedback and constructive criticism on how

these activities have worked in practice. If you wish to discuss any activity
in this pack in further detail, please contact him by e-mail
[email protected] or via his website www.eddiedavies.co.uk.
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Further resources
• All Change – The Project Leader’s Secret Handbook, Obeng E, Financial Times
Pitman, London (1995)
ISBN 0 273622 21 8
• Applied Imagination, Osbourn A, Scribner Publishing, New York (1957)

ISBN 0 012169 87 0
• The Art of Project Management, Berkun S, O Reilly, Farnham (2005)

ISBN: 0 596007 86 8
• ‘Choosing Project-planning Software’, Chapter 12 in Project Management

Demystified, 2nd edition, Reiss G, Spon E & F N, London (1995)
ISBN 0 419207 50 3
• Creative Thinking and Brainstorming, Rawlinson J G, Gower, Aldershot

(1981)
ISBN 0 566022 47 8
• The Definitive Guide to Project Management:The Fast Track to Getting the Job
Done on Time and on Budget, Nokes S, Financial Times Prentice Hall,
London (2003)
ISBN: 0 273663 97 6
• ‘Development Sequences in Small Groups’, Psychological Bulletin, Volume

63, by Tuckman B W, American Psychological Associaton, Washington
(1965)
ISSN 0033-2909
• Discipline At Work, ACAS Advisory Handbook, London (1987)

ISBN 0 906073 33 2
• How to Get Control of Your Time and Your Life, Lakein A, Gower, Aldershot
(1985)
ISBN 0 566025 50 7
• How to Write a Successful Report, Mort S, Business Books, London (1983)

ISBN 0 091517 90 7 – out of print
• ‘Inequity in Social Exchange’, Adams J S in Advances in Experimental Social

Psychology,Volume 2, Berkowitz L (Ed), Academic Press, New York (1965)
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• Management Standards, Levels 3/4/5, Management Charter Initiative, MCI,

London (1994)
ISBN 1 897587 92 9, ISBN 1 897587 93 7, ISBN 1 897587 94 5
• Managing Successful Projects with PRINCE2,The Stationery Office Books,

London (2002)
ISBN: 0 113308 91 4
• Motivation and Personality, 3rd edition, Maslow A, Addison Wesley

Longman (1987)
ISBN 0 060419 87 3
• The Motivation to Work, Herzberg F,Wiley (1959)

• On Becoming a Leader, Bennis W, Hutchinson Business, London (1990)

ISBN 0 091742 88 9
• Passing the PRINCE2 Examinations, Bradley K,The Stationery Office Books,

London (2004)
ISBN: 0 113309 64 3
• Planning Projects: 20 Steps to Effective Project Planning (Manager's Pocket

Guides),Young T, Spiro Press, London (1992)
ISBN: 0 852908 79 2
• Practical Project Management, Gould Dr R, Kogan Page, London (1996)

ISBN 0 749427 42 6
• Project Management for Dummies, Portney S, Hungry Minds Inc, USA

(2001)
ISBN: 0 764552 83 X
• Project Management – Planning and Control, Burke R,Wiley, Chichester

(1993)
ISBN 0 471942 72 3
• Project Management – The People Challenge, Bee R and F, IPD, London

(1997)
ISBN 0 852926 61 8
• Selection and Assessment – A New Appraisal, Smith M, Gregg M and

Andrews D, Pitman, London (1989)
xxiii
Project management pages 3 2/13/06 10:09 AM Page xxiv
• The Skilled Helper, Egan G, Brookes/Cole, USA (1994)

ISBN 0 534212 94 8
• The Skills of Leadership, Adair J,Wildwood House, Aldershot (1984)

ISBN 0 704505 55 X – out of print
• Successful Project Management in a Week, Brown M, Hodder Arnold,

London (2002)
ISBN: 0 340849 37 1
• Thriving on Chaos, Peters T, Pan Books, London (1988)

ISBN 0 330305 91 3
RELATED FENMAN TEXT PRODUCTS

• Continuing Professional Development, McMillan S (1997)
• Recruiting and Keeping the Right People, Iacovou S (1998)
• The Manager as Trainer, Coach and Guide, Davies E (1997)
RELATED FENMAN VIDEOS AND DVDS

• Body Language Skills at Work (2004)
• Effective Listening Skills (1992)
• Team Building: A Question of Balance (1990)
xxiv
Project management pages 3 2/13/06 10:13 AM Page 1A
Activity 1
An introduction to
project management 1
Purpose
To enable participants to distinguish what is meant

by the term ‘project’ and identify some of its key
features.To act as an ice-breaking activity on a
learning event that gives the participants an
opportunity to rate their current competence as
project managers.

Project management pages 3 2/13/06 10:13 AM Page 1B
Project management pages 3 2/13/06 10:13 AM Page 1–1
Activity 1
An introduction to
project management 1
What’s involved in managing a project?
Purpose To enable participants to distinguish what is meant
by the term ‘project’ and identify some of its key
features.To act as an ice-breaking activity on a
learning event that gives the participants an
opportunity to rate their current competence as
project managers.
Application This activity is designed to be used at the start of a

learning event which aims to improve the project
management skills of the participants.
What happens You start the session by discussing with the

participants what they understand by the term
‘project’. By the end of this discussion, the group will
have agreed a definition.
Participants are then placed in pairs and asked to

produce a list of ideas of the common features of a
typical project.These ideas are reviewed in a plenary
session which reinforces the main differences
between projects and ongoing management
processes.
The participants are once again placed in pairs and

asked to spend 5 minutes discussing their partner’s
work experience, particularly identifying any projects
they have been involved in.They reconvene and
introduce their partner to the rest of the group.
During the introductions you make a list of the
range of experiences described.
You then reallocate the participants into fresh pairs.

You introduce and discuss the core competencies
that are needed to be an effective project manager.
The participants then rate themselves against these
competencies before discussing their evidence to
support their ratings with their partner.
1–1
The session ends with a plenary review during

which the participants disclose their strengths and
weaknesses in project management and identify
their key learning goals for the event.They fill in
their Learning review diary (where appropriate).
Time Overall time required: 1 hour 50 minutes (2 hours

5 minutes using option 2).
● What is a project?: 10 minutes

● Features of a typical project: 15 minutes
● Introduce your partner: 35 minutes
● What do you need to know?: 45 minutes
(1 hour using option 2)
● Learning review: 5 minutes.
Materials & ● 4 OHT masters:

resources 1.1 ? Project
1.2 What is a project?
1.3 Project management competencies
1.4 Competency rating scale
● 1 Handout master:
● Overhead projector, or PowerPoint®-compatible

laptop computer and projector, and screen
● Flipchart and stand or whiteboard
● A good supply of flipchart paper
● Marker pens for trainer
How do I do it? Start this activity by displaying OHT 1.1 to the group.
Show OHT 1.1

? Project
Inform the participants that in order for them to

work effectively as project managers they must be
able to identify clearly what is meant by the term
‘project’ and where it fits into other management
activities.
1–2
WHAT IS A PROJECT?
Tell the participants you want them to help you to
define what we mean by a project. Ask them to
provide you with examples of projects they have
been involved in. At this stage they may start to give 1
you a wide variety of suggestions, many of which
you will not think of as projects. Reject nothing and
write their suggestions on a sheet of flipchart paper.
Tell them you will look at their listed ideas again

when you have identified the core ingredients that
make a project different from other aspects of
management.
Show OHT 1.2

What is a project?
Discuss this common definition of project

management and then return to the list on the
flipchart.
Review the list and cross out those you do not

consider to be genuine projects – they will usually
be concerned with the ongoing processes of an
organisation.
Point out that these day-to-day management issues

are usually the focus of management once the
project is completed. Once the project is finished,
the process of managing its day-to-day activities then
takes over, and the project team is often broken up.
Allow about 10 minutes for this introductory

discussion.
FEATURES OF A TYPICAL PROJECT

Ask the participants to break up into pairs and
spend 5 minutes exchanging ideas, based on their
own experience, of the features of a typical project.
Give them an example to get them started, for
example:
– Projects have one start point and one finish point.

1–3
When they have finished deliberating, reconvene into

the main group and conduct a plenary review of
their ideas, listing them on a sheet of flipchart paper.
Your list should typically include:
● a series of interrelated activities
● a specific goal or end result
● a start and finish date
● a client or sponsor
● a project manager
● a collection of individuals brought together for the
event, each with their own specialism or expertise
● working within constraints and limitations, for
example, costs
● involving change
● are all, in some way, unique (although any new
project may closely follow the pattern of previous
projects).
Ask participants if this list has enabled them to get a

better focus on what is meant by a project.You can
inform them that whilst there is no universally agreed
definition, what they have described would cover the
vast majority of projects whether they are complex,
for example, building the first Polaris submarine
involving over 300 contractors, or straightforward, for
example, publishing a training manual.
Point out that project management is not just a role

for specialists.Whilst there are specialist project
managers, just as there are accountants and
solicitors, there are also many people who are
required through force of circumstances to use the
techniques as a part of their job.They may be
assigned full-time to a particular project, or, more
usually, have responsibility for a specified project
added to their list of key work objectives during a
performance management appraisal discussion.
Check out their experience

Inform the group that at the start of any learning
event it is useful for the trainer to know something
about the background of the participants.This will
enable you to relate your examples to the
participants’ own experiences, making the training
more real and relevant.
1–4
Allow about 10 minutes for this discussion on the

features of a project.
INTRODUCE YOUR PARTNER

Divide the group into pairs. Separate any who know 1
each other well, as the activity is designed for them
to get to know each other better as a group, as well
as to provide you with some relevant training
information.
Ask them to spend 5 minutes finding out enough

about their partner to form the basis of an
introduction to the rest of the training group.Tell
them that you want them to focus on their partner’s
past work experience – particularly if they have
been a member of a project team. Advise them to
make notes to help them remember what they have
learned.
After 5 minutes ask them to exchange roles.
When they have finished, ask for a volunteer to get

the introductions under way. Make a note on a sheet
of flipchart paper of the type of project each
individual has been involved with.
You may be surprised by the range of past

experiences offered.The size and variation in the
projects will emphasise that project management is
an increasing focus of modern management activity.
Typical examples may be:
● a charity event
● a new book or video
● exhibiting at a major national conference
● installing a networked computer system
● a school fair
● running a residential conference or training course
● moving the office to another location
● moving a section within a location
● designing a new performance appraisal system
● launching a new product
● widening a motorway
● building a bridge.
1–5
You will probably find as many examples as there

are participants.
Allow about 25 minutes for this exchange of

information.
WHAT DO YOU NEED TO KNOW?

Inform the group that another key facet of training
is to discover how much the participants know
against how much they should know.This is called
‘identifying the training gap’, but can be difficult
because sometimes the trainees don’t know what
they don’t know.
Show OHT 1.3

Project management competencies
Tell participants that this list shows the knowledge,

skills and attributes they need to be good at,
because these have been shown to make a
difference between average and excellent
performance as project managers.
Distribute Handout 1.5

Ask the participants to review each of the items on

the list. Allow 5 minutes for this. Check that they
understand what is involved in each.
Inform them that their next task is to rate

themselves on a three-part rating scale.
Show OHT 1.4

Competency rating scale
Ask the participants to rate themselves against each

of the competencies. Point out that they should give
themselves the mark that accurately reflects their
experience, not one they think they should say they
are at. Allow 10 minutes for this.
1–6
E = Exceptional – Can perform this competency

at a high level in all manner of circumstances.
M = Met – Can generally meet the requirements in

this area. May still have a development need to meet
exceptionally difficult circumstances. 1
N = Not Met – Either there are considerable
elements that require improvement or have not had
the opportunity to develop this area.
When they have all finished their rating, divide

participants into pairs, preferably different from
those they were in for the introduction exercise.
Ask them to discuss their ratings with their partner,
highlighting the experiences they used as evidence.
Move around the group making sure they are

focusing on the task and are using real examples
rather than vague generalisations. Remind them to
switch roles once one partner has finished their
review. Allow 15–20 minutes for this discussion.
When all the pairs have finished, reconvene and lead

a plenary review.There are two ways of managing
this.
Option 1
Ask each individual to declare their main strengths
and weaknesses as a project manager.
Check out with their partner on the accuracy of

their statements. Now ask the participant to choose
their top three learning goals for this programme.
Do not forget to point out that these need not be
their weakest area, but should concentrate on
developing the skills that are most relevant to the
context of their job.
Allow 15 minutes for this option.
1–7
Option 2
The second way will be useful if you want to tailor a
programme for the particular needs of your
audience.
Show OHT 1.3

Identify the level of competence of the participants

for each item.You could use a simple scoring system
on a sheet of flipchart paper to record the numbers
of participants who rate themselves as E, M or N.
Remember to check that they have some evidence
for their ratings, not just self-perception.
Depending on the nature of the training event you

are running, and your faith in the accuracy of the
ratings, you are now in a position to fine-tune the
programme to meet the declared needs of the
participants.You have the option of either deleting
some topics and focusing on others, or moving
through certain areas quickly, as a refresher, giving
yourself more time to concentrate on the areas of
maximum impact.
Allow 30 minutes for this option.
1–8
TRAINER’S TIP
If you choose option 2 you may be left with some

interesting decisions. For example:
1
● The majority of the group are strong in one
area but a small minority are not.
If this is the case you could consider splitting the
event in two, running a ‘fast-track’ version for the
competent and an introductory module for the
less experienced.
● One individual has considerably less

competence than the others.
Are they on the right event? You have the
possibility of rescheduling them to one where
they could mix with their peers. Another
possibility is to give them extra individual training
in the areas they need to develop.This would
enable them to get up to speed and join the rest
of the group for the more general needs.
● One individual has considerably more

competence than the others.
Again, are they on the right event? If they decide
to stay, a useful strategy would be to use them as
an auxiliary tutor. Imparting your experience to
others is a useful development activity that gets
you to focus on what you know and why you do
what you do.This role could involve them in giving
short inputs or acting as a facilitator during
practical exercises.
LEARNING REVIEW
At the end of the session, ask participants to take
5 minutes to think back over the session and then
to make notes on the key learning points that have
emerged, and how they may apply these to their
work.They should note these points in their
Learning review diary, if they are using this approach
to recording their learning (see ‘How to use this
resource’ on page xii).
1–9
1–10
1.1
? Project
1
PROJECT
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Project management pages 3 2/15/06 12:51 PM Page 1–12
What is a project?
1.2
A project is a series of
interrelated activities
undertaken to achieve a
specific end result within a
set time frame.
OK
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1–12
Project management
1.3
competencies 1
1. Recognising key project management

needs.
2. Understanding the role of the project
manager.
3. Defining the end product.
4. Planning for success.
5. Sequencing activities.
6. Budgeting.
7. Using presentation skills.
8. Selecting your team.
9. Developing your team.
10. Using project leadership skills.
11. Motivating the project team.
12. Using communication skills.
13. Putting it in writing.
14. Controlling performance.
15. Influencing and resolving conflict.
16. Using negotiation skills.
17. Managing time.
18. Chairing meetings.
19. Solving problems.
20. Making a commitment to professional
development.
OK
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1–13
Competency rating scale

1.4
E = Exceptional
M = Met
N = Not met
OK
TO
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1–14
Project management
1.5
competencies 1
For each of the following competencies rate yourself on the following scale:
E = Exceptional – You can perform this competency at a high level in all

manner of circumstances.
M = Met – You can generally meet the requirements in this area.You may
still have a development need in order to meet the competency in
exceptionally difficult circumstances.
N = Not Met – Either there are considerable elements that require

improvement or you have not had the opportunity to experience and
develop this area.
Competence Content Rating
1. Recognising key Define the term ‘project’.

project Identify the key competencies.
management Recognise priority needs.
needs.
2. Understanding Define the project manager’s role.

the role of the Have an overview of the project
project manager. life cycle.
3. Defining the Prepare mission statements.

end product. Define project objectives.
Identify constraints and
terms of reference.
4. Planning for Develop a work breakdown

success. structure.
Identify resource requirements.
Pinpoint sub-projects.
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Continued …
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Project management
1.5
competencies
… continued
5. Sequencing Draw up a Responsibility Assignment

activities. Matrix.
Identify the critical activities.
Prepare a Gantt chart.
6. Budgeting. Prepare a budget.

Monitor costs.
7. Using Plan your presentation.

presentation Making an effective delivery.
skills. Handle objections.
8. Selecting your Adopt a systematic approach to

team. selection.
Choose the right mix.
9. Developing your Establish the characteristics of

team. effective teams.
Outline the stages of team
development.
10. Using project Understand the leadership role.

leadership skills. Develop an effective leadership style.
11. Motivating the Understand team members’ needs.

project team. Take appropriate action to satisfy
them.
12. Using Ask effective questions.

communication Listen actively.
skills. Use appropriate body language.
OK
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continued …
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Project management
1.5
competencies 1
… continued
13. Putting it in Use an appropriate form of written

writing. communication.
Develop an effective style.
Devise a project report layout.
14. Controlling Set standards.

performance. Give feedback.
15. Influencing and Take a positive approach

resolving conflict. to disagreement.
Use a consensus approach.
Manage the poor performer.
16. Using negotiation Negotiation should be principled.

skills. Adopt effective behaviours.
Aim for a ‘win–win’ outcome.
17. Managing time. Identify priorities.

Diagnose ‘time-robbers’.
Plan your day.
18. Chairing Structure meetings for success.

meetings. Lead discussions.
19. Solving problems. Analyse what’s going wrong.

Develop alternative solutions.
Choose best solutions.
20. Making a Take stock of current level of

commitment to performance.
professional Review training and development
development. methods.
Draw up an action plan.
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1–18
Activity 2
The role of the
project manager
2
Purpose
To introduce participants to three key strands of

activity that must be managed concurrently in order
to maximise the success of any project.

Activity 2
The role of the
project manager
2
What skills do I need to display during
the phases of a typical project?
Purpose To introduce participants to three key strands of
activity that must be managed concurrently in order
to maximise the success of any project.
Application This activity may be used at the early stages of any

learning event that has been designed to improve
participants’ project management skills.
What happens You start the activity with a general discussion

which highlights some of the things that can go
wrong when managing a project.You use an OHT
showing a definition of ‘The Project Manager’, which
places the accountability for what happens during
any project directly on the manager.
You next introduce the concept that there are three

simultaneous strands of activity, each of which has
to be actively managed if the project is to be
successful.You lead a brief discussion which
establishes what is involved in each strand.
The next stage of the session involves the

participants in a syndicate exercise during which
they consider two of the strands – ‘structure’ and
‘processes’ – in more detail.You facilitate a plenary
review during which you give short, expert
summaries of what is involved.
You finish the session by inviting the participants to

look back on what they have learned and identify
which key points they could use back at work after
the event.They fill in their Learning review diary
(where appropriate).
2–1
Time Overall time required: 1 hour 45 minutes
● Introduction: 20 minutes
● Set yourself up for success: 20 minutes
● What’s involved in a successful project?:
20 minutes syndicate, 30 minutes review

resources 2.1 The project manager
2.2 Three strands of activity
2.3 Stages of a successful project
2.4 Project management skills hexagon
● 2 Handout masters:
2.5 Stages of a successful project
2.6 Project management skills hexagon

● OHT acetates
● OHT acetate marker pens
● Space for pairs or small-group work (preferably
separate syndicate rooms for the small-group
work or, if these are not available, you can divide
the area with screens)
How do I do it? INTRODUCTION

Start the session by asking the participants to recall
a time when a project in which they have been
involved has gone wrong.Tell them that this could
range from a major disaster to an occasion when
they felt it had just gone off track.
Give them a few minutes thinking time and then ask

them to talk briefly about their bad experience.
Whilst they are talking, write up a summary, in the
form of a bullet-point list, on a flipchart.You will
probably end up with a list of items such as:
● late completion
● overspent the budget
2–2
● poor quality of work

● rejection by the customer
● non-arrival of key components
● poor morale in the team
● key team members quit before completion
● clashes with statutory authorities, for example,
Trading Standards, Health Inspectors, and so on 2
● never finishing the project.
Now ask them who, in their experience, gets the

blame. Point out that whilst there may be many
scapegoats, the general answer is:
THE PROJECT MANAGER

(write on a flipchart for emphasis).
Point out that whether they think this is fair or not,

the project manager is there to be shot at – just as,
for example, a manager of a football team invariably
takes the blame for the team’s failures. Anyone
agreeing to take on the role of managing a project
should realise that it can be a thankless task. Project
managers report that if the project is successful
everything is fine, but if there are problems it is the
project manager who gets the blame.
Tell the group that this viewpoint has been

reinforced by The British Standards Institution which
defines a project manager as:
The individual or body with responsibility for managing a

project to achieve specific objectives.
Show OHT 2.1

The project manager
Allow 20 minutes for this introduction.
SET YOURSELF UP FOR SUCCESS

Inform the group that one way to set themselves up
for success in the role is to be constantly aware of
the three strands of activity that run concurrently
during any project.
2–3
Show OHT 2.2

Three strands of activity
Tell the group that as the project progresses from

start A to finish B, it is easy to become submerged
in the content and lose sight of the other two
equally important strands of activity (‘structure’ and
‘processes’).
‘Content’ refers to the day-to-day decisions that

have to be made as the project progresses.This is a
key phase, and no project would achieve success
without it.The content is often the main focus for
discussion, either through informal encounters, or
through more formal project team meetings.
As an example, you could ask the group what they

would be discussing if you were planning to exhibit
at a major national conference. Content discussions
would focus on such topics as where you want the
stand, what pictures you want on the display, what
sample products you want to promote, who will
attend, what they should wear, etc. Point out that
the number of topics can seem endless before you
even start.
Tell the group that many project managers excel in

this area. It is often because of their specialist topic
knowledge that they are appointed in the first place.
It is lack of attention to the other two processes
that may cause their downfall.
Turn to a flipchart and write:
STRUCTURE = Stages of the Project
PROCESSES = Management Skills
Discuss each point briefly in turn, as follows.
Structure – All projects go through a recognisable

series of stages. Like Shakespeare’s ‘Seven Ages of
Man’, they have a life cycle where one stage flows on
into the next. As project managers they need to
know what the stages are, and make sure they cover
each stage effectively.
2–4
Processes – Project managers are people

managers. No matter how much technical expertise
they possess enabling them to move through the
structure, or subject knowledge to contribute to the
content, all will be put at risk if the project manager
cannot master the management processes involved.
2
TRAINER’S TIP
Be careful not to give too much input at this

stage.You will shortly be involving the participants
in an activity designed to see how much they
already know about these two topics.
This part of the activity should take about 20 minutes.
WHAT’S INVOLVED IN A SUCCESSFUL

PROJECT?
Inform the participants that they will now take part
in a syndicate activity in which they will have the
opportunity to demonstrate how much they know
about managing projects.
Divide the participants into two syndicate groups.

Distribute blank sheets of acetate and a set of
suitable overhead-projector marker pens to each
group.Tell them they have 20 minutes to discuss and
record their conclusions. One group (A) will focus
on ‘structure’ – the stages of a typical project.The
other group (B) will focus on ‘processes’ – the
management skills involved. Check that they
understand your instructions, clarify if there is any
uncertainty, and then get them under way.
Move between syndicates whilst they are discussing

the task. Keep them on track and give them an
occasional time-check.
When both groups have finished, reconvene and take

about 30 minutes to review their conclusions. Ask
for group A to go first and to reveal their ‘structure’
OHT. Discuss each of their points, clarifying precisely
what they had in mind for each step.
2–5
Show OHT 2.3

Stages of a successful project
Use the OHT to summarise this part of the session.

Depending on the expertise of the groups you may
find you have little to add at this stage. Fill in any
gaps in their knowledge by quoting from the
supporting Handout 2.5 and illustrate with your own
examples.

Stages of a successful project
This will serve as a reminder which they can use

back at work after the course.
Now move back to group B. Ask them to show

their OHT of their conclusions on ‘processes’.
Repeat the format you used for reviewing
‘structure’.
Show OHT 2.4

Project management skills hexagon
Conclude this part of the activity by highlighting any

areas of difference, and gaps between the
participants’ versions and your own.

Project management skills hexagon
This will again serve as a reminder for participants

to use back at work after the course.
LEARNING REVIEW
Point out that one of the hallmarks of an effective
project manager is their tendency to stop and take
stock of how they are progressing. Even when things
are going well they are looking for improvements.
Tell them that you will be encouraging this process at
every stage of the learning event.
2–6
Distribute the handout on page xvii

Learning review diary
Ask participants to take 5 minutes to think back

over the session and then to make notes on the key
learning points that have emerged, and how they
may apply these to their work.
2
When all the participants have finished completing
their diaries, ask for volunteers to comment on the
key ideas they will take away and implement.
Close the session when all who want to speak have

contributed.
TRAINER’S TIP
There are many ways of establishing your

credibility with a training group. One involves not
asking the participants to try out an activity that
you aren’t prepared to undertake yourself.
I always advise trainers to try out each activity
before running it with the participants.
A second approach is to read more widely about a

topic than just the outlines provided here.This will
enable you to customise the recommended
approach with your own ideas and will provide you
with valuable additional information to answer any
questions participants may ask on the content.
See the section ‘Further resources’ at the start of
the pack for some recommendations.
2–7
2–8
The project manager

2.1
The individual or body

with responsibility for
managing a project to
achieve specific objectives.
OK
TO
Source: BS 6079: 1996 Guide to Project Management

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2–9
Three strands of activity

2.2
Structure
A Content B
Processes
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Stages of a successful
2.3
project
2
STAGE ONE – Definition
STAGE TWO – Planning
STAGE THREE – Implementation
STAGE FOUR – Completion
OK
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2–11
Project management skills

2.4
hexagon
CLARIFY
THE AIMS
GET MANAGE
THINGS TIME AND
DONE PRESSURE
COMMUNICATE
EFFECTIVELY
LEAD MOTIVATE
YOUR INDIVIDUALS
TEAM
PERSUADE
AND
INFLUENCE
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2.5
project
2
Stage one – Definition
Once the project has been conceived, you will need to work closely with
your client – the person who originated, or is sponsoring, the project.Your
first task will be to define the scope and purpose of the project.
It will help you establish a clear focus on what is about to be attempted
and why.You need to establish your terms of reference, identifying any
major constraints and defining the critical success factors to judge the
outcome. By the end of this stage you will have established the project’s
objectives and started to create the initial strategy. It will help you estimate
the resources you need to achieve the results identified.
Stage two – Planning

Having established what is to be done, you next focus on how it is to be
achieved. During this phase, break down the project into a sequence of
activities.This will alert you to the number of sub-projects you will have to
co-ordinate to meet your overall objective.You will need to break down
each sub-project and prepare a detailed specification of who does what by
when.You will have to agree these details with the staff assigned to carry
them out and provide clear terms of reference concerning budgets and
their other resources. By the end of this stage you will be able to produce
an overall project summary sheet which will allow everyone concerned to
monitor the project’s progress.
Stage three – Implementation

This is the stage when the action you have planned takes place.You will be
involved in monitoring to make sure that the project is keeping on target. If
the sequence of events is not proceeding to your plan, you will be involved
in troubleshooting.This often means modifying the project plan in light of
new evidence and experience. Be prepared to introduce a contingency plan
where appropriate.
OK
TO
Continued …
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2.5
… continued
project
Stage four – Completion
This is the stage where the project reaches its close.You will need to check
that all that you set out to do has been accomplished. Have you achieved
the critical success factors you established at the start? If not why not? Was
the eventual outcome acceptable to all those concerned? You will need to
lead a review on the outcome. Highlight what was successful, as well as
areas where you feel you could have performed better.Your final task will
usually be to produce a written report for the client, in which you
summarise the results and give full recognition to the project team for
their achievement.
OK
TO
Y
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2–14

2.6
hexagon
2
To help establish effective relationships and manage performance
throughout the project you will need to be able to demonstrate the
following project management skills.
Clarify the aims

● Clarify your vision
● Give direction to the project team
● Establish the purpose
● Describe the end results
● Establish critical success factors and standards.
Get things done

● Set short-term plans
● Link to overall aims
● Establish priorities
● Obtain feedback
● Maintain standards
● Act quickly to rectify shortfalls.
Manage time and pressure

● Keep focused
● Manage diversions
● Chair meetings
● Energise others
● Manage own/team’s stress levels
● Let off steam
● Use humour appropriately.
Lead your team

● Select a first-class team
● Balance appropriate skills
● Define accountability
● Create a common understanding
● Consult at all times
● Use group problem-solving approaches
● Encourage diversity. OK
TO
Continued …
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2–15

2.6
… continued
hexagon
Motivate individuals
● Get to know each team member as an individual
● Identify their specific needs
● Involve each person
● Value their contribution
● Provide opportunities for development
● Praise and reward as appropriate.
Persuade and influence

● Work out what they want
● Adopt a principled approach, don’t manipulate
● Search for a joint solution
● Aim for a win–win outcome
● Use positive body language that supports what you say
● Identify the benefits and overcome any objections
● Make an effective presentation.
Communicate effectively
● Give out, not withhold information
● Use appropriate channel and medium for your message
● Speak and write clearly and succinctly
● Ask open questions
● Listen actively
● Be open to others’ ideas and suggestions
● Model effective behaviour.
OK
TO
Y
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2–16
Activity 3
Define the end
product
3
Purpose
To introduce to participants the need to develop a

project statement that clearly defines the goals of
the project.To enable them to develop the skills of
writing effective goals and completing a SWOT
analysis of the project.

Activity 3
Define the end
product
How do I clarify where the project is
going and why I want to get there? 3
Purpose To introduce to participants the need to develop a
project statement that clearly defines the goals of
the project.To enable them to develop the skills of
writing effective goals and completing a SWOT
analysis of the project.
Application This activity is designed to be used at the early

stages of any learning event that aims to improve the
project management skills of participants.
What happens You start the session by leading a discussion that

encourages the participants to review the advantages
of having a clear statement identifying the key
purpose of the project.You continue by asking them
to recall goals of previous projects in which they
have been involved.
You then use a number of examples of project

statements to identify the properties of an effective
goal.The participants take part in a paired exercise
designed to develop and improve their goal writing
abilities.
You next introduce the concept of SWOT analysis,

giving examples that will help the participants
understand what is involved.You give them the
opportunity to put that understanding to the test by
practising developing a SWOT analysis, in small groups.
Finally, having reviewed the outcome of the SWOT

syndicate exercise, you conclude by encouraging the
group to take time to review the major points they
have learned from this activity.They fill in their
Learning review diary (where appropriate).
3–1
Time Overall time required: 2 hours 15 minutes.
● Why are we doing this?: 20 minutes

● Identifying the properties of an effective project
goal: 45 minutes
● Identifying project strengths and weaknesses: 1 hour
● What have we learned?:10 minutes.

resources 3.1 Why?
3.2 What is a goal?
3.3 The project goal – an example
3.4 Properties of effective project goals
3.5 SWOT analysis

● OHT acetates
How do I do it? WHY ARE WE DOING THIS?
Show OHT 3.1

Why?
Tell the group that in this session they will address

this fundamental question – Why? Inform the group
that all projects exist for a purpose.They are
conceived and developed as part of someone’s
master plan.The problem with many projects is that
people often lose sight of this.They start to do
things because they think it might be a good idea,
but often find that it has not added anything to the
overall aim of the project.
3–2
Point out that failure to keep the goal of the project

in mind at all times will result in wasted time and
effort.
Tell the group that all projects are undertaken for a

purpose. In order to clarify this key point,
an effective project manager will make sure that
they have a written project statement. Ask the
participants if any of them has a mission statement 3
at work. Point out that the project statement is the
equivalent of an organisation’s mission statement.
It has a similar role in setting the direction and
clarifying the values you want to be seen to be
working by. It represents the goal that everyone
involved will be working towards.
Ask the participants to recall some of the projects

in which they have been involved. Ask them to call
out any written goals that applied to that project.
Write some of their examples on a flipchart.
Show OHT 3.2

What is a goal?
Remind the group that a general benefit is summed

up by a popular saying:
If you don’t know where you’re going, you’re likely to end

up somewhere else!
Ask the participants to review the goals you have

just written on the flipchart (their own examples).
Which of these do they think are the best match to
the definition? Probe to establish the reasons why
they have rejected the poor goals.They will probably
reply along the lines of:
● too vague
● woolly
● not specific enough
● provides no focus to the activity
● ambiguous.
3–3
Show OHT 3.3

The project goal – an example
Ask the group what they think would be the

benefits of having a clearly defined goal – as with the
example.They should reply along the lines of:
● gives a clear sense of direction

● focuses attention
● provides clarity about the task
● a standard for measuring progress
● aid to time management and prioritising
● gives a basis for action plans
● provides an opportunity to clarify and reject
options
● presents an objective against which the overall
success or failure of the project can be measured.
Allow 20 minutes for this first part of the activity.
IDENTIFYING THE PROPERTIES OF AN

EFFECTIVE PROJECT GOAL
Re-show OHT 3.3

The project goal – an example
Ask the participants to deconstruct both this

example and any of their own that remain on the
flipchart.Tell them that you want them to identify
the key ingredients that make these goals effective.
Write their suggestions on a flipchart.
Show OHT 3.4

Properties of effective project goals
Discuss each property in turn, showing how it

confirms their own list. Use the previous example
(OHT 3.3 The project goal) to illustrate each element
of the SMARTER approach.
3–4
S pecific: exhibit our full range of products and

services
M easurable: generating £50,000 of on-site sales
and providing 120 contact names for
follow-up action
A chievable: judgement based on experience
R elevant: enhancing our reputation as a high
quality provider
T imebound: at the Oktoberfest National Training 3
Exhibition
E xciting: generating £50,000 of on-site sales
R ecorded: it has been written down.
When you are satisfied that the participants

appreciate and understand each element, tell them it
is time for them to have a go themselves.
Ask them to think of a current or upcoming project

they will be involved in.Tell them that you want
them initially to work on their own to draft a
project statement using the SMARTER approach.
They will have 5 minutes for this phase.When they
have finished you then want them to work with a
partner.They take turns to explain their approach,
justifying each element.The other partner’s role is
to listen to the explanation and then give
constructive feedback.When they have reviewed the
statement to both partners’ satisfaction, they write a
finished version on the blank acetate sheets
provided.The partners than swap roles and consider
the other’s project statement. Inform them they will
have approximately 20 minutes for this second
phase.
Check they understand your instructions and then

get the exercise under way.You will usually find that
different participants work at a different pace. As
each individual completes their first draft, put them
with someone who has also just finished. Continue
pairing them in this way until all the participants
have a partner.
Move around the group whilst they are working.

Keep them on track. Remind them to keep an eye
on the time and to change over when they have
finished the first review.
3–5
When all the pairs have finished, reconvene and lead

a plenary review of their work. Ask for volunteers to
show their final versions. Check what alterations
they made during the paired discussions. Invite
comments from the others on how well they have
conformed to the brief. Add any further comments
you feel appropriate before moving on to another
volunteer.
How long you continue this feedback session will

depend on how many you have in the training group
and the quality of the final versions.When you have
a particularly good example of a SMARTER
statement, ask the individual if you can take a
photocopy of the acetate to provide a
supplementary handout for the rest of the group.
This work on producing an effective project goal

should take about 45 minutes in total.
IDENTIFYING PROJECT STRENGTHS AND

WEAKNESSES
Inform the participants that one of the major sins a
project manager can commit is to consider
themselves omnipotent. Point out that although they
may have been appointed because they have
outstanding skills in certain areas, they are unlikely
to be able to do everything themselves.
Advise them that the sooner they can bring in

others to help the better. Point out that having
clarified the project’s purpose – either with the
client/sponsor, or for themselves if they are also
initiating the project – then now is an opportune
time to get others involved.
Ask the group if they have come across a technique

known as SWOT analysis.This approach is used in a
number of different business areas. Although it was
originally devised as a marketing tool, it can also be
adapted for effective project planning.
Show OHT 3.5

SWOT analysis
3–6
Take about 30 minutes to explain what each section

should include, as follows.
Strengths: What have you got going for you?

Identify the particular strengths that your project
team or wider organisation can bring to the project.
Either use your own examples, or base them on the

following worked example, which is set around a 3
training firm attending an exhibition.
For example:
● Organisation known for developing innovative
training solutions that match customers’ business
needs
● Previous experience of team members in staffing
exhibitions
● First-class knowledge, throughout the
organisation, of visual display techniques and
equipment
● A well-stocked photograph library showing tutors
in action on outdoor adventure courses
● In-house despatch service equipped to handle
movements of materials to site by due date.
Weaknesses: What factors within your

organisation may hinder your success? It is also
useful to identify any constraints you may be
working with.
For example:
● Staffing implications of having the exhibition at

one of the organisation’s seasonal peak demands
● A limited budget that will reduce the size of stand
and type of activity used, i.e. no room for popular
rope-slide exercise
● Deadline of 12th July for confirmed entries will
mean team has to get up to speed quickly
● No experience of stand or exhibition brochure
design within existing team.
Opportunities: What opportunities may be

presented by the project? Try to identify some of the
benefits you will gain from completing the project.
3–7
For example:
● Directly increase sales and make a profit

● Chance to meet new customers attending the
event
● Opportunity to meet old/existing customers and
introduce them to new products
● Chance to impress your customers in comparison
with your competitors
● Opportunity for your staff to develop skills in
new areas, i.e. project management, exhibition
sales techniques, stand design
● Will unite and focus the team, giving them a
common development opportunity.
Threats: These are the factors that exist in the

wider environment over which the project team
may have very little influence.
For example:
● Although deadline is some way off, all places may

have been allocated
● As a new entrant you will come well down the
pecking order for sites.You may end up in a cul-
de-sac in the annexe!
● Poor promotion by the exhibition organisers may
mean low attendance by new prospects
● Does it clash with any other popular events?
● Competitors’ presence and stands could have
greater impact than yours
● Competitors will see your new ideas and may
pinch them for themselves
● Your existing customers may not attend.
Some of the group may raise the issue here that many
of these points can surely be anticipated. A couple of
phone calls will clear up many of the ‘Threats’. Point
out that is precisely why you should explore them.As
project managers they must never make assumptions,
but clarify as much as they can at this stage.
3–8
TRAINER’S TIP
A good way to emphasise this point is to draw the

word ASSUME on a flipchart. Now ask the group
what can happen if you make assumptions.Take a
marker pen and draw two lines so that the word
now reads ASS | U | ME. Point out that this is the
usual outcome, you both end up looking like asses! 3
Ask if there are any questions about what you have
explained before moving on to a practical exercise.
SWOT analysis exercise

Divide the participants into small groups.
Put together participants who may be working on
similar projects. Issue each group with a blank sheet
of acetate and a set of marker pens.Tell them that
they have 25 minutes to develop a SWOT analysis,
using a current project of one of the group as the
example.
Allocate each group to a separate area and get them

under way. Again move around the groups, keep
them focused on the task, clarify any questions and
remind them of the time. As an indication, tell them
they should allocate about 5 minutes for each
quadrant, and another 5 minutes to draw their ideas
onto the acetate.
When all the groups have finished, reconvene and

lead a plenary review. Ask one of the groups to
volunteer to show their OHT and discuss how they
approached the exercise as well as give an
explanation of the items in their analysis.
Repeat this approach until all the groups have

reported back.
WHAT HAVE WE LEARNED?

Ask the participants if there are any general learning
points about managing projects that have emerged
from the exercise. One that they should have
identified is that having produced a SWOT they are
now in a better position to question the accuracy, 3–9
effectiveness and likely success of the original

project statement. Having weighed up the Strengths
and Opportunities, these may not outweigh the
Threats and Weaknesses. As project managers they
will be in a better position to modify what they can
achieve, or even consider abandoning the project.
Point out that it will be better to do this if they
realise the difficulties from the outset, rather than to
launch in and have to abandon the project halfway
through because of ‘unforeseen circumstances’.
Ask the participants to take 5 minutes to think back

over the session and then to make notes on the key
learning points that have emerged, and how they
may apply these to their work.They should note
these points in their Learning review diary, if they
are using this approach to recording their learning
(see ‘How to use this resource’ on page xii).
When all the group have finished, ask for volunteers

to share their key learning from this activity.
When all who want to contribute have finished,

thank them for their participation and close the
session.
3–10
Why?
3.1
OK
TO
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What is a goal?
3.2
A goal is a concise, precise

and measurable statement
of intended action.
OK
TO
Y
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3–12
The project goal –

3.3
an example
3
To exhibit our full range of products
and services at the Oktoberfest
National Training Exhibition, enhancing
our reputation as a high-quality
provider whilst generating £50,000 of
on-site sales and providing 120 contact
names for follow-up action.
OK
TO
Y
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3–13
Properties of effective
3.4
project goals
Set smarter goals
S – Specific
Clear and unambiguous end product
M – Measurable
Observable outcomes of performance
Quantity, Quality, Cost,Time
A – Achievable
Realistic within the capabilities and constraints
R – Relevant
Address a significant need of the organisation
T – Timebound
You have a target date for completion
Now is an opportune time to undertake the
project
E – Exciting
Project will stimulate all concerned to action
R – Recorded
Written down for clarity, communication and
review
OK
TO
Y
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SWOT analysis
3.5
3
Strengths Weaknesses
What have you got going What factors within your
for you? Identify the organisation may hinder
particular strengths that your success? It is also
your project team or useful to identify any
wider organisation can constraints you may be
bring to the project. working with.
Opportunities Threats
What opportunities may These are the factors that
be presented by the exist in the wider
project? Try to identify environment over which
some of the benefits you the project team may have
will gain from completing very little influence.
the project.
OK
TO
Y
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3–15
3–16
Activity 4
The power of
planning – part one
Purpose
4
To introduce participants to the benefits they will
accrue from planning their projects.To give them an
opportunity to learn and develop the skills
associated with two planning techniques –
Fishbone Analysis and Work Breakdown Structure.

Activity 4
The power of
planning – part one
How do I start the journey to success?
Purpose To introduce participants to the benefits they will
accrue from planning their projects.To give them an 4
opportunity to learn and develop the skills
associated with two planning techniques –
Fishbone Analysis and Work Breakdown Structure.
Application This activity is designed to be used at the early

stages of any learning event that aims to develop a
foundation of skills in managing projects.
What happens You start the session by leading a general discussion

which identifies the benefits that accrue when the
participants think ahead and plan their projects.
You then introduce the first of two techniques that

are used in the early stages of the project planning
process – Fishbone Analysis.You discuss the
technique and then develop an example on a
flipchart to illustrate the technique in action.The
participants then practise in groups and review the
results in a plenary session.
You then introduce and demonstrate the next

technique – the Work Breakdown Structure.The
participants return to the same groups to continue
the process and apply the technique by turning their
Fishbone Analysis into a Work Breakdown Structure.
Their results are once again reviewed in a plenary
session.
You finish this activity by encouraging the reflective

process, urging the participants to use their Learning
review diary to review what they have learned from
the activity, and to make a note of how they could
apply these points to their work.
4–1
Time Overall time required: 2 hours 20 minutes
● Break down the work into key activities: 45 minutes
● Building a work breakdown structure: 1 hour
● Learning review: 15 minutes
Materials & ● 3 OHT masters

resources 4.1 The power of planning
4.2 A fishbone diagram
4.3 A work breakdown structure diagram

● OHT acetates
● Post-it® Notes

You start the session by showing the group an OHT.
Show OHT 4.1

The power of planning
Ask participants how many of them have heard this

saying ‘Failing to plan is planning to fail’.
Unfortunately it is too often stated after an event
has floundered. Point out that hindsight can be a
marvellous thing, but what a good project manager
really needs is foresight.
Divide the group up into pairs and ask them to

identify several benefits that come from planning.
Give them about 5 minutes, and when you estimate
they are running out of ideas, stop their discussion.
4–2
Lead a plenary discussion which identifies some of

the benefits they will gain from planning their
projects.
Typical suggestions will include:
● Makes us think before we act

● Gives a clear sight of the end of the project. As
we work continuously we can lose sight of our
destination
● Saves us time – although we will have to spend 4
time to do so
● Helps prioritise our efforts into the best areas to
achieve our goal
● Enables us to schedule our resources to
maximum effect
● Saves money as we may be able to achieve more
with fewer staff
● Makes it easier to know where we are going,
formulating short-term goals to achieve longer-
term strategies
● Enables us to anticipate problems and identify
potential solutions
● Helps us to identify who is going to do what, and
the training needs they may have
● Increases professionalism of the project team as
they approach their task
● The confidence that comes from a well-worked
plan will improve motivation and morale and
make achievement more likely
● We can use our plan to put forward our case for
resources, for example, more staff or money
● Our clients are in a better position to consider
our requests.
4–3
TRAINER’S TIP
How you proceed from here will depend on the

previous experience of the group. If they have
already completed Activity 3 Define the end product,
then you can move straight ahead. If not, you will
need to give a short input on the early stages of a
project.These will involve the project manager
and their team writing a project statement that
sets out what is to be achieved and considering a
detailed SWOT analysis of their current situation.
Take about 20 minutes to cover this essential early

ground, then you can move on to the next item.
BREAK DOWN THE WORK INTO

KEY ACTIVITIES
Inform the group that having identified the purpose
of the project, the next stage will involve them in
taking stock and identifying the key activities they
will need to complete to help them achieve this
purpose.This exercise is what professional project
managers – i.e. those who exclusively manage
projects for a living – call the Work Breakdown
Structure.You will often see this abbreviated to
WBS in technical journals.
Tell participants that as an essential first step to

preparing their WBS they must identify all the
activities that have to be achieved to reach the
project’s goal.Tell them not to worry about any
particular order at the moment – what you are
after is an overview of all the activities involved.
Show OHT 4.2

A fishbone diagram
Tell the participants they should use the Fishbone

Technique as it can be a useful first step in any
project planning process. (It is basaed on the ‘Cause
and Effect’ diagrams developed by Professor Kaora
Ishikawa, a leading quality guru from the 1950s.)
4–4
Draw an example on a flipchart to demonstrate

how the technique works. At the ‘effect’ end of the
fishbone write a potted version of the project goal.
Explain that each arm represents a main activity that
will have to be completed to ensure the project’s
success.
Ask the group to call out some activities that can

form the main bones for the project you covered in
Activity 2 – the Training Exhibition.Write these on
to the bones. 4
Typical examples for the exhibition project could
include:
● design the stand

● design an exhibition brochure
● train the staff
● inform existing customers
● build stand on site.
Point out when an activity suggested is a supporting

branch of one of the main activities.This will
reinforce the message that any project is made up of
a series of activities, each of which can become a
mini-project with dependent activities of its own.
For example, ‘design an exhibition brochure’ and

‘inform existing customers’ are both sub-activities of
the major branch ‘Marketing the project’.
Stop and check with the group as the fishbone

builds up. Is their suggestion a major activity, or a
supporting activity that will help achieve one of the
major ones? Write their suggestions on the
appropriate branches after getting them to analyse
where they should go.
Point out that the advantage of using the Fishbone

Technique over merely listing the events is that it
enables links to be made between connected areas.
They will find that, just as in other brainstorming
activities, one idea triggers another.
4–5
Let’s try out this technique

Having taken about 20 minutes to conduct the
whole-group practice, point out that it is time to
apply the technique to their own projects. Divide the
participants into small groups of three or four
people. It will help the exercise to group individuals
who are working on similar projects. For example,
projects that are concerned with appearing at an
exhibition, managing an office relocation or installing
a new computer network will have many common
features, even if the precise content differs.
Issue each group with a set of marker pens and

blank sheets of acetate.Tell them they have
20 minutes to brainstorm a fishbone diagram for a
project of their choice. Make sure they understand
the task, and get them under way.
Move between the groups answering any questions
and keeping them on track and to time.When they
have finished, reconvene and lead a plenary review.
Ask for a volunteer to show their group’s final
fishbone and to explain how they approached the
task. Invite questions from the remainder of the
participants and add any other comments of your
own that will help improve their understanding of
this technique.
This part of the activity should take about

45 minutes.
BUILDING A WORK BREAKDOWN

STRUCTURE
Inform the group that having generated a list of the
likely activities, their next step is to convert these
into some form of hierarchy – a Work Breakdown
Structure (WBS) chart.
The WBS chart is a way of showing, in an easy-to-

understand diagram, how the project breaks down
into the key and supporting activities.The Fishbone
Technique provides the raw material, but the very
nature of the brainstorming approach produces a
huge volume of random elements.WBS provides an
4–6
opportunity to structure the project in a systematic

and logical manner.
Show OHT 4.3

A work breakdown structure diagram
Point out that what they see is a hierarchy where

each lower level supports the ones above. It may
remind them of their own company’s organisational
charts. 4
Tell the group that they start at the top with the
overall project title, for example, ‘Training Exhibition
– Oktoberfest’.The project is then broken down
into its main activities, for example, ‘Marketing the
project’, ‘Designing the stand’, ‘Staffing the
exhibition’, ‘On-site construction’, and so on.
Each main activity is then broken down into its
supporting activities, which have to be completed to
achieve it.The process is repeated until all the key
tasks have been identified.
The completed diagram gives an overview of the

project and the interrelation of the activities
involved.
Point out that having already identified many of the

activities using the fishbone, they should find it easy
to sequence them into a systematic structure.
The WBS helps us define the scope of the project.
All the work that needs to be done to make the
project a success will have been identified.The WBS
helps establish the many sub-projects that are
necessary to met the overall project objective.
It will form the basis of a timed programme of
activities showing the most efficient and economical
way forward for the project.
Allow about 15 minutes for this introduction to the

WBS chart.
4–7
TRAINER’S TIP
Inform the group that they will be returning to

the WBS in Activity 5 The power of planning – part
two.
Ask the participants to move back into their groups.
Issue each group with a pack of Post-it® Notes,

marker pens and some clear acetate sheets.Tell
them they have 30 minutes to produce a detailed
Work Breakdown Structure. Ask them to start by
using the Post-it® Notes to identify each activity.This
will make it easier to move their ideas around until
they have finalised their chart.They should then
draw their final version on the acetate for use in the
plenary review.
Check that they understand the requirements of the

exercise and get them under way. Move around the
groups, answer any questions and provide some
input where appropriate if they need help with the
concepts. Make sure they are aware of the time and
keep them on target to finish after 30 minutes.
When the groups have finished, reconvene and lead

a plenary review. Ask for a volunteer to go first and
show their finished WBS diagram. Ask the group to
discuss their breakdown and describe the process
they used to reach their final decision. Invite
questions and comments from the remainder of the
participants and provide any additional feedback you
feel will develop their understanding of this
technique.Take about 15 minutes for this discussion.
LEARNING REVIEW
4–8

When they have all finished their individual

reflections, ask for a volunteer to take a few minutes
to describe to the rest of the group the key learning
points and any workplace applications. Continue this
process until all who want to contribute have
spoken.
Thank participants for their efforts and close the 4

session.
4–9
4–10
The power of planning

4.1
4
Failing to plan is
planning to fail.
OK
TO
Y
P
CO
4–11
A fishbone diagram
4.2
CAUSE
EFFECT
OK
TO
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CO
4–12
A work breakdown
4.3
structure diagram
Marketing Designing Staffing the On-site 4

the project the stand exhibition construction
Recruit the staff Train the staff

● Job description
● Person specification
● Internal advert
● Issue application
forms
● Sift candidates
● Interview short-list
● Make selection
● Inform candidates
OK
TO
Y
P
CO
4–13
4–14
Activity 5
The power of
planning – part two
Purpose
This activity continues the introduction to the

planning process. It aims to develop the participants’ 5
skills in presenting planning information in a visual
form that is clear and useful.

Activity 5
The power of
planning – part two
How do I work out who does what
and when?
Purpose This activity continues the introduction to the
planning process. It aims to develop the participants’
skills in presenting planning information in a visual
5
form that is clear and useful.
Application The activity is designed to be used as part of

introducing participants to the foundation skills
required for effective project management. It follows
on from Activity 4 The power of planning – part one
and builds on the Work Breakdown Structure
technique introduced at the end of that activity.We
recommend that you do not run Activity 5 before
this essential preparatory work.
What happens You start the session by reminding the participants

about what they learned during Activity 4, by showing
an OHT of the Work Breakdown Structure (WBS).
You then lead a discussion during which you
introduce the technique of drawing up a
Responsibility Assignment Matrix (RAM) – a device
for showing who is responsible for each activity
identified in the WBS.
You demonstrate to the group the three stages of

the process, using an example of your choice.The
participants then have an opportunity to try out the
technique, using the example project developed into
a WBS in Activity 4.Their work is then reviewed and
constructive feedback given by both fellow
participants and yourself.
In the next stage of the session you consider the

essential ingredients that should be covered in a
discussion between the project manager and the
5–1
person assigned responsibility for an activity.The

participants return to their groups and carry out a
briefing discussion in which they have the
opportunity to role-play the participants and
develop the skills involved.
Following a plenary review which constructively

analyses what went on, you then introduce the
second approach – the Gantt chart.
Participants are given the opportunity to develop

this technique, using the same project WBS.
Following a review of what happened, you
encourage the participants to think about how they
may apply what they have learned from the activity
back at their workplace.They fill in their Learning
review diary (where appropriate).
● Specify key accountabilities: 20 minutes

● Let’s put it into practice: 40 minutes
● Specifying each assignment: 20 minutes
● Role-play activity: 50 minutes
● Developing the project timetable: 20 minutes
● Practice makes perfect: 50 minutes

resources 5.1 A work breakdown structure diagram
5.2 Responsibility Assignment Matrix
5.3 Properties of effective project goals
5.4 Observer’s review sheet
5.5 Project Gantt chart

5–2
● An A1-sized year planner

● A tape-label maker
● A set of pencils and an eraser for each group
● A sheet of flipchart graph paper for the trainer
In preparation During this activity you will need to produce a RAM

and a Gantt chart based on one of your own
projects. We suggest you think through your ideas
and draft them onto a flipchart before starting this
activity.
How do I do it? SPECIFY KEY ACCOUNTABILITIES 5

You start the session with a brief summary of what
was covered in Activity 4 The power of planning – part
one.
Show OHT 5.1

A work breakdown structure diagram
This illustrates how the project manager can identify

the key activities involved. Point out that this is an
essential first step in planning and gaining control
over what happens.
Tell the group that having established the WBS, the

next step will involve them in identifying who does
what. Point out that it is very important that
everyone involved in the project is clearly assigned
responsibility for completing each individual
element. If you do not establish this it will be
difficult to hold individuals accountable. Confusion
will reign over who is to do what. Point out that this
can lead to some jobs being done twice, by different
people, whilst other key tasks may either be missed
or only partly completed.
Inform the participants that, having created their

WBS, they now have a tool that will help them
assign responsibilities. One straightforward way of
doing this is to draw up a Responsibility Assignment
Matrix which clearly identifies who is going to do
what.
5–3
Show OHT 5.2

Responsibility Assignment Matrix (RAM)
Point out to the participants that when drawing their

matrix they will need to consider two elements:
what needs to be done – taken from the key activities
in the WBS – and who will do it.A further useful
refinement is to identify not only the person who has
the main responsibility of carrying out the task
(represented on the chart by a capital M), but also the
individuals who will be supporting them (represented
by a capital S).
Draw up an example on a flipchart. (Use the

information you have prepared before the session.)
Explain each stage to the participants as you write.
Stage One: Write the key activities for the project

down the left-hand side of the page.
Stage Two: Write the titles of the people who will

be involved on the project across the top of the
page.
Stage Three: Identify the individual with the main

responsibility for achieving that activity (write M in
the appropriate box of the matrix). Specify if they
need support (write S in the appropriate box).
This first part of the activity should take about

20 minutes.
LET’S PUT IT INTO PRACTICE

Ask the participants to return to the groups they
worked in to produce their WBS. Issue each group
with a fresh acetate sheet. Inform them that they
have 15 minutes to produce a Responsibility
Assignment Matrix (RAM) for their project.
Advise them that if it is a general rather than a

specific example then they should use common job
titles to signify who will be involved, for example,
Training Manager, Chief Designer, Assistant Personnel
Officer,Transport Manager, and so on.
5–4
Check that they have no questions about the task

and then get them under way. Move around the
groups to give advice and keep them on track and to
time.

lead a plenary review of their ideas. Ask participants
to comment on each other’s work and give any
constructive feedback you feel is appropriate.
Take about 40 minutes for this practice and

discussion. 5
SPECIFYING EACH ASSIGNMENT
Remind the group that one of the features of a
project is that you will have different people working
on different activities at the same time.
The RAM will help them to co-ordinate all the
activities into a coherent whole. However, identifying
who will do what does not guarantee they will do it
entirely to your satisfaction.
Ask the group if they have any examples of

situations when they have delegated work to
someone or commissioned a job, and the end result
has been far from what they anticipated or required.
It will be unusual if the majority haven’t had such an
experience.
Point out that it is easy to make assumptions that

the other person knows what you expect. (Use the
ASS | U | ME flipchart example – see page 3–9.
If possible flip back to it as a reminder.) The best
approach to make sure you get precisely what you
need is to discuss the activity you have assigned with
each of the individuals concerned.
Check with the group to see how many of them set

performance objectives as part of their organisation’s
performance management appraisal system. Point out
that what you are proposing is a similar process.
Probe to find out what is involved in their current
system.You should find that a project specification
discussion includes all or most of the following points:
5–5
● identify the person responsible for the successful

completion of that activity
● confirm that the activity is appropriate for that
individual
● set out what is to be achieved in specific,
measurable terms
● identify any liaison required with other project
members
● specify the technical standards or regulations that
must be followed during the work
● specify other quality issues required of the
end product
● discuss any conflicts in meeting these project
objectives with other work the individual has
● establish priority between any conflicting
objectives
● gather information on a realistic time-scale for
completing the activity to the specification agreed
● identify the resources that are going to be
required to carry out each activity
● estimate how much it will cost to provide each of
these resources.
Point out to the group that any effective project

activity specification should meet the SMARTER
criteria.
Show OHT 5.3

Discuss each point and clarify what you are looking

for.
Point out that the information gained from these

discussions will enable the project manager to cost
the project accurately and sequence the order in
which the activities will take place. A successful
discussion will give a realistic, rather than imposed,
timetable for completion.You should ensure that the
individuals who have been consulted in this way feel
involved and motivated to make a success of what is
becoming their project.
This section of the activity should take about

20 minutes.
5–6
ROLE-PLAY ACTIVITY
Ask the participants to return to their groups.
Tell them that you want two volunteers within each
group, one to role-play the project manager, the
other the individual who has been assigned a major
activity in the RAM.
Tell them you want the project manager to lead a

10-minute discussion on the appropriate task.
The discussion should end with the drafting of a
specification for that activity which both parties are
happy to agree to. 5
The remainder of the group are to act as
non-participating observers.Their role will be to
provide feedback on how well the project manager
runs the discussion.You also want them to review
the effectiveness of the final specification against the
SMARTER criteria. Point out that they will find it
useful to make notes on the handout as the
discussion progresses.These notes will enable them
to give specific and helpful feedback.

Observer’s review sheet
Review the items on the handout. Answer any

questions participants have about what they should
be writing.
Tell them they all have 30 minutes for the activity.

This will include time to provide the role-players
with feedback.
Check that they all understand what is required and

then get the exercise under way. Move around the
groups to keep them on track and answer any
questions they may have.

a plenary review. Focus on both the content of the
final specification and on the process and skills the
project manager used to reach agreement.
5–7
Write some examples of their project activity

statements on the flipchart and compare each with
the SMARTER criteria described in OHT 5.3.
Re-show OHT 5.3

Allow about 10 minutes for this plenary review.
When you are satisfied that the participants have

demonstrated they know how to write effective
specifications, move on to the next part of the
activity.
DEVELOPING THE PROJECT TIMETABLE

Inform the group that one of the most common
ways to analyse project timings is to draw up a chart
that shows the sequence and duration of each key
activity. Ask how many have heard of or used Gantt
charts. Inform them that these were first used by
Henry Gantt in about 1914.They have been adapted
as the basis for one of the most common tools in
project management.The charts have the advantage
of showing the start and finish times for all the
activities that make up the project, and are an
excellent medium for both communication and
control.
Turn to a fresh flipchart sheet and – using the

example you prepared before the session –
construct a simple Gantt chart on a project of your
choice. Describe each step in the process as you
draw.
TRAINER’S TIP
If you have a special flipchart pad of graph paper

this will make your task easier.
Step one: Draw a timeline across the top and

bottom of the sheet. Start with the earliest
start-date of the first activity and finish with the date
5–8
for the completion of the project.
Step two: List the key activities identified in your

WBS down the left-hand edge of the paper.When
you write the list, start at the top of the page with
the initial project task. List the other activities in the
logical order and sequence identified from your
WBS analysis. Head this section ‘Activities’.
Step three: Draw a column down the page

alongside each activity. Enter the number of days
you anticipate each activity will take. Head this
column ‘Days’.
Step four: Draw another column alongside the

5
last. Enter the name or initial of the person who has
the main responsibility for achieving that activity.
Head this column ‘Who’.
Step five: Starting at the appropriate time point for

each activity, draw a bar which shows its estimated
start and finish dates.The bar is positioned at the
earliest start-date of each activity and the length of
the bar shows the estimated duration.
Step six: Review your chart. Have you got the

sequence of the activities in the most economical
order? The chart should cascade down the page
from top left (the start) to bottom right (the finish).
This process is usually completed by a period of

trial and error as you move the bars around the
chart. It has been compared with filling in a large
jigsaw.You have only finished when all the pieces
finally fit.
This explanation will take about 20 minutes. Do

point out at this stage that there are a number of
computer packages that can help you do the work,
and that it is useful to understand the concepts used
by the various packages. If the participants don’t
have a project management package they can draw
up the chart on most spreadsheet packages.This
tool will enable them to move activities around the
chart as their interdependency becomes apparent.
A spreadsheet will allow them to introduce a new
activity, or change the amount of time an activity will
5–9
take.This will avoid the time taken to redraft a hand-

drawn chart.

Project Gantt chart
The handout shows an example of what a finalised

chart produced on a spreadsheet could look like.
PRACTICE MAKES PERFECT

For this exercise we suggest that you issue each
group with a large wall-sized planner – A1 size or
bigger.This has months and dates laid out on a grid.
Issue each group with a tape-label maker.They
should produce a tape-label for each activity.The
length of each label will reflect how many days each
activity will take. If your participants don’t like this
approach, you can issue them with a set of pencils
and an eraser instead.
Ask the participants to return to their groups, and

make sure they have all the necessary equipment.Tell
them that they have 30 minutes to prepare a first
draft of a Gantt chart for the project they have been
working on.
Check to see if they have any questions about the

task and then get them under way.
Move between the groups to give any support and

advice needed.You may find there is a little
confusion and apprehension to start with, especially
if this is a totally new area. Encourage them to
persevere and start drafting. Usually, once they’ve
started they quickly grasp what’s required. Point out
that the purpose of any first draft is to get their
ideas on paper for later review and amendment.

lead a 20-minute plenary review of the exercise. Ask
for one group to show their Gantt chart and to
discuss how they arrived at the final version.
Ask the other participants to comment, and add any
5–10
feedback you think appropriate to help them

develop this technique.
Point out that one of the features of Gantt charts is

that they enable everyone involved to see the
overall project and also how their individual items
contribute to final success.
An added refinement is to give each individual a

Gantt chart for their own area of interest.This has
the benefit of helping them concentrate on their
own speciality whilst keeping the whole project in
mind as on the master chart.
5
LEARNING REVIEW
to record their learning (see ‘How to use this
When they have all finished their individual

reflections, ask for a volunteer to describe the key
learning points and any workplace applications to
the rest of the group. Continue this process until all
who want to contribute have spoken,
Thank them for their efforts and close the session.
5–11
TRAINER’S TIP
For larger projects the participants may need to

look at more complex tools to analyse what’s
involved.This will involve identifying the critical
path through the project (the path through the
network that shows the minimum time needed to
finish). Participants will need to set up a Network
(PERT) chart for the project. All project managers
now use one of an increasing number of software
tools on the market. Choosing Project-planning
Software (see our ‘Further resources’ list on page
xxii) is a recommended source of information.
5–12
A work breakdown
5.1
structure diagram
Marketing Designing Staffing the On-site 5

the project the stand exhibition construction
Recruit the staff Train the staff

● Job description
● Person specification
● Internal advert
● Issue application
forms
● Sift candidates
● Interview short-list
● Make selection
● Inform candidates
OK
TO
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P
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5–13
TO
OK
CO
P
5–14
Y
5.2
Activity Managing Marketing Production Personnel
Assigned personnel Director Manager Manager Officer
Project management pages 3
1 Market project
1.1
1.2
2/13/06
1.3
2 Design Stand
11:12 AM
2.1
2.2
2.3
Page 5–14
3 Staff exhibition
3.1 Recruitment M
a Write job description M
b Person specification S M
c Advertise M S
Matrix
d Issue applications M S
e Sift S M
f Interview M M M S
g Select M S S S
h Inform M
3.2 Training

4 Construction
4.1
4.2
Responsibility Assignment
4.3
5.3
project goals
Set smarter goals
S – Specific
Clear and unambiguous end product 5
M – Measurable
Observable outcomes of performance
A – Achievable
R – Relevant
Address a significant need of the organisation
T – Timebound
project
E – Exciting
R – Recorded
review
OK
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5–15
Observer’s review sheet

5.4
Opening
Introductory remarks
Explain the purpose of the discussion
Establish common ground
Discussion
Explore the task
Identify constraints
Gain commitment
Conclusion
Set the objective
Check that it’s SMARTER
Close the discussion
Use the above items as a checklist to note whether the topic area was
covered.Write descriptive comments of good and less effective examples
to enable you to give full feedback to the participants.
OK
TO
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5–16
OHT 5.5 2/14/06 11:17 AM Page 5–17
5.5
A project Gantt chart

Project December January February March April May June
21 28 5 12 19 26 2 9 16 23 30 6 13 20 27 6 13 20 27 3 10 17 24 1 8 15 22 29 5 12 19
Activities Days Who

BRG brief and R&D of concepts required 1 PS
R&D develop response to BRG brief 5 AS
R&D present proposals to BRG 2 AS
BRG select from R&D proposals 3 BRG
Selected proposals to research 2 PS
Market research company briefed 5 EG
Research carried out
BGR receive MR results
20
2
MRCO
EG
5
R&D receive MR results from BRG 3 PS
Trawl market for products 10 TS
Supply product samples to R&D with costings 5 TS
Confirm final concept of product 10 AS/PS
R&D costings to Purchasing 5 AS
Purchasing confirm cost estimates 5 HS
Draft manual inserts 5 AS
Final acceptance of product by BRG 1 PS
Brand review accepted operational feasibility 2 BR
Agree volume requirements to Purchasing/R&D 15 PS/AS
BRG advise RT which product new lines required 5 PS
Marketing Ops final acceptance 5 BRG
Draft product specification 10 AS/MW
Purchasing advise stock of product 5 HS
Order placed with supplier(s) for first time 5 HS
Agree future order lead times 5 HS
R&D approve 1st pilot product 10 R&D/TS
R&D action manual sheet production 5 AS
Pilot run 2, R&D sign off to TS 10 R&D/TS
Final product specification confirmed 10 TS/R&D
Production of first order commences 5 MANF
Production of training video 10 PS/AS
First order completed 5 MANF
Order 1 signed off, incl. bacto result 10 RD/TS
Menus printed 5 PS
Bulletin details to BRG 15 R&D/HS
Product delivered to Central Distribution 5 MANF
Product in all distribution depots 5 DIST
Confirmed costings and GP rates produced 5 R&D
Working outline, manual inserts 5 PS
Product delivered to branch – test kit 10 HS/DIS
Product delivered to branch – volume 5 DIST
Product test in branch, staff training 5 OPS
Menu launch 1 OPS
OK
TO
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P
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5–17
The Project Management Activity Pack, published by Fenman Limited © Eddie Davies
5–18
Activity 6
Critical Path Analysis
Purpose
To introduce participants to a popular technique for

managing projects by enabling them to identify the
length of time the critical project activities will take,
and the impact that any delays in delivering these 6
activities will have for successfully completing the
project as a whole.

Activity 6
Critical Path Analysis
How do I plan and schedule more
complex projects?
Purpose To introduce participants to a popular technique for
managing projects by enabling them to identify the
length of time the critical project activities will take,
and the impact that any delays in delivering these
activities will have for successfully completing the
project as a whole.
6
Application This activity is designed to be used a part of a
programme introducing participants to the
foundation skills required for effective project
management. It can be run independently as a stand-
alone session but will have greater impact if it
follows on from Activities 4 and 5 (The power of
planning – parts one and two), as it builds on the
essential preparatory work covered in these
activities.
What happens You start the session by asking the participants to

remember when they have been involved in a
project and have been pressed to give a completion
date.You explore how difficult it can be to give an
accurate time frame for completion, and the impact
on many projects if that estimate is unrealistic.This
opening discussion sets the scene to introduce a
technique used by professional project managers –
Critical Path Analysis (CPA). It is one of the most
useful tools for planning and analysing projects.
Having established the benefits of CPA to the

Project Manager, you put this approach into the
context of having a well-developed project plan.You
introduce them to a plan that identifies the
complete range of project activities, which of these
are sequential, and which are more independent
(and can be run in parallel).You now use an activity
based on cooking a popular meal – Spaghetti
6–1
Bolognese – to help them recognise the differences

between these activities.
You next take the participants through a five-step

process for drawing up a network diagram and
identifying the critical path – the key events that
dictate the overall length of the project. Using a
simple example and overheads, you explain the
process and aid participants’ understanding of what
can seem like a complex process to the uninitiated.
Participants’ knowledge of the CPA planning process

is reinforced and developed by an exercise designed
to enable them apply all parts of the technique.You
provide advice, guidance and support and finally lead
a discussion reviewing a model answer, during which
you identify the major learning points to emerge
from the exercise.
Having established the basic model for CPA, you

now briefly discuss a more advanced variation
known as PERT. This approach has been developed
to enable the project manager to question
assumptions that have been made about the timings
used.You follow this with a discussion about taking
remedial action, if the actual times to complete
activities are different from those shown on your
CPA.
Participants now take part in a syndicate group

exercise, during which they identify ten possible
actions they could take as project managers to help
shorten the critical path and get their project back
on time.
You discuss their suggestions in a plenary review.

Comment and add any others based on your own
experience before concluding the session with a key
point reminder of the benefits of using Critical Path
Analysis.
6–2
Time Overall time required: 2 hours
● Critical Path Analysis: 12 minutes
● What’s cooking?: 15 minutes
● How do I draw a Critical Path Analysis chart?:
30 minutes
● Consolidation exercise: 30 minutes
● Taking remedial action: 20 minutes (including
syndicate exercise)
● Conclusion: 10 minutes

resources 6. 1 How do I draw a Critical Path Analysis chart? – 6
an overview
6.2 Activity on node data box
6.3 Sequencing – an example of forward and
backward pass
6.4 Critical Path exercise – answer sheet
6.5 PERT formula
● 5 Handout masters
6.6 Classic home-made Spaghetti Bolognese
6.7 Sequencing activities – creating a network
diagram
6.8 Critical Path estimating and scheduling exercise
6.9 Some ways you can shorten the Critical Path
6.10 Critical Path Analysis key point summary

● A3 sheet of paper for each participant
● Pencil, eraser and calculator for each participant
● Area where participants can work undisturbed in
syndicate groups
● A flipchart complete with paper and suitable
marker pens for each syndicate group
In preparation Prepare the material above for use during session.
Think about projects in which you have been

involved that were in danger of over-running their
time frame, and what remedial action was taken to
get them back on track.
6–3

Start by asking the participants if they have ever
been approached to manage a project and been
asked by the client or sponsor ‘How long will that
take?’. Most managers will recognise having been in
that situation.
Now find out how accurate their original time

estimates were. Ask for a show of hands on the
following: How many were out by 25 per cent? How
many by 50 per cent? How many by 100 per cent,
i.e. it took twice as long as they predicted? Ask for
examples when their estimates were over by an
even longer time.
Now ask them to think what would happen if they

were on a project which had a definite, non-
negotiable time frame.Typical examples of this could
be a building project linked to a major event such as
a stadium for a World Cup Final, setting up a stand
at a major exhibition or presenting a paper to an
international conference.
They should readily agree this would be disastrous.

Even though they may be able to complete some of
the project within the time frame, they will not
deliver the agreed end product and not get the full
success and, consequently, recognition all their hard
work deserves. Point out that in many project
environments (such as construction and information
and communications technology) it is usual to insert
a penalty clause in the contract.This means they will
have to pay financial compensation to the project
owners as a result of late delivery.
Inform the participants that in this session you will

introduce them to a powerful tool that will help
them to schedule and manage complex projects. It
was developed in the 1950s to control large defence
projects, and has been used routinely since then. It is
called Critical Path Analysis.
6–4
CRITICAL PATH ANALYSIS (CPA)

Point out (particularly if they have previously
completed Activity 5 The power of planning – part two)
that when managing a project they may have
completed a Gantt chart as part of their project
planning. (Gantt charts are useful tools for analysing
and planning projects and are named after their
progenitor Henry Gantt; fuller details on this
method are covered in Activity 5.)
Critical Path Analysis (CPA) plans are similar to

Gantt charts in that they help you to plan all the
activities that must be completed as part of a
project.They act as the basis both for preparation of
6
a schedule, and for resource planning. During
management of a project CPA allows you to
monitor achievement of project goals.They also help
you to see where remedial action needs to be taken
to get a project back on course.
Why bother?
Point out that the main benefits of using CPA over
Gantt charts is that Critical Path Analysis formally
identifies activities which must be completed
individually, on time for the whole project to be
completed on time. CPA also identifies which
activities can be delayed for a while if resource
needs to be reallocated to catch up on missed
activities.The disadvantage of CPA is that the
relation of activities to time is not as immediately
obvious as with Gantt charts.This can make them
more difficult to understand for someone who is
not familiar with the technique.
How long will it take?

A major benefit of Critical Path Analysis is that it
helps to identify the minimum length of time needed
to complete a project.Where they need to run an
accelerated project, it helps them to identify which
project steps they should accelerate to complete
the project within the available time; this helps them
to minimise cost while still achieving their overall
objective.
6–5
CPA and the project plan

Explain to the participants that the project plan is
the heart of effective project management.The plan
defines the project’s scope, resources and schedule
in one place, and will enable them to keep these
factors in balance throughout the project. A project
plan spells out factors such as exactly how many and
what activities need to be done:Who’s going to do
each activity? What is the estimated cost of each
activity and of the entire project? What is the best
activity sequence? What are the dependencies
between activities? What is the estimated duration
of each activity, and the length of the overall project?
To put together an effective project plan, they need

to:
● Identify all the project activities and who or what

will do them.
● Get work and time estimates for all the activities

(preferably from experts, people with direct
experience and those responsible for the
activities).
● Determine activity dependencies; for example,

find out if one activity can't start until another
finishes, if several activities must start at the same
time, or if two activities must finish at around the
same time.
● Enter activity and project constraints; for

example, they might want an activity to begin or
end on a certain date.
Remember – the more accurate the information, the

more accurate the project plan.
Introduction to network analysis of projects

using CPA
Critical Path Analysis (CPA) is one of several related
techniques for project planning. CPA is used for
projects that are made up of a number of individual
‘activities’. If some of the activities require other
6–6
activities to finish before they can start, the project
becomes a complex web of inter-related actions.

CPA can help determine:
● how long the complex project will take to

complete
● which activities are ‘critical’, meaning that they
have to be done on time or else the whole
project will take longer.
By putting in information about the cost of each

activity, and how much it costs to speed up each
activity, CPA can help work out:
● whether it is necessary to speed up the project 6

and, if so,
● what is the optimal plan for speeding up the
project?
What are activities?

CPA starts when all the individual activities in the
project have been noted. In CPA terms an activity is
defined as specific – something gets done.
The essential concept behind Critical Path Analysis

is that certain activities cannot be started until
others are finished.These activities need to be
completed in a sequence, with each stage being
more or less completed before the next stage can
begin.These are called ‘sequential’ activities and
must be completed in series for a successful
outcome.
Some activities are not dependent on the

completion of others; these can be undertaken at
any time before or after a particular stage is
reached.These are termed non-dependent or
‘parallel’ activities.
If there are limited resources in a project, then

knowing the Critical Path can be very helpful.The
Critical Path through a project is the minimum time
required to complete the project. If any activity on
the Critical Path is delayed, then the project will
finish late. Analysing the Critical Path allows
prioritisation of critical activities when planning, and
6–7
can help you to identify key slippages or slack in the

plan when tracking activities.The reliability of the
Critical Path depends on accurate estimates of time
and resources required.
Point out that a good analogy is cooking a meal. For

example, if you are preparing Spaghetti Bolognese
you will be involved in a number of sequential and
parallel activities before you can serve and eat the
finished meal.
‘WHAT’S COOKING?’

Classic home-made Spaghetti Bolognese
Give participants a few minutes to read through the

instructions, and ask them to work in pairs to
identify what steps are performed in sequence and
which run in parallel.
They should be able to identify that there are two

separate strands of activity: making the Bolognese
sauce and preparing the fresh pasta.
For the sauce, Steps 1 to 6 should be followed in

sequence. Point out that many of the pasta steps can
be run in parallel once the sauce is underway. Steps
7 to 9 for the pasta need to be run in sequence.
Step 10 could also run in parallel to these if you

want to complete the meal in the optimum time;
otherwise when you’ve finished making the pasta
there will be a long time gap with nothing else
happening whilst you wait for a large pan of water
to come to the boil. By starting this step earlier you
will be ready to move efficiently to Step 11 when
you’ve finished Step 9.
Both main strands of activity come together in Step

12, and 13 and 14 follow in sequence.
6–8
Step 15 is to eat the meal (usually accompanied by a

glass of good red wine).
Ask if there are there any experienced cooks in the

group? How do they cook this recipe or a similar
meal? They should be able to confirm that they
move through these stages juggling the various
activities and constraints against each other to get
the meal on the table in the best possible time
frame.
Ask them what happens if you simply follow the

sequence step by step and finish each step before
starting the next (that is, without parallel running of 6
the activities).They will readily identify that the
whole project will take much, much longer.
Finally, ask what happens if you do some of the

sequential activities out of their designated order?
They should again identify that it usually has

unfortunate consequences for the project. For
example, if you add ingredients such as the wine and
parsley before cooking the mince, you could end up
with an undercooked sludge instead of a tasty meal.
HOW DO I DRAW A CRITICAL PATH

ANALYSIS CHART?
Show OHT 6.1

How do I draw a Critical Path Analysis chart –
an overview
Tell the group that you intend to take them through

each of these key steps, one at a time, giving more
information on each step. Inform them that at the
end of the section they will be asked to tackle an
exercise designed to help them explore and develop
their knowledge of this technique.
Step 1: Identify the activities

The first step to using Critical Path Analysis is to set
out the activities that must be completed in order
6–9
for the whole project to be completed.Taking a

straightforward construction project, such as
building a garden shed, the identification of activities
might look something like this:
A Prepare the site

B Lay foundations and base
C Assemble the walls
D Construct and attach roof.
Anyone who’s completed a building will probably

realise that there’s much more to it than the above
list, but this is only a simple example, and it can
easily be expanded. Point out to the group that they
could go as far as doing a separate analysis for
constructing the roof.They are only limited by the
detail that you include.
Step 2: Plot the dependencies

Once they know what activities they must complete
in order to complete the whole project, they need
to decide what dependencies there are.This will
involve creating a hierarchy for the activities: they
will need to consider which previous activities must
be completed before they can start this activity.
Point out that the original list (in Step 1) has a letter
for each activity – just for convenience. Here is what
the dependency list should look like:
A Depends on none
B depends on A
C depends on A
D depends on B and C.
Step 3: Determine timescales for each

activity
The next step is to add the activity lengths.The CPA
plan aims to identify events that are important (on
the Critical Path), as this will dictate the overall
length of the project; so if one activity on the path is
delayed, the whole project is delayed.
6–10
The following list shows an estimation of the length

of time that it will take to complete each activity.
The predictions made here will be the basis for the
final path.
A Prepare the site – 5 hours

B Lay foundations and base – 4 hours
C Assemble the walls – 1 hour
D Construct and attach roof – 3 hours.
Once the times are estimated, the next step is to

draw the network diagram.
Step 4: Draw a network diagram 6

Explain that there are two sets of conventions to
drawing up network diagrams: activity on arrow and
activity on node.With activity on arrow, as the name
implies, the arrows represent the activities, whilst
the circles that link the arrows represent the ends
of some activities and the starts of others.
In this session, we are using the other main

convention activity on node as it is used in most
modern project planning tools (Microsoft® Project
for example).This convention uses a set of
interlinked boxes. Each box (the nodes) represents
the activities, while the lines between the boxes
show where the start of one activity depends on
the completion of another.
Nodes are used in networks to represent activities.

When drawing up an activity on node plan, the
activity boxes can show these various features:
● name of the activity

● an identifier, such as a number, letter or code
● a projected normal time duration
● a cost to complete (optional)
● the resources used, such as labour, materials
(optional).
This is a node of the type recommended by the

British Standards Institute.
6–11
Show OHT 6.2

Activity on node data box
This helps to reinforce your explanation.
Step 5: Plot forward and backward pass

Critical Path Analysis can be very complex, especially
if it has to be done manually. Remind the group that
the key dependency is knowing which activities have
to finish before another starts and which activities
can run in parallel.
The Critical Path network uses two key dates:

● the earliest start date (this depends on the
duration of preceding activities), and
● the latest finish date (the date on which the
activity must be completed if it is not to delay
subsequent activities).
If these two dates for an activity are known and also

the duration of the activity, then they can identify
the amount of float available. (Float being the
amount of free time.)
Reassure the group that if it sounds complicated,

this isn’t something they would want to do manually
for a complex plan, but that it is useful to
understand the theory. Knowing where there is
float, and where there are critical dependencies, can
allow them to direct resources more effectively.
Being able to identify the Critical Path through a

project is a skill that can be developed with practice.
They should remember that uncertainty always
equals a risk.
Critical Path Analysis (or Time Analysis as it is

sometimes called) is the basic calculation performed
on the project plan.The dates calculated need to
also take into consideration any external date
constraints that may have been imposed on the
project or on the individual activities.These date
calculations are done in what are known as the
forward and backward passes through the project.
6–12
Show OHT 6.3

Sequencing – an example of forward and
backward pass
The forward pass
The earliest start (ES) and earliest finish (EF) dates are
calculated by working forwards through the
network from the start date, and adding the activity
durations to the calculated dates.The early start
date is the earliest date the activity can start whilst
obeying all the constraints of its predecessors.The
early finish date is the early start date plus the 6
duration, and is the earliest date the activity can
finish while obeying all the date constraints of its
predecessors.
The backward pass
The latest start (LS) and latest finish (LF) dates are
calculated by working backwards through the
network from the target completion date, and
subtracting the activity durations from the calculated
dates.The latest finish date is the latest date the
activity can finish while obeying all the date
constraints of its successors.The latest start date is
the latest finish date minus the duration, and is the
latest date the activity can start whilst obeying all
the date constraints of its successors.
The difference between the early and late finish

dates is the quantity called total float (TF) or slack.
Step 6: Identify the Critical Path
Any activity with zero float is said to be critical. A

delay in starting or completing this activity will delay
the project beyond its target finish date. It is this
figure which will help you identify the Critical Path.
Refer the participants again to OHT 6.3 and point

out the Critical Path is A, B, D. All these activities
must start and finish on time if the project is to be
completed in the indicated time.
6–13
Point out that activities with a positive float (i.e. a

number above zero) can be delayed without delaying
the project completion date.
In the example on OHT 6.3, Activity C can either

be started at 5 and finish at 6, or it can be started
any time up until 8. However, it must be finished by
9 to enable Activity D start on time.

Sequencing activities– creating a network
diagram
Give the participants a few minutes to read through

and absorb the material. Answer any questions they
may have at this stage before introducing a
consolidation exercise.
CONSOLIDATION EXERCISE

Critical Path estimating and scheduling exercise
Provide the participants with some A3 sheets of

paper, pencils, erasers and calculators, if required.
Point out that the arithmetical calculations are very
simple; it is the relationship between the activities
and identifying the Critical Path that provides the
challenge.
Tell them the exercise has four phases and they can
either work on their own or with a partner.
Phase 1: Draw the network diagram

Phase 2:The forward pass
Phase 3:The backward pass
Phase 4: Identify the Critical Path.
6–14
TRAINER’S TIP
Ask the participants to work at their own pace,

but to stop at the end of each phase and check
their results with you before they move on to
tackle the next phase.You will then be able to
take corrective action if required, and not let
them flounder down an unfruitful path if they
make a mistake early on
Move around the group giving advice and

encouragement as required.
6
Check individual progress at the end of each phase
and don't allow them to proceed until any errors
have been corrected.
Show OHT 6.4

Critical Path exercise – answer sheet
Show this when everyone has finished the exercise.
How many had the right answer:

Start A C F K Finish?
Answer any questions the participants may have at

this stage.
Ask them which parts they found most difficult.

(This is usually the backwards pass involving the
impact of more than one activity, for example, J and
G both impact on the latest finish of B, and C and B
impact on A.)
Which aspects did they find easiest? (These usually

involve drawing up the network and making the
forward pass.)
Congratulate all those who came to the correct

answer. Ask those who struggled what they need to
know more about to help them feel more confident
and competent in using this method.
6–15
It’s all in the timing

Point out that because estimating the time needed
for activities is an inexact science, they might need
some help in refining these estimates, keeping track
of variations against the estimates and predicting the
knock-on effects on resources and product delivery.
There a number of techniques available to help

scheduling activities.These include PERT
(Programme Evaluation and Review Technique).
PERT is a variation on Critical Path Analysis that
takes a slightly more sceptical view of time
estimates made for each project stage; its uses
include complex engineering projects.To use PERT,
estimate the shortest possible time each activity will
take, the most likely length of time, and the longest
time that might be taken if the activity takes longer
than expected.
PERT uses a formula to calculate the time to use for

each project stage:
Show OHT 6.5

PERT formula
A PERT calculation helps to bias time estimates away

from the unrealistically short timescales normally
assumed.
For example, if you were installing a new ICT system,

you might determine:
● At best, you need 24 days

● Most likely you need 36 days
● And if things goes wrong, you need 51 days.
Your PERT estimating equation for that activity

would be:
(24 + (4 x 36) + 51)

= 36.5
6
Your weighted average is therefore 36.5 hours to

6–16
complete that activity.
Inform the group that it’s a good idea to use a

simple method if they are new to project planning
techniques.They may be able to employ these
techniques very quickly if they are using project
scheduling software but, whether they use a
software application or analyse the plan manually,
they will first have to:
● Divide the project into activities

● Sequence the activities
● Identify dependencies between activities (where
one activity cannot start until another has
finished)
● Estimate a timescale for each activity 6
● Convert the timescales to real calendar dates.
TAKING REMEDIAL ACTION

Even the best-planned projects can go awry;
remedial action may need to be taken and should
always be prepared for.
What if?
An important part of Critical Path Analysis is the
consideration of what will happen to the project
under different sets of circumstances or scenarios.
For example, participants may find that they need to

complete a project earlier than their Critical Path
Analysis says is possible. In this case, they need to
take action to reduce the length of time spent on
project stages.
To do this they could pile resources into every

project activity to reduce the time spent on each,
but this would probably consume huge additional
resources. A more efficient method would be to
look only at activities on the Critical Path.
For example, it may be necessary to complete the

project in 31 weeks rather than 33 weeks.They
could, say, look at using two extra workers in
Activity C and two instead of one in Activity K.This
would shorten the project by two weeks, but would
raise the project cost; doubling resources at any
6–17
stage often only improves productivity by, say, 50 per

cent.This is because time spent on co-ordinating the
project generally consumes time gained by
increasing resources.
Syndicate exercise – shorten the Critical Path

Divide the participants into two groups. Ask them to
identify ten actions they could take as project
managers to help them shorten the Critical Path.
Issue each group with a flipchart and inform them

they have 15 minutes to complete the activity.
When the allotted time has finished, reconvene into

a large group and lead a plenary review of their
suggestions. Add your own ideas to theirs.

Some ways you can shorten the Critical Path
This handout is a further reinforcement tool.
CONCLUSION
End the session by asking if the participants have any
final questions about using CPA as a project
management tool.
Answer any questions, and conclude the activity

with a reminder of the following key points
illustrating the benefits of this approach.

Critical Path Analysis key point summary
Go through the handout with participants,

answering any questions they may have.
6–18
How do I draw a Critical

6.1
Path Analysis chart? –

an overview
Step 1: Identify the activities
Step 2: Plot the dependencies 6
Step 3: Determine timescales for each

activity
Step 4: Draw a network diagram
Step 5: Plot forward and backward

pass
Step 6: Identify the Critical Path
OK
TO
Y
P
CO
6–19
Activity on node data box

6.2
Earliest start Duration Earliest finish

date date
Activity name
Activity description
Latest start Float Latest finish

date date
OK
TO
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6–20
ES + duration = EF
Enter zero
EF of preceding activity
for ES becomes ES for
ES D EF succeeding task
2/13/06
0 5 5 5 1 6
Activity A Activity C
11:13 AM
0 0 5 8 3 9 When two or more

predecessors select the
LS TF LF highest EF
Page 6–21
ES and LS
same value
5 4 9 9 3 12
EF becomes
Activity B Activity D LF for the

Select lowest LS
of succeeding activities last activity
5 0 9 9 0 12

LF - duration = LS
LS of succeeding
activities becomes LF TF = LS - ES
0 = Critical Path Activity
forward and backward pass
Sequencing – an example of
TO
6.3
OK
CO
P
6–21
Y
6
TO
OK
CO
P
6–22
Y
6.4
0 1 1 1 5 6 6 1 7 7 3 10 10 2 12
START A B G H
2/13/06
0 0 1 1 0 6 13 7 14 27 20 30 30 20 32
11:13 AM
7 8 15 22 10 32
J K
14 7 22 22 0 32
Page 6–22
32 1 33
FINISH
6 6 12 12 10 22 32 0 33
C F
6 0 12 12 0 22
answer sheet
1 2 3 3 5 8 8 1 9

D E I
14 13 16 16 13 21
Critical Path exercise –
21 13 22
CRITICAL PATH
PERT formula
6.5
Programme Evaluation and Review

Technique (PERT) uses the formula
below to calculate the time to use for
each project stage: 6
(optimistic estimate + (4 x most likely

estimate) + pessimistic estimate)
divided by 6
This helps to bias time estimates away

from the unrealistically short timescales
normally assumed.
OK
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6–23
Classic home-made
6.6
Spaghetti Bolognese
1. For the Bolognese sauce, heat the olive oil in a frying pan, over a
medium heat.
2. Add the chopped onion and garlic, and pan-fry for 4 to 6 minutes,
until the onion has softened.
3. Add the mince and continue to fry. Stir well until the mince has
browned and cooked all over.
4. Add the mushrooms and cook for a further couple of minutes,
before adding the red wine, beef stock and tomato purée.
5. Add the Tabasco sauce and season to taste.
6. Add the chopped parsley and cook to allow the wine and stock to
reduce a little.
7. For the fresh pasta, place the plain flour and the egg into a food
processor; pulse until the dough has come together, but is still grainy
in texture.
8. Remove the pasta dough from the processor, and place onto a
lightly-floured surface.
9. Knead the dough until it has become firm, and then begin to pass
the dough through the rollers of a pasta machine, gradually reducing
the increments, before finally passing the dough through the pasta
cutters, to form spaghetti.
10. Heat a pan with plenty of boiling water, over a high heat.
11. Add the pasta strands to the water, and cook for 2 to 3 minutes, or
until al dente.
12. Drain the pasta, from the water, then place in the Bolognese sauce.
13. Toss well, to evenly coat, and spoon into a serving bowl.
14. Garnish with the chopped chives, to serve.
OK
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6–24
Sequencing activities –
6.7
creating a network diagram

Each box represents an activity and contains all relevant data.
Earliest start Duration Earliest finish

6
ES D EF
Activity number or name

Description
Resources required
LS TF LF
Latest start Total float Latest finish
Time Analysis
Effective resourcing and control of each activity depends on knowing:
Earliest start
Earliest finish for all activities
Latest start
Latest finish.
All this information is contained in the activity data box by using forward
and backward pass methods.
OK
TO
Continued …
P
CO
6–25
Sequencing activities –
6.7
creating a network diagram

… continued
Forward pass
1. Starting with the first activity, enter zero in the earliest start box –
ES.
2. Add duration time to ES value to get earliest finish and enter in box
– EF.
3. The EF value becomes the earliest start for the succeeding activity,
therefore also put this in the ES box and continue.
4. When you reach a ‘merge’ activity (one which depends on the
completion of more than one preceding activity) trace all paths to
the activity and put the highest number in the ES box.
5. For the last activity, the earliest and latest finish times will be the
same value, so the EF figure is also placed in the LF box.
Backward pass
Start with the very last activity.
6. Subtract the duration time of the last activity from latest finish time
(LF) to get the latest start time, and enter this in the LS box.
7. The LS time becomes the LF time for the preceding activity and is
also entered in the LF box. Continue backwards to the first activity.
8. If you reach a ‘burst activity’ (one which controls the start of more
than one activity), select the lowest value leading back to it.This
becomes the latest finish time and is entered in the LF box.
9. When you arrive back at the first activity the LS and ES should be
the same.
Total float
10. For any given activity, this is the difference between ES and LS
values. (Or LF and the EF values).
If the value is zero, then the activity in question is critical and, unless action
is taken, any delay will cause the project to overrun its target. It is this
figure which will help you identify the Critical Path.
OK A positive value indicates the amount of slack time available and is useful
for control and resource decisions.
TO
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6–26
Critical Path estimating and

6.8
scheduling exercise
Activity Duration Predecessor
Start 1 –
A 5 Start
B 1 A 6
C 6 A
D 2 Start
E 5 D
F 10 C
G 3 B
H 2 G
I 1 A, E
J 8 B
K 10 J, F, I
Finish 1 H, K
Use the above information to construct a network/precedence diagram and

find the Critical Path.
OK
TO
Y
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6–27
Some ways you can shorten

6.9
the Critical Path

● Reduce the duration of some of the activities. (Simply allow less time for
them.)
● Add more resources to some of the activities. (If you assign more people
or equipment, you can often reduce the time required. Be careful,
however, since this can increase the co-ordination time required.)
● Allow more hours in the workday. (Allow for overtime or add another
shift.)
● Allow more workdays in the schedule. (Allow for weekend or holiday
work.)
● Change the relationships of activities. (Instead of performing some
activities sequentially, perform them at the same time, in parallel fashion.)
● Use float time more effectively. (Find slack between activities or
downtime for some resources, and move up, or plan to complete
pending activities during this time.)
● Redefine one or more project phases. (Check to see if some activities
contained within a phase are causing the phase to be delayed needlessly;
then consider moving these activities to the next phase.)
● Redefine ‘done’. (Consider whether some deliverables, particularly
interim deliverables such as blueprints, prototypes or drafts, might be
defined as ‘finished’ in a less complete form.)
● Reduce the amount of deliverables that a particular activity produces.
(It takes less time to do less work!)
● Reduce the overall project scope. (Eliminate some work products,
processes, or deliverables.)
Caution: Point out that after you have determined which of the methods
you would like to use to shorten the Critical Path, you should discuss them
with your client and stakeholders. Since many of these methods result in
fundamental changes in project structure, you should discuss the positive
and negative effects they might have on the project, and obtain client
approval.
OK
TO
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6–28
Critical Path Analysis key

6.10
point summary
Critical Path Analysis is an effective and powerful method helping you to:
● decide the sequence in which all work should be conducted

● show the logical dependency of one or more activities on another
● find the earliest completion time for the project
6
● identify related resource demands
● identify those activities that dictate the overall project duration, that is,
the critical ones
● act as a rehearsal of the actual work on paper
● give the earliest and latest acceptable start and finish times of each
activity
● show the dates on which resources will be committed to the project
● assess the level of each resource required at each stage
● show the dates at which supplies must be available
● allow modelling of alternative methods.
An effective Critical Path Analysis can make the difference between success
and failure on complex projects. It can be very useful for assessing the
importance of problems faced during the implementation of the plan.
As with Gantt charts, in practice project managers tend to use software

tools like Microsoft® Project to create CPA charts. Not only do these assist
in drawing, they also make modification of plans easier and provide facilities
for monitoring progress against plans.
OK
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6–29
6–30
Activity 7
Managing risk
Purpose
To improve participants’ project management skills

and their ability to identify, assess, action plan and
control risk throughout their projects.

Activity 7
Managing risk
How do I identify and manage potential
risks to my project’s success?
Purpose To improve participants’ project management skills
and their ability to identify, assess, action plan and
control risk throughout their projects.
Application This activity can be used on any introductory or

intermediate level course which aims to improve
participants' project management skills. It fits best
after events which introduce the basic concepts of 7
planning the projects major activities although an in-
depth knowledge of these topics is not necessary
for success as the activity can stand alone.The final
stage of this links well with Activity 15 Writing project
reports.
What happens You start the session by leading a discussion

exploring some of the common features behind why
major projects fail. One of the common threads you
discuss is the subject of this activity – the managing
of risk. Participants are asked to share their
definitions of what ‘risk’ means in terms of project
management and their definitions are compared
with a current popular version.
The participants now work in small groups to identify

the potential benefits to the project manager of
implementing risk management procedures. Following
a review of their ideas you demonstrate a four-part
risk management model and then take them through
each stage one step at a time.
Following inputs on the key features involved in

identifying risk and assessing how important they
may be to the project success, you share a matrix
which will help them prioritise the risks.The
participants then take part in a short exercise using
the ideas behind the matrix and apply them to an
everyday problem – missing a holiday flight.
7–1
You review their ideas and then go on to introduce

the four steps involved in risk planning.The
participants return to the earlier exercise and, once
again, have the opportunity to apply the key
principles for addressing common project risks.
In the next stage of the session you introduce them

to the first of two monitoring documents – the risk
register. Following on from your explanation and
discussion, the participants are given an opportunity
in small groups to draft a risk register for a project
they are currently involved in.
Following a plenary review which constructively

analyses what went on, you then introduce them to
the final stage – risk control, and the second useful
monitoring document – the project status report.
Participants are given the opportunity to discuss

how they might use this approach in their real
workplace projects.
You finish the session by encouraging the

participants to review how they will apply what they
have learned from the activity back at their
workplace. (They fill in their Learning review diary
where appropriate) The session closes with
individuals being given the opportunity to declare
one key point they will take away from the course
and use later.
● Benefits of risk management: 15 minutes
● Risk management model: 20 minutes
● Holiday exercise – part one: 15 minutes
● Risk planning: 10 minutes
● Holiday exercise – part two: 20 minutes
● The risk register (including exercise): 30 minutes
● Project status reports: 15 minutes
7–2

resources 7.1 Project management’s seven deadly sins
7.2 A project risk – a definition
7.3 Risk management – a definition
7.4 The risk management model
7.5 Risk assessment
7.6 Probability/impact matrix
7.7 Risk planning
7.8 The risk register – a definition
7.9 Project dashboards or RAG reports
7.10 The risk register – a sample proforma
7.11 The project status report – a sample
proforma
7
How do I do it?
INTRODUCTION
Start the session by asking the participants the
following question:
‘How many projects have you been involved in that ran

perfectly – where you met your customers’ expectations,
delivered exactly on time and on budget?’
They might be able to think of a couple of examples

but will probably remember far more that didn’t go
so well.
Tell them that while some projects end successfully,

many more fail and most end somewhere in
between. Often one of the key measures is missed;
you’ve gone over deadline, exceeded budget or not
fully met customer expectations.
Point out that both the public sector and private

industry are littered with failed projects. Many
industry studies say that in excess of 70 per cent of
IT projects are abandoned before completion. For
example, in July 2004 the House of Commons Work
and Pensions Select Committee published a 76-page
report, which highlighted the problems of the flawed
telephony and computer system used by the Child
Support Agency.The report said the new £450m
computer system, which is causing problems for
thousands of clients, was over-spec, over-budget and
overdue.
7–3
Other examples you could refer to are the new IT

systems for the Immigration and Nationality
Department, the Passport Office and the Probation
Service. All came in late and over-budget.The Benefit
Card payment system was scrapped after about
£700m had been spent and, in 2004, the £200m
system for doctors to book hospital appointments
for their patients managed to make only 63
appointments against a target of 205,000.
TRAINER’S TIP
I rarely talk about complete project failure (other

than projects being scrapped totally) as there are
many factors that can be used to judge ‘success’
or ‘failure’. It depends on the stakeholders’
viewpoint. For example, the Channel Tunnel finally
opened, a year late, in 1994, leaving EuroTunnel
with debts of £925m a year later.Yet it was voted
the best construction achievement of the 20th
century in a survey of 400 engineers in March
1999, and people using the Tunnel will probably
call it a success.The equivalent of the UK
population – 57 million – travelled in the Channel
Tunnel from 1994 to 2000.
The Millennium Dome was over budget (just!), but

met its deadline and was regarded architecturally as
a success. It also had the largest tourist attraction
figures, whilst it was open, of any tourist attraction
in the country. Some people regarded it as a ‘failure’
on political grounds because, as stakeholders, they
never bought into the concept from the outset.
Inform the group that there is no universal agreed

definition of ‘project failure’.
Some projects fail to meet their original targets for

completely legitimate, unforeseen circumstances.
Some projects ‘fail’ because they become too
successful.
7–4
An example of this kind of situation was the Hoover

flights saga in the early 1990s, when the company
failed to honour an offer in a marketing promotion
to provide free flights. It was the biggest promotions
give-away ever: spend more than £100 on a Hoover
and get two free flights to America worth twice as
much.
In 1992, more than 220,000 people tried to take up

the offer. Hoover’s Scottish plant was left working
all-out to meet soaring demand for its products. It
even took on an extra 75 workers. But the scheme
was doomed from the outset.The Hoover
management hoped the offer would help turn
around a European deficit of more than £10million.
Instead, it ended up costing the firm up to £50m – 7
and forcing it to sell up to Italian washing machine
maker Candy.The whole scheme created false
demand for Hoover products and raised false
expectations.
The symptoms and outcomes of a project gone

wrong are painful. Here are some of the classic
reasons which together conspire to make many
projects ‘fail’.
Show OHT 7.1

Project management’s seven deadly sins
Inform the participants that in this session they will

explore the seventh of these deadly sins – risk
management.
TRAINER’S TIP
Refer participants to other training activities you

have either covered or will cover from this
Trainer’s Activity Pack to develop their skills as
effective project managers.
7–5
Point out that a key component of project

management is making decisions – ideally these
would be based on complete information with a
high degree of certainty of the outcome. However,
in the real world, most decisions are based on
incomplete information with an associated level of
uncertainty about the outcome.
In the private sector, company success is achieved by

pursuing opportunities to gain a competitive
advantage. In the public sector there is a strong
drive to continually improve services to the public
whilst achieving best value for the tax-payer’s
money. Projects have typically been set up to achieve
these goals – introduce something new, or change
an existing product or service. So, risk has always
been an intrinsic part of project management.With
increasing market competition, ever-improving
technology and an increasing rate of change, risk
management is gaining significance and importance.
Definitions
Ask the participants to suggest what is meant by the
term ‘risk’ in project management?
Listen to, and comment on their suggestions.

Compare their answers with OHT 7.2.
Show OHT 7.2

A project risk – a definition
Point out that these objectives may be revised and

changed in response to changing circumstances as the
project progresses through its life cycle.These
changes should never be attempted unless
sanctioned by the senior sponsor and the project
board, and are subject to change controls and
further risk management.
Show OHT 7.3

Risk management – a definition
7–6
Risk management consists of a series of logical steps

to be followed, and until all of these steps have been
completed risk management has not been done.The
term is now widely used but in many cases means
managing risk and not the complete process of risk
management.
BENEFITS OF RISK MANAGEMENT

Ask the participants to work in small groups (trios
are ideal) for 5 minutes and identify a range of
benefits they think will follow from effective risk
management.
Reconvene when the allotted time is up.Write their

suggestions on a flipchart, and clarify what each 7
suggestion means. Compare their ideas with the
following and add in any missing items.
The benefits of implementing risk management

procedures include:
● More effective strategic planning

● Better cost control
● Enhancing shareholder value by minimising losses
and maximising opportunities
● Increased knowledge and understanding of
exposure to risk
● A systematic, well-informed and thorough method
of decision-making
● Increased preparedness for outside review
● Minimised disruptions
● Better utilisation of resources
● Strengthening culture for continued improvement
● Creating a best practice and quality organisation.
RISK MANAGEMENT MODEL
Show OHT 7.4

The risk management model
Inform the participants that the most popularly

accepted risk management model sub-divides the
risk management process into four distinct stages.
7–7
Explain that you will now take them through the

model one stage at a time.
Stage one – risk identification
Point out that risk identification is probably the

hardest, and most important, part of the risk
management process. If you cannot identify a risk, it
will be excluded from further analysis and therefore
you will not probably respond to it.
The process of risk identification should not be a

one-off, one-time event, but rather a continuous
process, its frequency depending on the level of risk
on the project and the schedule of meetings. Risk
management needs to be an agenda item for every
meeting because new risks arise and old ones
change.
Risk identification should be a systematic process to

ensure nothing significant is overlooked.Techniques
for identifying risk include:
● Analysing historical records, for example, weather

reports for an area and close out reports from
similar types of projects.
● Structured interviews and questionnaires with
stakeholders and experts
● Brainstorming amongst the project team
(if formed)
● Structured checklists
● Delphi technique.
Ask the participants if they have either heard of, or

have used, any of these techniques. Many will have
come across the first four but, in my experience, the
final point (Delphi technique) often needs further
explanation.
7–8
TRAINER’S TIP
You may find this information useful in providing

an explanation on this approach
Delphi technique
The Delphi technique uses a highly-structured and

focused questionnaire approach in order to
establish a consensus opinion from ‘experts’.
Recognising that these experts may be
geographically dispersed, it was designed to be
conducted by post, although this does not
preclude its use in face-to-face interviews.
7
Experts (all of whom are physically separated)
respond to a series of questions.The responses
are tabulated and a second set of questions
prepared which contains information and opinions
of the whole group. Each expert then reconsiders
and revises previous responses in the light of the
group information.This continues until some
consensus is reached.
The aim is to progressively clarify and expand on

issues, identify areas of agreement or
disagreement, and begin to establish priorities.
The success of these techniques depends on how

the risk management team have been selected and
brought together. A balanced team that incorporates
experience, knowledge, judgement, internal members
and external consultants stands the best chance of
success. It also needs to be remembered that the
later the risk is identified, the more costly it is to
address.
Stage two – risk assessment
Point out that having identified a range of risks, the

next step is to quantify the probability of each risk
occurring.
7–9
The approaches to this quantification are based on

the following model.
Show OHT 7.5

Risk assessment
For non-recurring risks a subjective or heuristic

(rule of thumb based on experience) approach will
be required to determine the probability (low,
medium or high) of the occurrence and for the
overall impact on the successful completion of
project on time and on budget.
For risks that recur on a regular basis there may be

statistical information available (for example, days
lost due to inclement weather). Such quantitative
and statistical techniques include cost-benefit
analysis, decision trees, PERT, and Critical Path
Analysis (see Activity 6 for a fuller explanation of
the latter two).
Having quantified the risk, it is necessary to assess

the likely impact, or consequence to the project,
associated with that risk. A common approach to
this assessment is a probability/impact matrix.
Show OHT 7.6

Probability/impact matrix
The probability/impact matrix plots the probability

of the risk occurring against the impact on the
project.This gives a matrix of nine possibilities, the
output being a ranked list that prioritises the risks.
● For an identified risk a value [1 (low), 2 (medium)

or 3 (high)] is allocated for the probability of the
risk occurring and a value [1 (low), 2 (medium) or
3 (high)] is allocated for the impact on the
project. Multiply the two values together to get a
score for each risk.This score will be between
1 and 9.
● This scoring system is then applied to each

7–10
identified risk.
● A ranked list (in descending order) of risks can

then be produced based on the scores for the
risks.
● Whilst all risks need to be addressed, attention is

focussed on the risks at the top of the list, as
these typically have the greatest chance of
occurring and the greatest impact on the project.
HOLIDAY EXERCISE – PART ONE

Describe an example to help the participants grasp
the approach. Ask them to imagine they are due to
drive to Gatwick airport to catch a plane to New
Zealand for holidays. Ask them to identify some
suggestions of the possible risks of not getting to 7
Gatwick on time and/or missing their plane.
Write their suggestions on a flipchart.These might

include:
1 Car refuses to start

2 Car breaks down on way
3 Car runs out of petrol
4 You become sick on your journey
5 You forget your passport
6 You forget your tickets
7 Traffic jam(s)
8 Car parks are full
9 Terrorist threats close airport.
Ask them to work in pairs or trios to identify the

probability and impact of these potential risks and
assign a rating of 1–9 for each using the matrix.
Review their answers. Did all the participants have

the same ratings? Explore with them how individual
differences and perceptions can alter the rating of
risks using this approach.
Inform the participants that five factors should be

kept in mind when conducting a risk assessment:
i No technique is perfect. Each has its own

strengths and weaknesses.
7–11
ii Some techniques are easier to apply than others.

Some require elaborate calculations while
others rely on qualitative approaches. Some use
a combination of both.
iii More detail does not necessarily mean more

accuracy or reliability. Analysing risk is, at best,
shooting at a moving target and anticipating
something that might happen. Data in a model
can quickly become ‘old’ or inaccurate due to
changing circumstances.
iv It is impossible to eliminate the subjective influence

of the analyst. Be aware of potential bias and try
to avoid, or mitigate, its effects.
v Risk is variable. At any time, the probability of

risk and degree of its impact can change.This is
because the environment can change for many
reasons.
Stage three – risk planning
Having identified, quantified and prioritised the risks,

a risk response plan needs to be developed.There
are two key parts to risk planning:
1 Having identified, quantified and prioritised the

risks, ways have to be found to address each risk
– what can and will we do?
2 A risk register is then compiled identifying (in

rank order) the risk, score (if required) and how
the risk will be dealt with, by whom and when by.
In effect it’s a contingency plan; a plan that
provides an outline of decisions and measures to
be taken if defined circumstances, outside the
control of a project, should occur.
There are a number of possibilities for dealing with

identified risks:
Show OHT 7.7

Risk planning
7–12
● Accept the risk
When a risk arises, if project managers decide to let

the risk occur by taking no action, they show they
are willing to accept the consequences. For example,
if an event on the Critical Path slips, thus extending
the project completion date, the project manager
may do nothing – the slippage is accepted. Accepting
the risk is a proactive choice. It does not mean do
nothing.We might decide to live with the risk, but
there is a need to continue to monitor it, as the risk
may increase and we might then decide to take
some action
● Mitigate the risk

7
To mitigate a risk means reduce the risk’s probability
and impact but live with it.When a risk arises,
project managers may take some action to reduce
its effects – but they don’t eliminate it completely,
they live with it. For example, if a project's budget is
cut by 30 per cent, the project manager reduces
expenditure on training and overtime to
compensate.
● Eliminate the risk
This looks into ways of avoiding the risk completely

– by either removing the cause, or taking an
alternative course of action.This should be
considered as early as possible, as the cost of
change is low.
● Transfer the risk
Such a step involves transferring the risk (in part or

whole) to another party.This can be achieved
through, for example, subcontracting and taking out
insurance (examples include car, house insurance
and one-day cricket matches insuring against bad
weather).
7–13
HOLIDAY EXERCISE – PART TWO

Ask the participants to return to their previous
groups and tell them they have around 5 minutes to
identify some options they could take under each
heading that could help manage the risk they might
miss their aeroplane to New Zealand.
Call a halt at the end of the indicated time and ask

them to volunteer their suggestions.Write their
answers on a flipchart for added emphasis.
Among the answers you might expect are:
● Accept the risk

– Do nothing, as you have a new car and have
regularly driven this route with no incidents.
● Mitigate the risk

– Join a breakdown service
– Give the car full service at least a week before
departure
– Have your second car serviced in case your
main car develops a fault
– Identify alternative routes in case of traffic
jams
– Read papers and/or teletext and/or listen to
radio for prior warning of problems
– Develop a checklist for essential documents
and tick off items before you leave
– Leave early (3 hours for a journey with a
2-hour average time).
● Eliminate the risk

– Abandon your trip (extreme but avoids risk of
missing aeroplane)
– Go by train (point out that this will mean a
new risk analysis)
– Travel the day before and stay overnight in an
airport hotel.
● Transfer the risk

– Book a taxi (with a penalty clause for non-
arrival)
– Take out holiday insurance with missed
departure cover.
7–14
Inform the participants that for all these methods of

risk response the following points should be noted:
– These are not mutually exclusive ideas – your

response may use a combination of them all
– All these responses cost money, so a cost-benefit

analysis should be performed, as it may be more
cost effective to accept a risk rather than taking
expensive steps to mitigate or eliminate it.
Popular methods of addressing common project

risks include:
● Adding more people, equipment, supplies and

money 7
● Changing team leadership and membership
● Training key personnel
● Control systems, for example, variance analysis
for budgets and total float for schedules
● Improving processes, for example continuous
quality improvement, business process re-
engineering and benchmarking
● Contingency planning.
THE RISK REGISTER

At this stage a risk management plan should be
written.This gathers and documents the output
from the previous sections (identify, assess and plan)
and assigns responsibility for implementation.
Show OHT 7.8

The risk register – a definition
The risk register (also often called a risk log)

provides a means of recording the identified risks,
the analysis of their severity and an outline of the
response to be taken should they occur.The fields
that it may contain are:
● Unique identifier (ID number) – a unique code to

allow the grouping and quick identification of all
the information on this risk
7–15
● Description – a brief description of the risk

identified in the risk assessment process
● Category – type of risk, for example, business,
legal, technical, financial
● Probability – estimate of the likelihood of the risk
occurring
● Impact – effect on the project if the risk were to
occur
● Timescale – how soon, or when, the risk is likely
to occur
● Risk control procedures – what actions have
been/will be taken to manage, or counter, the risk
● Resources – resources required for implementing
the selected countermeasures, for example,
money, materials, machinery, manpower
● Risk owner(s) – name of person (or team) who
will be responsible for managing this risk;
implementing the required control procedures
● Monitoring process – what further actions are
required to keep evaluating the risk through the
life of the project
● Date of review – date when monitoring process
will be reviewed to check status of risk
● Current status – RAG
Inform the group you will be covering RAG reports

in more detail later in the session.
RED A task whose level of risk is of grave concern

and will have an adverse effect on the project if the
problem is not addressed immediately.
AMBER A task that shows an indication of

becoming a project-critical problem and should be
addressed.
GREEN A task which has had the problems

addressed and resolved in last period, or is finished,
or is deemed to have no change in its low status
and is of little threat to the project goals
The risk register should clearly identify which action

steps will need to be taken, by whom, by when, what
resources they will need to use and the expected
outcome to ensure the project remains on time, on
track and on budget. It is these action steps that, in
7–16
essence, become the risk management plan.

The risk register – a sample proforma
Risk register exercise

Ask the participants to work in pairs or trios. One
of the members of each syndicate group should be
working on a current project, so make sure they are
identified before the exercise gets underway.
Tell them they have 15 minutes to work with the

other members of the syndicate to produce a
sample risk register for their project.
Make sure each group can work without being

disturbed by the others. Move around during the
7
exercise giving advice, support and information
when required.
When each group has finished (or at the end of the

allotted time), reconvene and lead a plenary review.
What worked well? What was more difficult to
achieve? Do they have any outstanding questions
about using this technique in practice when they
return to their workplaces?
When you have finished the review, and answered all

their questions, move on to the final section of this
activity.
Risk control
Inform the participants that the risk control function
implements the risk management plan to make it
happen.The plan will consist of all the action steps
identified in the risk register.These will consist not
only of the steps to be taken to manage the
immediate and pressing risks to the project
objectives, but also of the review and monitoring
activities that you need to keep an eye on to ensure
their status remains benign.
There should be checks for any new risks every

time the risk register is reviewed and minimally at
the end of every key stage or milestone.
7–17
Key points to convey to the group about risk

control include:
● The risk management plan needs to be

communicated to all the project participants.
● The risk management plan should be monitored

and updated on a regular basis to ensure that
they learn from recurring risks and that it is
relevant to changing circumstances, such as
changes in team members, changes in suppliers,
and so on.
● Risk management should become an item in the

project progress meetings to prompt discussion,
identify potential new areas of risk and develop
appropriate responses.
● Risk management should become an integral part

of the project’s reporting system – particularly
any project status reports
TRAINER’S TIP
Refer to Activity 15 Writing project reports, for a

more in-depth review of the skills and techniques
required to produce effective reports.
PROJECT STATUS REPORTS

A project status report enables the project manager
to provide the project sponsor with an update on
project progress. It may be copied to the project
board, line managers and others who have an
interest in the project.
It contains only the essential information required

to indicate the health of the project. It should be
used to control the project and to keep
management informed of the project status; as such,
it is intended to be quick and easy to complete.
Generally, a project status report will be required at

a fixed frequency (typically weekly or monthly).
7–18
The timing may be synchronised with the routine

meetings of the project board or the senior
responsible owner/project owner.This is the
individual responsible for ensuring that a project or
programme of change meets its objectives and
delivers the projected benefits.They should be the
owner of the overall business change that is being
supported by the project.
A project status report may also be completed at

any time to ‘raise an exception’ with the governing
body.This is a situation where it can be forecast that
there will be a deviation beyond the tolerance levels
agreed between the project manager and project
board.This project status report is also called an
‘exception report’ – a report that describes a 7
deviation from the agreed plan, provides an analysis
and options for the way forward and identifies a
recommended option.The project manager presents
it to the project board.
Project dashboard or RAG reports

In order to provide a visual indicator of project
progress and a way of focusing on important issues,
a system of colour coding is often used to aid and
simplify communication.
Show OHT 7.9

Project dashboard or RAG reports
Give a brief explanation of the traffic light system

for monitoring project risks:
Red = major concern – escalate action to the

next level
The project task is unlikely to deliver the intended
results, has major unresolved issues, or is already
running late.There is a real probability that there
will be an adverse impact on the overall project
objective and corporate goals.
7–19
Amber = minor concern – being actively

managed
There are concerns that this project area may not
meet its targets. Key risks and issues have been
identified, but action plans have been put in place to
manage them and keep the project on track.
Green = normal level of attention and activity

This part of the project is on track and the outlook
favourable; issues and risks have been identified and
are being managed and/or
This part of the project is completed and has met
all the agreed criteria for success identified by the
project manager and project board.
Typically the project status report should focus on

the following:
● Accomplishments considered against the project

plan;
● Comments on work that should be completed
but is behind schedule
● Problems (issues) encountered, the impact to the
project, and the work needed to resolve them
● Scope to change requests
● Newly-identified risks
● Observations that will be useful to the reader.

The project status report – a sample proforma
Give the participants a few minutes to review the

report form.
Ask them if they have any questions about its use in

the management of risk in project management.
Clarify any issues that may still be outstanding about

the topic covered in this session.
7–20
LEARNING REVIEW
What will you take away?
Finish the session by asking the participants to think

back over what they have covered.What have been
the key learning points for them? Tell them you'd
like to hear one key action they will take when they
return to work to improve their project
management skills and their ability to identify, assess,
action plan and control risk throughout their
projects.
Give them a few minutes’ private reflection, and

then ask for volunteers to share their key action
steps with the rest of the group. 7
When all who want to volunteer and give action
points have spoken, thank everyone for their
attendance, participation and contribution and close
the session.
7–21
7–22
Project management’s seven

7.1
deadly sins
1. Poor project scoping and undefined
project objectives, roles and
responsibilities
2. Not ensuring early buy in from a

7
senior business sponsor and
stakeholders
3. Failing to account for all project

activities
4. Setting unrealistic project deadlines
5. Assigning under-skilled project

managers to high-complexity projects
6. Lack of regular checks to ensure the

project is on track – to time and
budget
7. No risk assessment or contingency

plan.
OK
TO
Y
P
CO
7–23
A project risk – a definition

7.2
A project risk may be defined as:
Any event that prevents or limits the

achievement of your objectives as defined
at the outset of the project.
OK
TO
Y
P
CO
7–24
Risk management –
7.3
a definition
Risk management can be defined as:
The processes concerned with identifying,

analysing and responding to uncertainty.
It includes maximising the results of positive
7
events and minimising the consequences
of adverse events.
OK
TO
Y
P
CO
7–25
The risk management

7.4
model
Stage 1
Risk identification –
What are they?
Stage 2 Stage 4
Risk assessment – Risk control –
How important are they? How’s progress?
Stage 3
Risk planning –
What can, and will, we do?
OK
TO
Y
P
CO
7–26
Risk assessment
7.5
Project risks
Non-recurring events Recurring events

7
Subjective analysis Objective analysis
Probability
OK
TO
Y
P
CO
7–27
Probability/impact matrix
7.6
High
3 3 6 9
2 2 4 6
Probability
1 1 2 3
Low 1 2 3 High
Consequence/impact
OK
TO
Y
P
CO
7–28
Risk planning
7.7
• Accept the risk
• Mitigate the risk

7
• Eliminate the risk
• Transfer the risk
OK
TO
Y
P
CO
7–29
The risk register

7.8
– a definition
A body of information listing all the

risks identified for the project, explaining
the nature of each risk and recording
information relevant to its assessment
and management.
OK
TO
Y
P
CO
7–30
Project dashboard or
7.9
RAG reports
Stop!
Major concern – escalate 7
action to the next level
Take care!
Minor concern – being
actively managed
Go!
Normal level of attention
and activity
OK
TO
Y
P
CO
7–31
The risk register –

7.10
a sample proforma
Unique identifier ID no.
Description
Risk category
Probability
Impact
Timescale
Risk control procedures
Resources
Risk owner
Monitoring process
Date of review
Current status – RAG
OK
TO
Y
P
CO
7–32
The project status report –

7.11
a sample proforma
Project title From project definition
Reference From project definition Date of report
Period covered From: date To: date
Reporting frequency e.g. weekly/monthly, etc. Next report based on
due agreed frequency
Tasks, milestones, outcomes delivered this period
Highlights principal advances and/or problems during this reporting period.
Tasks, milestones, outcomes delivered this period Completion dates 7
Tasks, milestones, outcomes Comments Plan Actual
Key activities for next period

Where attention will be focused between now and the next status report.
Tasks, milestones, outcomes delivered this period Completion dates
Tasks, milestones, outcomes Comments Plan Actual
Project dashboard
G = Green (normal), A = Amber (minor concern, taking corrective action),
R = Red (major concern, needs immediate review, issue an exception report)
Overall status Schedule Budget Resources Issues Risks
Enter G, A or R in each
of the boxes
Key issues
Issue Required action(s)
Issues are problems that are happening now.
Key risks
Risk Action(s) to reduce risk/contingency
Risks are problems that are likely to arise in the
near future unless action is taken now. OK
TO
Y
P
CO
7–33
OK
TO
Y
P
CO
7–34
Project management pages 3 2/13/06 12:01 PM Page 8A
Activity 8
Managing money
Purpose
To introduce participants to some of the key


Project management pages 3 2/13/06 12:01 PM Page 8B
Activity 8
Managing money
How do I work out and control the
project’s budget?
Purpose To introduce participants to some of the key
Application This activity is an essential ingredient for all training

events that are designed to increase participants’
skills in project management. It could also be used
on more general management training in sessions
that are aimed at introducing line managers to
accounting and finance.
8
The session assumes some previous knowledge and
experience of drawing up a Work Breakdown
Structure and is designed to follow on from
Activity 4 The power of planning – part one which
develops participants’ skills in this key area.
What happens You open the activity with a discussion focusing

attention on the symptoms of a poorly managed
project.The integral part that good money
management plays to effective project management
is identified, and the overall importance of project
and cash flow timing is stressed.
The participants then take part in a group exercise

which encourages them to identify the benefits to
the project manager of developing budgets.
You introduce them to the techniques of drawing up

a cost matrix.The challenge of identifying all the
elements of a project that attract costs are explored
in a group exercise.You then demonstrate a
step-by-step approach to drawing up a cost matrix.
The participants are given the opportunity to
practise and develop this skill by working in threes
to produce a budget for one of their own projects.
8–1
The work from the exercise is reviewed and

constructive feedback given.
You then introduce them to the technique of cash

flow profiling leading to the production of a cash flow
curve (alternatively called an ‘S’ curve on account of
its S shape).This is discussed with examples and the
participants are then given the opportunity to extend
their analysis from the previous activity by developing
a curve for their own project.
You draw the session to a close by having them

identify the steps a project manager can take when
they find there is a difference between their
predicted and actual curves.
You close the session by inviting participants to

consider how they might apply their learning to their
work.They fill in the Learning review diary (where
appropriate).
Time Overal time required: 3 hours
● What are the benefits?: 20 minutes
● Drawing up a cost matrix: 20 minutes
● Putting it into action: 40 minutes
● Profiling the cash flow: 30 minutes
● Producing a cash flow curve: 20 minutes
● Exploring the variance: 10 minutes
● Getting the budget back on track: 20 minutes
● Review your learning: 10 minutes
Materials & ● OHT masters:

resources 8.1 Balancing the project requirements
8.2 Typical project resources
8.3 Project budget cost matrix
8.4 Cash flow profile – an example
8.5 Cash flow curve – an example
8.6 Variance
● Handout master:
8.7 A typical exhibition budget

8–2

● OHT acetates
● Graph paper
● Pencils and erasers
● Pocket calculators
● Photocopying facilities capable of copying paper
onto acetate would be useful
● Flipchart and marker pens for trainer
● Two £10 notes
In preparation You will need to prepare in advance worked 8

examples of the following real projects from your
own organisation:
● cost matrix
● cash flow profile
● cash flow curve.
TRAINER’S TIP
Finance is a technical area with a language all of its

own. Unfortunately the language and practices
vary from enterprise to enterprise.Therefore
serious consideration should be given to seeking
assistance from an in-house expert in the finance
department to check that the terms and approach
used in this activity are consistent with those
used in the participants’ organisation.

You start the session by reminding the participants
(if they have already completed Activity 2 The role of
the project manager) that among the symptoms of
poorly managed projects they identified:
● cash flow difficulties as the project progresses

● the overall cost being well over the estimated
budget.
8–3
Project management has frequently been compared

to a juggling act.The manager must keep their eyes
on several balls which are in the air at the same
time. Point out that in reality it is even more
complex.The ‘balls’ are often competing against each
other.
Show OHT 8.1

Balancing the project requirements
Point out that decisions made concerning one area

will have an impact on the others. Nowhere is this
more noticeable than in the area we are focusing on
in this activity – MONEY.
Ask the group to tell you about some examples of

the impact on cost of decisions taken in the other
areas.They could come up with such examples as:
Time – leaving printing decisions until the last

minute doubled the cost because a new printing
machine had to be brought on line.
Quality – the decision to go for a four-colour

brochure rather than two-colour doubled the cost
of the product.
Quantity – using three people to man the

exhibition stand on a rota increased the salary costs
over using the minimum of two, but meant that staff
were fresh and able to handle more visitors.
Inform the group that in these cost-conscious days

all project managers need to be able to predict
accurately how much the project will cost, and be
able to keep track of how much they are spending
against their predicted budget.
For impact hold up a couple of £10 notes.
Tell the group that many managers, when they are

asked to prepare a budget, become flustered.
Budgeting is often seen as a ‘dark-art’ practised by
these modern sorcerers of the business world – the
8–4
accountants; an art which they, as mere mortals, are

fearful of entering.
Now hold up a ruler.
Tell the group that in reality a budget should no more

frighten them than the common school-room ruler.
Explain that a budget is like a ruler: it is a financial
tool with which we can measure how much money
we are going to spend and then use to see how
much we are actually spending compared with our
original estimate.
This introductory session should take about

10 minutes.
WHAT ARE THE BENEFITS? 8

Divide the participants into pairs. Ask them to spend
10 minutes discussing the uses a well-prepared
budget will have for a project manager.
When they have finished their deliberations, ask

each pair in turn to contribute one of their ideas.
Take another 10 minutes to build up a list of
suggestions on a flipchart. Among the ideas put
forward you would expect to find the following.
Decision making – At some stage the client,

sponsor or project manager will need to sit down
and decide on the viability of the project. Cost will
be a prime factor in the decision to go ahead.
If costs greatly outweigh the benefits the project will
be unlikely to proceed.
Planning – Plans specify in detail what will be

done, how, where, when and by whom.This will
enable you to prepare a more detailed budget which
will show the costs of each phase and of the overall
project. At this stage there may be some reappraisal
on the overall decision in the light of the more
detailed costing.
Communicating – The budget process will enable

each participant in the project to make their needs
8–5
known to the project manager. If they have been

allocated a fixed cost they will be able to tell you
what can reasonably be expected at that price.
Each section will know exactly how much they can
spend over what timescale as they work towards
their own particular target.
Co-ordinating – You will be able to keep the

project in balance and ensure that all those
concerned are moving forward harmoniously.
You will also be able to plan and to check that one
section is not running ahead by spending all the
money.
Controlling – You can make sure that the finances

are controlled properly so that the project meets its
financial targets, stays on track and ensures the
organisation as a whole survives. For more complex
projects you can ease your cash flow by having
money ready just when it is needed, rather than
paying out for everything at the start.
Comparing – As the project progresses you can

compare actual and planned performance and
intentions. Doing this on a regular basis will mean
that your organisation has detailed and first-hand
knowledge on progress and any problems that may
occur.
Correcting – The budget will enable you to

consider what corrective action is needed if things
are going awry.Why did the original forecasts go
wrong? What corrective action is needed? How will
this affect costs allocated to other resources? Can
you take corrective action and still come in on time
and budget?
Motivating – By setting an agreed target you can

motivate your project team to work towards it.
They will be encouraged to make small adjustments
to keep the project on track. Some project
managers offer a direct incentive – finish the project
to specification but ahead of time and the team will
be paid a bonus (but make sure you budget for this
eventuality or you may lose your advantage and end
up with an overall loss).
8–6
Discuss each of these points, and any other

suggestions put forward by the group, by drawing
out examples based on the participants’ and your
own experience of budget management.
DRAWING UP A COST MATRIX

Point out that estimating costs can be a difficult
process. Historical figures may give an indication but
they are unlikely to be accurate. For a new project
there may be no precedent on which to base your
estimates.
One of the first steps in making a reliable estimate

is to identify the major activities in the project
accurately and with sufficient precision.This is
usually called identifying the Work Breakdown
Structure – WBS. (If the participants have completed
8
Activity 4 The power of planning – part one, they will
already be familiar with the stages involved in
creating a WBS for their projects.)
For each activity in their WBS they will need to

identify the resources that will be required and then
the costs for providing each of these. A total cost
estimate for the project can be prepared by totalling
the costs for each WBS element. Budgets can then
be prepared for each element and for the project as
a whole.
The detail required for costing the resources will

depend on the nature and scale of the project.
For small internal projects you will probably only
need to account for any additional costs incurred
(for example, hiring equipment, buying materials,
hiring labour or other expenses). For larger or
external projects your costings will have to be more
detailed and may have to show indirect costs. For
example, indirect costs will be incurred when
resources used on a project are provided by a
department whose labour and efforts are used on
various other projects or activities in the
organisation.These could include such items as
office stationery, labour costs such as cleaning, or
even expenses such as lighting, heating and rent.
8–7
Whatever the detail you choose to use, it can be

quite easy to underestimate what is involved.
To illustrate this, ask the group to imagine they are
the project managers for an exhibition (the subject
of previous WBS examples in earlier activities).
Ask them to work with a partner and develop a list
of the items that could cost them money as part of
this project.
Give them about 10 minutes to confer and then

lead a plenary review.Write their collective ideas on
a flipchart.

A typical exhibition budget
Ask participants to compare and contrast their own

lists and the one on the handout, and to identify the
additional items. (Don’t be surprised if they have
identified items not on the handout.This serves to
demonstrate how detailed a task this can be.)
Explain that when they have prepared an estimate of

the overall expenditure they will be able to draw up
a cost matrix.The cost matrix is another
diagrammatic way of representing material to make
it more easily understandable to all concerned.
To prepare a cost matrix you will have to identify

the major categories of resources you will need for
each item in the project Work Breakdown
Structure. Once this is done you will then be in a
position to make a more accurate costing.
Show OHT 8.2

Typical project resources
Point out that this is not an exhaustive list but is

designed to illustrate many of the resources that may
apply to a project.Ask them to relate the items to
the previous example of the exhibition project.
8–8

People – Cost of employing own staff on project.
Additional costs of employing temporary staff.
Machinery – Any equipment that is removed from

other work or has to be brought in (hired or
purchased) for the project.
Materials – Any items used from your own stocks

or bought in.
Premises – Costs you will have to bear to rent

premises for the duration of the project.
Other expenses – This category could cover a

wide range of expenditure depending on the
complexity of the project.These expenses are what
it costs simply to set up (an exhibition, for example)
8
without making or selling anything. Such costs may
include providing management and support services;
National Insurance, pension and staff benefits; rent,
rates, light, heat and servicing the buildings.
Point out that you will have to take a management

decision about what share of the overheads this
project will bear. Different organisations will adopt
different policies.
Once you have identified your project costs you will

need to break them down by type of resource for
each activity and then set them down in a detailed
project budget.
TRAINER’S TIP
Find out who did a project last year. Is there a file

on the project? Is this the first time this project
has been run, or has any project been run before?
Show OHT 8.3

Project budget cost matrix
8–9
Issue a prepared example of a real cost matrix from

your own organisation.
This introduction to the cost matrix should take

about 20 minutes.
PUTTING IT INTO ACTION

Exercise 1 – Producing a cost matrix
Divide the participants into groups of three. Issue
each a group with graph paper to make recording
their calculations easier. Ask them to identify within
the group a real project they are currently working
on which would be suitable for this activity.They
then work together to produce a cost matrix for
that project. Point out that due to time constraints
it is unlikely they will have the time to produce
more than one matrix per group.They will have 30
minutes for this exercise.
Tell them that they will need to identify the relevant

resource items and enter a figure for each resource
and activity. Issue each group with a calculator to
help them work out the figures.
Move around the groups until each has produced at

least one matrix. Clarify any areas of concern and
give advice when appropriate.
Review the activity by asking one group to volunteer

their budget for scrutiny.
TRAINER’S TIP
Photocopy the group’s matrix as a supplementary

handout for the other participants. If you have the
facility (and the correct transparency film) you
could also produce an instant OHT of their
matrix using the photocopier.This will have the
benefit of giving the rest of the participants
something visual to focus on when the group are
explaining their figures.
8–10
Ask for comments from the group on how they

approached the exercise. Get feedback from the
other participants on the final outcome and provide
any further constructive criticism you think would
help them learn from their experience.
Allow 10 minutes for this discussion.
PROFILING THE CASH FLOW

Point out that having produced a detailed budget for
the project, the next step for more complex and
lengthy projects is to produce a cash flow profile.
The profile is used by the project manager to

illustrate when the money will be spent on the
project. A project manager will need to identify how
much money will be paid out and when, and how
8
much money will come in, and when.This is known
as a cash flow profile, and it provides details of the
various cash flows on a daily, weekly or monthly
basis.The precise period used will be determined by
different organisations’ needs and their budget
procedures.
The starting point for this exercise is the cost

matrix.You will need to look at each item of
expenditure identified and estimate when you will
need to spend the money.
Show OHT 8.4

Cash flow profile – an example
Issue a prepared example of a cash flow profile from

Exercise 2 – Producing a cash flow profile

Ask the participants to return to their original
groups.Their task is to produce a cash flow profile
for the project they worked on earlier.The exercise
should take 20 minutes. Issue each group with fresh
graph paper to make the recording easier.
8–11
Once again, take 10 minutes to review an example

from the group once they have completed the
exercise.What difficulties did they experience in
conducting the exercise?
Point out the need for managers to monitor the

total cumulative spend to date. It will be important
to ensure that the total amount spent does not
exceed the available funds at any one time.
The example cash flow profile on OHT 8.4 is quite
simple, as in this project there is only money being
spent – no inflows of funds are shown.
TRAINER’S TIP
As the policies of different organisations vary you

may wish to hold a short discussion at this stage
identifying the way funds are allocated in your
organisation (or the participants’ organisation if
that is different).You should also be aware of the
effect that year ends may have. Additional funds
may be made available in the new financial year.
This is likely to be reflected in both the budgeted
and actual expenditure patterns. Allow extra time
if you decide to include this option.
PRODUCING A CASH FLOW CURVE

Having profiled your budget and identified the
timings of the various cash payments and receipts,
and set out your cash flow profile, the next step is
to produce a cash flow curve.
Once a cash flow profile is made up, the information

is then plotted on a graph showing the anticipated
expenditure against time. Although the precise shape
of the graph will be determined by the type of
project and financial arrangements adopted
(for example, supplier payment terms, wage payment
intervals, incidents of any on-account receipts, and
so on) a curve shaped like an S is usually found to
emerge (hence the alternative name ‘S’ curve).
8–12
These curves are used by a project manager to

identify graphically the cash flows of a project.
If actual cash flows are recorded then it will be
possible for the project manager to identify whether
he is under or over-budget at given stages of the
project. In addition other curves can plotted thereby
monitoring the project’s cash flow against the
project’s progress, purchase commitments, etc. In a
well-managed project the ‘cash flow’ curve should
be to the left of ‘progress’ and ‘commitment’ curves
until the completion of the project.
Show OHT 8.5

Cash flow curve – an example
Point out that S curves provide a quick view of

progress to the project manager once the project is
8
underway.You are able to record actual expenditure
to date on the graph.This will enable you to identify
any variance between what is actually happening
compared to what was predicted to happen. At that
point you can make a decision about what action
you want to take. But first you will need to profile
the budget and draw your curve.
Issue a prepared example of a cash flow curve from

Exercise 3 – Producing a cash flow curve

Ask the participants to move back into the same
groups they were in for the earlier exercises. Issue
each group with fresh sheets of graph paper to
make calculations easier. Ask them to estimate when
the costs are likely to be incurred throughout the
project, i.e. to prepare a profile. For the sake of
simplicity in this exercise, ask them to predict the
date any actual payments will have to be made
(again precise methods will depend on individual
organisations’ financial management practices).
Move around the groups as they work on the task.

Clarify any areas of concern and give advice when
appropriate.When all have finished (allow about
10 minutes), ask for a different group to volunteer
their efforts for scrutiny.
8–13
Adopt the same approach to reviewing their output

as before. Ask for comments from the groups on
how they approached the exercise; get feedback
from the other participants on the final outcome
and provide any further constructive criticism you
think would help them to learn from their
experience.
EXPLORING THE VARIANCE

Remind the participants that you pointed out that
one of the main benefits of a cash flow curve is that
it helps show up discrepancies between planned and
actual expenditure.What they will also need to keep
an eye on is a figure called the variance.This is a term
used by project managers to describe the difference
between the original budget minus the actual costs
plus the remaining planned costs to complete the
project.This revised prediction will give the estimated
cost of the project at completion and provide them
with the best indicator of whether the project can be
completed on budget or not.
Show OHT 8.6

Variance
This will help the participants understand the

concept:
variance =
original budget – actual cost + cost to complete
Tell the group that as project managers they are

faced with a situation where they have worked out
the figures which show the project is running well
under budget. Ask them: Is this a case for joy or
concern? The answer should be neither – it is a case
for further investigation.
One possible answer is that the individuals

responsible for each part of the WBS have found
cheaper ways of achieving their goals and the
project will make a bigger profit. But wait, maybe the
project is well behind schedule and the money
8–14
hasn’t been spent because the work hasn’t yet

started.What if in order to cut costs they have gone
for inferior-quality products which may store up
problems later, costing more than the original
savings to put right?
GETTING THE BUDGET BACK ON TRACK

Ask the participants to work in their groups and
spend 5 minutes identifying five ideas for actions
they could employ when their analysis shows the
project is not running to budget.
When they have finished, lead a 15-minute plenary

discussion and list their ideas on a flipchart.They
could include some or all of the following
suggestions. 8
1. Do nothing – the gap between actual and
planned costs may be too small to worry about in
some circumstances.
2. Revise the budget – all plans are based on

guess work and estimates which may be incomplete.
The revisions will be based on more up to date
information.
3. Reduce specifications – substitute the quantity

or quality of resources required by using cheaper
material for future activities.
4. Substitute – use your own internal staff

(provided they have the necessary skills and time)
rather than continuing to use expensive external
contractors.
5. Re-negotiate your budget – you may need to

go back to the negotiating table to negotiate a
budget increase with your client as a result of the
information.
6. Delete – removing desirable but less than

essential activities or resources from the remaining
project activities may save you money.
8–15
7. Offer an incentive – a bonus to project staff to

come up with suggestions or work more effectively
to get the project back on track.
8. Manage – one reason for variance is that the

project manager is not keeping in touch with what is
going on. Set up regular team meetings and regularly
‘walk the job’ to inspect the quality of the work to
avoid future problems.
REVIEW YOUR LEARNING

Ask the participants to look back over the last
activity. Ask them to think for 5 minutes about:
● What key learning has emerged for them.

● How might they apply this to their own projects
back at work?
They should note these points in their Learning

review diary, if they are using this approach to
recording their learning (see ‘How to use this
When they have finished, reconvene and clarify any

outstanding questions.
Ask for volunteers to disclose their key learning

action points to the group.
When all those who want to speak have finished,

thank all the participants for their work and close
the session.
8–16
Balancing the project

8.1
requirements
QUANTITY 8
QUALITY
TIME COST
OK
TO
Y
P
CO
8–17

8.2
PEOPLE
MACHINERY
MATERIALS
PREMISES
OTHER EXPENSES
OK
TO
Y
P
CO
8–18
Activity Other
Resources People Machinery Materials Premises expenses Total

2/13/06
Market project
1.1 Marketing material
1.2 Exhibition material
12:02 PM
Design stand
2.1 Design stand
Page 8–19
2.2 Stand materials
Staff exhibition
3.1 Recruitment
matrix
3.2 Training
Construction
4.1 Deliver
4.2 Assemble

4.3 Services
Project budget cost
Total cost
TO
8.3
OK
CO
P
8–19
Y
8
TO
OK
CO
P
8–20
Y
8.4
Period (week) payments

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
2/13/06
People 100 150 100

12:02 PM
Machinery 400
Page 8–20
Materials 400 150 200
Premises 100 100
Other
expenses 100
an example
Total weekly 800 300 300 400

payments

Cash flow profile –
Cumulative 800 1100 1400 1800

Cash flow curve –

8.5
an example
Plot cumulative project costs over time

COSTS 13 000 B
12 500
12 000 A
11 500
11 000
10 500
10 000
9 500 C
9 000
8 500
8 000
7 500
8
7 000
6 500
6 000
5 500
5 000
4 500
4 000
3 500
3 000
2 500 A = Planned or budgeted costs
2 000
B = Actual costs
1 500
1 000
C = Variance
500
0
WEEK 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
OK
TO
Y
P
CO
8–21
Variance
8.6
variance =
original budget –
actual cost +
cost to complete
OK
TO
Y
P
CO
8–22
A typical exhibition budget

8.7
Exhibition hall expenses

● Space costs
● Shell scheme
● Stand fittings
● Services: electricity, water
● Telephone and fax: install and calls
● Cleaning
● Insurance
● Furniture and carpet hire.
Exhibit material
● Professional fees: designer, copywriter, editor
● Exhibit material (products): bought-in, in-house
● Stand effects: lighting, music, audio-visual

8
● Exhibit material (brochures): printing, display racks
● Stationery
● Storage: pre-exhibition, post-exhibition
● Assembly
● Disposal
● Transport.
Marketing
● Advertising: press, direct mail, catalogue, posters
● Tickets
● Press releases
● Photographer
● Photocopying
● Flowers
● Entertaining: fridge, food, drink
● Special events: juggler, conjurer, dancers, competition prizes.
Staff costs
● Salary costs
● Hotels
● Subsistence
● Travel and car parking
● Transport: car, van hire
● Overtime
● Hiring temporary staff – to work on stand or as replacements at work
● Management meetings: manage project, brief staff
● Training: trainer’s fees, videos

OK
● Uniforms – clothing allowance
TO
Y
P
CO
● Security.
8–23
8–24
Activity 9
Making a project
presentation
Purpose
To introduce participants to the techniques and

skills required to make an effective presentation
whose objective is to gain commitment to support
a proposed project.

Activity 9
Making a project
presentation
How can I persuade others to back my
project proposal?
Purpose To introduce participants to the techniques and skills
required to make an effective presentation whose
objective is to gain commitment to support
a proposed project.
Application This activity may be used at all training events that

are designed to improve the skills of project
managers. It could also be used on courses in
Presentation Skills or Sales Training. 9
The activity will work best if the participants have
previously completed Activities 3, 4, 5 and 6 as they
provide essential preparation material which will be
used in the presentation.
What happens You start the session by stating that giving a

presentation can be a stress-inducing experience.
This stress needs to be managed, and one way of
doing this is through systematic preparation.You
finish this introduction by showing a five stage model
for effective presentations.
During the next phase of this activity you take the

participants through each of the stages step by step.
This will involve you in introducing the concepts and
having everyone participate in micro-exercises
before using the insight they have gained to prepare
for the consolidation exercise at the end of the
activity.
You pull all the parts together by having each

participant make a presentation which includes
handling audience participation. Each presentation is
based on a real project proposal that the
participants are working on. At the end of their
presentation they will have the benefits of feedback 9–1
from their audience and tutor. (We also recommend

that you record each presentation, and the feedback
session on video for later review and reflection after
the event.)
You conclude the session by asking the participants

to complete a Learning review diary which helps
them identify how they will transfer their key
learning points back to the work place.

(6 participants).
● Stage one – Gather your facts: 30 minutes
● Stage two – Structure your presentation:
45 minutes
● Stage three – Present professionally: 30 minutes
● Stage four – Manage participation: 30 minutes
● Stage five – Summarise and gain commitment:
10 minutes
● Practical presentation:
15 minutes common preparation
30 minutes per presentation
3 hours 15 minutes for 6 participants

resources 9.1 The performance curve
9.2 Stages of an effective presentation
9.3 Key questions for a persuasive presentation
9.4 Find out what they want
9.5 Filter your facts
9.6 The three tells
9.7 Strain your P’s
9.8 Intro
9.9 Three ingredients of communication
9.10 Features of the caravan site
9.11 Tips for effective presentation
9.12 Tips on using visual aids
9.13 Objections – a definition
9.14 Handling objections – a model
9.15 Clinch the deal
9–2
● 1 Handout master:
9.16 Project proposal presentation observer
review sheet

● Post-it® Notes
● Video camera and tripod
● Video (or DVD) playback machine and TV
monitor
● Blank video cassettes and labels
9
In preparation Participants should be informed before they attend
that they will be giving a presentation based on a
current project proposal.They should be asked to
bring material prepared for Activities 3–6 in order to
prepare for the practical exercise.

You start the session by asking the participants to
make a note of three situations in their business life
that cause them stress and anxiety. Having given
them a few minutes to consider, ask them to call out
their ideas and list them on a flipchart. Among
common choices you will usually find:
● disciplining staff
● making people redundant
● giving a presentation.
Highlight ‘giving a presentation’ and inform the

group that it is this particular topic you want to
cover in this session. Check with the group how
many of them either had it on their list or recognise
it as an experience that has pulled on their
emotions in the past. Most will readily admit it is
one of their most feared situations.
9–3
Point out that it is not your purpose to take away

that fear altogether.
Show OHT 9.1

The performance curve
Point out that this piece of research demonstrates

that we generally perform better when we have an
optimum amount of stress and pressure in our lives.
Too little and we can’t get started, we become lazy
and complacent.Too much, of course, will mean our
performance gets out of control and could have a
serious effect on our general health.
What’s the answer

Write the word ‘Iceberg’ on a flipchart. Ask the
group what is one of the most noticeable features
of an iceberg.They should reply that only about a
quarter of the berg is visible; the rest is below the
sea’s surface. Draw a picture of an iceberg on the
flipchart with a line dividing the figure into top
25 per cent, and the rest 75 per cent. Ask the group
if they can spot the similarity between an iceberg
and an effective presentation.The answer you are
looking for is that what you see on the surface –
the presentation – is supported by a weighty
foundation – the preparation. Write these terms on
the chart to reinforce your message.
Tell participants that in order to manage their

anxiety and make a presentation that achieves the
desired objective, they need to set themselves up
for success by spending a greater proportion of
their time in planning and preparation.
Show OHT 9.2

Stages of an effective presentation
Briefly comment on each stage.
Tell them that having given an overview of the five

stages you now want to explore each in more
depth.
9–4
This introductory discussion should take about

20 minutes.
STAGE ONE – GATHER YOUR FACTS

Point out that one of the hallmarks of an effective
project manager is that they sit down and plan what
they are going to do. If your participants have
already completed the earlier activities in this pack
they should already have the answers to the
questions on the next OHT.
Show OHT 9.3

Key questions for a persuasive presentation
TRAINER’S TIP
9
Point out where each question complements the
other activities in this resource.
Why are we doing this? – The project’s purpose

and objectives (Activity 3 Define the end product)
What will be the key tasks? – The project Work

Breakdown Structure WBS (Activity 4 The power of
planning – part one)
Who will be involved? – The Responsibility

Assignment Matrix RAM (Activity 5 The power of
planning – part two)
When will the activity take place? – The

project Gantt chart (also in Activity 5)
How much will all this cost us? – The project

budget forecast (Activity 8 Managing money)
If they have covered all these details they will be

well placed to turn this raw material into an
effective presentation. But they must not forget a
key component.
9–5
Not only ‘Why are you proposing this project?’

but also ‘What is your objective for making the
presentation?’.
The short answer to this must be to gain approval

to go ahead with the project. Point out that with this
objective in mind they must also consider their
audience.
Find out what they want

Ask the participants to picture an audience they
maybe presenting to in the near future.This could
either be a small group – such as a management
board – or a large audience – the whole workforce
for some large projects.Tell the participants that the
key to any successful persuasive presentation is to
see the proposition from the other person’s point of
view.They need to be able to put themself in the
audience’s shoes and work out the answers to a key
question each member of the audience will be asking
themselves, ‘What’s in this for me?’
People buy goods and services for a variety of

reasons. Many of these can be summed up by the
mnemonic SPACED.
Show OHT 9.4

Briefly explain each item.
Ask the group to think of a recent decision they

have made. How much were they influenced by one
of the intangible factors on this list?
Tell them that they will now need to prepare for an

actual presentation which they will be giving the rest
of the group.
Ask them to think about the likely audience for a

project presentation.Who will be there and what
motivational factors are likely to appeal to them?
Point out that different members of the audience

may be after different things from your proposal.
They will have to take this into consideration and
9–6
make sure that each sees something desirable in the

presentation.
They are now in a position to assemble all the facts

needed to support the case. A useful method is to
‘dump’ all they know onto a Mind Map®.This
method, which is similar to brainstorming on one
sheet of A4 paper, will help to develop the ideas and
is more flexible than a straightforward list.
Preparation exercise – part one

Give the participants 15 minutes to develop a Mind
Map for the presentation they will do later in this
activity.This should, where possible, be a proposal
based on an actual work project on which they are
involved.
Provide them with paper and pens and encourage

them to think widely about the ‘hard’ facts and ‘soft’ 9
opinions involved.
When they have finished their first draft, ask them to

spend 5 minutes reviewing the material with a
partner from the group.They may need a few
minutes to re-draft after these paired discussions.
Move around the participants as they work on their

own and with their partners. Clarify any questions
and give advice where required.
Work on Stage one should take about 30 minutes in

total.
STAGE TWO – STRUCTURE YOUR

PRESENTATION
It usually becomes apparent that the participants
have far too much information to fit into a short
15 minute presentation.The first part of the next
stage involves them in filtering the information into
A, B or C topics.
Show OHT 9.5

Filter your facts
9–7
A – Must be covered
B – Should be covered
C – Could be covered
Preparation exercise – part two

Ask participants to take their Mind Maps and
highlight which topics they want to fit into the
A, B, C categories. Issue each with a set of Post-it®
Notes.Tell them that after they have identified the
category they can write a key word summary of
each topic on a separate note (writing the category
in the top corner).
Again move around the group as they work on this

exercise, clarifying any areas of concern.
Put it into a logical order

Classic presentations have three phases.These are
often called The Three Tells.
Show OHT 9.6

The three tells
Inform participants that you want them initially to

concentrate on number 2 – The main body. Once
they have set this up then 1 and 3 can be built on.
How should they structure the middle? They should

aim to develop a structure that is as simple and
straightforward as possible. It should unfold in a
logical fashion, taking the audience from what they
currently know into unknown areas.
Point out that the advantage of using the Post-it®

Notes is that they are free to move these around
until they are satisfied they have got the best
running order for their presentation.
A tried and tested approach to making persuasive

presentations can be found on the next OHT.
Show OHT 9.7

Strain your P’s
9–8
Show and briefly discuss the items:
P – Position a brief outline of the current

situation
P– Problem describe the need which the
project can meet
P– Possibilities describe some of the alternatives
you and the audience will want
to consider
P– Proposal outline your project – the
recommended course of action
P– Participation ask the audience to ask
questions and clarify their
involvement.
Preparation exercise – part three

Ask the participants to spend 10 minutes putting
their notes in order. Point out that they may want to
add additional information which helps link their key 9
points together in logical order. Remind them to
check through the running order with their partner.
It is always good to get a fresh view, and if they don’t
understand neither will the audience.
Opening the presentation

Remind the participants that they will also have to
think about how they want to open their
presentation. A good opening creates a tone for the
rest of the presentation. Having prepared the main
body of the talk they should now be in a position to
prepare the opening.This should follow the INTRO
mnemonic.
Show OHT 9.8

Intro
Briefly discuss each item:
I – Introduce yourself – (particularly important

if you aren’t known to the audience). Be polite
and thank them for coming or for asking you to
present. Give a little bit of information about
why you are giving the presentation.
9–9
N – Need – Why they need to know about this

presentation.What’s in it for them.
T – Title – What the subject is about. Show an

OHT to reinforce your message.
R – Range – What steps you will be covering in

what order. Don’t forget to mention your
policy on questions and whether you will be
giving handouts to support visual aids.
O – Objective – What you want them to do at

the end of the presentation, that is, vote to
support your project proposal.
Preparation exercise – part four

Give participants 10 minutes to prepare an opening
following the INTRO approach.
When they have finished, ask for a volunteer to

stand up (this immediately reduces their comfort
levels) and run through their opening in front of the
rest of the group.
Listen and invite feedback and constructive criticism

from the participants. Probe to establish what was
good and worked well, and identify what was less
effective with suggestions for improvements.
Ask for a few more volunteers and continue until all

who want to have a go have done so. Give the
participants another 5 minutes to revise their
openings using some of the key points from this
micro-exercise.
Allow a total of 45 minutes to complete Stage two

of the activity.
9–10
STAGE THREE –
PRESENT PROFESSIONALLY
Show OHT 9.9

Three ingredients of communication
TRAINER’S TIP
These are rounded figures supported by definitive

academic research. Some authors, however, count
tone of voice within the overall body language.
Cover up the half of the transparency that shows

the figures.
Ask the group if they are aware of the research into 9

the importance of each of these three components
when making a presentation.
Ask for their estimates of the percentage of each

segment. Once you have had a number of guesses
reveal the hidden half. Check out with the group
what they think of these findings (which here have
been rounded out to make them easier to
remember).You often find disbelief that words are
so low. Point out that you are not saying that words
are not important, but the research points to the
greater need for congruence (the consistency of
one ingredient with the others).You may have
written a wonderful presentation but if you don’t
look as if you believe in the project and speak
enthusiastically about it the audience may fail to be
convinced.
You must show conviction in your project.You are

not going to persuade anyone if you don’t believe in
it and can communicate that belief to your audience.
Choose your words – sell the benefits

As you explained when discussing preparation,
people are more likely to be influenced to support
your proposal if they can see something in it for
9–11
them. Salespeople call this approach ‘selling the

benefits’.You must convince your audience that your
project satisfies a need and provides a benefit for
them.
Benefits should be distinguished from features.While

a feature describes something (they are usually
tangible), a benefit identifies what that feature will do
for them.
Tell the group that in order to find the benefit of a

feature you should ask yourself ‘So what?’ or ‘Which
means that …’.You should always follow up any
statement of a feature with a benefit that is
important to your audience.You should try to make
your benefits answer the issues you identified when
you did the ‘Find out what they want’ exercise.
To illustrate the difference between features and

benefits, run a short activity. Draw a line down the
middle of a flipchart.Write ‘Features’ at the top of
one column and ‘Benefits’ at the top of the other.Tell
the group that your proposal is that they join you
for a family holiday on your caravan site in West
Wales.
Show OHT 9.10

Features of the caravan site
Ask the participants to work in pairs to provide

suggestions of the benefits for each feature. Allow
them about 10 minutes for the exercise.While they
are working write down the features on the
‘Features’ side of the flipchart.
When they have finished, lead a plenary review. Keep

a note of their suggestions on the ‘Benefits’ half of
your flipchart.
Their suggestions should cover such benefits as:

1. Plenty of space to move around.
2. Privacy.You don’t have to turn the bed back into a
table to eat breakfast.
3. Flexibility.Your friends can drop in and stay over.
9–12
4. Privacy and convenience.You don’t have to

wander across the site at night.
5. Just like home.You can prepare a full range of
meals and have plenty of room to keep your
drinks cold.
6. No noisy teenage parties, and a convenient store
to buy those forgotten essential items.
7. You don’t have to take and park the car. Lots of
local attractions for different members of the
family.
8. You can keep in touch with the rest of the world,
and have the option of a quiet night staying in
watching TV.
Point out that this example shows it is important to

relate the benefits to your audience. Different
people will have different needs, so don’t make the
mistake of selling benefits they don’t want or this
may actively put them off your proposal. 9
Preparation exercise – part four
Tell the participants to review their material to make
sure they have linked each of the features described
in their presentation with a benefit.These should be
tailored to the needs of their audience and the
factors they identified in part one.
It ain’t what you say, it’s the way that you say it
Remind the group that they also need to consider
the non-verbal elements if they are to impress.
Divide the participants into four teams. Ask two
teams to think of very effective presenters they have
seen (either in person or the media).The remaining
teams are requested to think of poor presenters.
Ask each group to develop a list of the non-verbal
elements that contribute to their judgement. Give
them 5 minutes for this exercise.
When they have finished, lead a plenary review.

Draw out the main points and develop a checklist of
good practice on a flipchart. It should contain some
of the elements listed on the next OHT.
Show OHT 9.11

Tips for effective presentation
9–13
Briefly discuss each element, giving a graphic

demonstration where appropriate.
Your voice – Create variety through pauses, varied

speed and volume.You can create greater emphasis
by slowing down and increasing your volume.
At other times when the message is simpler you can
quicken your pace (but not too fast) and speak at a
more even volume.
Eye contact – It is extremely important that you

look at each member of the audience directly.
You must balance staring and not looking at all.
You should aim to make everyone there feel as if
you are talking to them on a one-to-one basis.
Mobility – Influential presenters give an impression

of enthusiasm and commitment to whatever they
are proposing.You can reinforce this by moving in
front of the group rather than remaining static.
You should avoid actions that will form a pattern
and prove to be distracting.
Use your hands – Your hand gestures are another

good way of suggesting enthusiasm.Try to think of a
time when you felt relaxed and confident in front of
a group. Can you picture your hand movements?
Try to ‘anchor’ that memory and use those gestures
again with a new group. Avoid hand gestures that
give the impression of being fed up or complacent
such as hands in pockets, folded across chest or
behind your head if you are sitting.
Facial expression – Vary your facial expression to

match the mood and themes of your presentation.
Smiling at the right time can relax the audience and
build rapport. Use humour carefully – unless you are
skilled it can easily backfire.
Ask the participants to think about how they may

include the positive features in their presentation.
A picture is worth a thousand words

Point out that it will often be necessary to use
visual aids, especially when you want to put over
9–14
complex information quickly and accurately.Their

use should be planned carefully and you should
develop them after you have written the main body
of the presentation. Beware the temptation to put in
a visual simply because it looks good. Keep asking
yourself ‘What does this add?’ or ‘Would the
presentation suffer if I left it out?’.
Some tips are included on the next OHT.
Show OHT 9.12

Tips on using visual aids
● KISS (Keep It Short and Simple) – avoid

complicated material or too much information on
one slide
● Talk to the group and not the slide, screen or
board 9
● Give time for the group to read the information,
try not to talk and show slides at the same time
● Focus their attention. Switch off the projector or
turn over the flipchart paper – you want to be the
focus of attention, not the aid
● Limit the number of aids you are going to use,
too many will overwhelm or confuse
● Don’t use too much technology. Rather than set
up a 35 mm slide show for one or two slides,
have them transferred onto OHTs
● Check your equipment before you start. Sod’s law
dictates the worst will happen. Is there a spare
bulb? Have you an extra power lead or fuse?
Think about a contingency plan if all the
equipment fails.
Allow a total of 30 minutes for this section of the

activity.
STAGE FOUR – MANAGE PARTICIPATION

Inform the group that there are three main
strategies for managing participation during a
presentation.
9–15
1. The audience can ask questions at any time.This

strategy is best used when you have an expert
presenter with a good case and lots of time. Point
out that once you let the audience interrupt you
lose control over what’s going on.
2. The audience can participate at clearly identified

points.This approach works well if your
participation divides neatly into clear segments.
You can ask for questions or comments at each
pre-determined point and then move on having
convinced them on that point.
3. Participation at the end.This approach is often the

best for the novice presenter, or when you are
presenting a complex scenario in a limited time-
scale. It has the disadvantages of storing up all
questions and comments into what can seem a
difficult final session. But with skill you can pull
this around to your advantage.
Point out that whilst the choice is theirs, you suggest

they adopt the third option for the coming exercise,
unless the participants are particularly skilled and
confident of their cause and ability.
Handle their objections

Tell the group that as they have done their research
and planning they should be able to answer most
straightforward questions. Point out that if they are
stuck for an answer the worst thing they can do is
to try and bluff or bluster their way through. Advise
them to check if anyone else present can answer
and if not advise that you will get back to them as
soon as you have found out.
What they have to watch out for are objections. An

objection is defined as:
An adverse reason or statement; expressing a feeling of

disapproval or dislike.
(Concise Oxford Dictionary)
Show OHT 9.13

Objections – a definition
9–16
When your audience raises an objection to your

project proposal it is because they have not been
convinced; they are uncertain or have worries that
have not been satisfied.
Tell the group not to be afraid of objections. Once

voiced they will give you an opportunity to answer
them to the audience’s satisfaction and convince
them of the strength of your case. Objections are an
integral part of the persuasion process.When you
ask them to accept your proposal they will ask
themselves, ‘What are the snags?’, ‘What problems
will fall to me if I accept?’ Once you recognise that
this is a general part of most people’s make-up,
rather than a desire to embarrass or be awkward,
the objection becomes easier to handle.
Point out that some objections may not be

personally relevant to the person raising it.They may 9
be playing Devil’s Advocate to check the robustness
of your proposal.They may also have to go back to
their own management and convince them of your
case, and are rehearsing the type of objection they
anticipate they will have to answer themselves.
Most proposals will lead to objections being raised.

Don’t get emotionally involved, argue with the
audience or take the objection personally.Try to
anticipate them in advance by analysing your
audience, and pre-empt them by building the
counter-points into your talk.Thinking ahead will
also enable you to think of an appropriate way of
handling them. If stuck you can use the Handling
Objections model.
Show OHT 9.14

Handling objections – a model
Briefly discuss each of the points.
Step one: Listen
You can’t handle their objection if they don’t think

you are paying attention and treating it seriously.
9–17
Step two: Clarify
Don’t make assumptions and think you know what

they’re talking about.Their original statement may
cover up a more deep seated fear.
Step three: Consider
You don’t have to jump in immediately with an

instant reply. Pause and think through an effective
approach.
Step four: Assess
Objections fall into two categories,True or False.

Your assessment of which category will decide your
approach.
Step five: Answer
You now have a choice of two approaches:
TRUE Acknowledge – Admit that their statement

is a disadvantage and could be considered
a drawback.
Compensate – What factors can you put
forward that will off-set this disadvantage.
Reinforce – Put forward other benefits that
could outweigh the disadvantages.
FALSE Protect – Take care of their ego; no one

likes to look like a fool. Present it as a
common misunderstanding.
Present – Put forward the facts and figures
that support your case.
Restate – Emphasise the other benefits
they will have from accepting your
proposal.
Step six: Check back
Has your approach successfully handled their

objection? If it hasn’t you need to clarify why. Often
it is because there is another underlying objection.
9–18
This should now come to the surface and enable

you to handle it by repeating the above six steps.
Preparation exercise – part five

Divide the group up into pairs. Ask one partner to
put forward a typical objection to a project
proposal; the other partner then answers, using the
model where appropriate.
Some typical examples could include:
● This will cost too much

● The unions won’t wear it
● There isn’t enough time to do a good job
● We entered this exhibition five years ago and it
was a complete flop,

etc…
Give them 10 minutes for this micro-exercise.When 9

they have finished, reconvene and lead a plenary
review. Ask for volunteers to disclose both the
objection and their answer.Throw each open to the
whole group.You will probably find that even when
others had a similar objection they used a different
approach when answering.
The whole of Stage four should take about

30 minutes.
STAGE FIVE – SUMMARISE AND GAIN

COMMITMENT
Point out that there will come a point when you will
be ready to pull it all together. Keep an eye on the
time.You want to stay in control and have the last
word rather than being cut off by the meeting
Chairperson.
Choose the right moment to clinch your proposal.

Start with a summary.This should cover specific
points.
Show OHT 9.15

Clinch the deal
9–19
Point out that they need to be careful not to push

too hard when they have reached their objective.
You don’t want to risk losing it by starting another
debate.
PRACTICAL PRESENTATION
Preparation exercise – part six
It is time to pull all the parts together.
Check that the participants have no further

questions on any part of the previous five stages.
Answer any outstanding queries and when satisfied
that they are ready, give them 15 minutes’
preparation time to pull their final presentation
together in order to deliver it to the whole group.
TRAINER’S TIP
At this stage you have several options depending

on the number of participants and the availability
of additional tutors and technology. Aim for
groups of six participants; this will blend practical
presentation time with audience participation. If
you have video equipment available then use it.
It is a powerful learning mechanism for the
presenters; one that is difficult to argue against
when participants are presented with ‘live-action’
pictures.
When they have finished their preparation, issue

each member of the audience with an observer
review sheet.

Project proposal presentation observer
review sheet
Check that the participants understand each item.
9–20
Ask them to concentrate on the presentation and

to fill in the sheet when the individual has finished.
I often nominate the next to go as the main person
to lead the feedback at the end of each
presentation.This makes them concentrate on the
topic in hand and can stop them worrying about
their own performance.
Practical exercise – the project proposal

The target time for each presentation should be
10–15 minutes which is then followed by
5 or 10 minutes of questions and objections from
the audience. Stop the presentation after the
20 minutes have elapsed and lead a 10-minute
review on the key strengths, weaknesses and
learning needs of the presenter.Then move on to
the next presentation until all have finished.
LEARNING REVIEW
9
When they have all finished this period of reflection,

ask for volunteers to disclose one or two key
learning points they will take away as a result of this
session.
When everyone who wants to speak has done so,

thank the group for their hard work and close the
session.
9–21
9–22
The performance curve

9.1
P
E
R
F
O
R
M 9
A
N
C
E
LOW HIGH
PRESSURE
OK
TO
Y
P
CO
9–23
Stages of an effective
9.2
presentation
Stage one – Gather your facts
Stage two – Structure your presentation
Stage three – Present professionally
Stage four – Manage participation
Stage five – Gain commitment to act.
OK
TO
Y
P
CO
9–24
Key questions for a

9.3
persuasive presentation
Why are we doing this?
• The project’s purpose and objectives
What will be the key tasks?

• The project Work Breakdown Structure
(WBS)
Who will be involved? 9

• The Responsibility Assignment Matrix (RAM)
When will the activity take place?

• The project Gantt chart
How much will all this cost us?

• The project budget forecast
OK
TO
Y
P
CO
9–25

9.4
S – Safety and security
P – Performance and productivity
A – Appearance and attractiveness
C – Convenience and comfort
E – Economy and efficiency
D – Durability and delight.
OK
TO
Y
P
CO
9–26
Filter your facts

9.5
A – Must be covered
B – Should be covered
C – Could be covered
9
OK
TO
Y
P
CO
9–27
The three tells

9.6
1. Tell them what you are going to talk

about
– The introduction
2. Tell them what you want them to

know
– The main body
3. Tell them what you have told them

– The conclusion.
OK
TO
Y
P
CO
9–28
Strain your P’s

9.7
P – Position
P – Problem
P – Possibilities
P – Proposal
9
P – Participation
OK
TO
Y
P
CO
9–29
Intro
9.8
I – Introduce yourself
N – Need
T – Title
R – Range
O – Objective
OK
TO
Y
P
CO
9–30
Three ingredients of
9.9
communication
Words 10%
Tone of voice 40%
Body language 50%

——— 9
Total 100%
———
OK
TO
Y
P
CO
9–31
Features of the
9.10
caravan site
1. 10-metre family-size caravan
2. Two double bedrooms
3. Sleeps eight in total
4. Integral mains connected WC and shower
5. Fully-fitted kitchen with standard-size

cooker and fridge
6. Quiet family site with own shop and off-

licence
7. Five minutes’ private walk to beach, castle

and coastal path
8. Radio and colour TV provided.
OK
TO
Y
P
CO
9–32
Tips for effective

9.11
presentation
• Your voice
Create variety through pauses, varied
speed and volume
• Eye contact
Look at each member of the audience
directly
9
• Mobility
Give an impression of enthusiasm and
commitment
• Use your hands

Another good way of suggesting
enthusiasm
• Facial expression
Vary to match the mood and themes of
your presentation.
OK
TO
Y
P
CO
9–33
Tips on using visual aids

9.12
• KISS (Keep It Short and Simple)
• Talk to the group
• Give time for the group to read the

information
• Focus their attention
• Limit the number of aids you are going

to use
• Don’t use too much technology
• Check your equipment before you

start.
OK
TO
Y
P
CO
9–34
Objections – a definition
9.13
An adverse reason or
statement; expressing
a feeling of disapproval
or dislike.
9
OK
TO
Y
P
CO
9–35
Handling objections –
9.14
a model
Step one: Listen
Step two: Clarify
Step three: Consider
Step four: Assess
Step five: Answer
True False
Acknowledge Protect
Compensate Present
Reinforce Restate
Step six: Check back
OK
TO
Y
P
CO
9–36
Clinch the deal

9.15
Summarise:
• The original problem

• The main features of your proposal
• The benefits to your audience
• Who you propose should do what by
when
• A clearly-defined first step. 9
Then:
• Ask for agreement to your proposal

and …
• Keep quiet.
OK
TO
Y
P
CO
9–37
Project proposal
9.16
presentation observer
review sheet
Introduction
Introduce yourself
Need
Title
Range
Objective
Main body
Position
Problem
Possibilities
Proposal
Participation
Presentation skills
Voice
Eye contact
Mobility
Use your hands
Facial expression
OK
TO
Continued …
P
CO
9–38
Project proposal
9.16
presentation observer
… continued
review sheet
Use of visual aids
KISS (Keep It Short and Simple)
• Talk to the group
• Give time for the group to read the information
• Focus their attention
• Limit the number of aids used 9
• Don’t use too much technology
• Check your equipment before you start.
Conclusion
Summary of:
• The original problem
• The main features of your proposal
• The benefits to your audience
• Who you propose should do what by when
• A clearly defined first step.
Final remarks:
• Ask for agreement to your proposal and …
• Keep quiet.
Notes for feedback
Main strengths as a presenter are:
Main development needs as a presenter are:

OK
TO
Y
P
CO
9–39
9–40
Activity 10
Selecting the right
person for your
project team
Purpose
To demonstrate that effective selection relies on

using a customised person specification for each job
on the project team.To provide clear guidelines
which will enable the participants to write a person
specification and test its effectiveness in a
recruitment interview.
10

Activity 10
Selecting the right
person for your
project team
How do I choose the best person for
the project?
Purpose To demonstrate that effective selection relies on
using a customised person specification for each job
on the project team.To provide clear guidelines
which will enable the participants to write a person
specification and test its effectiveness in a
recruitment interview.
Application This module is an essential element for any course

that covers recruiting and selecting staff for a 10
project team.
As it concerns making objective decisions on the

candidates’ ability to perform the key elements of
the job, it is also very relevant for any more
broadly-based recruitment and selection training.
What happens You lead a discussion on the lack of effectiveness of

the average selection interview, and identify what
steps the selector can take to ensure that they will
recruit the best person for the job.
The participants then take part in three

interconnected exercises.These are designed to
produce a checklist for use in the selection
interview which will help ensure a better match
between job and person.
The session finishes with a practical selection

exercise during which they have the opportunity to
assess how well a candidate matches the
competencies identified in the previous exercises.
Participants are encouraged to fill in their Learning
review diary.
10–1
● Stage one – The job specification: 45 minutes
● Stage two – Key criteria: 45 minutes
● Stage three – Person specification: 45 minutes
● Putting it all together: 30 minutes
● Practical interviewing exercise: 1 hour 15 minutes
(based on groups of six)
30 minutes preparation
20 minutes interview
10 minutes feedback
15 minutes break
● Conclusion: 5 minutes.

resources 10.1 Accuracy of selection methods
10.2 The recruitment cycle
10.3 Job specification – contents
10.4 Key competencies – a definition
10.5 Types of question
10.6 An interview structure
● 5 Handout masters
10.7 Job specification – contents
10.8 Key results areas – an example
10.9 Person specification – an example
10.10 Interview working guide-sheet
10.11 Selection interviews – observer’s guide

● OHT acetates
In preparation It would be helpful to have, as handouts, copies of

the participants’ own organisation’s forms (where
10–2
available) for the following: Competency framework,

Job specification, Person specification, Interviewing
guide and an Application form.You should also
prepare a flipchart ‘Accuracy of average interviews’
created by drawing a target on the flipchart, with
100 at the centre and successive bands showing 75,
50, 25 and 0 per cent (see OHT 10.1 Accuracy of
selection methods).

Bias and distortion in selection interviews
Start the session by revealing the previously prepared

flipchart headed ‘Accuracy of average interviews’.
Ask the participants for their estimate as to the

success rate of the average interview in being able
to accurately predict a candidate’s subsequent
performance.
Draw in the participants’ estimates – you will 10

probably find they overestimate by a wide margin.
Tell them that a wide variety of studies of the

effectiveness of the average interview
(as summarised by Mike Smith of Manchester
University – see ‘Further resources’) have found it
to have little reliability and poor validity, as an
accurate method of selection. Ratings for the typical
interview are usually to be found around the
15 per cent mark.
Show OHT 10.1 and emphasise the typical interview

rating.
Show OHT 10.1

Accuracy of selection methods
Point out that the poor outcomes for their projects

which will result from recruiting the wrong person are
numerous and invariably expensive.Tell them that in
this part of the session you will examine some of the
most widely recognised pitfalls of typical interviews, as
a knowledge of these may help to avoid them.
10–3
Ask the group for ideas, based on their experience

of being on the receiving end of ineffective selection
interviews, for suggestions of the weaknesses that
may be present in typical selection interviews.
List their ideas on a flipchart and ensure that the
following are highlighted, adding them to the list
yourself if they are not volunteered by the group.
● Lack of preparation: The selectors often have

no clear idea of the knowledge, skills and abilities
required to do the job under review.They often
rely on their own pet theories or a gut reaction
that the candidate is the right type.
● Poorly-structured interviews: Because of a

lack of a clear profile of the requirements to do
the job, the interview often proceeds in a
haphazard manner.
● Ineffective questioning technique: Questions

seem to bear little relevance to the requirements
to perform the post successfully.
● Contrasting candidates: Assessments come

from contrasting candidates with earlier
interviewees rather than against objective
performance criteria. Because one candidate gives
a virtuoso performance at the interview it doesn’t
automatically prove they have the capabilities to
carry out the duties successfully.
● Prejudices and stereotypes: The variety of the

candidates’ attributes are simplified and distorted
by the inability of the selector to recognise
relevant attributes.There is a tendency to focus
excessively on a general picture of ‘a good
employee’ and to ignore or not to have defined
more specific and pertinent qualities.
● Timing of decisions: There is a tendency to

come to conclusions early in the interview and to
stick to them. Some research points to an average
decision time of under 4 minutes.The selector
then interprets subsequent information to fit
their early impression.
10–4
● Accuracy of recall: Because of a lack of

interview structure and note-taking, selectors are
not good at recalling accurately what they have
heard in the interview, and make different
interpretations of the selection data.
Tell the participants that the main approach to

resolving these problems and raising their success
levels requires them to adopt a systematic approach
and to treat recruitment as a sub-project of the
major project goal.They will need to adopt a
structured format for all stages if they want to get
the best results for their project team. Point out
that as with other activities, planning and
preparation will set them up for success.
Describe the selection process

Having established the need for a structured
approach to overcome the difficulties of common
selection interviews, tell the group that the actual
interview is only one stage in a wider recruitment 10
cycle.To be effective recruiters, they will need to
consider what has to be done to ensure success.
Divide the group up into threes. Ask them to come

up with the chronological stages they need to go
through in an effective recruitment and selection
process. Ask each group to write their ideas on a
blank acetate (provide them with suitable marker
pens).Tell them they have 10 minutes for this task.
When they have finished, display all the groups’

completed sheets. Ask them to consider each
other’s suggestions. Check to see where they are in
agreement and where there are any differences.
Show OHT 10.2

The recruitment cycle
Briefly talk about the stages and discuss where each

one fits into the cycle. Draw their attention to any
that are missing from their suggestions.
10–5
Point out that the interview can only succeed if the

selector has full, accurate and unbiased information
about the specific attributes required for the
particular job.
Tell the participants that you will now guide them

through the necessary stages that will enable them
to make sure they can carry out a successful
selection interview.
Compile a job and person specification

Inform the group that you will take them through
the three stages of effective specification. Each stage
will involve an exercise designed to develop and
practise the skills involved.
Allow 30 minutes for this introduction to the

activity.
STAGE ONE – THE JOB SPECIFICATION

Start by telling the participants that every post
should have an up-to-date job description, which will
enable the manager and the employee to know
exactly what their roles and obligations are.
Ask them how many have current job descriptions

for their own posts. For those who have, ask them a
further question: ‘How accurately do those job
descriptions describe what you currently do in the
post?’ The answers are usually ‘The job description
is not a very accurate record of current
responsibilities’.
Point out that as this is true in many organisations,

they should not use the current job description for
the vacant post without thinking about the future.
Point out that for selection purposes the average

job description needs to be expanded into a job
specification.The exact format of the specification
will depend on the purpose for which it is being
used. For example, one for recruiting internally may
not be as detailed as one used for external
recruitment.
10–6
Essentially the job specification is a detailed

statement of:
● the physical and mental activities involved in the job

● the purpose, responsibilities and relationships
involved in the post
● the physical and economic factors that affect the
job.
A good way of producing an effective job

specification is to put themselves in the position of
the candidate. If they were applying for this job, what
information would they want to know about the
post? Ask the group to call out suggestions of what
they wanted to know when they applied for their
last job.Write their suggestions on a flipchart and
then compare them with OHT 10.3.
Show OHT 10.3

Job specification – contents 10
Expand on each point of the overhead, using a real
job and organisation you know well.

Job specification – contents
Also issue any local examples of job specifications

you may have prepared earlier.
Exercise one – Producing a job specification

Check with the group to see if they need any points
clarifying. Now tell them that they are going to have
an opportunity to develop a job specification for
themselves.They will be focusing on a job about
which they all have a good working knowledge.
Ask them to divide into suitable groups so that each
person has a common job they can work on.
Provide each group with blank acetate sheets and

marker pens.Tell them that they have 15 minutes
to produce a job specification following the checklist
outlined in Handout 10.7 Job specification – contents.
10–7
After the set time, check with the groups that they
are ready, and reconvene them into the main group.
Hold a plenary review to discuss how the exercise
went.Ask for a volunteer to show their OHT to the
rest of the group. Review each in turn, highlighting the
good points and inadequacies of each example.
Ask the groups which items came easily during the

exercise.Was there any particular item that they
found more difficult? How common is this approach
in their current selection procedures?
Take a total of about 45 minutes to complete this

first part of the activity.
STAGE TWO – KEY CRITERIA

Explain to the group that once they are satisfied
that the job specification is accurate, the next step is
to identify the key attributes required to perform
the tasks outlined in the specification.
This will involve them in two phases. First they will

need to identify the Key Result Areas (the KRAs)
for the post.These are the areas of the job in which
good performance is essential, or conversely in
which poor performance could be disastrous.
A useful tool is the 80/20 rule. Eighty per cent of

the value comes from twenty per cent of the
activities.These critical success factors, once
identified, will have a marked impact on the effective
performance of the job holder.
Once the KRAs have been identified, the second

phase in determining how well a person is likely to
fit a job is to describe each key area in terms of the
competencies required to perform it effectively.
Show OHT 10.4

Key competencies – a definition
Explain this definition to the participants.
10–8
At this point either show your own organisation’s

competency framework or use the participants’
in-company competency framework.
TRAINER’S TIP
A competency framework that is in general use can

be found in The Management Standards (see ‘Further
resources’). Developed by the Management Charter
Initiative (MCI), these describe the standards of
performance expected of managers and supervisors
in their job roles. Although devised for all
managers, regardless of the sector in which they are
working, many organisations are using them as the
basis for recruitment and selection, promotion and
performance review and appraisal.

Key results areas – an example
10
Discuss this analysis for a management training

manager. (Alternatively have a locally prepared
example of your own available.)
Exercise two – the key attributes

Tell the participants that you want them to return
to their earlier groups. Give them 15 minutes to
produce a list on acetate of the Key Result Areas of
the job specification produced earlier, and then to
describe each KRA in terms of the core
competencies that contribute to its successful
performance.
Check with each group towards the end of the

allotted time and when they have finished hold a
plenary group review, probing to check the reasons
for their choices.
Again, take about 45 minutes to complete this stage

of the activity.
10–9
STAGE THREE – PERSON SPECIFICATION

Tell the group that the information they have
gathered is now used to produce the person
specification.This specification describes the kind of
person best suited to fill the post. It is a key
document in the recruitment and selection process.
It is used to draft advertisements, sift candidates at
the application form stage and provides the content
for your interviewing guide that will assist you in
structuring your interview.
Point out that they should identify and select from

the competency framework the detailed elements
that are required to meet each competency.These
are usually indicators to what performance is
required to meet the competency specified.
For example, to meet the competency
‘Communication and personal impact’ you would
expect the individual to demonstrate that they
could ‘Communicate clearly and effectively both
orally and in writing within and outside the
organisation’.
In addition to specifying the competencies in more

detail, you will need to identify the background
qualifications and experience that the post-holder
would have had in order to develop the
competencies at the level required.
Explain that in specifying the factors in the person

specification it is important to identify not only what
is essential but also what is desirable. Essential
means that any candidate lacking in this attribute
must be rejected; desirable indicates an additional
attribute which can be useful to distinguish between
two or more acceptable candidates.

Person specification – an example
(Alternatively issue your own prepared example.)
Discuss any points the participants may have about

10–10
constructing such a specification.
Exercise three – the person specification

Sub-divide the participants into the same groups
they were in for Exercise Two.Tell them they have
15 minutes to produce, on an acetate sheet, a fresh
specification which describes the person best suited
to fill the post that they analysed earlier.This should
identify the numerous key attributes of the ideal
person and should indicate each item as ‘essential’
or ‘desirable’.
Move around the groups answering questions and

giving advice as appropriate. Check that the groups
have finished and reconvene for a plenary review of
their efforts.
Use the discussion to ensure that they have set

their requirements at the right level. Look out for
over-specification, for example, high academic
qualifications for routine clerical work, or ill-defined
or vague specifications, for example, ‘a good
standard of education’. Point out that these give 10
ample scope for subjectivity of interpretation, and
may lead to race or sex discrimination. All attributes
need to be as precisely defined as possible rather
than based on general phrases and assumptions, for
example, ‘Five GCSEs or equivalent (minimum grade
C) including English, maths and a science subject, all
gained in one sitting’.
Watch out for phrases such as ‘must fit in’ or ‘have a

suitable personality’ as a description of interpersonal
skills. Industrial tribunals have often seen this as a
method of perpetuating the discriminatory practices
that go on in many organisations.
About 45 minutes is allowed for this part of the

activity.
PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER

Tell the participants that having assembled all the
basic material they are now in the best possible
position to prepare for the interview.They can now
start to develop an interview plan which will
determine how they will attempt to observe or
measure the key attributes. 10–11
Point out that when they look at their lists they will
see that some can be reviewed from the application
form as part of the short-listing process. Others,
such as disposition and abilities in non-verbal
reasoning and figure work, are best assessed
through psychological or practical testing.
Where an interview is involved, careful thought will

need to go into identifying what questions are
required to provide the accurate information
needed to make an assessment.
Point out that whilst many experienced interviewers

think that they can do without a structured
interview working guide-sheet, the research
evidence shows that using one results in better
quality decisions. By using a guide, the interviewer
will be applying the same frame of reference to each
candidate and covering the same areas for each.This
is not a straitjacket, but an example of how
structure can give freedom to explore the chosen
area in greater depth.
The interview guide should be developed after

studying the analysed information. It should give the
interviewer an initial series of questions with which
to probe the candidates.These will concentrate on
the areas that have been highlighted from the
analysis as having a significant impact on the
candidate’s ability to do the job effectively.
Interviewers who use guides are better able to

recall information, and know what to ask and what
to do with the information.
Issue a copy of your own interview guide or issue

Handout 10.10.

Interview working guide-sheet
Point out that having determined the content of the

question from the Interviewing Guide they will still
need to think carefully how they are going to phrase it.
10–12
Show OHT 10.5

Types of question
Point out that the better-quality questions don’t give

the candidate the answers, and get them talking
about the key issues involved.
Ask the participants to note down some of the key

points for framing questions.Write their suggestions
on the flipchart.They should include the following
points.
Effective questions:
● are brief
● are simple single queries that the interviewee can
understand
● relate directly to the topic being discussed
● are free from assumptions
● don’t suggest the ‘correct’ answer
● develop thinking from a constructive point of 10

view
● are carefully chosen to identify evidence that the
candidate meets the core competencies.
Inform participants that you want each question

they pose in the practical exercise to be phrased in
the best way for identifying good-quality information
from the candidate.
The interview structure

Tell the group that research has shown that to be
effective the interview must be structured.
Inform them that the structure you want them to

follow will be made easier if they appoint one of
their group as the interviewing panel chairperson.
The person in this role has the responsibility to
ensure that all the parts of the structure are
covered.
Point out that all interviews have beginnings, middles

and ends and a simple but effective structure for a
selection interview is WASP.
10–13
Show OHT 10.6

An interview structure
Point out that each is a distinct stage with a definite

purpose.The proportion of time spent will need to
be varied according to individual circumstances.
Whilst Stage 2 is the most important, it is unlikely to
be as effective unless Stage 1 has been handled well.
Similarly Stage 3 should not be seen simply as a
nicety to the interviewer. As well as giving the
candidate an opportunity to clarify areas of concern,
the information requested by the candidate can
often give clues to their character and motivation.
Ask the participants for examples, from their own

experiences of effective behaviour in each stage.
Make sure that the following points emerge.
Welcome (Stage one)

Point out that while the interviewers may be
nervous, the interviewee almost certainly will be.
There is little to be gained by pitching in with deeply
searching questions as soon as the candidate has sat
down.
The intention of the opening stage is to allow the

interviewee to settle down.The aim is to do this by
giving essential information and building up rapport.
The opening is usually handled by the person in the

Chair role and will involve:
● a welcome, either by fetching the candidate, or at

least by greeting at the door
● introducing by name, title and department,
the other panel members
● ‘icebreaker’ – checking that the candidate found
the interview location without difficulty and has
no external distractions
● Explaining what will happen – the structure of the
interview
● outlining the length of the interview, the areas that
will be explored and who will cover what area
● mentioning note-taking if applicable
10–14
● giving a brief explanation of the vacancy and

where it fits into the organisation
● asking a straightforward question to ‘warm-up’
the interviewee.
The above will suggest to the candidate that this is a

professionally planned interview and that the
organisation is thorough and credible in its approach
to selection.
Ask questions (Stage two)

– Tell the participants that when we discussed the
early stages of the recruitment process they
devised a person specification which highlighted
the core competencies necessary for successful
performance in the job.
– Point out that the main part of the interview will

centre around asking questions of the candidate
which specifically relate to the selection criteria
they have identified. 10
– Advise that most of the information that is
needed can be obtained from investigating the
candidate’s most recent work experience. Each
interviewer should ask the questions noted on
the interviewing guide for the specific areas of the
person specification they have been allocated by
the Chairperson.
The structured ordering of interviewing topics will

enable the interviewer to cover all parts of the
person specification in a systematic way, ensuring
that no essential aspect is overlooked.
Supply information (Stage three)

– Tell the participants that it is usual to offer the
candidate the opportunity to ask questions
towards the end of the interview.
– Always check with your co-panellists to see if

they have finished their coverage before signalling
to the candidate that, as promised, it is now their
turn to clarify any areas they wish.
10–15
– Point out that the type of questions asked can be

revealing.Tell the participants that they should
always be aware of the need to probe the
candidate’s thinking if any of their questions give
you cause to question their motivation.
– The manner in which the questions are asked may

also give an indication of the candidate’s
communication abilities.
Part (Stage four)

– Advise the group that they need not linger over
this session. A useful concluding point is to ask
the candidate if there is anything they would like
to add to support their application.This will
ensure that all possible supporting information
has the opportunity to emerge.
– Explain to the candidate what are the next stages

of the recruitment process, together with a likely
time-scale of when this should be happening.
– Tell them to thank the candidate for attending

and guide them to whoever is responsible for
paying expenses and seeing the candidate out of
the building.
PRACTICAL INTERVIEWING EXERCISE

Explain that the following exercise will provide an
opportunity to put all the previous material of this
session into practice.
Display on a flipchart the interviewing timetable for

the rest of the session.
TRAINER’S TIP
If there are more than eight course members, the

group should be split in two separate sub-groups,
each led by a separate tutor.Two groups will mean
that each participant will get a favourable balance
between participating and observing.
10–16
Tell the participants they will be asked to carry out

a realistic interview for the post for which they
produced a job and person specification earlier in
this activity.
Whilst the group members actively involved in the

panel are interviewing, the remaining members of
the group will act as observers.The observers’ role
is to give constructive feedback at the end of the
interview to help the interviewers improve their
selection interviewing performance.
Ask one of the non-participants to volunteer to play

the candidate for that particular vacancy. Point out
this is not a job-hunting course and the focus will be
on the panel, not on the candidate’s performance.
The candidate will also be asked to give feedback on
the panel’s performance.
Having secured a volunteer for each of the

interviews, issue to each candidate the details of the 10
post they are applying for. (You can do this by
photocopying the acetate sheets prepared by each
group in earlier exercises.) For added authenticity
you can also ask them to fill in an application form
or provide a relevant CV for the post.
Point out that whilst some role-playing may be

necessary, this should be kept to a minimum. Details
on the application forms or CVs should reflect the
candidate’s actual experiences, and only be changed
to make their application credible.
Advise the interviewing panel to review their job

specification and person specification and then draw
up an interviewing guide based on the key
information they want to probe in the interview.
They should also appoint a Chairperson and decide
on a running order for asking questions.
Photocopy any completed application forms or CVs

for each of the panel members.
Break them into their panel groups and tell them

they have 30 minutes to prepare for their interview.
10–17
Inform them they will have 20 minutes to carry out

the interview, which will be followed by 10 minutes
of review. Point out that as the second group of
panellists will start their interview after coffee, it is
essential they also prepare now.
Move among the groups. Be available for questions

and make sure they keep to time.
Call a halt to preparation. Point out there will never

be enough time for this practice exercise, but they
have already covered much of the essential
foundation work during the earlier exercises.
Show OHT 10.11

Selection interviews – observer’s guide
While the first panel are setting up, issue and discuss
the observer’s sheet, pointing out the areas you’d
like each observer to concentrate on.
Start the activity.
At the end of each interview start the debrief with

the panel. Ask them how they felt the exercise went,
what they thought they did well and which areas
they needed to improve on and how. Ask the
observers for their comments. Make sure they are
specific and stick to what actually happened, not
what they (the observers) would have done. Finally
ask the candidate for their feedback on how
effectively they felt their past experience and
suitability for the post were explored.
After about 30 minutes, if there are no further

teaching points you’d like to make, break for coffee
before proceeding with the subsequent interviews.
LEARNING REVIEW
Ask the participants to spend some time reflecting
on the session.Tell them they have 10 minutes to fill
in their Learning review diary (see ‘How to use this
resource’ on page xii) which will enable them to
10–18
identify the key things they will do when recruiting

for their own project team back at work.When they
have all finished, ask for a few volunteers to share
their plans with the main group.
CONCLUSION
Remind the participants that there are a number of
consequences of not following a structured,
systematic approach to defining the best person for
the job.
● Selection standards will be vague and ill-defined

● The criteria may be incomplete, with critical
attributes ignored
● Selectors will be more prone to the influence of
irrelevant factors because they do not know what
to look for
● Their assessments will become prone to the bias
and distortion that hallmarks an ineffective
interview. 10
The results for the project will frequently be
disastrous and often expensive.
A systematic approach to analysing the essential

requirements for the effective performance of the
job will enable the interviewer to prepare effectively,
ask the relevant questions and help them to …
select the right person for the job.
TRAINER’S TIPS
Further information on the research into the

effectiveness of selection interviews can be gained
by reading Selection and Assessment – A New
Appraisal by M. Smith, M. Gregg and D. Andrews
(see ‘Further resources’).
Fenman have a Trainer’s Activity Pack dedicated to

this topic. If you want to learn more and are
interested in previewing a copy of Recruiting and
Keeping the Right People, please contact our
Customer Service Department on 01353 665533.
10–19
10–20
Astrology 0%
Graphology 0%
2/13/06
Typical interviews 15%

References 12% 25%
1:56 PM
50%
75%
Personality tests 38%
Page 10–21
Biodata 38%
100%
methods
Work sample tests 55% Ability tests 54%

Accuracy of selection
Assessment centres 68% Structured interview

using job analysis 63%
TO
10.1
OK
CO
P
10–21
Y
10
TO
OK
CO
P
10–22
Y
10.2
1 Vacancy
occurs –
establish
2/13/06
need to fill 2 Job

12 Appoint specification
1:56 PM
11 Follow up references 3 Person

specification
Page 10–22
10 Selection decision 4 Advertise
5 Respond to
9 Conduct interviews
applications
8 Use complementary
6 Shortlist

selection methods
7 Arrange
The recruitment cycle
interviews
Job specification –
10.3
contents
1. Identification of the job
2. Purpose
3. Responsibilities
4. Relationships
5. Physical conditions
10
6. Social conditions
7. Economic conditions
8. Promotion prospects
OK
TO
Y
P
CO
10–23
Key competencies –
10.4
a definition
Individual characteristics or
skills that can be measured
reliably and that can be shown
to make a significant
difference between superior
and average performance.
OK
TO
Y
P
CO
10–24
Types of question
10.5
Open ‘What are the main types of

problem you encounter in your
job?’
Closed ‘Do you have any problems

with the new computer
network?’
Probing ‘What do you think are the

main causes?’ 10
Hypothetical ‘Suppose we revised the
manual to show on-screen
examples, what effect would
that have?’
Leading ‘And you wouldn’t want that

to happen would you?
Multiple ‘So do you think the causes are

poor maintenance or
inadequate training? Is it
because the workload is too
high or is it down to poor
supervision? What impact
would it have if we drew up a
precise users’ schedule?’
OK
TO
Y
P
CO
10–25
An interview structure
10.6
The opening
W – Welcome (1)
The main body
A – Ask questions (2)
S – Supply information (3)
The close
P – Part (4)
OK
TO
Y
P
CO
10–26
Job specification –
10.7
contents
1. Identification of the job
Current job title, department, division (etc.), location.
2. Purpose
The purpose of the job and how it is to be achieved. Its objectives,
clearly stated and quantified if possible.The duties involved and the
methods by which they are carried out.
3. Responsibilities
Responsibilities for which resources, for whom and to whom.
4. Relationships
The person or people that the post-holder will liaise with. 10
The relationships that will influence the achievement of objectives, both
internal and external.
5. Physical conditions
Where and how the work is performed.Whether it is sedentary, active
or a mixture. Any potential accident or health risks.
6. Social conditions
If group work is involved, what social pressures and influences there
are.What types of people will be contacted.Who initiates the contact.
7. Economic conditions
Salary range, increments, pensions, other benefits, car,
relocation expenses.
8. Promotion prospects
A realistic assessment of the potential for career progression and the
opportunity or necessity to transfer to other locations.
OK
TO
Y
P
CO
10–27
Key results areas –

10.8
an example
Key Result Areas: Management training manager
KRA Competencies
Present sessions Communication and personal impact

to managers at
all levels
Produce new Using information effectively

courses and
adapt existing
ones
To carry out Organisational culture and job knowledge

training needs
analyses
Manage training Business acumen

budget
Promote training Marketing and promotional skills

services and find
new customers
Manage staff in Management skills

General Office
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10–28
Person specification –
10.9
an example
Post: Project Team Leader Essential Desirable
QUALIFICATIONS & EXPERIENCE
Educated to degree level (or equivalent) X
Relevant post-graduate professional qualification X
2 years practical experience of project X
management and co-ordination
Proven management experience of resources in X
a large organisation
Extensive experience of industry sector, X
an appreciation of changes currently faced
Practical experience of IT contracts, formulation, X
management and monitoring
Financial management experience gained through X
public sector projects 10
Experience of press, public relations and media X
communication
Competencies
Contract management and monitoring
Implements policy on contract management X
Sets targets within corporate framework
Monitors performance in line with contract X
specification ensuring information is
recorded and analysed
Communication and personal impact
Displays sensitivity, tact and diplomacy in X
all challenging situations
Negotiates, persuades and instructs as X
necessary to achieve required results
Management skills
Determines priorities of work and sets X
targets accordingly
Develops and maintains effective team X
working relationships within organisation
Marketing and promotional skills
Represents the project team professionally X
within and outside the organisation
Uses research, advertising and selling X
techniques to influence internal and
external stakeholders OK
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10–29
Interview working
10.10
guide-sheet
Interview working guide-sheet
It is recommended that this or a similar interview sheet is used by each member of the
selection panel.
Enter the Key Criteria (including competencies), together with the weighting considered
to be appropriate, prior to the interview.
Department: __________________________________________ Ref: ________
Division: ____________________ Vacancy: _______________ Grade: ______
Candidate’s name: ______________________________________________________
Key criteria required

(from Job specification/
Person specification/
Competencies)
6 = Excellent 5 = Very good 4 = Good

3 = Satisfactory 2 = Adequate 1 = Unsatisfactory
Name of interviewer:
OK Signed: Date:
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10–30
Selection interviews –
10.11
observer’s guide
Please tick the appropriate item and make a note
of specific instances under each heading.
Welcome (1)
● Introductions ❏
● Icebreaker ❏
● Explain the structure ❏
● Timings ❏
● Note-taking if applicable ❏
● Explanation of the vacancy ❏
● Transition question. ❏
10
Ask questions (2)
● Open ❏
● Closed ❏
● Probing ❏
● Hypothetical ❏
● Leading ❏
● Multiple. ❏
Supply Information (3)

● Candidate questions ❏
● Quality of panel answers. ❏
Part (4)
● Asked if there was anything they would like to add ❏
to support their application
● Explained what are the next stages of the recruitment process ❏
● Thanks. ❏
Learning summary
Key strengths as an interviewer

OK
Key development areas
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10–31
10–32
Activity 11
Developing your
project team
Purpose
To introduce participants to the essential ingredients

required for effective teamwork.To enable them to
recognise and practise these ingredients and develop
an action plan to strengthen the performance of
11

Activity 11
Developing your
project team
How do I encourage an effective project
team spirit?
Purpose To introduce participants to the essential ingredients
required for effective teamwork.To enable them to
recognise and practise these ingredients and develop
an action plan to strengthen the performance of
Application This activity is appropriate for all who either work

in or lead project teams at work. It can be used in
any type of organisation and is not dependent on the
teams being of a particular size, specialism or
technology.
In addition to project management training it has

11
been used on a variety of general management
development events including: Leadership
Development – both indoors and on outdoor
adventure training;Team Development Awaydays and
Facilitation Skills for Managers,Trainers or
Consultants.
What happens You start the session with a general discussion which
focuses attention on what is a team and how teams
differ from other groups or collections of individuals.
You ask the participants to identify the characteristics

of effective teams they have been members of, and
then give them an opportunity to put their ideas into
practice with a stimulating and fun, practical
teamwork exercise.
You direct them to review their team’s performance

by introducing them to models of how teams learn
to develop and the three strands of activity they
need to look for.The teams present their review
findings and their ideas are compared with a popular
model for effective teamwork. 11–1
In the final part of the session you introduce them

to the four stages that teams progress through to
reach maturity.The participants compare their own
work teams with the model and devise plans to
progress through the stages.
In order to facilitate the transfer of learning back to

work they are encouraged to fill in their Learning
review diary which shows their plans for practical
application.
Time Overall time available: 3 hours 15 minutes.
● Characteristics of effective teams: 15 minutes
● Bridge over the River Wye: 1 hour
Briefing: 15 minutes
Planning: 30 minutes
Building: 15 minutes
● Review of teamwork exercise: 45 minutes
● Stages of team development: 45 minutes
Materials & ● I Flipchart master

resources 11.1 The Learning Cycle
● 4 OHT masters:
11.2 What is a team?
11.3 Three strands of team activity
11.4 Ingredients for successful teamwork
11.5 Stages of team development
11.6 Bridge over the River Wye
11.7 Key questions for working teams
11.8 Ingredients for successful teamwork

● OHT acetates
11–2

● The following items for each team participating in
the exercise:
1 x 500 ml can of beer
1 x pint glass or jug
12 x 2 metre bamboo canes
1 x roll of parcel string
1 x reel of cotton
4 x plastic cups
1 x box paper clips
1 x box rubber bands
1 x roll Sellotape®
1 x scissors
1 x small Stanley® knife
1 x expanding metal tape
In preparation You will need to prepare two flipchart sheets:

1. Different types of group (see suggestions below)
2. Learning Cycle (see Flipchart master 11.1 The
Learning Cycle).
11

Start the session by revealing a prepared flipchart on
which you have listed a range of different types of
group, for example:
Manchester United football team*
A church congregation
Your poker school
The ‘Big Brother’ House*
A crowd at a bus stop
The church choir *
A classroom of pupils
The British Lions rugby team *
(Add ideas to the list based on your own and your
participants’ backgrounds and interests.)
Inform the participants’ that some of these groups

can be classified as teams, whilst others cannot. Ask
them to tell you which they would pick. Lead a brief
discussion exploring their reasons.
11–3
Point out that the groups on the list marked *

would all qualify as they conform to the common
definition of a team.
Show OHT 11.2

What is a team?
Discuss this definition with the group, paying

particular attention to each phase.
‘A number of people’ – A team must consist of more

than one, but there is no conclusive definition that
states there should be any optimum number.The
appropriate number of people will depend on the
complexity of the task or objective.What many
teams have is sub-teams who are performing their
own group of tasks for the benefit of the larger
team.
‘Complementary skills’ – This produces a blend of

individual talents which when added together can be
greater than the sum of the individual parts.This is a
phenomenon known as ‘synergy’.
‘United to achieve a common goal’ – What

distinguishes a team from a crowd or other
gathering of people is that they are all focused on
achieving a common purpose.
Point out that one of the benefits a project team

has over more routine everyday work is that the
project has a clearly defined goal to aim at. In this
respect it has many of the similarities of a football
team going for the Championship or an athlete
going for gold at the Olympics.
‘Mutually accountable’ – Each member of the team

feels equally committed to the team’s success and
considers themselves mutually accountable for any
failure.This will apply even when their overall
contribution is a minor one.
11–4
Point out that this last point often proves to be the

most crucial factor in effective teamworking.
Without the wholehearted, almost selfless
commitment of the individual members, the team’s
efforts may fail.

activity.
CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFECTIVE TEAMS

Ask the participants to spend a few minutes thinking
about groups they are (or have been) members of
that qualify as teams from our definition.Tell them
to write a list of these teams and then make a note
of some of the common factors they experienced
which help to determine their team’s success (the
plus factors) or failure (the minus factors).
When they have finished, divide the participants into

groups of about six. Allocate each to a separate area
and ask them to spend the first 10 minutes of the
next phase discussing their notes and writing a list
11
of the most common factors on the flipchart paper
provided.
Get them under way. Check occasionally that they

are still focused on the task.
Tell them that when they are satisfied with their list
they should fix it on a wall where it can be seen by
all the group as they work on the next phase.This
phase will be a team exercise which will give them
the opportunity to try out the factors on their list.
After 10 minutes, check that they have completed

this task and then ask each group to nominate one
member to return to the main room to be briefed
on the next phase.
11–5
BRIDGE OVER THE RIVER WYE

When you have a representative from each group
start your briefing verbally. Don’t give them a copy
of the brief unless they ask for it, as clarity of
communication can be a key teaching point for
teamworking.

Bridge over the River Wye
TRAINER’S TIP
It’s a good idea to have extra supplies of beer

available.This can be used to top-up supplies
during the preparation time if there is an
accidental spillage. Any left over can be used in a
post-activity celebration.
When you have answered their questions, get the

activity under way. Don’t wander around the groups.
The instructions clearly stated that they should
come to you with questions. If you have to disqualify
an attempt because they have broken the ground
rules then that will be a valuable learning
experience.Take care, however, that you are open-
minded and allow any creative solutions that fall
within their remit.
Tell them when they have 5 minutes left of the

planning time, and then call a halt after exactly
30 minutes. Reconvene the teams at the ‘building
area’.This could be any suitable room of sufficient
size, preferably with a wipeable surface.
(Alternatively the exercise can be run out of doors
in such areas as a car park, tennis court or lawn.)
The river is represented by fixing two lengths of
Sellotape® 4 metres apart. Point out that these
represent the river bank, and remind the
participants that they may build up to the edge of
the bank but no equipment can stand in the river.
11–6
Check that all items have been dis-assembled from

the preparation phase and when both teams are
ready get them under way.
Move between the teams and check that they are

keeping within the constraints. Don’t make any
suggestions on how they can improve their
performance or get out of any difficulties at this stage.
Call a halt after 15 minutes (record the precise

completion time if the teams finish earlier). Measure
the beer, record the finish time and declare a
winner. (Don’t let them drink the beer yet – keep it
until the end of the session when all the activities
have finished.)
REVIEW OF TEAMWORK EXERCISE

When you have finished, address the whole group.
Tell them that one of the characteristics of effective
teams is that they review their progress, towards
their goal and take stock of how they are working
as a team.
11
Whilst many teams will do this after failure, it is
equally important to do so after success. Point out
that this involves them in going around the well
established learning cycle.
Show prepared Flipchart 11.1

The Learning Cycle
Point out that this is a simple technique they can

use both as individual team members and as a whole
team to enable them to grow in confidence and aim
for continuous improvement.
This model can be used in conjunction with another

on how effective teams work.
Show OHT 11.3

Three strands of team activity
11–7
Discuss the OHT with the group. Inform them that

the most successful teams are those who pay
attention to all three strands simultaneously during
any activity.
Content: This is concerned with the task in hand

and revolves around issues that directly relate to the
problem or project. Most teams spend a lot of time
talking about the content.Typical examples from the
last exercise would be about issues such as what
type of structure they will use to bridge the river.
Structure: This is concerned with the stages the

team goes through to complete the task. It covers
the issues involved in how they are going to
organise themselves to carry out the project.Typical
examples would include developing a time schedule,
allocating roles and nominating a leader to co-
ordinate. Many teams discuss this for the building
phase but it is often overlooked during the planning
phase – usually to their detriment.
Process: This is concerned with how the group

interact with each other as they work through the
task in hand. It covers the key interpersonal skills
for building team-spirit. Most groups pay little
attention to their process issues until they start
interfering with the team’s overall effectiveness – by
which time it may be too late to repair the damage.
Typical examples are one person dominating the
group, sulking, sub-groups doing their own thing, lack
of open communication, etc.
Tell the participants that when considering how well

they have performed you are less interested in the
content issues (what sort of set-up was used to get
the beer across the river) but are more interested
in how they worked together as a team to address
the structure and process issues.To help them
review these aspects they will find the next handout
useful.

Key questions for working teams
11–8
Point out that the discussion stimulated by this list

of questions about how well they operated as a
group, is even more important than winning the
competition.They may have succeeded in their task
but at what cost to effective and harmonious
teamwork?
Ask the teams to return to their groups to consider

the questions you have provided.Tell them they have
15 minutes to discuss and report back on the
following:
1. What did we do well?

2. What was less effective or missed out
completely?
3. What do we now consider to be the essential
ingredients for effective teamworking?
Issue them with sheets of blank acetate and some

suitable marker pens to help them record their
answers, and get them under way.
Move between the groups to make sure they are on

11
track. Remind them to keep focused – you are less
interested in the content of their bridge building
activity than their operating structure and group
processes.
Review their conclusions

After 15 minutes check that both teams have finished.
Reconvene into the large group and ask one of the
teams to go first and lead the plenary review.Ask
them to relate their comments to specific instances
from the recent activity.When they have finished, ask
the other team to present their findings.
Now lead a discussion on the similarities in the

items they have listed for effective teamworking.
It is important that each group feels committed to
its own list, but point out that they should always be
interested to learn from others, which includes their
opponents.
You will probably find a number of similar items

appearing on both teams’ lists.Tell the group that
11–9
there has been a great deal of research into this

area.The general conclusions indicate that certain
key points are present in effective teams.
Show OHT 11.4

Ingredients for successful teamwork
Talk through the points and then issue the handout

to reinforce the points.

Ingredients for successful teamwork
Encourage participants to add any items from the

other team’s list or from your handout which they
consider appropriate for their own project teams.
STAGES OF TEAM DEVELOPMENT

Point out that project teams rarely become effective
overnight.They usually go through various stages of
development. Four distinct stages have been
identified.
Show OHT 11.5

Stages of team development
Discuss each of the four stages.
Stage one – forming

At this stage the group are still a collection of
individuals. Ask the participants to recall how they
felt at the start of this training event. During this
stage individuals are coming to terms with what
behaviours are acceptable as each attempts to
manage the transition to being a team member.
Ask the participants to identify typical behaviours

they can identify from this stage.Write their
suggestions on a flipchart.They will probably include:
11–10
● participation is spasmodic and often hesitant

● discussions focus on peripheral symptoms or
problems rather than central issues
● members stick to safe ground and use tried and
tested remedies
● the ‘organisation’ usually becomes the focus of
any complaints, not the team itself
● there is suspicion and anxiety about the new
situation
● people are not open about their feelings
● minimal and often low-quality work is
accomplished
● members are looking for a sense of belonging.
Stage two – storming

The next stage follows when teams are better
acquainted and the thin veneer of civilisation starts
to wear off.This stage is marked by conflict in which
team members become hostile and challenge ideas.
A lot of personal agendas come to the surface and a
certain amount of interpersonal hostility is
inevitable. 11
Again chart participants’ suggestions on typical
behaviours during this stage.They should include:
● disunity, tension and jealousy

● polarisation of team members into cliques
● confusion about boundaries of members’ roles
● infighting, defensiveness and competition within
the team
● point-scoring and put-downs
● setting unrealistic goals and then criticising others
for not achieving them
● resistance to the team’s needs because they clash
with personal needs
● certain members try to establish a pecking order
in which they are ‘top dog’.
Point out that many teams can fall apart at this

stage, but, if handled well it can be turned around to
a new and more realistic setting of norms and goals
for the team.This stage is called ‘norming’.
11–11
Stage three – norming

The team will be ready to move on when they
become frustrated with the atmosphere and lack of
progress of Stage two.They will endeavour to
establish workable team rules and practices.These
will include how the team should work together and
what sort of behaviours it expects from its
members. At this stage there will need to be some
experimentation to find out what works.The team
will need encouragement and reassurance as they
attempt to move forward.Typical behaviours you
can expect to chart here will include:
● patching up previously conflicting relationships

● attempts to achieve harmony and manage conflict
● developing intimacy by sharing personal concerns
● objective reviews of team performance
● expressing of own feelings more skilfully and
constructively
● establishing and maintaining team boundaries
● greater participation and genuine listening
● the development of a cohesive team spirit.
Point out that as the last point starts to emerge, the

group will start to develop towards maturity and be
fully productive.This is called ‘performing’.
Stage four – performing

At this stage the team becomes self-determining.
It will be capable of diagnosing and resolving both
technical and emotional problems. It should be able
to make informed decisions about difficult issues
and a great deal of highly productive work is
accomplished.Typical behaviours your participants
may have seen will include:
● a well-developed insight into their own behaviour

and that of other team members
● constructive feedback given and received
● resourceful, creative and effective problem solving
● differences of opinion seen as constructive, not a
personal attack
● close and supportive of each other and the team
● wholehearted commitment to achieving the
common goal
11–12
● great confidence in themselves and in how the

team operates.
Ask the participants to identify at which stage of

development are their current teams at work.
Check with the group, by show of hands, how many
rate their teams in each category. Allocate the
participants into small groups. Ideally you should
have one participant in each group who is currently
experiencing each stage.
Ask that participant to explain the reasons behind

their rating to their group. Ask the other members
to help them identify some key actions each
member could take to help them move their project
team to the next stage.Tell them they have
20 minutes for this exercise.
When they have finished, reconvene and lead a

plenary review.Taking a stage at a time, list their
ideas for action on a flipchart.Typical examples
should include: 11
Stage one – forming
● Make sure team members get acquainted
● Be sensitive to their needs
● Provide clear direction and information
● Provide information on how teams work together
● Start to openly discuss establishing a contract for
how people should behave in the team.
Stage two – storming

● Continue to be positive and supportive
● Provide information on the task, and constraints
● Reassure the team that current conflict is normal
● Deal openly with conflict
● Arrange training on team building
● Debate risky issues and chair meetings effectively
● Listen actively and give constructive feedback
● Be sure to act as a good role model
● Delegate and give the team greater responsibility
for its own actions.
11–13
Stage three – norming

● Give the team even more responsibility
● Provide less structure as team matures
● Make sure that the team does not become over
reliant on your expertise

● Share your own doubts and weaknesses
● Continue to provide more coaching and training
in teamworking skills
● Give constructive feedback reflecting the team’s
and individuals’ progress to date.
Stage four – performing

● Encourage team to take greater responsibility for
its own development

● Continue to train and coach individual members
● Reduce involvement as team grows and matures
● Delegate and give recognition for team’s
achievements
● Make the group aware of any dysfunctional
behaviours, for example, ‘group-think’

● Make sure that the team celebrates its success.
LEARNING REVIEW
work.They should note these points are in their
When they have finished, lead a brief review by

asking for some examples of the key things people
will take away and try to implement.
When everyone who wants to contribute has had

the opportunity, thank them for all their work.
Close the session and open the beer!
11–14
TRAINER’S TIP
Before asking the participants to do them, always

try out exercises yourself.This will give you added
credibility and an insight into the problems you
are posing the teams.
If you want to find out more about the behaviour

of teams we can recommend ‘Development
sequences in small groups’ by B.W.Tuckman in
Psychological Bulletin, Volume 63, 1965, in which he
introduced the idea of the four stages of group
development which were adapted for use in this
activity.
11
11–15
11–16
The Learning Cycle

11.1
STAGE ONE
Having an
experience
STAGE FOUR STAGE TWO

Planning what Reviewing
to do (differently) the event
next time
11
STAGE THREE
Drawing
conclusions from
what happened
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11–17
What is a team?
11.2
A team is a number of people

with complementary skills,
who are united in achieving
a common goal for which
they are mutually
accountable.
OK
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11–18
Three strands of
11.3
team activity
CONTENT
STRUCTURE
11
PROCESS
OK
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11–19
Ingredients for
11.4
successful teamwork
PURPOSE
TIME PLANNING
PREPARATION
UNDERSTANDING
FOCUS
PARTICIPATION
CREATIVITY
ANALYSIS
CONFLICT
REFLECT
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11–20
Stages of team
11.5
development
Stage one – Forming
Stage two – Storming
Stage three – Norming
Stage four – Performing 11
OK
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11–21

11.6
Your team are part of a group who are on a trek through the
Welsh Mountains during the early spring.
One of the highlights of the week is the end-of-trek campfire; an evening of

songs, stories, laughter and much eating and drinking.You and your team
have been challenged to bring back a large supply of beer to enable the
evening to go with a swing.The trek co-ordinator thought it would be an
interesting exercise to set the same task to two separate teams.This has
the advantage of providing some stimulating competition – and making sure
that at least some beer gets back to camp.
You are currently making your way back to the campsite carrying your
precious supplies when you come across an obstacle.
The wooden bridge you have planned to cross on your return journey is
swaying under the impact of one of the many flash floods they have here in
the spring.You will have sufficient time to get some of your team over
before the bridge collapses but it is not strong enough for them to take the
beer with them. Unfortunately the river banks are too far apart to be able
to throw articles across.
You want to rise to the challenge to beat the other team and make sure
your comrades at the campfire get their drinks on time.This is the only
direct footpath available, the alternative route will take too long and there
is no guarantee that it will be open in these weather conditions.
Fortunately, from a nearby allotment you have been able to find some
materials that you can use to help achieve your task.The materials you have
available are:
1 x 500 ml can of beer (open)

1 x pint glass or jug
12 x 2 metre bamboo canes
1 x roll of parcel string
1 x reel of cotton
OK 4 x plastic cups
TO
Continued …
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11–22

11.6
… continued
1 x box paper clips

1 x box rubber bands
1 x roll Sellotape®
1 x scissors
1 x small Stanley knife
1 x expanding metal tape
Constraints
Please remember you have the following constraints:
● The banks of the river are 4 metres apart

● Once your team members have crossed the river they cannot return
● No items of equipment may be thrown across the river once building
has started
● Whatever set-up of equipment is used, it must be free-standing
11
● No team member may enter the river once the building has started
● You may build up to the edge of the bank but no equipment can stand in
the river
● Equipment dropped into the river is irretrievable unless a retaining rope
is attached
● All the equipment must be used
● No equipment can be pre-built during the planning phase for subsequent
use on the crossing
● No equipment other than what is supplied can be used
● The umpire’s judgement on what is permissible is final.
You have the next 30 minutes to plan the task and then 15 minutes to
execute your plan.The competition will be won by the team who gets the
most beer across the river in the allotted time. If both teams get the same
amount across, the team that finishes first will win.
Please remember that I am here to answer any questions you may have at
any time. My decisions will be consistent and final. Are there any points you
want me to clarify at this stage?
Good luck and may the best team win. OK

TO
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11–23
Key questions for

11.7
working teams
● Did the team set realistic goals?
● Was there agreement and commitment to these goals?
● Was all the information made available to the group?
● Did they get beneath the surface issues in discussion?
● Was maximum use made of both individual and combined team skills and
resources?
● Did the team’s climate encourage collaboration rather than competition

between team members?
● Were individuals free to express their true feelings and emotions during
the activity?
● Did they deal with emotional as well as intellectual disagreements?
● Were they aware of how well they were functioning as a team?
● Did they relate to the points they had listed earlier which identified key
teamworking issues?
● What steps did they take to correct any ineffective behaviour as it was
occurring?
OK
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11–24
Ingredients for
11.8
successful teamwork
Purpose Know what your goals are.
Communicate those goals clearly to everyone.
Have a clear plan of action.
Time planning Schedule time to discuss important issues.

Discourage time wasting.
Keep your time productive.
Preparation Allow time for preparation.

Know what you are attempting to do.
Try it out and revise where necessary.
Understanding Make certain everyone knows what is happening.

Clarify each individual’s role.
Ensure two-way communication between the
11
team members and the leader.
Ask them to raise issues and concerns.
Listen and show you understand.
Focus Keep the group on track.

Avoid red herrings.
Stick to your agenda.
Be alert to going over the same ground
needlessly.
Participation Encourage all to participate.

Use the full range of skills and resources
within the team.
Keep the vocal from overtalking the quiet
members.
Creativity Stimulate ideas and team creativity.

Build on others’ ideas.
Explore all possibilities.
Record all suggestions on flipcharts.
OK
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Continued …
11–25
Ingredients for
11.8
successful teamwork
… continued
Analysis Sift out unworkable ideas.

Decide on the most suitable approach given
the circumstances.
Make everyone part of the solution.
Check to see in what ways it could fail.
Conflict Encourage disagreement on technical issues.

Don’t allow arguments to become personal.
Resolve conflicts, don’t allow them to fester.
Use conflicts of opinion to generate creative
solutions.
Compromise if it is the best solution for the
project in hand.
Always aim for a win–win outcome.
Reflect Look back at what you have done.

Encourage individual and team review.
Learn from both your mistakes and successes.
Celebrate your growing maturity as a team.
OK
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11–26
Activity 12
Project leadership
style
Purpose
To make participants aware of the key differences

between management and leadership.To introduce
them to the essential ingredients for developing an
effective leadership style.To give them the
opportunity to rate their current levels of
leadership and to identify ways they can build on
and develop these qualities.
12

Activity 12
Project leadership
style
How do I develop an effective project
leadership style?
Purpose To make participants aware of the key differences
between management and leadership.To introduce
them to the essential ingredients for developing an
effective leadership style.To give them the
opportunity to rate their current levels of leadership
and to identify ways they can build on and develop
these qualities.
Application This activity should be used on any training

programme that aims at developing the all round
skills of a project manager. It offers flexibility as to
when it is introduced being equally applicable to the
beginning, middle or concluding stages of the training
programme. 12
The activity covers many attributes that are
common to all leaders regardless of discipline,
organisation or sector. It can therefore be applied to
training events where the focus is on developing:
senior or middle managers; team leaders;
organisational development; managing change; or
performance appraisal.
What happens You start the session with a brainstorming session

which uses word association to identify attributes of
managers and leaders and the identity of people
who fit these profiles.
Having discussed what is meant by leadership and

how it differs from management, you introduce the
concept of styles of leadership.The participants have
the opportunity to rate their dominant style and
discuss their rating with a partner.
You next introduce the group to the three main

forces that affect the choice of a leadership style, 12–1
and give them an opportunity to relate these to

examples of their own teamwork.
During the final activities in the session you

introduce the factors that are involved in effective
leadership. Following your discussion the
participants have an opportunity to assess their
leadership strengths and then review this rating with
a partner.
You close the session by giving them the

opportunity to review their learning and develop an
action plan for applying the key points to their
project teams back at their workplace. Participants
are encouraged to fill in their Learning review diary.
● Let’s define the terms: 15 minutes
● Styles of leadership: 30 minutes
● Choosing a leadership style: 20 minutes
● What’s involved in effective leadership: 15 minutes
● Assess your leadership strengths: 45 minutes
Materials & ● 7 OHT Masters:

resources 12.1 Management – definition
12.2 Leadership – definition
12.3 Continuum of leadership styles
12.4 Forces influencing leadership styles
12.5 What’s involved in effective leadership?
12.6 Groucho Marx anecdote
12.7 Different styles of leadership
12.8 Forces influencing leadership style
12.9 Team leader assessment sheet
(extra copies if you follow the Trainer’s tip
on page 12–15)

12–2

● Flipchart paper and coloured marker pens for
participants
● Tape, Blu-Tack® or pins
In preparation Before you start, place a flipchart stand in each

corner of the room. Make sure it is fitted with a
fresh pad and a set of suitable marker pens is
available. Draw a line down the middle of the paper
and label one column ‘Management’ and the other
‘Leadership’. Cover up the charts so that the
participants don’t think about these topics too early.
Also, draw a copy of OHT 12.3 Continuum of

leadership styles on a separate flipchart sheet,
for later use.

Inform the group that you are going to start the 12
session with a short word association test.
This is the type where, when a word is mentioned a
number of associations spring to mind.
For example:
Laurel Hardy
bacon eggs
Tell them that you want them to divide into four

groups – one for each flipchart.
When they are ready, ask them to turn over the

page to reveal the headings prepared earlier.Tell
them that they have 5 minutes to write up as many
words that spring to mind in association with these
two concepts.
Check that every participant has a pen and then get

them under way.
12–3
After 5 minutes have elapsed, tell them to stay by

their charts.They now have another 5 minutes to
write up the names of characters, based on either
fact or fiction, living or dead, whom they think
epitomise the words used in each column.
Call time after the 5 minutes and ask the groups to

stop writing. Ask them to move around the room
and look at the lists and names the other groups
have generated.
When they have finished, reconvene as a whole

group. Ask each group to bring their flipchart pages
with them and fix it at the front of the training
room so that all the sheets are clearly visible.
Look at the lists.You will probably find a broad

similarity between the groups, but there will be
some areas of overlap, where a term or person
appears in the management list for one group and in
the leadership list of another. Point out these
contrasts to the participants.Tell them that any such
clashes are to be expected because it is often
difficult to distinguish between the two and in
practice most project managers have to fulfil both
roles simultaneously.

activity.
LET’S DEFINE THE TERMS

Point out that over the years there have been a
number of attempts to define both management and
leadership, and to identify the qualities that are
involved in both.
The popular opinion is that ‘to manage’ comes from

the Latin manus which can be translated as ‘to take
something in hand’.This approach was adopted by
the French, whose word manège was applied to the
rigours of dressage exercises, taking a horse in hand,
controlling and instilling discipline and obedience.
This has led to a common definition of management.
12–4
Show OHT 12.1

Management – definition
Many ideas about management developed during the

Victorian era and are strongly based on the classical
military model of command and control.
Move around the flipcharts and highlight the number

of times words like these appear under the
management heading:
● planning
● organising
● directing
● controlling
● disciplining.
Management is about ensuring order and

predictability and will involve the project managers
in many useful aspects of work as they strive to get
the project completed on time. It is about
developing plans and allocating resources, preventing
things going wrong and exercising control over
people and processes.
12
Point out to the participants that these are all good
techniques for project managers to perfect, but they
will be greatly enhanced by developing complementary
leadership skills. Combining leadership and
management skills will greatly increase your chances of
completing your project successfully.
Inform them that the term ‘leadership’ is reputed to

come from an ancient Anglo-Saxon word which
means a road or a way ahead. Its common usage is
about giving a sense of purpose and direction.
Show OHT 12.2

Leadership – definition
Point out that the key difference between the two

approaches is that the team who are well led give
their services voluntarily.They will put in extra
effort, and be inspired to come up with creative
12–5
solutions, because they want to. People who are

being managed comply with their manager’s wishes
because they have to, even if they have very little
enthusiasm to carry those orders out.
Leadership does not produce order and predictability

like management; it is about creating a dynamic force
for creativity and change. It sets a direction and aims
to promote a positive outcome by empowering
people to do even more than their best.
Turn once again to the flipcharts and highlight some

of the terms that have been associated with modern
leadership:
● empowers
● facilitate
● energise
● guide
● communicate
● support.
When these characteristics are in place the team

will really respond well and strive to make the
project a success.
Point out that in the modern business world they

will probably have to combine the qualities of both
manager and leader.This will mean choosing an
appropriate leadership style.
Spend about 15 minutes on defining the terms.
STYLES OF LEADERSHIP
Point out that, as history has shown, there are
number of styles a leader can adopt.
Show OHT 12.3

Continuum of leadership styles
Explain to the participants that positions A, B and C

refer to the styles that research has shown typify
three common approaches of different types of
12–6
leaders.The diagram represents three major

components which reflect their style:
1. The amount of talking time used by both.

2. How power is used.
3. Who takes the decisions.
Describe the leader who tends to work from

position A, the Autocrat. Explain that this approach
is the leader-centred style. It is noticeable that they
are self-centred and allow the project team
members to contribute little.They can seem
overbearing and domineering in their approach.
Typically they act as judge and jury.They don’t listen

to their team’s views, and tell them how to behave.
If there are any difficulties such leaders state the
problem as they see it and impose their own
solution.Their underlying approach to problem-
solving seems to be summed up in the phrase ‘Don’t
confuse me with the facts, my mind’s made up!’ They
usually ride roughshod over everyone and
everything.They tend to see people as either for
them or against them and are ruthless in removing
people who are ‘not one of us’.
12
Look for some examples on the flipcharts of past
leaders who exemplify this approach. Unfortunately
there may be many. Examples could be Hitler, Stalin
or even Margaret Thatcher.
Ask the participants if this fixed pen picture reminds

them of anyone in their organisation, perhaps
themselves! Probe to discover how they feel about
working for an individual who constantly uses this
approach … ‘undervalued’, ‘resentful’, ‘treated like a
child’, ‘demotivated’ are typical responses.
How do they respond to this approach to

leadership? ‘With disagreement’, ‘compliance without
conviction’, ‘withdrawal of support’, even ‘direct
sabotage’ are frequent answers. Use their answers
to demonstrate that this approach discourages open
communication, perpetuates poor organisational
practices and saps self-confidence and self-
development. 12–7
In some situations, however, an autocratic approach

can be effective. Ask the group for some suggestions
of when this approach may be appropriate.They
could give as examples:
● an emergency when things have to be done

quickly
● where a complex task is being carried out
by an expert
● when the team is made up of junior and
inexperienced staff.
Point out that the problems arise when the project

leader adopts this approach for most of the time
with most of the staff, regardless of the situation.
Now turn to leader C, the Abdicrat. Explain that,

taken to extremes, this leader’s style is marked by
lack of involvement.They don’t seem interested in
any in-depth exploration of the problem, and are
likely to accept the first solution the project team
puts forward.They are poor at giving feedback or
direction and give the general impression that they
want to get the whole thing over with as soon as
possible.This is fine for the experienced employee
who knows the job inside out and who is mainly
concerned with obtaining approval to go ahead with
their original problem-solving idea. Unfortunately,
these leaders are often supreme buck-passers; team
members will quickly be blamed if solutions go
wrong and these leaders are also inclined to rapid
changes of mind if more senior managers go against
the ideas.
Again ask the group to identify individuals from their

flipcharts who portray these characteristics.There
may not be that many as these characters are often
not viewed as successful leaders, but examples could
include: Nero, Neville Chamberlain or John Major
(but point out that history may have been hard on
all three).
Ask participants how they feel about working for a

leader with this approach.They will probably
answer: …‘frustrated’, ‘uncertain’, ‘disillusioned’,
12–8
‘insecure’. Again use their responses to draw out the

effects of those feelings …‘uninvolved’, ‘wary’,
‘frustrated’ and ‘not committed’.
Ask if there are any circumstances when this

group-centred style can be effective.
Typical suggestions are:

● Team are self-directing and don’t need to be led
● A very expert group working to a clear plan
● It involves a straightforward, routine task with few
consequences for getting it wrong.
Now direct their attention to leader B, the

Democrat. Point out that this approach is marked
by considerable participation and involvement by
both parties in the process.The leader actively seeks
information about the problem situation, its causes
and effects.They guide, encourage and support the
team members to explore possible solutions.They
provide information based on their own experience
and fully value the input from their team.Their
approach could be described as that of a catalyst,
diagnostician or facilitator.When a decision is 12
reached it is arrived at through consensus and not
imposed on the team members.
Ask the participants who have experienced this

approach for their reactions.They will usually report
feeling valued, involved and challenged.
As a result their approach to the project was
enthusiastic, participative, committed.
Point out that this approach strengthens

relationships. Both benefit from the exchange,
and new ideas, approaches, and attitudes are
encouraged and developed.
Again ask the group to identify the individuals from

their list whom they feel have demonstrated this
approach.Typically these will include:
Nelson Mandela, John F. Kennedy, Jesus and possibly
Tony Blair.
12–9
Tell the participants that this approach embodies a

balanced style. It is an effective approach on most
projects. If handled skilfully, it encourages two-way
communication, invites active participation, encourages
positive and constructive approaches and encourages
the leader and the team to work together to assess
problems and identify appropriate solutions.

Different styles of leadership
Which style do you use most?

Use the flipchart copy of OHT 12.3 Continuum of
leadership styles, which you prepared earlier. Ask the
participants to give you their immediate reaction on
where they’d each place their dominant style. Make
a note, by writing their names or initials at the
appropriate spot on the chart. Ask them to spend
5 minutes in conversation with a partner discussing
the reasons behind their judgement.
Stop them after 5 minutes and ask them to reverse

roles to give the other person an opportunity to
talk about their style.
Allow about 30 minutes in total for this section on

styles of leadership.
CHOOSING A LEADERSHIP STYLE

Point out to the group that whatever you are
attempting to do as a leader is basically the same no
matter what your style.You are trying to achieve the
project’s goal in the most efficient, effective and
economical way possible.The success of the project
could depend on which approach you adopt. But as
we have just discussed, there are a number of forces
that will have an impact on the project leader’s
choice of style.
Show OHT 12.4

Forces influencing leadership style
12–10
Discuss the three circles model and issue the

handout to reinforce your discussion.

Forces influencing leadership style
The effective leader is one who is sensitive to the

various forces that should influence their behaviour
on a particular project.They should be able to
behave comfortably along the whole range of the
continuum and change their style to accommodate
the demands of the situation.
Ask the participants if they have ever felt frustrated

with a leader who continues to behave in a
particular way, even though it is obvious to all
concerned that a more effective and workable
approach is called for. Ask them to recall a time
when they adopted an approach to leading a team
that did not work.
Give them a further 5 minutes to discuss with a

partner how these factors have had an impact on 12
real project teams in which they have been involved.
When they have finished, ask for some volunteers to
briefly outline the forces and their impact on real
team behaviours.
Ask them what they would do differently as a result

of this experience.
Point out to the group that whilst the balanced style

is generally the most effective, there may be
occasions when moving to another style is
necessary to produce the results.
This part of the activity should take about

20 minutes.
12–11
WHAT’S INVOLVED IN EFFECTIVE

LEADERSHIP?
Inform the participants that in order to be an
effective leader you need to be able to
communicate.
Show OHT 12.5

What’s involved in effective leadership?
Discuss the items on the OHT, using examples

based on your own experience.
Communicate your attitude

Explain to the participants that three underlying
attitudes have been identified as a prerequisite of
success.
Show OHT 12.6

Groucho Marx anecdote
Tell the group that this humourous quote is not

meant to be taken seriously.
Point out that if the project leader is manipulative

and merely seen to be going through the motions of
consultation whilst their mind is already made up,
then an experienced team will quickly see that their
approach is not genuine.
Being genuine implies a basic straightness in the

leader.They do not play tricks, games or adopt false
roles. Being open and inspiring trust are two aspects
of this quality.
Respect means acceptance of team members as

individuals with a right to their own point of view,
whether the leader agrees with it or not.
Empathy is the ability to understand the situation

from the other person’s point of view; to put
themselves into the other’s shoes.The leader may
possess many technical skills but these are
worthless without the right attitudes.
12–12
In addition to these basic attitudes there are other

areas in which the team leader must excel.
Communicate your vision
Re-show OHT 12.2

Remind the group that our definition of a leader

requires people to want to follow them.
A compelling vision needs to be communicated in a
form with which people can identify.
Communicate by example
People believe very little of what you tell them.They
are much more convinced by what you do.There is
no point is adopting an approach which follows the
maxim ‘Don’t do as I do, do as I say’.The leader
needs to behave in the manner they want the team
members to behave.They have to act as a good role
model and project the vision and the values they are
putting forward.This will lead to our next point.
12
Communicate with confidence
You can only communicate with real confidence by
having a strong conviction of the rightness of work
the team is involved in; confidence in the approach
and values you are adopting; and confidence in your
own ability to lead the team.
The more confident the team leader is in their team

the higher the standards the team will set
themselves and the greater will be their eventual
success.
When the team leader shows the right attitudes, sets

a challenging vision, leads by example and
demonstrates confidence in the project, in themselves
and in their team, the result will be a highly effective
team with high morale.
Allow 15 minutes for this examination of effective

leadership.
12–13
ASSESS YOUR LEADERSHIP STRENGTHS

Team leader assessment sheet
Ask the participants to rate themselves as a team

leader using the five-point scale for each item.
Ask them to think of recent teams they have worked
with and rate themselves as they actually behaved and
not as they’d like others to think they behaved.
Tell the group that they have 5 minutes to rate their

abilities as team leaders using this form.
Tell them you then want them to break into pairs

and share their ratings with their partner.When
they are listening to their partner’s ratings they
should probe for clarification and evidence.
If appropriate they can give feedback on how they

see their partner in comparison with their
self-rating. Ask them to point out any inconsistency
between the ratings in this exercise and the ratings
displayed on the flipchart ‘Continuum of leadership
styles’ (pages 12–3 and 12–10).
Inform the group that they have 15 minutes each for

this activity.
Move around the group, answer any questions and

make sure they keep focused on the topic. Call time
after 15 minutes and ask them to change roles.This
will make sure that both partners get an equal
review time.
When the time has elapsed and the pairs have

finished, reconvene into the large group and lead a
plenary review. Ask for volunteers to briefly
describe both their ratings and any surprises or new
insights they gained from the paired discussions.
Allow a total of 45 minutes for this assessment of

leadership strength.
12–14
LEARNING REVIEW
When all who want to have contributed, ask the
participants to spend 15 minutes considering the
session as a whole and making a note in their
Learning review diary on the key points that have
emerged and how they may transpose these back to
work (see ‘How to use this resource’ page xii).
Answer any final questions they may have about the

content of the session.
When they have all finished thank them for their

contribution and close the session.
TRAINER’S TIP
An interesting follow-up to this exercise is to

issue each participant with a fresh Handout 12.9
Team leader assessment sheet. Point out that we
sometimes, unintentionally, fool ourselves, but it is
very difficult to fool our team. A trend in many
progressive organisations is to introduce upward 12
feedback and appraisal. Suggest to the participants
that it would be interesting to repeat the final
exercise when they are back at work with their
teams. Point out that this needs sensitive and
careful handling, but can often produce a new
insight into their approach to team leadership.
12–15
12–16
12.1
The efficient and effective

use of resources to achieve
results with and through
the efforts of other people.
12
OK
TO
Y
P
CO
12–17
12.2
Inspiring others to follow

your lead by creating a
compelling vision of
the future.
OK
TO
Y
P
CO
12–18
Continuum of leadership
12.3
styles
PROJECT TEAM
MEMBERS
PROJECT TEAM
LEADER
12
(– A –) (– B –) (– C –)
Autocrat Democrat Abdicrat
OK
TO
Y
P
CO
12–19
Forces influencing
12.4
leadership styles
Forces in
the leader
Forces in Forces in
the team the situation
OK
TO
Y
P
CO
12–20
What’s involved in
12.5
effective leadership?
Communicate your attitude
Communicate your vision
Communicate by example
Communicate with confidence
12
OK
TO
Y
P
CO
12–21
Groucho Marx anecdote

12.6
The secret of good leadership

is Genuineness, Respect and
Empathy.
When you can fake that

you’ve got it made.
OK
TO
Y
P
CO
12–22
Different styles of
12.7
leadership
A The Autocrat – a leader-centred style
● Task oriented
● Only one way of doing things
● Leader often feared by team members
● Constant supervision
● Interferes with others’ tasks
● Critical of team members
● No discussion on key issues
● Work allocated by leader
● Lack of creative thinking, problem-solving
● Low team morale and job satisfaction.
B The Democrat – a balanced style

● Discusses problems and involves the team
● Approachable leader
● Work practices left to the individual
● Joint problem-solving and decision-making

12
● All abilities and potential used
● Creative thinking flourishes
● Work done well and effectively with little supervision
● Combines concern for task with concern for people
● People feel as if they are valued
● High team morale and job satisfaction.
C The Abdicrat – the group-centred style

● Inconsistent leadership
● Team members left to fend for themselves
● Leader difficult to pin down
● A blame and pass-the-buck culture
● Leader not trusted by the group
● Concerned about self rather than task or people
● Work not co-ordinated or completed
● Leader seen as irresponsible
● Little consultation or decision making
● Relies heavily on formal bureaucratic channels of communication
● Low team morale and job satisfaction. OK

TO
Y
P
CO
12–23
Forces influencing
12.8
leadership style
Forces in the leader
● Past leadership role models
● Views of authority and position
● Comfort with the different styles
● Experience of the different styles
● Their system of values
● Tolerance of ambiguity and uncertainty
● Assessment of own ability
● Assessment of team’s competence.
Forces in the team

● Experience of leadership styles
● Need for dependency or independence
● Readiness to assume responsibility
● Knowledge and experience of tasks involved
● Interest in the project
● Extent to which they identify with the goals of the rest of the
project team
● Expectations of work style and satisfactions
● Tolerance for ambiguity and uncertainty.
Forces in the situation

● Predominant leadership style in organisation
● Type of team: size, level of experience and qualifications
● Complexity of the task
● Pressures of time and cost
● Degree of flexibility about how project is carried out
● Certainty of outcome.
OK
TO
Y
P
CO
12–24
Team leader
12.9
assessment sheet
1. The goals I set for my team are:
very challenging not at all challenging
1 2 3 4 5
2. My team can always look to my behaviour as an example:

always rarely
1 2 3 4 5
3. My team know I have full confidence in them:

always rarely
1 2 3 4 5
12
4. My team perform to a high standard:
always rarely
1 2 3 4 5
5. My team share my vision of the way we should work together:

always rarely
1 2 3 4 5
6. Morale in my team is:

high low
1 2 3 4 5
OK
TO
Continued …
P
CO
12–25
Team leader
12.9
… continued
assessment sheet
7. Each member of my team knows what is expected of them:
always rarely
1 2 3 4 5
8. I know what is important to my individual team members:

all of them none of them
1 2 3 4 5
9. I give feedback and recognise good work:

always rarely
1 2 3 4 5
10. My team trust me:

always rarely
1 2 3 4 5
OK
TO
Y
P
CO
12–26
Activity 13
Motivating your
project team
Purpose
To enable participants to understand what is

involved in motivating individuals in a project team.
To help them establish what methods they are
currently using at work and to assist them in
developing action plans to increase future
motivation and job satisfaction.
13

Activity 13
Motivating your
project team
How can I get my project team to work
hard and effectively?
Purpose To enable participants to understand what is
involved in motivating individuals in a project team.
To help them establish what methods they are
currently using at work and to assist them in
developing action plans to increase future
motivation and job satisfaction.
Application This activity can be used at all training events that

are designed to improve the skills of the project
manager. It may be easily adapted for wider use on
any team or leader development programmes,
management development and self-development
courses.
This activity can stand alone and need not be linked

to any other activity in this pack. 13
What happens You start the activity by asking the participants why
they work, establishing that money is one of the
most popular reasons given.You then go on to
explore why we want the money (because it helps
us satisfy a number of psychological and physical
needs).
You review the cycle of motivation and introduce

the participants to the views of three leading
motivational theorists (Maslow, Herzberg and
Adams) which cast doubt on managers using only
money as their main motivational tool.
The theories are used to explore other motivational

factors and the group establish an individual action
plan they can use to motivate either their individual
team members or the whole project team.
13–1
You conclude the session by facilitating a learning

review during which the participants identify the key
points from the session and how they will apply
them back at work.They are encouraged to fill in
their Learning review diary.
● Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: 1 hour
● What about money?: 20 minutes
● Motivating individual team members:
Option one: 1 hour
Option two: 1 hour

resources 13.1 The cycle of motivation
13.2 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
13.3 Herzberg’s Two-factor Theory of Motivation
13.4 How do we apply Maslow’s Hierarchy?
13.5 Motivating my project team

participants
In preparation You will need to prepare a flipchart sheet with the

heading ‘Why work?’ for the introductory part of
the activity.
13–2

Start the session off by revealing a prepared flipchart
which shows a large heading ‘Why work?’
Ask the participants to call out some of the reasons

why they work.Write all their suggestions on the
flipchart.
Stop when you have a good variety. Now highlight

the word ‘money’ (this will probably be the first
reason offered).Ask the group why they want
money. Participants will usually identify that they
want the money to spend on a variety of things
including: food, drink, mortgage, a car, holidays, sports
and social clubs, hobbies and interests, and so on.
Point out that as they have demonstrated from their

list, apart from Midas, misers and coin collectors,
most people are interested in money because of
what it can do for them.
Economists classify money as ‘a common means

of exchange acceptable in payment for goods
and services and the settlement of debt’, but
in this session we will look at money from the 13
viewpoint of motivation. Does it inspire us to work
harder, to give that extra effort?
Tell the group that one of the main reasons we

pursue money is that we can use it to satisfy our
needs.
Show OHT 13.1

The cycle of motivation
Explain the cycle to the group. Many psychologists

who have studied the complex area of motivation
have identified that an individual’s needs act as an
impetus to create the effort required for
performance.The goal of this performance is to
achieve rewards which in turn lead to the
satisfaction of those needs.

13–3
MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS

Inform the participants that Abraham Maslow’s
Hierarchy of Needs has had a strong influence on
motivation theory. He suggested that we have
different levels of needs arranged in a hierarchy.
Individuals progress up to the next level when they
have satisfied the lower-order needs.
Show OHT 13.2

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Briefly describe to the group what Maslow meant by

these terms:
Physical: the need for food, drink, air, and body

warmth, and so on.
Safety: the need for security and protection,

freedom from threats from the environment, animals
or other people.
Social: the need to belong, for friendship, affection

and other positive relationships with people.
Esteem: the need for a sense of worth based on

the recognition of others, for prestige and status.
Self-actualisation: the need for personal growth,

for developing your capability to the fullest
potential.
Maslow states that the first two sets of needs are

essential to human existence. If they are not
satisfied, we die. If they are under threat, then
individuals will usually concentrate on satisfying
those needs to the exclusion of the rest.
A need does not become an effective motivator

until the needs below it are satisfied. Once satisfied,
the need ceases to be a motivator and the individual
moves on to seek satisfaction at the next level until
that is also satiated. If, for example, you feel well-fed
and safe, you cease to be preoccupied with food and
shelter, but once these are threatened or you are
deprived of them they become dominant again.
13–4
To illustrate this point, ask the group if any of them

have been threatened by redundancy in their career.
Point out that one of the underlying fears triggered
(by redundancy) is that we will lose our homes and
may not be able to adequately feed ourselves or our
family.
Maslow did point out, however, that the experiences

of past success or failure in trying to satisfy a need
can affect an individual’s thinking so that their
behaviour becomes fixed on satisfying that level
above all the others.This explains why some people
get ‘hooked’ on security or prestige, even when it
seems apparent to others that they are adequately
covered at that level.
He also proposes that the experience of

self-actualisation does not get satiated, but
stimulates the desire for more. Because this level
cannot be satisfied in the way that other needs can,
it is the level usually identified for long-lasting and
effective motivation of people at work.

How do we apply Maslow’s Hierarchy?
13
Tell the group that you want them to make notes on
their own ideas for 5 minutes and then work in
small groups to share and build on those ideas.
Divide the participants into small groups. Provide

each with flipchart paper and suitable marker pens.
Tell them that they have 20 minutes to collectively
identify the items they currently use to meet needs
at each level.
When the time is up, reconvene and lead a plenary

review for about 15 minutes. Either ask for
contributions from each group in turn, or
alternatively ask a separate group to lead on each
level, the other groups contributing until all ideas
have been exhausted.
Typical suggestions you can expect will cover such

areas as the following:
13–5
Physical
● good working conditions
● attractive wage or salary
● subsidised housing
● drinks machine
● subsidised canteen
● luncheon vouchers.
Safety
● safe working environment
● health and safety committee
● training in safety issues
● many first-aiders
● on-site clinic
● private health scheme
● pension scheme
● a no-redundancy policy.
Social
● sports and social clubs
● regular works outings
● encouraging staff to take tea breaks together
● leaving ceremonies
● inviting back those who have left
● open, regular communication
● chatty items in company newspaper.
Esteem
● promotion from within
● prestigious job titles
● employee-of-the-month awards
● photographs in company newspaper
● positive feedback of results
● congratulations for a job well done
● meetings to celebrate success.
Self-actualisation
● challenging assignments
● discretion over how work is done
● self-managing teams
● collaborative goal setting
● encouraging creativity
● release to study for professional diplomas
● accountability for own business unit
● training in new skills
● opportunity to take risks.
13–6
This work on Maslow’s theory should take about

1 hour in total.
WHAT ABOUT MONEY?

‘Money can’t buy you love – but it sure helps’
Anon
Re-show OHT 13.2

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Ask the group: ‘Which of the various needs does the

pursuit of money fulfil?’
They should answer along the lines that as a means

to an end it can help satisfy all levels of the
hierarchy.
Point out that over-reliance on money as a

motivator can lead to project leaders finding that
they are increasing their budgets, but not getting any
enduring boost to performance. Money is often used
as a substitute by managers because what really
motivates sustained performance is more difficult to
pin down. 13
Ask how many are inspired by the arrival of their
monthly salary to pull out all the stops. Usually, very
few participants will admit to this being a great
motivator.We are more likely to think of our
pay cheque as an entitlement rather than as a
reward.
One reason for this can be explained by looking at

the work of Frederick Herzberg. Salary was one of
his ‘Hygiene Factors’.
Show OHT 13.3

Herzberg’s Two-factor Theory of Motivation
Cover up the Motivators so that only the Hygiene

Factors are displayed.
13–7
Herzberg identified that there are aspects of work

which make us feel dissatisfied if they are not there,
or if they are going wrong and interfering with our
everyday work. Because we otherwise take them for
granted we do not attach importance unless we are
deprived of them. Herzberg called these ‘Hygiene
Factors’ because they help prevent dissatisfaction
but in themselves never provide real motivation.
Draw the participants’ attention to salary on the

OHT. Point out that it may initially have attracted
you to the job but most people soon start to take
it for granted. It will, however, cause you
dissatisfaction if your finance department contacts
you to say they are paying you late this month, or
the Chief Executive announces an intention to cut
your pay.
Is it equitable?
Another factor that can affect your view of your
salary can be found in the approach of another
motivational theorist, J. S. Adams. In his work he has
identified the ‘Equity Theory of Motivation’, and
salary is often a prime dissatisfier here also.
Adams pointed out that we frequently compare

ourselves with other people, for example, with
others doing the same type of work, or who have
the same level of skills, qualifications and experience.
If another member of the organisation you consider
as an equal gets a bigger salary rise, you will not
focus on your own increase of £500 but will instead
focus on their increase of £750.You may well
become more frustrated by what you see as ‘minus
£250’ than motivated by the initial ‘plus £500’.
If you find that compared with others you seem to

be losing out, you are experiencing what Adams calls
‘inequity’.
Adams’ approach looks at how people compare

themselves not only with others but with their own
situation at another time.You may compare the work
that you do now with what you did a year ago, and
wonder if you are not being adequately rewarded for
13–8
the extra effort you are putting in.Again the result is

dissatisfaction which could lead to grumbling about
your pay, looking for a new job, withdrawal of
co-operation or restricting your output and
involvement to what you consider to be a fair level.
If, however, you feel the work you do and the

rewards you get for it are comparable both with
what you used to do, and with the efforts and
rewards paid to others, you will experience what
Adams calls ‘a feeling of equity’.You are likely to be
satisfied with your situation, and whatever is
currently providing your motivation to work will
continue to do so. But point out to the group that
this status quo may still motivate you to work even
harder and perform more productively.
Motivational factors
Tell the group that to really motivate their project
team they need to recognise that there are other
aspects of work which should be present because
they add something extra to the job. Herzberg called
these ‘Motivators’; they coincide with Maslow’s
higher needs of Self-actualisation and
Self-esteem.
13
They come directly from the work itself and result
from the individuals concerned being responsible,
thinking for themselves and striving to realise their
full potential.
Re-show OHT 13.2

Herzberg’s Two-factor Theory of Motivation
This time uncover the second half of the OHT so

that the whole of the diagram is visible.
Ask the group to compare their suggestions in the

‘Hierarchy’ exercise with Herzberg’s Motivators.
They will quickly spot the similarity between the
OHT and their own ideas for the higher-level
motivators.
This work on money should take about 20 minutes

in total. 13–9
MOTIVATING INDIVIDUAL TEAM

MEMBERS
Point out that one of the problems with
motivational theories is that people treat them as a
panacea to cure all ills.They give a good general
picture but will not have the desired effect if you
start applying them universally.
Motivation is individual and complex.What

motivates one person will not motivate another.
As we have seen, an individual’s motivation changes
over time. It will also be subject to the influences
that occur outside work. For example, the
acquisition of a new family, or the change in personal
circumstances when children leave home, can have a
profound effect.
Many people use work as a means to an end and

find their real motivation comes outside work.
It can be hard to motivate someone to stay behind
at work when Tuesday night is their yoga class, or to
work at weekends when they always do a soup-run
for the homeless.
Point out that you need to get to know your staff

and find out what motivates each of them. In the
examples above, for instance, they could be motivated
by extra time off to pursue their outside interests.
No single prescription can help you motivate all

your team. One effective method is to ask them.
If you have created an open, supportive and trusting
environment they may tell you. But remember you
have got to keep on working at it so that the
motivators remain fresh.
TRAINER’S TIPS
At this stage you have two options.Which one

you choose could depend on whether or not the
participants in the training group are all members
of the same team. If you are working with a
‘stranger’ group, try option one. Use option two if
you are working with a real team.
13–10
Option one

Motivating my project team
Ask the group to work on their own to identify

steps they can take to motivate all the individual
members of their team. After about 10 minutes
(depending on the size of the teams they lead, you
may want to give them more time), ask them to
work in groups of three.They then have a further
10 minutes each (30 minutes in total), during which
they share their ideas with the other members of
their group and explore what practical steps they
can take to deliver these motivational factors.
Get the participants under way and at the

appropriate stage ask them to form into threes.
(As individuals work at different rates, you can put
the groups together whenever you have three
people who have finished their lists.)
Move between the groups, keep them focused on

the task and answer any points they want to raise.
13
When all the groups have finished their discussion,
reconvene the whole group and lead a plenary
discussion.
Ask for volunteers to share their ideas and action

points with the rest of the group. Encourage
questions that help to check out the viability of
their ideas. Don’t forget to point out that if you like
the sound of someone else’s idea, you can use it
with your own team.
When all who wish to contribute have done so,

move on to the learning review.
Option two
Divide the participants into two groups with about
six members in each. Provide each group with
flipchart paper and ask them to brainstorm ideas on
one of two topics.
13–11
One group should brainstorm ‘Dissatisfiers’. Here

they should write things that have happened over
the last few months that are currently getting in the
way of team motivation.
Tell the other group you want them to identify

‘Motivators’. Here they should write some of the
key actions that the team are currently finding
motivating.
Tell them they have 10 minutes to work on their

list, by which time you want them to identify about
20 items.
Get them under way. Make sure they keep focused

on the task.
After the 10 minutes have elapsed, ask the groups to

exchange lists.They now have 5 minutes to add any
items to the ideas produced by the other group.
When they have completed this, tell both groups

that you now want them to work independently to
each produce a third list.This should be headed
‘Actions’.They have 10 minutes to record their
suggestions for practical action that the team should
take to reduce the dissatisfiers and increase the use
of the motivators.
After 10 minutes, when both groups have finished,

reconvene the whole group and lead a plenary
review of what happened. Get each group to display
their final ‘Action’ list and discuss the points,
showing what original cause inspired that item.
Lead a general discussion on how applicable – will it

really work and lead to increased motivation? – and
how feasible these ideas really are. Are there both
the resources and will-power to get them into
place?
When you have covered all the items, ask the group
to identify the top item in their ‘Actions’ list. Now
ask for a volunteer who is going to take
responsibility for introducing the action.
13–12
Establish what would be a reasonable timescale to

achieve their goal.
Now work through the second and third items on

the list, and so on, until each member has taken
responsibility for its implementation. Don’t let any
single participant hog all the action points – you
want this to be a full team effort.
When you have a ‘champion’ and a timescale for

each idea, move on to the learning review.
LEARNING REVIEW
Ask the participants to think back over the whole
session.They should make notes in their Learning
review diary on the key learning points that have
emerged for them from the session, and identify
what steps they will take to put these into practical
application within their own project teams (see
‘How to use this resource’, page xii).
When they have finished writing, ask for some

volunteers to share their key learning experiences
with the rest of the group.When all who want to
have contributed, thank everyone for their efforts 13
and close the session.
13–13
13–14
The cycle of motivation

13.1
Needs
Satisfaction Effort
Rewards Performance
13
OK
TO
Y
P
CO
13–15
Maslow’s Hierarchy
13.2
of Needs
SELF-
ACTUALISATION
ESTEEM
SOCIAL
SAFETY
PHYSICAL
OK
TO
Y
P
CO
13–16
Herzberg’s Two-factor
13.3
Theory of Motivation
Hygiene factors Motivators

that led to extreme that led to extreme
dissatisfaction satisfaction
per centage frequency per centage frequency
50 40 30 20 10 0 10 20 30 40 50
ACHIEVEMENT
RECOGNITION
WORK ITSELF
RESPONSIBILITY
ADVANCEMENT
GROWTH
COMPANY POLICY AND ADMINISTRATION
SUPERVISION
RELATIONSHIP WITH SUPERVISOR
WORK CONDITIONS
SALARY
RELATIONSHIP WITH PEERS 13

PERSONAL LIFE
RELATIONSHIP WITH SUBORDINATES
STATUS
SECURITY
OK
TO
Y
P
CO
13–17
How do we apply
13.4
Maslow’s Hierarchy?
Maslow’s needs What we currently do
in our organisation
Physical
Safety
Social
Esteem
Self-actualisation
OK
TO
Y
P
CO
13–18
Motivating my
13.5
project team
Team member Possible motivators
1.
2.
3.
4.
13
5.
6.
7.
8.
OK
TO
Y
P
CO
13–19
13–20
Activity 14
Oral communication
skills
Purpose
To introduce participants to the essential skills they

need to carry out effective face-to-face project
management discussions.To give them the
opportunity to practise and develop those skills.
14

Activity 14
Oral communication
skills
How can I communicate effectively with
others involved in the project?
Purpose To introduce participants to the essential skills they
need to carry out effective face-to-face project
management discussions.To give them the
opportunity to practise and develop those skills.
Application This activity can be used at the foundation stage of

any event designed to improve the communication
skills of project managers. It is equally applicable as a
refresher for experienced project managers or as an
introduction for new entrants to the specialism.
Communication skills underpin all aspects of

managerial performance.The activity can also be
used on a variety of other management
development events such as: Introduction to
Management;Team and Leadership Skills;
Assertiveness; Negotiation Skills; Developing Sales
Staff; and Interviewing Skills courses of all types.
14
What happens You introduce the session by establishing that
communication is a central part of any project
manager’s role.This is reinforced by a short exercise
in which the participants chart the network of
contacts with whom they are in regular contact.
By the use of an exercise involving the whole group,

you then go on to establish that communication as
it is generally practised by managers – that is, largely
one way with little feedback – is not the most
effective.
You introduce the group to the three aspects of

communication they need to master if they want to
develop effectiveness in this area: questioning
technique, body language, and responding skills.
14–1
Through a variety of small-group exercises you

enable the participants to recognise and develop
each of these.
The session ends with each member identifying a

key area they can easily apply to either their work
or their home life which will have an immediate
impact on developing their communication skills.
Participants are encouraged to fill in their Learning
review diary.
● Communication exercise: 30 minutes
● Effective communicators: 5 minutes
● Questioning technique: 20 minutes
● Body language: 30 minutes
● Responding skills: 50 minutes
● Action planning: 10 minutes.
Materials & ● 2 Flipchart masters

resources 14.1 Communication web
14.2 Three components of communication
● 9 OHT masters:
14.3 Fayol’s Wheel
14.4 Communication – definition
14.5 Dominic’s dominoes
14.6 Effective communicators
14.7 Using questions
14.8 Three components of communication
14.9 SOLER power
14.10 Key responding techniques
14.11 Are you actively listening?

participants
● Paper and pens for participants
14–2
In preparation You will need to draw a copy of Flipchart 14.2 Three

components of communication, on a separate
flipchart sheet before you start the session.
Also draw up a list of controversial topics for
possible discussion later in the activity.
Show OHT 14.3

Fayol’s Wheel
Inform participants that Henri Fayol identified these

essential functions of management as long ago as
1916 when he published his studies on distinguished
successful managers in the French coalfields. Point
out that although the processes involved in mining
engineering have changed, these classic functions
have not.They are equally applicable to the modern
project manager.
Show Flipchart 14.1

Communication web
Ask the participants to copy this diagram on to a

sheet of flipchart paper.Tell them that they have 14
10 minutes to complete the web by putting in the
names or titles of each of the contacts with whom
they communicate as part of their role as project
managers.
When they have finished, ask them to fix their

pictures on the wall (using Blu-Tack® or similar fixing
material).Take a few minutes to move around the
room to look at their finished versions.They should
by now appreciate how central the skill of
communication is to the effective performance of
their job.
Defining communication
Show OHT 14.4

Communication – definition
14–3
Inform the participants that this is a useful working

definition of what’s involved in communication for a
project manager. It stresses that for communication
to be effective it should involve both parties
establishing the facts, actively listening to each other
and not jumping to conclusions until they have
heard the full story.Then, clear action can be taken
based on a true understanding of the matter under
discussion.
Point out that one of the main problems many

managers have is that they think they are
omnipotent. How often have the participants seen
their managers displaying an attitude of ‘Don’t
confuse me with the facts – my mind’s made up!’?

activity.
COMMUNICATION EXERCISE
Tell the group that you want to illustrate the power
of two-way communication by involving them in a
simple exercise. Ask for a volunteer to play the role
of the manager.When you have a volunteer invite
them out to the front of the training room and give
them a paper copy of OHT 14.5 Dominic’s
dominoes.
Tell the volunteer that their task is to communicate

the pattern to the rest of the training group, who
will write down exactly what they are told. Point
out that as the manager they must not show the
picture to the group.They can only use words to
describe what they see. Hand gestures, using other
objects or any other means of communication are
banned.
Tell the group that they have to follow the

instructions exactly.They cannot ask questions, look
at how others are doing or show their pictures to
the speaker. Ask them to try to remain neutral in
their expression and body language so that the
speaker has no feedback about how they are feeling
about the exercise.
14–4
Check that everyone understands the ground rules

and then get the exercise under way.Whilst the
‘manager’ is speaking, act as a referee and ensure
that the rules are strictly followed.
When the manager has finished speaking, ask the

participants to show their pictures. It will be very
unusual for anyone to have an exact match (with the
speaker’s) – usually they don’t even come close.
Lead a plenary review during which you ask the

whole group to comment on the difficulties of one
way communication.They will usually report that
they were frustrated, fed-up and many actually give
up and abandon the picture.They may report they
couldn’t understand the terms used by the speaker.
This could be due to jargon, or because the
‘manager’ has assumed that the group are on the
same wavelength and have a common understanding
of such terms as ‘north north-west’.
Ask the group what they thought the speaker did

well, and for suggestions for improvements.
Ask the volunteer if they would like to try again, but

this time they can use two-way communication.The
only ground rules you will apply are that the speaker
can’t show the group the picture and vice versa.
14
Make sure everyone has a fresh sheet of paper and
then get them under way. Again act as the referee
but encourage the group and the speaker to make it
a two-way process.
When the speaker has finished, ask the group to

reveal their new pictures.You will usually find that
the accuracy rate has risen to well over 80 per cent.
Ask the group for their suggestions as to how you

could achieve 100 per cent.They should come up
with the suggestion that each participant could have
been given their own picture and asked to draw it,
or alternatively it could be turned into an OHT.
14–5
Show OHT 14.5

Dominic’s dominoes
Remind the group of the old saying, ‘A picture is

worth a thousand words’. Point out that choosing
the best medium is an important part of relaying the
message.
Allow 30 minutes for the communication exercise.
EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATORS
Tell the group that research into what makes
individuals effective communicators in a variety of
fields has consistently identified three important
ingredients.
Show OHT 14.6

Effective communicators
Tell the group that they will now have the

opportunity to participate in a series of
mini-exercises that will help develop each skill.
QUESTIONING TECHNIQUE
Ask the group for their suggestions on why project
managers need to ask effective questions.They
should be able to identify that questions can be used
for a large number of purposes.These will include:
● gather information
● stimulate thought and discussion
● explore attitudes and ideas
● solve problems
● clarify your own or someone else’s thinking
● inform an individual or group.
Point out that one of the problems faced in

developing communication skills is that, because we
communicate constantly, we think we are good at it.
Effective communication is a conscious skill where
good practice needs to be identified and used.
14–6
Inform participants that you are about to conduct a

short exercise which will demonstrate the pitfalls
for the unwary.
Sit in a chair in the middle of the room, facing the

participants.Tell them that for the next 5 minutes
you want them to ask you questions about your
past work and career as if, for example, this was a
job interview.
Answer each question honestly but don’t give

lengthy answers – the purpose of the activity is to
enable them to ask as many different types of
questions during the time.
When the 5 minutes has finished, or when you are

satisfied that you have enough types of questions to
comment on, end this part of the session.
Lead a plenary review focusing on the types of

questions used. Ask the group which were the most
effective questions and which were the least
effective.They should be able to identify that
questions typically fall into three bands.
Show OHT 14.7

Using questions 14
Discuss each of the major types of questions with
the group.Wherever possible use examples from
the previous exercise to illustrate their use.
Band one – questions best avoided
Multiple or marathon questions: tend to confuse the

receiver who either doesn’t know which part of the
question to answer or sometimes even that they
have actually been asked one.
Leading questions: tend to direct the receiver into

responding in a particular way, usually in the
direction that the questioner wants to hear.
14–7
Band two – questions to use with care
Closed questions: can be useful for fact finding and

confirming but, if over-used, will break the discussion
into an interrogation.The questioner will only
receive answers on the topic that they want.
It leaves little room for the receiver to feel they are
jointly contributing to the conversation.
Hypothetical questions: useful for exploring potential

scenarios and identifying difficulties before they
occur.You can get bogged down, however, and lose
touch with reality. At their worst they can produce
‘paralysis from over-analysis’.
Band three – questions to use frequently
Open questions: here the length and nature of the

response depends on the receiver.They are used to
explore facts and gather information without an
outcome predetermined by the questioner. It gives
the receiver an opportunity to raise any concerns
they may have.
Probing questions: are used to follow on from open

questions and explore a particular area in more
detail.They can be used to check information and
are excellent to get the receiver talking about how
they feel about a subject.
BODY LANGUAGE
‘It ain’t what you say …’
Tell the group that we have established that people
need to take great care with what they say if they
want effective communication with their project
team. But there are other areas they also need to
master.
Turn to the prepared Flipchart 14.2 Three

components of communication.
Show Flipchart 14.2

The three components of communication
14–8
Ask the group to suggest what figures should be

used to complete the sum.Write some of their
suggestions on the flipchart.
The answer may come as a surprise.
Show OHT 14.8

Three components of communication
Inform them that these results of US-based research

(The Skilled Helper, Gerard Egan) don’t deny the
importance of the words used but rather highlight the
importance of the non-verbal elements being
compatible with what you are saying.Ask the group if
they have experienced a ‘mixed message’ where they
have been told something – for example,‘That’s very
interesting.As soon as I’m back in the office I’ll start
work on it right away’ – but the message has been
said in a voice tone accompanied by body language
signals that clearly gave the opposite indication.
Effective communicators need to synchronise their

non-verbal communication so that it reinforces their
message. How can they do that? Tell the participants
you will give them an opportunity to develop their
skill, but first you want them to focus on what not to
do.
14
Ask them to write down the types of actions people
use that demonstrate they are not listening.These
work best if they are based on their own recent
experience.When they have each compiled a list, ask
them to work with a partner from the group.
Inform them that they are to take it in turns talking

about an interesting topic they will find easy to
recall, for example, ‘My favourite holiday destination’.
The first member of each pair talks for 2 minutes
and during this time their partner demonstrates the
non-listening behaviour they have identified earlier.
Stop the exercise after 2 minutes and ask them to

exchange roles.The former listener now talks for
2 minutes and is faced by the non-listening tactics of
their partner. 14–9
Lead a brief review of the exercise.What types of

behaviour were demonstrated? What effect did this
have on the talker? How accurately was the listener
able to follow the discussion when they were not
physically attending?
Most groups will report that this is a very

frustrating exercise (which often does not last the
2 minutes each way). Unfortunately, most will readily
recognise the behaviour displayed, although it is not
usually done this deliberately.
Using SOLER power

There has also been research into what behaviour is
displayed by effective communicators.This is usually
the conscious application of the opposite of what
the group have just been demonstrating, and is
summed up by the acronym SOLER.
Show OHT 14.9

SOLER power
Explain each item to the participants.
S – Sit up and face the individual

You won’t convey interest in what they are
saying if you are slumped over facing away.
O – Open posture
This demonstrates that you are open to their
ideas and haven’t put up any mental barriers.
L – Lean forward
Leaning slightly forward, without invading their
personal space, will signify interest.
E – Eye contact
Maintain comfortable eye contact without fixing
them with a frightening stare.
R – Relax
Avoid distracting behaviours such as fidgeting,
thumbing through papers, playing with
paper-clips, and so on.
14–10
Discuss each item, giving examples of good practice.

When the group are able to identify what’s involved,
ask them to return to their previous pairs.When
they repeat the exercise this time they are to pay
attention using the SOLER approach. Give them a
few minutes longer before asking them to exchange
roles.
When everyone has finished, lead a plenary review.

How did this exercise compare with the previous
one? How do the talkers feel now? How much
information can the listeners recall in comparison
with last time? The experiences reported back will
invariably be more positive than for the earlier
exercise.
‘Are you really listening?’

Tell the group that one of the factors that underpins
effective communication is to be able to run the
discussion without manipulating the other person.
Point out that it is still possible to physically attend
to what the other person is telling you without
really listening.You may nod, smile, and so on, but
don’t agree because your mind is already made up.
In effect you have stopped listening and will only
tune in to the facts that agree with your argument.
Point out that the problem with this approach is

14
that we rarely find out anything useful and often run
into difficulties when we attempt to impose our
solution on the other person. It is easier to get
someone to change their opinion if you can first
show them that you have fully understood and
appreciated their point of view. If you suspend your
judgement until they have finished, you may find
there is a better way forward, one on which you can
both agree.
Allow 30 minutes in total for this work on body

language.
14–11
RESPONDING SKILLS
Point out that the other special ingredient for
effective communication is called ‘Responding
techniques’.
Show OHT 14.10

Key responding techniques
Discuss the key points, using illustrations of the

behaviour involved.
Paraphrase: restate in your own words the basic

ideas involved in what they have been saying.
For example: ‘So what you are saying is …’
‘If I understand correctly your main
argument is that …’.
Reflect: put back to the person that you have

picked up how they are feeling about what’s
happening.
For example: ‘Sounds like you are really angry
about this?’
‘My guess is that you were upset by
his approach?’
Summarise: pull together all the facts and ideas

that have been covered so far in the discussion.
For example: ‘So what we’ve identified so far are
three main reasons for the systems
failure. One …’.
Focus: make a decision together on the future

stages of the discussion.
For example: ‘Shall we deal with the present
problems first and then cover the
long-term ones?’
‘The plumbing seems to be top
priority on your list – shall we start
with that?’
Responding exercise
Ask the participants to divide into groups of three.
Tell them that again they are going to play, in turn,
one of three roles.
14–12
Show OHT 14.11

Are you actively listening?
Brief the participants on their roles.
Role A:The speaker

Ask them to think of a controversial topic on which
they have strong feelings.The choice is up to them
but it should be one that has an equally strong
opposing point of view, for example, abortion,
contraception, compulsory religious instruction in
schools, capital punishment, re-introducing
conscription, castration for sex offenders, home
rule, and so on.
Ask for suggestions and write these up on a

flipchart sheet. Add any of your own that you have
identified before the session.
Role B:The listener

The purpose of this role is not to get the speaker
to change their mind, but to accurately understand
their position on the chosen topic.
The listener may ask questions but not give their

own views. Ask them to pay attention through using
SOLER, and encourage the flow of the discussion
14
by paraphrasing and reflecting feelings.
Tell them that after about 5 minutes they should

sum up the speaker’s position by giving a summary
which covers their main argument.
Role C:The observer

Point out that in this role they do not participate in
the discussion until it has finished. It is their job to
judge the accuracy of the final summary. Ask them
to note if the listener’s summary is free from the
listener’s values and not an attempt to establish
their own views.Tell them to be prepared to give
feedback to the listener on how well they were able
to stay neutral; the range and phrasing of their
questions; how appropriate was their body language
(did they suggest frustration or disapproval in tone
14–13
or movement?); and how regularly and accurately

they paraphrased and reflected.
Inform the group that this exercise works best if

they can find a range of topics where there is a
genuine difference of opinion within each sub-group.
This makes suspending judgement and really
listening that much harder. Give them a few minutes
to identify suitable topics, individual standpoints, and
who will play what role in the activity.When they
have decided on these, put each group of three in a
separate room or area where they can conduct the
exercise without being disturbed or distracted.
Move between the groups to check that they are

keeping focused on the task. It is all too easy to
want to continue the debate but remind them that
we are only interested in the process of how they
manage the discussion, not the content of their
arguments.
Remind the participants that when one phase has

been completed they then exchange roles until all
the group have participated as speaker, listener and
observer.
Plenary review
When all the groups have finished, lead a plenary
review. Ask the participants to comment on this
particular approach to communication. How similar
is it to their natural or most frequently used style?
What difficulties emerged from the activity? What
skills were most readily used? Which proved to be
more difficult? What do they see as the main
benefits and disadvantages of this approach?
They should be able to identify that, despite the

difficulties (which are mainly associated with a lack
of familiarity and experience of communicating in
this way), the active listening approach overcomes
many common barriers to effective communication
which would otherwise prevent the project manager
gaining a complete and accurate picture of what is
happening.
14–14
Allow a total of 50 minutes for this section on

responding skills.
ACTION PLANNING
Point out that effective communication is a life skill as
well as a work skill.Ask the participants to think back
over the various parts of the session and identify at
least one area they can develop further either at
work or at home.Tell them you want them to select
a single facet – for example, checking with recipients
that they have understood; asking a probing question
to find out more relevant information; nodding and
maintaining eye contact – which they need to develop
and which they will have many opportunities to use
on a daily basis.
They should note these points in their Learning

review diary, if they are using this approach to
record their learning (see ‘How to use this
When they have all thought of one, ask each

participant to declare the key area that they will
implement immediately to improve their
performance as communicators.
14
Thank them for their contributions and close the
session.
14–15
14–16
Communication web
14.1
PROJECT
MANAGER
14
OK
TO
Y
P
CO
14–17
Three components of
14.2
communication
Words ……
Tone of voice ……
Body language ……
TOTAL 100%
OK
TO
Y
P
CO
14–18
Fayol’s Wheel
14.3
CONTROLLING FORECASTING
CO-
ORDINATING COMMUNICATION PLANNING
MOTIVATING ORGANISING
14
OK
TO
Y
P
CO
14–19
Communication –
14.4
definition
A two-way process
which allows the
interchange of
information for the
purpose of determining
future courses of action.
OK
TO
Y
P
CO
14–20
Dominic’s dominoes
14.5
14
OK
TO
Y
P
CO
14–21
Effective communicators
14.6
1. Ask questions.
2. Use positive body

language.
3. Listen actively.
OK
TO
Y
P
CO
14–22
Using questions
14.7
Band One – Questions best avoided

Multiple or marathon questions
‘So what’s more important, having a plan or taking the team
with you? How can you ensure you keep on track, and what
problems have you encountered with awkward team
members?’
Leading questions
‘You don’t believe this is the right way to tackle this problem,
do you?’
Band Two – Questions to use with care

Closed questions
‘Have you ever conducted an appraisal interview with any
members of your team?’
Hypothetical questions
‘Here’s a situation you may face. Say three out of your seven
team members are off on holiday. One of the remaining 14
members rings in sick.What will you do?’
Band Three – Questions to use frequently

Open questions
‘What do you think are the main weaknesses of your current
project team?’
Probing questions
‘Why do you think that working relationships in the team are
so difficult at present?’
OK
TO
Y
P
CO
14–23
Three components of
14.8
communication
Words 10%
Tone of voice 40%
Body language 50%
______
TOTAL 100%
______
OK
TO
Y
P
CO
14–24
SOLER power
14.9
S – Sit up and face the individual.
O – Open posture.
L – Lean forward.
E – Eye contact.
R – Relax.
14
OK
TO
Y
P
CO
14–25
Key responding
14.10
techniques
PARAPHRASE: Restate in your own
words the basic ideas involved in what
they have been saying.
REFLECT: Put back to the person what

you have picked up about what they are
feeling about what’s going on.
SUMMARISE: Pull together all the facts

and ideas that have been covered so far in
the discussion.
FOCUS: Make a decision together on the

future stages of the discussion.
OK
TO
Y
P
CO
14–26
Are you actively listening?

14.11
Work in threes taking turns to play each of

the following:
A – SPEAKER
Put forward your own views
of a controversial topic.
B – LISTENER
Clarify the speaker’s position.
Ask questions, but don’t give your views.
Pay attention, using S O L E R.
Encourage by paraphrasing and reflecting.
When finished, summarise their position.
14
C – OBSERVER
Don’t get involved in the discussion.
Judge the accuracy of the final summary.
Give feedback to the listener on their:
• Question technique
• Body language
• Active listening skills.
OK
TO
Y
P
CO
14–27
14–28
Activity 15
Writing project
reports
Purpose
To enable participants to express themselves clearly

when writing project reports.
15

Activity 15
Writing project
reports
How can I express myself clearly when
writing?
Purpose To enable participants to express themselves clearly
when writing project reports.
Application Writing skills should be a foundation skill included

on all training events for project managers. Although
it tends to be overlooked in favour of more
technical skills, it nevertheless represents a key
component of the project manager’s competency
portfolio.
The ground rules are common to all types of

writing and similar structures will apply for other
types of report.This session could also be used on
written skills courses and general events aimed at
improving the overall skills of managers.
What happens You start the session by establishing that

communication has many pitfalls. Developing an
awareness of these and identifying good practice will 15
enable us to become more effective written
communicators.
You introduce the group to the Fog Test: a simple

test with which they can check the accessibility of
their current report writing.This introduction ends
with you establishing the three key components of
report writing.
Each of these components is then explored in turn.

For each there is an initial review of the ground
rules associated with that component.The
participants are then given an opportunity to
practise these ground rules and receive feedback
aimed at developing their skills.
15–1
The session ends with the production of a real life

project report which the participants can use on
their return to work.Their overall learning will be
reinforced when they identify a key aspect they
want to try to incorporate into their next report.
They are encouraged to fill in their Learning review
diary.
Time Overall time required: 4 hours.
● Identify your content: Input – 15 minutes
Exercise one – 30 minutes
● Structure your report: Input – 30 minutes
Exercise two – 45 minutes
● Review your style: Input – 30 minutes
Exercise three – 30 minutes
● Plenary review: 30 minutes.
Materials & ● 1 Flipchart master:

resources 15.1 Communication
● 6 OHT masters:
15.2 Margaret Thatcher quote
15.3 The Fog Index
15.4 Three components of report writing
15.5 Planning your content
15.6 Structure your report
15.7 The principles of clear writing
15.8 The Fog Index
15.9 Planning your content
15.10 Structure your report
15.11 The principles of clear writing

● Sample copies of published reports
● Sample copies of reports in house style
(if appropriate)
15–2
● Calculators (for Fog Index exercise)

● Access to a word processor for each participant
would be useful but is not essential.
In preparation Prepare a flipchart sheet as on Flipchart 15.1

Communication.

Start the session by revealing a prepared copy of
Flipchart 15.1 Communication.
Show Flipchart 15.1

Communication
Inform the participants that communication is

supposed to be a straightforward process.What
should happen is that A sends a message to B who
then becomes informed, inspired or instructed to
act.The arrow indicates the direction of the
message, from A to B:
A B
Sender Receiver
Point out that in reality this simple picture is difficult

to achieve. A number of barriers can get in the way
of clear and accurate communication which leave 15
the recipient uncertain, confused or bemused.
Reinforce this message to the group by drawing in a

barrier on the arrow and identifying other possible
outcomes:
B2 – alternative outcome
|
A | B1 – sender’s intention
|
B3 – alternative outcome
Inform the participants that in this session we will

be examining the barriers to communication created
by bad writing (for information on how to
communicate effectively face-to-face please refer to
Activity 14 Oral communication skills).
15–3
Point out that as project managers they will spend

much of their working day either writing themselves
or reading what others have written. Far too often
barriers get in the way and prevent a clear written
message from achieving its aim.
Show OHT 15.2

Margaret Thatcher quote
How dense are your reports?

Point out that few of us will admit to being bad
drivers, bad lovers or bad communicators. Ask the
group how often they have puzzled over what
someone else has written. How many complain that
reports they have to read are unintelligible,
confusing or boring? Now ask how many of them
are certain that something they have written isn’t
being looked at in a similar vein.
Let’s put this to the test.
Divide the participants into small groups. Ask them

to exchange, among the groups, the reports they
were asked to bring along to the event. (These
should be examples of reports that the participants
have written at work.) Each group should now have
a sample of reports written by other course
members not in their sub-group.
Tell them that you want them to analyse each

report using ‘The Fog Index’.

The Fog Index
Ask them to browse through the report and pick

out a couple of passages which they feel closely
represent the style of the whole report.
They should then apply the following guidelines.
1. Count the number of words in your chosen

sample (200 words usually gives a fair guide).
15–4
2. Calculate the average sentence length by dividing

the number of words by the number of
sentences, (a).
3. Count the number of words with three or more

syllables.
4. Calculate the percentage of long words by

dividing this number by the total number of
words and multiplying by 100, (b).
5. To find the Fog Index add together your two

calculated figures (a + b), and multiply by 0.4.
Check with the groups to see if they need any

help – providing a calculator for the mathematically
challenged can be useful.
When all the groups have finished, ask them to call

out their scores and write the list up on a flipchart.
You may be lucky and have a number of scores
around the ideal range of 10–12.Too many will
usually score in the difficult to unacceptable range
13–17. If you have a group that usually write heavy
academic papers then scores over 20 will often be
recorded.
Show OHT 15.3

The Fog Index
15
Inform the participants that the Fog Index was first
devised by Robert Gunning as a means of analysing
the complexity of written work. It is not meant to
be slavishly followed but can give us an indicator of
how dense our writing is and the demands that we
are placing on our readers.
Gunning’s idea was that heavy writing ‘fogs’ up the

content.When writing you should express yourself
as simply as possible. His Fog Index identifies the
number of years of formal education a reader of
average intelligence would need in order to
understand writing at that density.
15–5
Point out that one of the challenges is to write

complex and difficult material in such a way that the
ideas you are trying to express are accessible to all.
Then your reader can spend their time digesting
your report and understanding the information,
rather than getting lost in a battle with your words.
Three components of report writing

Tell the group that the Fog Index gives them
valuable insight into the report’s style – one of the
three main components of writing an effective
report.These are content, structure and style.
Show OHT 15.4

Each of these components is equally important.You

may have developed a wonderful project but if the
information is poorly presented and your writing is
indigestible you will risk having your proposal
misunderstood and rejected.

activity.
IDENTIFY YOUR CONTENT

The secret of writing effective content lies in
effective preparation.You must gather together all
the information needed before you begin to write.
You can’t write clearly until you have thought it out
clearly.
Show OHT 15.5

Planning your content
Discuss each of the points with the group.

Use examples to illustrate based on your own
experience of report writing.
Define
You should find out exactly what you have been
asked to report on. Reports are meant for action.
15–6
They are usually requested by senior management in
response to some perceived problem. If you have

been asked to make an investigation you need to
establish your terms of reference.These should be
as specific as possible. Identify your boundaries and
constraints as well as your scope for making
recommendations.
Gather
Gather together all the information that you could
put into your project report. Collect all your facts
and ideas by asking other people, from personal
observation, consulting existing records or using
questionnaires and surveys.
Gather as much information as you can – it is better

to have too much at this stage rather than too little.
Check your facts for accuracy and make a note of
all sources and references as these may need to be
included in the written report.
Drawing up a Mind Map of all your ideas on a single

page is a good way of gaining an overview.
Select
Having gathered all your information you should
now look critically at what should be included.
Keeping your terms of reference in mind you should
be able to decide what must go in, what should go in
and what could go in.Take care with this last 15
category – avoid the temptation to pad out the
report simply to show how clever you have been.
Discard any irrelevant information, include only the

essential or desirable facts.
Group
Once you have completed the selection process,
review all the information that has survived and
group together linked information. Give each group
of facts a sub-heading for easy reference later.
A useful technique can be to write each of your

sub-headings on a separate Post-it® Note.This will
help the final phase of your preparation.
15–7
Order
With all your facts sorted you can now arrange
them into the most appropriate order as they
should appear in the main body of your report.
If you have a list of facts under one sub-heading,
break them down into further sub-headings.

With all your main points arranged into a logical

order your report is now ready to be written up.
This explanation on planning the content should

take about 15 minutes. Check with the participants
that they have understood all the points covered to
date. Answer any questions they may have before
starting them on an exercise which consolidates
your input to date.
Exercise one – prepare your own report

Ask the participants to prepare a report of their
choice using the techniques described above.
They may find it easier to work in pairs or small
groups, particularly where they have shared a
common project.
Move between the participants as they work,

offering help and advice where necessary.
Take some time to review their progress.

When they have all finished, lead a plenary review to
discuss the advantages and any difficulties they found
in adopting this approach.
The activity and discussion should take a total time

of 30 minutes.
15–8
STRUCTURE YOUR REPORT

Point out that whilst there is no format that works
best for all reports, there are some well established
guidelines which participants can tailor to suit their
own particular project.
Show OHT 15.6

Structure your report
Issue the sample reports you assembled before the

session. Ask the group to review these against the
guidelines on OHT 15.6 Structure your report.They
will then see actual examples of the points under
discussion.
TRAINER’S TIP
If you are running this event in an organisation

that has its own house style for report writing,
then the example reports you use and the
guidelines will be adapted to match that style.
Discuss each of the points on the OHT using your

sample reports as illustrations.
Title 15
This should readily identify the subject. It should be
short but convey the theme of the report.
Table of contents
This will identify the main sections and sub-sections,
the paragraph numbers (if used) and the pages on
which to find them. A table of contents is essential if
your report is a long one.
Executive summary
This is an encapsulated version of the whole report.
It allows the busy reader to quickly identify the
problem and how you arrived at your conclusions.
Try to keep it to 200–300 words on one page.
It should allow the reader to decide whether or not
they need to read the whole report.
15–9
Introduction
This should give the reader the essential background
information leading to why the report was written.
It should include details of the terms of reference
(the reasons for doing the work). Identify who
wrote the report or the department or organisation
which made the initial investigation.The time and
date of the investigation should also be included.
Main body
This is the main part of the report in which you
describe all your work and reasoning in full detail.
If it runs into more than two pages, break it into
sections with separate sub-headings. For most
reports the following sections can apply.
● Initial problem: a description of the situation,

accident or event that led to the investigation.
● Form of investigation: this shows how your

information was obtained, for example, surveys,
observation, other people consulted, and so on.
● Facts and findings: this is the section of the report

where you state your results.The facts are
analysed and possible causes of the problem
identified.
Conclusion
This is a statement of the findings that can be drawn
from the facts in the main text of your report.
The reader should be able to follow the
development of your conclusion from the previous
section.You should not introduce new facts at this
stage.Where a number of different conclusions can
be drawn from the same set of facts you should
record them all to avoid displaying bias.
Recommendations
You may have been briefed to investigate and report
the facts from which others will determine the next
steps, or your terms of reference may entitle you to
suggest future courses of action based on your
findings. Again there may be a number of alternative
courses of action. Identify each of these, point out
15–10
their benefits and the possible effects of each

solution.Your final recommendation should be
soundly based, clearly showing your reasoning for
adopting them.
When making recommendations try to be specific,

clearly stating who will be responsible for what
action within what timescale.
Appendices
These can be used for reference to explain or
illustrate complicated detail and statistical analysis.
It should contain the information that is of
secondary importance to the report – usually
information you identified as ‘could go in’ in your
earlier sift. Other information often included in
appendices are:
● Glossary: this can be used to explain technical

jargon and abbreviations.
● Bibliography: essential when writing academic

reports, can provide a ready reference to your
sources of data.
● Distribution list: useful when the report is to be

circulated to several people or organisations.
Point out that you don’t write the report in this 15

order. Report writing is like an inverse pyramid.You
write the main body first then write the preliminary
sections.You should write the conclusion,
recommendations and executive summary last.This
ordering will help you with your main thinking and
ensure that the preliminary sections reflect the main
body.

Allow about 30 minutes for this explanation of how

to structure a report.
15–11
Exercise two – write your own report

Check again that all the participants understand the
points discussed.When you are satisfied that they
do, ask them to start the next practical activity.
Having prepared their reports earlier they are now
in a position to write the first draft of their report.
Make sure that they have a plentiful supply of pens

and paper to allow for re-drafts. (If you are
fortunate enough to have a computer laboratory,
this would be a good opportunity to transfer the
participants to enable them to use the facilities
there.) You can again make the decision on how to
divide the participants, for example, pairs, groups,
working alone or a combination depending on the
background and experience of your participants.
Move around the participants as they are writing.

Answer any questions and keep them focused on
the task.
When they have all finished, reconvene into the

main group. Lead a brief plenary review identifying
any difficulties encountered in deciding what to put
where.
Allow 45 minutes for this exercise.
REVIEW YOUR STYLE
Re-show OHT 15.4

Remind the participants that the third element in

the three components is style. Style in writing is
often hard to define.The term covers the technique
the author uses to convey their message to the
reader. A heavy approach, as we saw earlier with the
‘Fog Index’, will result in making it difficult for our
readers.Too easy and they may feel insulted and
patronised, and dismiss the report as trivial.
To come to our aid there are a number of common
ground rules we can apply.
15–12
Show OHT 15.7

The principles of clear writing
Explain each item by referring to the sample

reports. Key points to make are as follows:
Put yourself in the readers’ shoes

Keep your audience in mind at all times.What
information do they need, what language will they
understand?
Arrange the ideas in logical order

Organise your writing to help your reader. Establish
a plan and stick to it. Leave out information that is
not essential to your message.
Keep sentences short and simple

Aim for an average of 15–20 words per sentence.
If you write a long sentence, try to rearrange the
ideas to form two short ones. Each sentence should
be devoted to one major idea.
Use clear, familiar words

Aim to make your writing quicker to read and easy
to understand. Don’t write ‘sufficient’ if you could
write ‘enough’, use ‘letters’ rather than
‘correspondence’, ‘pay’ for ‘reimburse’, and so on.
15
Use punctuation to aid understanding
Make sure your sentences are complete.
Use semi-colons and commas to mark out your
major and minor pauses.
Use a paragraph for each idea

Break up your writing into digestible chunks.
Paragraphs give your reader a break. Paragraphs are
made up of sentences with a common theme.When
the theme changes, so should the paragraph.
Prefer the active to the passive

Active verbs are much clearer and easier to
understand. Unlike passive verbs, they tend to reflect
how we speak.The trick is to put the ‘doer’ before
the ‘done to’. For example:‘The committee decided’
rather than ‘It was decided by the committee’. 15–13
Use verbs, not nouns created from verbs

Too many reports are full of these grand sounding
noun phrases. For example, write ‘use’ instead of
‘the utilisation of’.
Use a conversational style

This will help you to write as you speak.
For example, ‘I think that’ rather than ‘It is the
opinion of this author that’.
Avoid ‘officialese’
Avoid the artificial language that officials use to give
an air of authority.You’ll only sound pompous.
For example, don’t write ‘The duly executed forms
should be submitted to the undersigned on
completion’; try ‘Please return the signed forms to
me when you have finished them’.
Avoid clichés like the plague – they’re old hat

They can be useful to let your sense of humour and
personal style come through in your writing, but
they can easily be misinterpreted and give the wrong
impression.
Explain your terminology

The jargon of one area of work will not necessarily
be understood in another area. If you need to use a
jargon term whose meaning is not self-evident, think
how you can write it another way. If you can’t think
of an alternative, treat it like an abbreviation and
explain it the first time you use it.
Make full use of visual layout

Make the layout helpful and easy on the eye.
Use a lot of white space by putting extra line-breaks
between topics. Indent areas to give extra emphasis.
Make full use of capitals, bold type and italics to
highlight separate areas. Illustrations,
pie charts and histograms are an excellent way of
conveying complex information in an
easy-to-understand form.

The principles of clear writing
15–14
Allow about 30 minutes to work through this first

part of reviewing style.
Exercise three – review your style

Point out that this final exercise should also be
conducted when participants are writing reports at
work. Because you have written the report you may
well have become immune to mistakes and
difficulties.You know exactly what you mean to say
because you spent ages searching for the right word.
It is now time to pass it to a colleague to check.
Ask your colleague to act as a proof-reader and

copy-editor.They will invariably pick up on spelling
mistakes that you and the ‘spell-check’ have missed,
and if they can’t understand what you are trying to
say then neither will the end user.
Ask the participants to exchange the reports they

drafted in Exercise Two of this session. Each person
or group is responsible for checking the style of
someone else’s report. Ask them to highlight areas
that are confusing or over-wordy and ask them to
suggest sharper and shorter alternatives.
Move between the participants, giving help and

advice where appropriate.
When all have finished, ask them to return their 15

edited reports to their original authors.Tell them
they now have 10 minutes to re-read and approve
the changes. If they don’t like the alterations then
they should identify another choice.
Plenary view
When all the participants have completed their
revisions and are happy with their re-draft,
reconvene and lead a plenary review. Identify areas
that presented particular pitfalls for the group.
How did they overcome them? What areas were
they stronger in?
Ask the group to consider the session as a whole.

What are the key learning points that they are taking
away and which they will incorporate into the next
15–15
project report they write at work? They should note

these points in their Learning review diary, if they are
using this approach to recording their learning (see
‘How to use this resource’ on page xii).
Ask for a volunteer to talk briefly about a key point

and how they intend to action it.
When all those who wish to speak have done so,

thank them all for their participation and hard work
and close the session.
TRAINER’S TIP
If you feel the need for a more in-depth session

on the principles of clear writing then I can
recommend the Fenman Trainer’s Activity Pack
Business English or The Business Writing Toolkit both
by Joanna Gutmann and published by Fenman
Limited.
15–16
Communication
15.1
A B
Sender Receiver
15
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15–17
Margaret Thatcher
15.2
quote
‘When communicating in
writing the scope for
misunderstanding is
enormous.Too often clarity
and simplicity are
overwhelmed by pompous
words, long sentences and
endless paragraphs.’
OK Margaret Thatcher, Prime Minister, February 1988, Making It Plain Cabinet Office Leaflet, 1988
TO
Crown copyright is reproduced with the permission of the Controller of Her Majesty’s Stationery Office
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15–18
The Fog Index

15.3
Score 18+ Virtually unreadable
16 Difficult
14 Acceptable
12 Ideal
10 Acceptable
8 Childlike
6 Unacceptable
15
Adapted from R. Gunning The Technique of Clear Writing McGraw-Hill, 1968. OK

TO
Material reproduced with the kind permission of McGraw-Hill Publishing Company

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15–19
Three components of
15.4
report writing
CONTENT
STRUCTURE
STYLE
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15–20

15.5
DEFINE
GATHER
SELECT
GROUP
ORDER
15
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15–21

15.6
TITLE
TABLE OF CONTENTS
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
INTRODUCTION
MAIN BODY
CONCLUSION
RECOMMENDATIONS
APPENDICES
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15–22
The principles of clear

15.7
writing
● Put yourself in your readers’ shoes.
● Arrange the ideas in logical order.
● Keep sentences short and simple.
● Use clear familiar words.
● Use punctuation to aid understanding.
● Use a paragraph for each idea.
● Prefer the active to the passive.
● Use verbs, not nouns created from verbs.
● Use a conversational style.
15
● Avoid ‘officialese’.
● Avoid clichés like the plague – they’re old
hat.
● Explain your terminology.
● Make full use of visual layout.
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15–23
Fog Index
15.8
1. Count the number of words in your chosen sample

(200 words usually gives a fair guide).
2. Calculate the average sentence length by dividing the number of

words by the number of sentences, (a).
3. Count the number of words with three or more syllables.
4. Calculate the percentage of long words by dividing this number by the

total number of words and multiplying by 100, (b).
5. To find the Fog Index add together your two calculated figures
(a + b), and multiply by 0.4.
Adapted from R. Gunning, The Technique of Clear Writing, McGraw-Hill, 1968.
OK Material reproduced with the kind permission of McGraw-Hill Publishing

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Company.
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15–24

15.9
Define
You should find out exactly what you have been asked to report on.
Reports are meant for action.They are usually requested by senior
management in response to some perceived problem. If you have been
asked to make an investigation you need to establish your terms of
reference.These should be as specific as possible. Identify your boundaries
and constraints as well as your scope for making recommendations.
Gather
Gather together all the information that you could put into your project
report. Collect all your facts and ideas by asking other people, from
personal observation, consulting existing records or using questionnaires
and surveys.
Gather as much information as you can – it is better to have too much at

this stage rather than too little. Check your facts for accuracy and make a
note of all sources and references as these may need to be included in the
written report.
Drawing up a ‘mind-map’ of all your ideas on a single page is a good way of

gaining an overview. 15
Select
Having gathered all your information you should now look critically at what
should be included. Keeping your terms of reference in mind you should be
able to decide what must go in, what should go in and what could go in.Take
care with this last category – avoid the temptation to pad out the report
simply to show how clever you have been.
Discard any irrelevant information; include only the essential or

desirable facts.
OK
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15–25

15.9
… continued
Group
Once you have completed the selection process, review all the information
that has survived and group together linked information. Give each group
of facts a sub-heading for easy reference later.
A useful technique can be to write each of your sub-headings on a separate

Post-it® Note.This will help the final phase of your preparation.
Order
With all your facts sorted you can now arrange them into the most
appropriate order as they should appear in the main body of your report. If
you have a list of facts under one sub-heading, break them down into
further sub-headings.
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15–26

15.10
Title
This should readily identify the subject. It should be short but convey the
theme of the report.
Table of contents
This will identify the main sections and sub-sections, the paragraph
numbers (if used) and the pages on which to find them. A table of contents
is essential if your report is a long one.
Executive summary
This is an encapsulated version of the whole report. It allows the busy
reader to quickly identify the problem and how you arrived at your
conclusions.Try to keep it to 200–300 words on one page. It should allow
the reader to decide whether or not they need to read the whole report.
Introduction
This should give the reader the essential background information leading to
why the report was written. It should include details of the terms of
reference (the reasons for doing the work). Identify who wrote the report
or the department or organisation which made the initial investigation.
The time and date of the investigation should also be included. 15
Main body
This is the main part of the report in which you describe all your work and
reasoning in full detail. If it runs into more than two pages, break it into
sections with separate sub-headings. For most reports the following
sections can apply:
● Initial problem: a description of the situation, accident or event that led to
the investigation.
● Form of investigation: this shows how your information was obtained,

for example, surveys, observation, other people consulted, etc.
● Facts and findings: this is the section of the report where you state your
results.The facts are analysed and possible causes of the problem identified.
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15–27

15.10
… continued
Conclusion
This is a statement of the findings that can be drawn from the facts in the
main text of your report.The reader should be able to follow the
development of your conclusion from the previous section.You should not
introduce new facts at this stage.Where a number of different conclusions
can be drawn from the same set of facts you should record them all to
avoid displaying bias.
Recommendations
You may have been briefed to investigate and report the facts from which
others will determine the next steps, or your terms of reference may
entitle you to suggest future courses of action based on your findings. Again
there may be a number of alternative courses of action. Identify each of
these, point out their benefits and the possible effects of each solution.Your
final recommendation should be soundly based, clearly showing your
reasoning for adopting them.
When making recommendations try to be specific, clearly stating who will

be responsible for what action within what time-scale.
Appendices
These can be used for reference to explain or illustrate complicated detail
and statistical analysis. It should contain the information that is of
secondary importance to the report – usually information you identified as
‘could go in’ in your earlier sift. Other information often included in
appendices are:
● Glossary: this can be used to explain technical jargon and abbreviations.
● Bibliography: essential with academic reports, can provide a ready

reference to your sources of data.
● Distribution list: useful when the report is to be circulated to several

people or organisations.
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15–28

15.11
writing
Put yourself in the readers’ shoes
Keep your audience in mind at all times.What information do they need,
what language will they understand?
Put it into logical order

Organise your writing to help your readers. Establish a plan and stick to it.
Leave out information that is not essential to your message.
Keep sentences short and simple

Aim for an average of 15–20 words per sentence. If you write a long
sentence, try to rearrange the ideas to form two short ones.
Each sentence should be devoted to one major idea.
Use clear, familiar words

Aim to make your writing quicker to read and easy to understand.
Don’t write ‘sufficient’ if you could write ‘enough’, use ‘letters’ rather than
‘correspondence’, ‘pay’ for ‘reimburse’, and so on.
Use punctuation to aid understanding

Make sure your sentences are complete. Use semi-colons and commas to
mark out your major and minor pauses. 15
Use a paragraph for each idea
Break up your writing into digestible chunks. Paragraphs give your reader a
break. Paragraphs are made up of sentences with a common theme.When
the theme changes, so should the paragraph.
Prefer the active to the passive

Active verbs are much clearer and easier to understand. Unlike passive
verbs, they tend to reflect how we speak.The trick is to put the ‘doer’
before the ‘done to’. For example: ‘The committee decided’ rather than
‘It was decided by the committee’.
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Continued …
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15–29

15.11
writing
… continued
Use verbs, not nouns created from verbs

Too many reports are full of these grand sounding noun phrases.
For example, write ‘use’ instead of ‘the utilisation of’.
Use a conversational style

This will help you to write as you speak. For example, ‘I think that’ rather
than ‘It is the opinion of this author that’.
Avoid ‘officialese’
Avoid the artificial language that officials use to give an air of authority.
You’ll only sound pompous. For example, don’t write ‘The duly executed
forms should be submitted to the undersigned on completion’; try
‘Please return the signed forms to me when you have finished them’.
Avoid clichés like the plague – they’re old hat

They can be useful to let your sense of humour and personal style come
through in your writing, but they can easily be misinterpreted and give the
wrong impression.
Explain your terminology

The jargon of one area of work will not necessarily be understood in
another area. If you need to use a jargon term whose meaning is not self-
evident, think how you can write it another way. If you can’t think of an
alternative, treat it like an abbreviation and explain it the first time you use
it.
Make full use of visual layout

Make the layout helpful and easy on the eye. Use a lot of white space by
putting extra line-breaks between topics. Indent areas to give extra
emphasis. Make full use of capitals, bold type and italics to highlight separate
areas. Illustrations, pie charts and histograms are an excellent way of
conveying complex information in an easy-to-understand form.
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15–30
Activity 16
Managing
performance
Purpose
To introduce participants to a five-stage process

which will ensure that their project staff perform
the essential activities to an agreed standard.
16

Activity 16
Managing
performance
How can I ensure that my project team
members are working effectively?
Purpose To introduce participants to a five-stage process
which will ensure that their project staff perform
the essential activities to an agreed standard.
Application This activity is appropriate on any training event

aimed at project managers who have responsibility
for members of a project team.
The techniques described are common to many

management positions and the activity would be
equally appropriate for events aimed at developing
general management skills, team leadership or
performance appraisal courses.
What happens You start the session with a discussion which

establishes that as the project manager the
participants have responsibility to achieve results
through their project team.The project manager
should aim to ensure commitment, but also identify
the minimum standards with which team members
should comply. 16
Five key questions that should be answered by the
project manager and their team members are
identified. Each of these questions is explored in
turn in a number of activities. A series of exercises
reinforces the content and gives the participants an
opportunity to practise.
The session ends with a consolidation exercise

during which each participant prepares an action
plan aimed at developing their expertise in managing
performance.They are encouraged to fill in their
Learning review diary.
16–1
● Why am I here?: 15 minutes
● What am I trying to achieve?: 15 minutes
● How will I do it?: 30 minutes
● How am I doing?: 30 minutes
● How will I know if I was successful?: 45 minutes

resources 16.1 Management – definition
16.2 How do we improve performance?
a Questions
b Answers
16.3 Set performance objectives
16.4 Effective performance objectives
16.5 Properties of effective objectives
16.6 The control loop
16.7 Giving effective feedback
16.8 Running review discussions
16.9 Running review discussions
16.10 Improving project performance

participants

Start the session by asking the participants to define
the term ‘management’.Write their suggestions on a
flipchart until they have volunteered enough
suggestions for your purpose.
16–2
Tell the group that whilst there are many definitions

of management, there is a general consensus that
management is about achieving results. (If the
participants have previously completed Activity 12
Project leadership style they should be able to recall
the definition used in that session.)
Show OHT 16.1

If relevant, point out that this definition

complements the material covered in Activity 12.That
session focused on developing their commitment by
adopting an appropriate leadership style.This session
will focus on ensuring compliance – how to get your
project staff to do the job you want.
Point out that compliance is at the heart of all

contracts. If you fail to carry out an action in
accordance with what has been agreed, you are in
breach of that contract. Being in breach, as far as
employment law is concerned, could lead to the
person being dismissed.
One of the arts of a good project manager is to

harness both compliance and commitment.
Staff who grudgingly do as they are told are often
ineffective, but, as the project manager, you are
responsible for achieving the project goal.This will
involve you working with your staff to establish the 16
minimum standards for expected performance.
Re-show OHT 16.1

Ask the group to tell you the difference between

‘efficiency’ and ‘effectiveness’.
The answers you are looking for are something like:
Efficiency = doing things well
Effectiveness = doing the right thing.

16–3
This means that your staff need to know what they

should be spending their time on, and how they
should perform their duties.
In order to achieve a continuing level of high

performance, both the project manager and their
staff need to be able to answer certain questions.
Show OHT 16.2

How do we improve performance?
TRAINER’S TIP
Use the ‘show and reveal method’ for maximum

impact. Show OHT 16.2a (Questions) first, and
reveal each question one at a time.Then lay OHT
16.2b (Answers) on top of 16.2a, revealing each
answer one at a time.
Having revealed the OHT 16.2, discuss each of the

items with the group.
This introduction should take about 15 minutes.
WHY AM I HERE?
All projects have a purpose. One of the early roles
of the project manager is to clarify the aim of the
project, agree the terms of reference and identify
any constraints.This will enable you to clearly
identify the project goal – the clear destination you
are heading for.
Once the purpose of the project is clearly defined

you need to ask yourself ‘Do my staff know where
they fit in?’ To work effectively they need to know
how their job contributes to the overall jigsaw
which comes together in order to help you achieve
the project goal.
Each member of your project team should be able

to answer such questions as:
16–4
● Why does my job exist?

● What am I here to achieve?
● How does my job contribute towards the overall
project?
Exercise one
Ask the participants to write down, in one or two
sentences, a statement of their job purpose. Point
out that it is important to state what they are doing
as distinct from their staff or line manager. Some
examples of what you are expecting are:
Contracts Manager
‘To prepare, negotiate and monitor contracts to
make sure we receive value for money from
suppliers.’
Training Manager
‘To run profitable training courses that equip the
participants with the skills and knowledge to
improve their job performance.’
When they have finished their first draft, ask the

participants to share their notes with another
member of the group. Ask for a few volunteers to
write up their purpose on a flipchart.This will
enable the whole group to review their efforts.
Allow about 15 minutes to deal with this first

question.
16
WHAT AM I TRYING TO ACHIEVE?
Inform the group that to answer this question they
have to identify their Key Areas of Responsibility.
These are the areas where they have personal

responsibility for achieving results.They should be
able to identify the main areas where personal
failure on their part would adversely affect the
project team’s performance.
Tell the group to use the ‘80/20 Rule’.This rule of

thumb was identified by an Italian engineer,
economist and sociologist,Wilfredo Pareto
16–5
(1848–1923). He identified that in any range of

items it was often the vital few (the 20%) that had
the greatest value in achieving the target
(they contributed 80% to the overall effort).
Most people will have between four and six main

responsibilities for their post.They will perform
other activities, but these are the critical ones.
Typical examples include:
Contracts Manager
● Prepare contract specifications
● Manage the tendering process
● Scrutinise bids
● Negotiate price
● Review procedures.
Training Manager
● Conduct training needs analysis
● Specify learning outcomes
● Design training event(s)
● Deliver training
● Evaluate the outcome.
Exercise two
Ask the participants to identify the key areas of
their posts. Point out that this shouldn’t be a full job
description but is used to highlight the priorities for
their job.
When they have finished, ask them to review with

another group member. Ask for different volunteers
to write their ideas on the flipchart for all to review.
When you are satisfied that they have mastered
what is required, move on to the next question.
Allow 15 minutes for this part of the activity.
HOW WILL I DO IT?

The next step is to agree at least one objective and
specify what standard of performance you expect
for each key area.
Point out that a common mistake at this point is to

list all the tasks the individual needs to do, but to
leave out the expected performance standards.
16–6
Remind the group that we want to establish not only

what we want them to do (effectiveness) but also
how well we want the job done (efficiency).
Show OHT 16.3

Set performance objectives
Point out that while this example is typical, it is not

what you are after. Ask the participants to criticise it.
They should identify that it isn’t specific, it is difficult
to measure, you won’t know if you have been
successful or not, and it is generally a negative rather
than a positive statement of intent.
Ask them to compare it with the next example.
Show OHT 16.4

Effective performance objectives
Ask the participants to compare the two objectives

on OHT 16.3 and OHT 16.4.They should recognise
that the second has the properties that have been
identified for effective objectives.
Show OHT 16.5

Properties of effective objectives
Exercise three 16
Ask the participants to write down an objective for
at least two of their key areas.
When they have finished, ask them to review what

they have written with a partner.When they are
conducting the review remind them they should be
checking that the draft objective meets the
S M A R T E R criteria (see page 3–4). Encourage
them to make revisions after this constructive
criticism.
When all have finished, ask for further volunteers to

write their revised objectives on a flipchart for
review by the whole group.
Allow about 30 minutes for this part of the activity. 16–7

HOW AM I DOING?
Ask the participants for suggestions of the benefits
to both the project manager and their staff for the
process they have followed to date.They should
reply along the lines of:
● focuses attention
● gives a sense of direction
● aids time management and prioritising
● gives a measure of performance
● identifies quality as well as quantity
● provides the basis for action
● allows feedback on achievement.
Point out that once the objectives have been

clarified and agreed between the project manager
and their staff they should review progress on a
regular basis. Precisely when will be determined by
the timescale of the objective (ideally once a month
and certainly every three months).
Ask the participants for suggestions of typical

questions you should seek answers to at any review.
Their suggestions should cover such areas as the
following:
● To what extent have I achieved my objectives?

● Are there any factors blocking my achievement?
● Have circumstances changed which mean my
objectives should be changed?
● Have new priorities emerged which mean that
this objective could be better replaced by
another?
● Have I exceeded any of my objectives?
● What are the implications for others if I exceed
my objectives?
● What help has my project manager given me to
help my achievement?
● What additional help would I like?
● How much feedback and information am I getting
that can help monitor progress?
Point out that, as with setting objectives, this

monitoring process will work best if it is a two-way
process. Remind the group that people work best
16–8
when they have commitment as well as the

guidelines with which they must comply.
Inform the group that there are three options if

there is a shortfall between the objectives and their
project staff’s performance.
Show OHT 16.6

The central loop
No surprises
Point out to the participants that they need to give
regular feedback to their staff about individuals’
progress around this loop. In this way each staff
member will have an early opportunity to correct
their mistakes, to work on weaknesses, to continue
to work as they are or to identify ways in which
they can improve. One of the keys to successful
performance improvement is regular feedback to
staff.That way there will be no surprises at the
review.
Exercise Four
Ask the group to think of their own past work
experiences and identify times when they received
particularly useful feedback.When they have thought
of an appropriate incident(s), ask them to work in
pairs, sharing their experiences and identifying the
common ground rules for giving effective feedback.
16
When the participants have finished their
discussions, lead a plenary review. Ask each pair to
provide one suggestion.Write them on a flipchart
for the whole group to review.
Among the suggestions you can expect to find are

the following:
Encourage self-criticism – People are more

willing to accept the criticism when they have
recognised their own strengths and weaknesses.
Start by encouraging them to appraise themselves
and then build on their own insights.
16–9
Be helpful rather than critical – They need

information on where they are failing but negative
feedback can destroy their confidence and
motivation. Balance out and keep a sense of
perspective.
Be specific – Whether you are criticising or

praising, detailed information, rather than vague or
woolly statements, is more likely to reinforce what
happened.
Describe actual behaviour – Don’t remark on

the individual, their personality or attitudes. Focus
on what they actually said or did and avoid your
own personal idiosyncrasies in judging performance.
Focus on areas they can do something about –

It is frustrating to be reminded of something over
which you have no control.
Be selective – Give as much information as they

can use.Too many examples or points will dilute the
feedback and could lead to complacency or
defensiveness.
Be forward looking – Constructive comments

that offer alternatives on what could be done
differently in the future are more helpful than
destructive criticism of past actions.
Discuss it – Don’t give the feedback and run. Stay

to explore the topic in more detail. Have they taken
it on board? Do they want to discuss future action
plans in more detail?
Show OHT 16.7

Get effective feedback
Encourage the participants to add any of these items

to their list.
16–10
HOW WILL I KNOW IF I WAS

SUCCESSFUL?
Point out that if the process has been well managed
so far then there will be little to fear from the final
performance review. Agreed objectives that have
measurable standards which are backed up by
regular feedback and monitoring should ensure the
project is completed successfully with each
individual performing as required.
Why bother with a formal review?

Point out that just as it is good practice for the
project manager to formally review both successful
and unsuccessful projects, then it is also good
practice to review the project staff.
Ask the group for the advantages of holding a

formal review.You should get some or all of the
following answers:
● a formal record of the individual’s performance

● a chance to learn from the past
● an opportunity to give thanks and praise
● a forum for two-way communication
● time to establish new objectives and performance
standards
● chance to establish current training needs
● opportunity to discuss long-term development
● you can learn a lot about your performance as a
project manager. 16
Point out that when performance has been so poor
that you consider the individual to be inefficient, most
organisations make a formal review mandatory.There
are sound legal reasons for this, which are explored
in Activity 17 Managing conflict.
Tell the group that this formal review is greatly

enhanced if both the project manager and the job
holder do some preliminary thinking before the
meeting.
Adopt a positive attitude

Point out that if the project manager has been
conducting regular and focused review discussions
16–11
throughout the project, then the end of project

review should progress smoothly.
The key to running an effective review discussion

can be determined by the manager’s attitude.Tell the
group that the manager should encourage the
behaviour outlined on the next OHT.
Show OHT 16.8

Running review discussions
Discuss each item on the overhead.
Encourage substantial interviewee

participation – The more the job holder
participates in the process the more likely they are
to be satisfied with the interview and its outcome.
Emphasise performance not personality –

Personality is notoriously difficult to define or alter.
Focus on facts and concentrate on the job holder’s
performance; this is the best way to achieve
sustained improvement.
Adopt a joint problem solving style – The more

time you spend analysing and identifying the nature
of problems together, the more likely it is that
changes in behaviour and performance will occur.
Be a positive and supportive interviewer –

Adopt a style that promotes a climate of openness
and trust. If you aim for constructive criticism rather
than blaming, you are more likely to produce a
favourable response to the discussion and
commitment to the actions agreed.
Collaborate in goal setting – Set specific goals

which the job holder can strive to achieve.This will
have a powerful effect on subsequent performance.
Again the greater the participation the greater the
sense of ownership and commitment to
achievement.
16–12
Exercise five – consolidate your learning

Ask the participants to work in pairs. One person
plays the role of the discussion leader.Their task is
to help their partner review how effectively they are
managing the performance of their project team.
When playing the discussion leader you should aim

to use the approach listed in Handout 16.9 Running
review discussions.

Running review discussions
When playing the project manager, be prepared to

discuss, with examples, how effectively you followed
the process outlined in Handout 16.10 Improving
project performance.

Improving project performance
After you have completed the discussion, change

roles.The exercise should end when both
participants have developed an action plan for their
own continued development in this topic area.
Get them under way. Move between the pairs as

they work. Keep them on track and answer any
questions they have where appropriate. 16
When all the pairs have finished, reconvene and hold
a plenary review.What were the main points that
emerged for the participants from the exercise?
What areas were difficult and which less so?
Allow 45 minutes for this final section of the

activity.
16–13
LEARNING REVIEW
Ask participants to record their major learning
points from the session in their Learning review
diary (see ‘How to use this resource’ on page xii).
Ask for some volunteers to discuss their action plan

with the rest of the group. Check that their action
plans meet the SMARTER criteria.
When all who want to have spoken, thank the

participants and close the session.
16–14
16.1
Management is the
efficient and effective use
of resources to achieve
results with and
through the efforts of
other people.
16
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16–15
How do we improve
16.2a
performance?
QUESTIONS:
Why am I here?
What am I trying
to achieve?
How will I do it?
How am I doing?
How will I know if

I was successful?
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16–16
How do we improve
16.2b
performance?
ANSWERS:
● Project plan: Job

purpose
● Key areas of
responsibility
● Objectives and
performance
standards
● Monitor feedback
16
● Review report
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16–17
Set performance
16.3
objectives
A typical objective:
Reduce the delay in submission of

project management reports and
minutes of cost control meetings.
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16–18
Effective performance
16.4
objectives
To ensure that monthly project meetings
are efficiently planned and organised:
● agenda sent out five days before

meeting
● accommodation checked one hour

before meeting
– (for furniture, equipment and
refreshments)
● minutes are distributed within three

working days
– in agreed format and layout
– with action points showing who will 16
do what by when
● all managers on circulation list receive

management reports by 21st of each
month.
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16–19
16.5
objectives
S – SPECIFIC
Clear and unambiguous
end product
M – MEASURABLE
Observable outcomes
of performance
A – ACHIEVABLE
R – RELEVANT
Address a significant need
of the organisation
T – TIMEBOUND
project
E – EXCITING
R – RECORDED
review
OK
TO
Y
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16–20
The control loop

16.6
Set objectives
and performance
records
Either Monitor
A – ignore gap, or performance against
B – change standards, or standards
C – improve performance
Identify the gap

between actual
and planned
performance
16
OK
TO
Y
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16–21
Giving effective feedback

16.7
● Encourage self-criticism
● Be helpful rather than critical
● Be specific
● Describe actual behaviour
● Focus on areas they can do something
about
● Be selective
● Be forward looking
● Discuss it.
OK
TO
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16–22
Running review
16.8
discussions
● Encourage substantial interviewee
participation
● Emphasise performance not

personality
● Adopt a joint problem-solving style
● Be a positive and supportive

interviewer
● Collaborate in goal setting.
16
OK
TO
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16–23
Running review
16.9
discussions
● Encourage substantial interviewee participation
● Emphasise performance not personality
● Adopt a joint problem-solving style
● Be a positive and supportive interviewer
● Collaborate in goal setting.
Encourage substantial interviewee participation – The more the job

holder participates in the process the more likely they are to be satisfied
with the interview and its outcome.
Emphasise performance not personality – Personality is notoriously

difficult to define or alter. Focus on facts and concentrate on the job
holder’s performance; this is the best way to achieve sustained
improvement.
Adopt a joint problem-solving style – The more time you spend

analysing and identifying the nature of problems together, the more likely it
is that changes in behaviour and performance will occur.
Be a positive and supportive interviewer – Adopt a style that

promotes a climate of openness and trust. If you aim for constructive
criticism rather than blaming, you are more likely to produce a favourable
response to the discussion and commitment to the actions agreed.
Collaborate in goal setting – Set specific goals which the job holder can
strive to achieve.This will have a powerful effect on subsequent
performance. Again the greater the participation the greater the sense of
ownership and commitment to achievement.
OK
TO
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16–24
Improving project
16.10
performance
● Project plan: job purpose

● Key areas of responsibility
● Objectives and performance standards
● Monitor feedback
● Review report.
16
OK
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16–25
16–26
Activity 17
Managing conflict
Purpose
To introduce the participants to the strategy and

style necessary to run a discussion with a job holder
who is not performing to the required standard.
17

Activity 17
Managing conflict
How do I constructively confront a poor
performer?
Purpose To introduce the participants to the strategy and
style necessary to run a discussion with a job holder
who is not performing to the required standard.
Application This activity is applicable on a training event for all

project managers who have responsibility for
people – whether direct reports, consultants or
others.
The session covers material that is also applicable to

any line manager who has responsibility for people.
It could be used on courses such as Introduction to
Management,Team Leadership, Disciplinary Skills or
Performance Appraisal.
What happens You start the session by establishing that the people
are the project manager’s most vital and usually
most expensive asset.You next discuss the need to
take timely action to correct poor performance.
The participants then define what they understand

by the term ‘Discipline’.You stress that it has a
positive aspect that is often overlooked. At this
point a seven-step approach to overcoming poor
performance is introduced.
17
The styles of behaviour that the project manager
uses for the approach are discussed.Three main
types of behaviour and four predominant styles for
handling conflict are discussed.The benefits of an
assertive style are identified.
The participants are then given the opportunity to

try out the approach and style in a series of mini
role-play exercises using real work-based incidents
they have experienced.
17–1
The session ends with a plenary review following

which participants identify how they can transfer
their learning back to their work.Where
appropriate, they fill in their Learning review diary.

● Disciplining employees: 30 minutes
● What’s your usual conflict style?: 30 minutes
● Putting it into practice: 30 minutes
● Review and action plan: 15 minutes.
● 1 Flipchart master:
17.1 Resources

resources 17.2 ACAS Disciplinary Code of Practice
17.3 Overcoming poor performance
17.4 Ingredients of a performance discussion
17.5 Conflict-handling styles
In preparation You will need to draw a copy of Flipchart 17.1 on a

flipchart sheet.

Start the activity by showing the prepared flipchart.
Show Flipchart 17.1

Resources
Tell the group that as project managers they are

responsible for getting the best out of many
resources to achieve the ultimate goals of their
17–2 project.
Ask them to name the most significant resources

that project managers control.Write their
suggestions on the flipchart in the segments of the
circle as they call them out.These should include:
● money
● materials
● machinery
● premises
● time
● methods
● people (Write PEOPLE in the centre circle).
Ask the participants why you have placed ‘People’ in

such a central position.They should be able to
identify that people are an organisation’s most vital
asset.
Ask the group if they know how much of the

organisation’s costs are people costs? Point out that
when you add National Insurance contributions,
pensions and other benefits to basic salary, many
organisations find that people are also their most
expensive asset.
Turn to a fresh sheet of flipchart paper.Write ‘Asset’

on the top.Then in the lower half of the sheet write
‘Liability’.
Point out that one of the key roles of a project

manager is to control their staff to ensure that they
are working both efficiently and effectively. Remind
participants that they examined these two terms in
17
Activity 16 Managing performance (see page 16–3).
Can they now define the difference between efficient
and effective?
You may have the best machinery operating the best

system on which no expense has been spared – but
if your staff are not performing at their optimum
then it can all fall apart.
Ask the group for some examples of incidents

where human behaviour has led to poor
performance.They could tell you about local
17–3
incidents based on their own experience, or recall

some of the major disasters, such as aeroplane
crashes or oil-tanker incidents which have been put
down to pilot error.
Tell the group that it is important to keep a sense of

perspective when we start to look at poor
workplace performance. Provided that the project
manager has given clear guidance and supplies the
essential resources and training, the vast majority of
their staff will perform to an appropriate standard.
Remind the participants of the steps they need to

take by re-showing OHT 16.6 The control loop.
Show OHT 16.6

The control loop
But what about the staff who fail to perform to

standard? What action should be taken and by
whom?
Ask the participants how many have a Personnel or

Human Resources Department.What role does this
department have in regulating the day to day work
of the project team? If they have one, the answers
will usually indicate that taking action to establish
and improve performance is the project manager’s
role. In most organisations the Personnel team
provide a back-up consultancy service to ensure that
established procedures are followed and carried out
lawfully.
Don’t ignore it
Ask the group which of the two following options
they would choose when a member of their project
team is either making repeated serious mistakes, or
consistently turning up late for work.Would they:
A. Ignore the issue? Avoid any possible

confrontation and hope that the problem will
correct itself?
B. Confront the issue? Take whatever steps are

17–4 necessary to overcome the problem and make
sure performance returns to standard as quickly

as possible?
Faced with this simple choice, most participants will

opt for option B. Most will, however, admit to also
taking option A at some time.
Point out that project management is like much of

human behaviour – it calls on us to make
judgements, and different people will act in different
ways in the same circumstances. As with many
things, choosing the right behaviour at the right time
will depend on a number of factors.
Tell the participants that you don’t want to teach

them to be a bunch of ogres, who jump on even the
smallest misdemeanour – indeed there is much
management literature that points out that this
autocratic style can be far from productive in the
long term.What you do want them to consider is
the implications of taking too long before going
down route B.
Ask the groups to draw on their own experience of

some of the likely outcomes when managers fail to
take timely action.They should come up with
suggestions such as:
● a poor example to other staff

● demotivation and decline in productivity
● affects costs and profitability
●
●
difficult to rectify an established pattern
lack of credibility for organisation’s procedures
17
● lack of credibility for manager
● loss of any subsequent legal case.
Point out that timely intervention by the project

manager is in most cases sufficient to alert the worker
concerned that they need to change their behaviour.
An informal approach can usually head off the
necessity to go down a more formal discipline route.
Allow a total time of 30 minutes for this

introduction to the activity.
17–5
DISCIPLINING EMPLOYEES
Ask the participants what words they associate with
the term ‘Discipline’.They will usually reply along the
lines of:
● punishment
● castigation
● chastisement
● correction
● penalty
● reprimand.
Point out that whilst these are all words they will
find in any good dictionary or thesaurus, if they look
carefully they will find another set of (more positive)
meanings:
● exercise
● training
● self-control
● regulation
● branch of knowledge
● instruction.
Point out that if managers adopted a positive

approach which focused on these meanings, they
might be less reluctant to confront their staff.
Different organisations have different procedures to

managing problem staff at work. Most of these
procedures reflect the advice given in the ACAS
Code of Practice.
Show OHT 17.2

ACAS Disciplinary Code of Practice
Remind the group that as the procedures of all

organisations could ultimately lead to dismissal of
the employee, they should be followed through
accurately, with managers taking the advice of
personnel specialists at the appropriate time.
17–6
Overcoming poor performance

Inform the participants that to achieve an
improvement in an individual’s performance they will
need to follow a seven-step process.
Show OHT 17.3

Overcoming poor performance
Discuss each of the steps with the group
Step one: Establish what they should be doing

The first step in correcting poor performance is to
establish a benchmark of what you are looking for.
This should be set down in writing and
communicated to the employee. Point out to
participants (or remind them if they have previously
undertaken Activity 16 Managing performance) that
the best form of communication is two-way.This
gives the employee the opportunity to clarify what’s
required and a chance to identify items of concern.
Step two: Regular monitoring and review

If you don’t meet regularly with your project team
you will not be able to observe whether they are
adhering to the established performance standards.
Do not store up all your feedback for an end-of-
project review. Deal with the issues as they occur.
This will mean that you have to adopt a management
approach called ‘Management By Walking About’.
MBWA gives you the opportunity to praise your staff
as well as spot poor performance before it escalates.
17
Your regular monitoring and review should give you
an early warning signal of performance problems.
It has the added advantage of setting up regular
discussions which focus on these issues.This will
enable you to talk about the shortfall between their
expected performance and what they are actually
delivering without having to call a special meeting.
17–7
Step three: Clarify the gap

Part one: Describe the unacceptable behaviour
Describe exactly what the individual is doing that is
causing you concern. Be as specific as possible, and
stick to the facts rather than voice opinions. Relate
what you are saying to the performance standards
that have been agreed. Briefly outline the evidence
you have accumulated.
Part two: Identify the impact

How does their behaviour affect what you are trying
to achieve? Their behaviour will have some impact
elsewhere on the project.This could include the
time you are having to devote to sorting out the
problem.Time you could both spend more
productively elsewhere.
Part three: Establish the change needed

Specify what they have to do to get back to the
standards required. Identify the behaviour or
performance targets they should be reaching to
meet the agreed specification. If you have previously
established what you are after there should be little
difficulty in clarifying the difference.
Step four: Communicate about the problem

Before jumping to a conclusion and imposing a
solution you need to take time to establish why the
situation has occurred. If it is a performance
problem, do they have the necessary skills and
equipment to enable them to do the job? Are they
clear about the standards and the expectations this
creates? If it is a behaviour problem – such as poor
attitude or attendance – are there any underlying
issues and how are they contributing to the
situation? Too often a manager will jump in to solve
a problem without establishing its underlying cause.
Step five: Commit to a solution

If you have followed the previous steps it will be
more likely that you can move to a solution that you
can both agree to.You need to establish what help,
training or resources the employee may need to
overcome the problem.Whilst you need compliance
over standards at work, the best long-term solutions
17–8
are the ones that you are both committed to

implement.Without this commitment the problem is
likely to resurface at another time or in another
way. Having agreed the next steps it is important to
write up your joint-action plan. Both parties will
know precisely what will happen next and what is
expected from them.
Step six: Point out the consequences

This is a stage that is often left out, but is essential if
your disciplinary procedures are to have any teeth.
This is your opportunity to warn the job holder of
the consequences that continued poor performance
or misconduct will bring. Procedures for most
organisations rely on a succession of firmer and more
formal warnings. Make sure that the employee leaves
the discussion under no illusion that this was a
warning, and aware of what will happen next if they
fail to reach the standard in the specified time; for
example,‘oral warning’,‘written warning’, etc.
Point out to the group that this approach may seem

blunt, but if it is put over in a collaborative style the
employee will be in a better position to improve
their performance to the desired level.
Step seven: Follow up your action plan

This is a key step in the whole process.This is when
you carry out what you have decided at Step five.
People believe very little of what you tell them
unless it is accompanied by the promised action.
Point out that once again your credibility and the
legality of the procedures will be under threat if you
17
don’t carry through the plan of action, and monitor
your employee to ensure they deliver their side of
your agreement.
Ingredients of a performance discussion
Show OHT 17.4

Ingredients of a performance discussion
Point out that when running a performance

discussion, in common with so many management
17–9
activities, three strands of activity are operating at

the same time.
The content usually takes most attention as this

focuses on the behaviour or lack of performance
that you want to use at the core of your discussion.
The seven-step plan outlined above will give you a
structure.This provides a useful route map which you
can use to navigate your way through the discussion.
With these two in place the success or failure of

the discussion will come down to how well you
manage the process – what style you will adopt.
This section on disciplining employees should take a

total of about 30 minutes.
WHAT’S YOUR USUAL CONFLICT STYLE?

Inform the group that the style we use to deal with
situations that have the potential for conflict will
usually depend on our habitual behaviour. Social
scientists have identified three main types of
behaviour and these are closely related to conflict
handling styles:
Aggressive, passive or assertive.
● Being aggressive
Tell the group that being aggressive means getting
your own way at the expense of other people.
It often involves putting them down, making them
feel small, incompetent, foolish or worthless.
It does not necessarily mean being confrontational
all of the time – sarcastic humour can be very
aggressive.A key feature involves manipulating
other people for your own ends.
● Being passive
Being passive can be defined as failing to stand up
for your rights or doing so in such a way that
others can disregard them.
Point out that being passive usually means putting

up with a situation you feel uncomfortable with
17–10
rather than being honest about what you really

think or feel. It involves being apologetic about
your own views rather than expressing them
positively.
● Being assertive
This is usually defined as standing up for your
own rights in such a way that does not violate the
rights of others.
Inform the group that being assertive means being

honest with yourself and others, putting forward
your own views and stating clearly and honestly
what you want, think and feel. It involves being self-
confident and positive but not dogmatic.When you
are behaving assertively you aim to understand the
other person’s point of view and are capable of
negotiating to reach a workable compromise.The
assertive style is the one that should, wherever
possible, be adopted.
Assertive individuals can also be firm in

expressing their point of view.This approach is
sometimes misinterpreted by others as being
aggressive.
Divide the participants into three groups. Give each

group a separate behaviour and ask them to report
back in 10 minutes with their view of the typical
behaviour and body language they associate with
that type.
Reconvene and lead a plenary review.You can

17
expect the following suggestions from each group.
Typical aggressive behaviour:

● domineering
● opinionated
● sarcastic
● angry
● self-righteous
● loud
● threatening
● verbally/physically abusive
● interrupting.
17–11
Body language
● glaring eye contact
● clenched fists
● pointing finger
● rigid stance
● leaning forward, intimidating
● arms crossed
● raised eyebrows.
Typical passive behaviour

● deferring
● withdrawn
● apologetic
● helpless
● anxious
● guilty
● ashamed
● insignificant
● confused.
Body language
● downcast eyes
● nervous gestures, hand-wringing, etc.
● submissive smile
● quiet voice
● drops end of sentences
● hunched shoulders
● arms crossed in protection
● clears throat frequently.
Typical assertive behaviour

● self-assured
● confident
● sensitive to others
● accepts responsibility
● calm
● open
● respectful
● trusting
● problem-solving.
Body language
● direct eye contact
● firm, clear voice
● upright, but not stiff, posture
17–12
● confident hand movements

● open gestures
● smiles (when pleased)
● frowns (when displeased/angry).
Tell the group that assertive behaviour is very

difficult to resist. If it is used skilfully and for long
enough, it will usually prompt the other person to
start to think and act in the same way.
Point out that some managers are more locked in

to their particular behaviour patterns.They find it
more difficult to change and will resist the assertive
approach, and when facing conflict they usually
respond in a less appropriate way.
Behaviour and conflict styles

Your regular behaviour will have a direct impact on
your usual conflict-handling style. Inform the group
that four clear styles have been identified.
Show OHT 17.5

Conflict-handling styles
1. The collaborative style

This style portrays someone who is high in
competition and co-operation.Their aim is for
both parties to get as much as possible from the
situation.Their assertive behaviour usually leads
to an ‘I win – you win’ outcome.When operating
from this particular style you will tend to be 17
positive and optimistic about yourself and other
people.
Ask the group for suggestions on how this person

may approach conflict and confrontation at work.
Their answers should include:
● welcomes and gives constructive criticism

● consults others
● trusts people
● seeks clarification
● aims to resolve problems mutually
● open approach to communication
17–13
● collaboration and mutual respect

● assertive in achieving their aims
● actively seeks a workable compromise.
2. The accommodating style

This style is marked by people who are high in
co-operation but low in competition.They don’t
stand up for themselves and are always putting
other people’s needs before their own.They often
view themselves as inferior or powerless in
relation to other people. Because of their passive
behaviour, the ‘I lose – you win’ outcome is the
usual.They often put themselves down, undervalue
what they have to offer and frequently withdraw
from difficult situations.
The behaviour the group should be able to identify

will include:
● concedes too readily

● doubts self and own ability
● worries about appearances
● conforms to the rest of the group
● places little value on own contributions
● relies on others to make decisions
● neglects own concerns to satisfy the other party.
3. The competing style

Individuals who operate from this position see
other people as incompetent, unworthy and
inferior.They view confrontation as a competition
in which there will only be one winner –
themselves. Because of their aggressive behaviour
they have very low ratings for co-operation as
they see no need to help others. ‘I win – you lose’
is the usual outcome.
Typical behaviours the group should identify include:
● placing the blame on others

● rejecting ideas they haven’t thought of
● putting down and sneering at people
● suspicious and distrustful of compliments
● aggressively pursuing their own concerns
● win at all costs
17–14
● use status, economic sanctions, etc. to win

arguments.
4. The avoiding style

This style mainly relies on the individual avoiding
confronting difficult situations as their main way
of handling conflict.They are not concerned with
achieving their own goals or those of the other
party.The attitude of these people is ‘Why
bother?’ and they spend a great deal of their time
withdrawing and refusing to accept any
responsibility.This style also attracts people with
a passive nature. ‘I lose – you lose’ is a typical
outcome.
Typical behaviours from this category will include:
● withdrawing from situations

● refusing to come to a decision
● passing the buck elsewhere
● apathetic to any suggestions
● asks you to put instructions in writing
● responds half-heartedly to any direction
● prefers not to be around other people.
On a flipchart draw a grid that reflects OHT 17.5

Conflict-handling styles. Ask the participants to identify
which is the style they use most often to manage
conflict and difficult situations at work.
Ask them to spend a couple of minutes with a

partner from within the group reflecting on the
implications that this style will have on how they
17
manage conflict at work.
Allow 30 minutes for this section on conflict styles.
PUTTING IT INTO PRACTICE

Ask the participants to think of situations in work
where they have had to confront someone over
poor performance.Tell them they have 5 minutes to
write out enough detail to enable someone in the
group to role-play that person.
17–15
When they have finished, ask them to work in

threes, playing in turn the roles of the project
manager, the job holder and the observer. During
the role-play they will have the opportunity to apply
Steps three to six in the seven-step approach
described in OHT 17.3 Overcoming poor performance.
Remind the participants that these are not meant to
be full performance reviews but brief encounters
that will enable them to practise the skills.
When the manager is confronting the job holder,

the third member of the trio observes and gives
feedback to the manager on what they did well and
on which areas they could improve. Did they follow
the appropriate part of the seven-step structure?
Did they adopt the best conflict-handling style for
this encounter?
When you are sure everyone understands what is

required, allocate each group of three to a separate
room and get them under way. Move between the
groups as they conduct the mini-interview. Answer
any questions and give advice on their approach
when appropriate.
This practice exercise should take a total of about

30 minutes.
REVIEW AND ACTION PLAN

The groups will have finished when all the
participants have had the opportunity to play all
three roles.
Reconvene the group and hold a plenary review.

Focus on the skills that were displayed in the
exercise.What did the participants do well?
What was less effective?
When you have finished the review, ask the
participants to make a note of their key learning
from the session. Ask them to fill in their Learning
review diary (see ‘How to use this resource’ on
page xii) which will help them identify how they will
make the transition in applying the skills back at
work.
17–16
When all the participants have completed their

review, thank them for their work and close the
session.
17
17–17
17–18
Resources
17.1
17
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17–19
ACAS Disciplinary
17.2
Code of Practice
Disciplinary procedures
should not be viewed
primarily as a means of
imposing sanctions.
They should be designed
to emphasise and
encourage improvements
in individual conduct.
OK Para 9 ‘Disciplinary Practice and Procedures in Employment’ 1977 ACAS Code of Practice No 1
TO
Crown copyright is reproduced with the permission of the Controller of Her Majesty’s Stationery Office.
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17–20
Overcoming poor
17.3
performance
A seven-step approach
Step one: Establish what they
should be doing.
Step two: Regular monitoring and

review.
Step three: Clarify the gap.
Step four: Communicate about the

problem.
Step five: Commit to a solution.
Step six: Point out the

consequences. 17
Step seven: Follow up your action
plan.
OK
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17–21
Ingredients of a
17.4
performance discussion
CONTENT
STRUCTURE
PROCESS
OK
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17–22
Conflict-handling styles
17.5
HIGH
A
S Competing Collaborative
S
E
R
T
I
V
E Avoiding Accommodating
LOW SUPPORTIVE HIGH
17
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17–23
17–24
Activity 18
Negotiation skills
Purpose
To introduce project managers to the skills and

techniques required to negotiate successfully.
To give them an opportunity to try out and develop
their skills in this area.
18

Activity 18
Negotiation skills
How can I achieve a win–win outcome
to my negotiations?
Purpose To introduce project managers to the skills and
techniques required to negotiate successfully.
To give them an opportunity to try out and develop
their skills in this area.
Application Negotiating is an essential skill for all project

managers. Even people who have complete
autonomy over their project will have to influence
others.This module is a core ingredient of all
courses and developmental activities which set out
to improve the skills of the project manager.
It can also be used on other events that focus on

developing the participants’ influencing skills, for
example,Assertiveness Training, General Management
Development, Sales and Purchasing Development,
Team Building, and Interviewing Skills courses.
What happens You start the session be getting the participants to
consider the underlying principle of negotiation; to
reach an agreement.Various outcomes of negotiating
are considered and the advantages of a ‘win–win’
approach are identified. Participants are asked to
identify the range of people with whom they
negotiate and to identify the usual outcomes of
these meetings.
You then move on to look at what is involved in

18
planning a negotiation.The participants are
introduced to a technique – the expectation test –
and discuss the type of information they need to
complete it.You then give them an opportunity to
develop the approach in a group exercise during
which they prepare for a negotiating exercise.
The participants then consider how they will

manage their overall strategy, before making their
final preparations for the negotiating exercise.
18–1
After the final exercise you lead a plenary review

during which you relate the behaviours displayed to
those that have been noted as effective and
ineffective negotiators.
At the end of the session participants are given time

to review their own learning, to fill in their Learning
review diary, and make plans for improving their
negotiation skills at work.
Time Overall time required: 3 hours.

● With whom do you negotiate?: 15 minutes
● Outcomes of negotiation: 20 minutes
● Planning negotiations: 30 minutes
● Prepare your team and your strategy: 30 minutes
● Negotiating exercise: 30 minutes
● Review: 20 minutes
● Drawing up an action plan: 20 minutes.
resources 18.1 Negotiation – definition
18.2 The expectation test
18.3 Face-to-face negotiating behaviours
18.4 My range of negotiation contacts
18.5 The expectation test
18.6 The hotel conference
Part one – the organiser’s brief
18.7 The hotel conference
Part two – the hotel management brief
18.8 Prepare your team and your strategy
18.9 Face-to-face negotiating behaviours
participants
18–2

Start the session by writing the word
NEGOTIATING on a flipchart. Ask the participants
to call out the words that they associate with the
term ‘negotiating’.
List their suggestions on the chart as they call them

out.When they have come up with about a dozen,
stop and review their ideas.
Take a coloured marker pen and highlight the words

‘persuasion’ and ‘compromise’ (you may have to
probe the group until they volunteer these or
something similar).
Lead a discussion focusing on why these are the two

central features of negotiating. Point out that in a
typical encounter where we are trying to influence
the other person, we will first try to persuade them
to adopt our point of view.They are similarly trying
to persuade us that we cannot maintain our original
position.
Point out that there comes a crucial point in any

discussion when you realise that in order to break
the impasse, one of you needs to compromise and
change position.What distinguishes negotiation from
other types of persuasion is that both parties are
prepared to move from the status quo. If you are
truly negotiating, both parties must be prepared to
move from their original position, conceding issues
to the other person.
Show OHT 18.1

18
Negotiation – definition
Point out that for a negotiation to be successful,

the negotiators must freely reach a viable agreement
or compromise. A viable negotiating agreement is
reached when both parties can agree on what has
been agreed, are fully bound by the terms of the
agreement and can implement the agreement in
their own section or organisation.
18–3
Allow 15 minutes for this introduction to

negotiating.
WITH WHOM DO YOU NEGOTIATE?

Point out that we are all involved in negotiating as
part of our day-to-day activities. It is not just an
activity for politicians, captains of industry or trade
unions, but should be considered a life skill. Ask if
there are any members of the group who are
parents. Point out that it doesn’t matter what age
their children are, they are probably already involved
in constant negotiations with them. Ask for some
typical examples and they should provide you with
such issues as homework, helping with household
chores, bedtime, coming home after a night out, and
so on
The participants will readily identify that their

children are skilled negotiators. Ask them to identify
some of the qualities their children display (even if
they don’t have any of their own then most
participants will be able to join in with suggestions
based on their own observations, or on their own
behaviour as children).
List their ideas on the flipchart.Typical suggestions

will include:
● persistence
● not taking ‘no’ for an answer
● using a variety of tactics
● creative in developing suggestions to break the
impasse
● conjuring up a wide selection of benefits to you
for agreeing their proposals
● manipulation and moral blackmail.
Whilst we are not suggesting that all of these are

effective, they certainly make it difficult for the
parent not to give way and move from their original
position.

My range of negotiation contacts
18–4
Advise the group that you would like them to fill in

the first two columns (headed ‘People’ and ‘Issues’)
and to ignore the ‘Outcome’ column at this stage.
Tell them that you want them to think of their

regular contacts both at work and in their social and
domestic life. Can they identify the individuals
(or organisations) with whom they negotiate
regularly? Ask them to list these contacts in column
one and in column two they should list the range of
issues they negotiate about.
Give participants between 5 and 10 minutes to

complete this task.When they have finished, ask
them to tell you briefly about some of the people
and issues that appear on their lists.Their examples
will help establish the wide-ranging application of
negotiating to all aspects of their work and life.
OUTCOMES OF NEGOTIATION
Return to the original list of words generated about
negotiation.This will usually contain words such as
‘winners’ and ‘losers’. Point out that whilst this is
often true, the professional negotiator will try to
leave the other party feeling satisfied with the deal.
They aim for a ‘win–win’ outcome.
Move to the flipchart and on a clean sheet draw a

cross dividing the flipchart paper into quarters.
Write up the title ‘OUTCOMES OF
NEGOTIATIONS’ and then write ‘I win – You win’
in one quarter. Ask the group to help you fill in the
other three squares. They should be able to identify 18
that the other three outcomes are: ‘I win – you
lose’, ‘I lose – you win’ and ‘I lose – you lose’.
(If the participants have completed Activity 17

Managing conflict, ask them to relate their
conflict-handling ratings with how they fare in
negotiations.There is usually a strong similarity in
the outcomes.)
Why not ‘win – lose’?

Ask the participants to think about a time when
they have been on the winning side in a negotiation. 18–5
How did they feel after the event? They are likely to
identify such feelings as: ‘triumphant’, ‘ecstatic’,
‘extremely confident’, ‘on-top-of-the-world’. Point
out that there is a fine line which when crossed can
make winners feel arrogant and untouchable.
Now ask the participants to remember a time when

they have been on the losing side (‘I lose – you win’).
The feelings associated with losing are invariably
negative;‘cheated’,‘humiliated’,‘foolish’ and ‘angry’.
Ask them what they felt about their next encounter

with the ‘winner’. Most participants in this situation
will readily agree that they couldn’t wait to get their
own back on the victor, usually driving an extra hard
bargain on the next occasion they were in a similar
situation.
Prefer ‘win – win’

Professional negotiators know that they will have to
return and do business with their adversary at some
time in the future.The climate for that encounter
will have been set by their past experience.
The professional will always leave their opponent
thinking they have got a good deal. Even if the
opponent hasn’t made substantial gains there must
always be an element of ‘win–win’ which could be
essential if they are to save face when they return to
their own work environment.
Ask the participants to suggest some benefits of

adopting a negotiating strategy that sets out to
achieve ‘win–win’ from the outset. List their ideas
on the flipchart.They should identify such
suggestions as:
● it meets the needs of both parties
● long-term relationships are developed
● the decision is acceptable to both parties
● it emphasises a flexible approach
● it develops two-way communication
● it avoids personality clashes and other destructive
behaviour
● both parties may gain more from a collaborative
approach than when one is out to win by putting
the other down.
18–6
What results do you get?

Now ask the participants to return to Handout 18.4
My range of negotiation contacts.Tell them to fill in the
final column marked ‘Outcomes’ to show how they
fared in negotiating over the ‘Issues’ they identified.
They should record whether they felt they won or
lost and also note the outcome for the other party
they were negotiating with.
Give them 5 minutes for this task.When they have

finished, ask them to review their overall ratings. Ask
them what this exercise has shown them about
their habitual negotiating style.
Conclude this part of the session by asking them to

call out the style that has occurred most frequently.
Note their name down in the appropriate quarter
of the flipchart.When you have a contribution from
each member of the course, put the chart on a wall.
You now have a visual display of the group’s style
which you can refer to throughout the session.
TRAINER’S TIP
This chart can be used to balance up the groups

for the practical negotiating exercise that they will
be participating in later.
Allow a total of 20 minutes for this section on the

outcomes of negotiation.
PLANNING YOUR NEGOTIATIONS 18

Point out that negotiations, in common with many
other management activities, benefit from taking
time to plan before taking part in the activity.
Show OHT 18.2

The expectation test
Explain to the group that the first stage is to

brainstorm a list of all the issues that could be used
by either party to the negotiation.Tell them that the
18–7
more issues they can identify the better.

They will not be thrown by any surprises from their
protagonist and may well identify several issues that
may otherwise have been overlooked.
Warn the group that in any negotiation it is very

easy to get bogged down with price. Point out that
it is important to consider what you are getting for
your money. Developing a checklist of all the issues
will help you determine the overall value of the
package you will eventually accept.
The next step after identifying the key issues is to

consider what you want to achieve for each one.
By setting your objectives before the negotiations,
you will be able to judge progress and know when
you are closing on a satisfactory deal.
What’s your bottom line?

The process of setting objectives for each of the
issues involves identifying three separate items:
1. What you must gain – your fallback position

which represents your bottom line.
2. What you’d like to gain – your realistic settlement
point.
3. What is the best possible outcome for you on
this negotiating point – your ideal settlement
point.
Identifying these different levels gives you an

opportunity to move your position in the
negotiating discussion – one of the prime
requirements if you are to reach a workable
compromise.
Point out that too many negotiations don’t get off

the ground because an impasse is set up by one of
the parties starting with the bottom line, leaving no
room for manoeuvre.
Among the dilemmas faced by any negotiator is

where to pitch their opening bid, how far to move
and how long to hold out for a settlement.The
expectation test can provide some useful information
18–8
but the precise starting point is always down to the

judgement of the individual negotiators.
Forewarned is forearmed
The negotiator’s next step involves them in making
an estimate of their opponent’s likely position on
each of the identified issues.
To help them identify the need to do this, discuss a

common example with the group. Ask the group
who has ever bought a second-hand car.There are
usually several in every group. Ask them what type
of research they did before starting to buy the car
of their choice.
Typical answers will include that they studied the

‘For Sale’ pages of their local papers to identify what
price was being asked for models of different makes.
Probe to find out why.They will answer that they
needed to build up market research on what car
(year, model, engine size, finish, accessories, and so
on) was being offered at what price.
Most will also have checked out what their local

dealers were offering by studying the display adverts
and reading one of the many guides to used car
prices showing levels they could expect to pay for
cars in exceptional, good and average condition and
what car dealers would offer as a trade-in price.
The last figure will generally give them the seller’s

bottom line, as private sellers will expect to get as a
minimum a figure they could have been offered
hassle-free by their local garage. 18
They may complain that this is relatively easy when
you are dealing with buying a car where a lot of good
information is readily available. Ask the group for
ideas on how they can go about gathering
information for other less public transactions. List
their ideas on a flipchart.
18–9
Typical suggestions should include:
● Read the professional and trade publications of

the organisations or speciality you are going to be
dealing with.
● Talk to others who may have previously used the

firm to supply goods or services. If you don’t
know any, many firms will supply you with lists of
their past clients.
● Read their published annual company report and

any other relevant company literature.
● Consumer organisations publish surveys with

recommendations of ‘best buys’ and details on
features, reliability and questions to ask suppliers.
● If they belong to a professional body or

association, what guidelines do these have on
terms of business? Many publish recommended
rates and detail what their members should
include in their package of services.
● Talk to other suppliers of similar services.

Depending on what you are negotiating about
there may be a local or national market rate.
● Talk to an agent or broker. Many organisations

deal with agents as well as directly with their
customers. Brokers such as travel agents,
exhibition and conference organisers can give you
valuable information about what you can expect
for your money.

Tell the participants that they will now have the

opportunity to develop an expectation test which
they will use in preparation for a practical
negotiation exercise later in the session.
Divide them into two groups and issue each group

18–10 with the appropriate handout.

The hotel conference, part one –
the organiser’s brief
or

The hotel conference, part two –
the hotel management brief
Inform them that at this stage you want each group

to concentrate on developing an expectation test as
preparation for the coming practical negotiation
exercise.
Tell the participants that you want them to work as

a group developing a common expectation test.This
will enable you all to compare results of how each
negotiating team has fared from identical
information.
PREPARE YOUR TEAM AND YOUR

STRATEGY
Put the groups into separate rooms so that they
cannot listen to each other’s deliberations. Inform
them they have 30 minutes for this activity. Move
between the groups and, if requested, provide any
further information you may have.
Allow a total of 30 minutes for the whole of this

planning section. 18
When the participants have finished preparing their
expectation tests, reconvene into the main group.
Lead a discussion focusing on what else the
participants could do to prepare themselves to
negotiate successfully.Typical ideas they should
identify should include those listed on Handout 18.8.

Prepare your team and your strategy
18–11
Discuss each item on the handout. Point out that

this will act as a useful aide during the coming
practical exercise.
The preparation exercise and discussion should take

a total of about 45 minutes.
NEGOTIATING EXERCISE
When you have finished the discussion, divide each
of the two groups into separate negotiating teams.
Try to put them into teams of three. One plays the
negotiator, one the recorder and one the analyst.
If you don’t have enough participants then try pairs,
with one person playing a joint role of
analyser/recorder.You can either ask the participants
to decide for themselves or allocate their roles
based on the information in the ‘win–win’ matrix.
Give them 15 minutes to prepare in their

negotiating teams. Move between the groups giving
whatever advice and information they need.
Check that they are ready and arrange for each

negotiating team to set up in an area where they
can work without being disturbed by the other
teams.
Whilst the negotiations are under way move

between the groups to check progress. Make notes
on specific instances of effective and ineffective
negotiating behaviour, to provide useful illustrations
for use during the review period.
REVIEW
When all the teams have finished (hopefully when
they have reached a viable agreement), ask each to
record the final outcome of their negotiations on a
flipchart.
Reconvene the teams back into the main group and

lead a plenary discussion on what happened. Start by
asking each team to display their ‘Outcome’ flipchart
and to give a brief summary of what took place.
18–12
It will be interesting to note the different outcomes

achieved by teams operating from identical
information and expectations. Explore why this
happened.These differences serve to emphasise that
negotiating is an art. Like all art forms you can apply
method, structure and discipline but you cannot
prescribe the outcome.
When each team has reviewed their own

performance show OHT 18.3.
Show OHT 18.3

Face-to-face negotiating behaviours
As you discuss each of the items, ask the group to

come up with some examples from the last
exercise. Add your own examples from the
behaviours you observed when you moved between
the groups.

Face-to-face negotiating behaviours
This handout will act as a reminder for the

participants.
Allow 20 minutes for this review.
DRAWING UP AN ACTION PLAN

Divide the participants into pairs. Ask them to
discuss the next negotiation they will become
involved with at work.What are the key points they
18
will incorporate into their preparation and conduct
of that negotiation, based on their experiences in
today’s exercise? They should note these points in
their Learning review diary, if they are using this
approach to recording their learning (see ‘How to
use this resource’ on page xii).
When they have drawn up their individual plans, finish

this activity by reconvening the group and asking each
individual to tell you about one of the key points they
will act upon during their next negotiation. 18–13
When they have all identified a key learning point,

thank them for their participation and close the
session.
TRAINER’S TIP
The practical negotiating exercise can be managed

in alternative ways.
Alternative one: Half the group participate

whilst the other half observe.
Allocate each observer to a negotiator and give

them the Handout 18.9 Face-to-face negotiating
behaviours. When the exercise has finished, the
observers have 10 minutes to give feedback to
the individual they have been studying. Follow this
with a plenary review in which all observers and
negotiators review what happened and what face-
to-face behaviours were on display.
Alternative two: Make a video recording.
If you have access to a video camera you could

record the whole encounter. Make a note of
interesting behaviours (most videos will have a
counter or clock that helps with this).When the
exercise has finished, lead a review using the video
recording to illustrate the key teaching points you
want to discuss.
Fenman Limited publish a Trainer’s Activity Pack

Negotiating Skills by Dave Clarke, Ian Steers and
David Simmonds which provides further examples
of negotiation role-plays.
18–14
Negotiation – definition
18.1
To confer with another

with a view to
compromise and
agreement.
18
OK
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18–15

18.2
Settlement points
Ideal
Realistic
Issues Fallback
Theirs
Theirs
Theirs
Theirs
Theirs
Theirs
Ours
Ours
Ours
Ours
Ours
Ours
Topic
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
OK
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18–16
Face-to-face negotiating
18.3
behaviours
Behaviour avoided by effective negotiators
● Using irritators
● Making counter-proposals
● Attacking and defending
● Woolly proposals
● Too many points in their arguments.
Behaviour used by effective negotiators
● Labelling their behaviour
● Asking questions
● Testing understanding 18
● Summarising
● Building on other’s ideas
● Expressing feelings.
OK
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18–17
My range of negotiation
18.4
contacts
People Issues Outcome
OK
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18–18

18.5
Topic
Settlement points
Issues Fallback Realistic Ideal
1. Ours
Theirs
2. Ours
Theirs
3. Ours
Theirs
4. Ours
Theirs
5. Ours
Theirs
18
6. Ours
Theirs
OK
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18–19
The hotel conference

18.6
Part one – The organiser’s brief
You have been delegated by your firm to organise a team-building event.

This will involve the whole team staying at a good-quality hotel which offers
the type of facilities needed for the event.The precise details haven’t yet been
fixed but the pattern of previous events has included the following:
Day one – The group assemble in the evening for a short welcome and
keynote speech from one of the senior managers.This is followed by an
informal dinner, the main purpose of which is to get the team to relax and
develop informal contacts.
Day two – The senior manager leaves and you are joined by an external
facilitator who will help orchestrate the day.This will involve all the
participants taking part in a variety of small-group activities, each of which
ends by reporting back to the whole group for a plenary review.
Among the activities there will be the showing of a video message from the
CEO detailing the organisation’s direction.The Marketing Director will
attend the final session before dinner to show and discuss your latest
television commercials.The Marketing Director will stay for the night and
join you for a full evening meal. After dinner you plan to hold a light-
hearted event which will allow people to relax but continue to build up
team camaraderie.
Day three – The final day will involve the team working in groups to
summarise the key points from the previous day and working out a
development plan for return to work.This is a half-day and will finish with
lunch, after which people will disperse.There are no additional people
attending on the final day.
You are about to meet the Conference Manager of a hotel that may be able
to meet your requirements. No one in your team or organisation has used
this hotel in the past but they have been recommended by the Tourist Board
Advisory Service.You are keen to negotiate a good price for the event, but
even more important, you must make sure that it is a memorable event that
leaves the participants feeling positive about the organisation.
OK
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18–20

18.6
… continued
What are your needs?

Accommodation
Accommodation is needed for 20 team members for two nights.They will
arrive around 6 p.m. on day one and leave after lunch on day three.They
each need an en-suite room for the duration of the event.
Accommodation is also needed for the following participants:

● Senior Manager – 1 night, leaving after breakfast on day two
● Facilitator – 1 night, arrives morning of second day, leaves after lunch on
day three
● Marketing Manager – 1 night, arrives mid-afternoon on day two, leaves
after breakfast on day three.
Breakfast for all overnight stays each morning.

Evening meal for 21 on day one and 22 on day two.
Lunch for 21 on two days.
Refreshments mid-morning and mid-afternoon on appropriate days.
Your preference is for a buffet lunch on both days and for formal,
three-course, evening meals.
Meeting room
A large meeting room that will seat all participants in a horseshoe format is
required.You will need this for the duration of the event.
On days two and three you will also need three syndicate rooms, each
capable of holding seven people sitting boardroom-style around a table.
18
Equipment
The main room should have an OHP and screen, and two flipcharts,
equipped with pads and marker pens. A whiteboard and an area to fix
group’s flipchart paper would also be useful. Each syndicate room should be
equipped with a separate flipchart, pad and pens and both the main room
and syndicate rooms will need A4 writing paper and pens for participants’
own notes.
You need a colour television and video player on day two.

OK
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continued …
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18–21

18.6
… continued
Transport
Half of the participants will arrive by car, the other half will arrive on two
separate trains on day one.The three guests will all be arriving by train. As
the hotel is several miles from the station you would ideally like the hotel
to arrange transport for all concerned.
Evening activity
You are looking for suggestions about a suitable event to meet your remit
for the second evening.This should be light-hearted and continue the
theme of team building.
Price
You have made some preliminary enquiries from the Tourist Board which
gave a price range of £100–£175 for a 24 hour delegate rate and £35–£65
per delegate for a non-residential day.They have pointed out that you will
need to check what is included in the rate as packages for conferences vary
from hotel to hotel.
You know that hotel Conference Managers have a great deal of discretion
on what to charge for ‘extras’ to any package.These typically include the
provision of conference equipment, especially TV and video, syndicate
rooms and extra flipcharts, food with refreshments, and transport
arrangements.You are also aware that the conference market is highly
competitive at the moment.
Budget
You have the authority to spend up to £5000 for the whole package but
would prefer to settle for a lower figure. A conference that met its aims
and came in under budget would impress your bosses and undoubtedly
improve your career prospects.
OK
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18–22

18.7
Part two – The hotel management brief
You are the Conference Manager of a three star hotel.Your job involves
building up the conference trade to supplement the hotel’s income, during
the quiet periods of the year.You have been approached by a representative
of a national organisation who wants to discuss holding a short conference
at your hotel in the next few months.You are keen to secure this business
as you think that if they have a successful conference, there will be the
possibility of other sections of their organisation using you. Having them as
a client could also impress other national organisations and would be useful
for your advertising material.
The hotel has a schedule of conference rates but you have considerable
discretion about fixing the precise rate and package for each event. Many of
your costs are fixed costs and you will benefit from having revenue at a
non-peak time of your year. It is important, however, that you at least break
even. As this is essentially a one-off conference, with no guarantee of
further bookings, you cannot allow it to run at a loss.
Price
The range of rates offered by your rivals is £100–£175 per delegate for a
24-hour residential package and £35–£65 per delegate for a
non-residential package.Your current standard package is in the middle of
this range at £135 per 24-hour delegate and £50 for non-residential
delegates.
18
The 24-hour package includes:
● overnight accommodation in standard en-suite bedroom (you have six
deluxe rooms available at a supplement of £25 per night)

● morning coffee with biscuits
● afternoon tea with biscuits
● finger-buffet lunch in conference room
● three course table d’hôte dinner in restaurant
● hire of Conference Room
● flipcharts, OHP and screen
● conference room stationery. OK

TO
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18–23

18.7
… continued
A 25 per cent discount is available on the standard package if the

conference is held on a Saturday or Sunday.
Additional items
● Danish pastries and fruit with breaks – £1.50 per head per break
● Unlimited tea, coffee all day – £1.50 per head
● Syndicate rooms – £50 per room per day
● Additional flipcharts, pads and pens – £10 each per day
● Television and video – £45 per day
● Carousel projector – £30 per day
● Hot/cold buffet lunch – £5 per head supplement
● Five course ‘special’ dinner (agreed selection of items from à la carte
menu) – £10 per head supplement.
The hotel has a small, fully equipped leisure centre.This closes after
20.00 hours. After this time it can be hired for private parties at £50 per
night (£150 Saturday and Sunday).You also have extensive contacts with
local organisations such as a bowling alley, golf driving range, clay pigeon
shooting, a laser maze and a go-kart track.You have agreed an inclusive fee
of £100 per party (£200 Saturday and Sunday) with each of these
organisations.
The hotel has a 12-seater minibus which is available at short notice at no

additional cost to the users.
One of your staff is a former Butlin’s Redcoat. Previous conferences have

hired him to provide an entertaining speech and/or organise amusing
activities.You usually leave this to the individual organiser to arrange,
but know he charges about £100 for the evening.
OK
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18–24
Prepare your team and

18.8
your strategy
● Identify what type of negotiation it will be – If both parties’
settlement points are close together it should be easier to reach a
settlement that will be beneficial to both.
● Prioritise your needs and set your objectives – It can be a useful

tactic to concede points that are of less importance to you in order to
gain your major goals.
● What points are non-negotiable? – This is usually where all

expectation test points are identical. A typical example could be a fixed
date for a conference.
● Decide your strategy – Think of putting together a number of items

to form a package rather than single issues.This will give you room for
manoeuvre and helps you avoid entrenched positions.
● What items form a natural link? – ‘I’ll give you this if you’ll give me
that.’
● Identify items that will be cheap for you to concede –

but valuable for them to have.
● Identify areas of common ground – These can be used to build a

climate of mutual trust and co-operation.
● Decide what roles the members of your team will play – It can 18
be confusing if you all try to join in. Most teams require members to play
one of three roles
1. The negotiator who does most of the talking, bargaining and making
counter proposals.
2. The analyst who takes a back seat as far as direct contribution goes.
This detachment helps them evaluate the opponent’s case, spot
underlying weaknesses and pick up on signals.
OK
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18–25
Prepare your team and

18.8
… continued
your strategy
3. The recorder who is similar to the minute-taker in a meeting. Often
there are so many proposals flying around that you need someone to
make a note of what has been offered and what has been accepted.
● Decide on your opening – A perpetual dilemma for all negotiators is

deciding where they should open, when and how far to move and how
long to hold out for a settlement.The Expectation Test will help them
work this out.
● Focus on a ‘win – win’ outcome – What voice tone will you adopt?
What body language? What will you say to build up their confidence so
that you can do business together successfully?
OK
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18–26
18.9
behaviours
Behaviour avoided by effective negotiators
● Using irritators
Avoid words or phrases that are likely to provoke an emotional reaction
from your antagonist.
● Making counter-proposals
Immediate counter-proposals could suggest you haven’t really considered
or understood what the other person is suggesting.
● Attacking and defending

Attacking the other party on an emotional level is likely to escalate the
conflict and produce a reciprocal attack once they have defended their
position.
● Woolly proposals
Don’t be vague or ambiguous in what you are putting forward. Unless
your ideas are clear and specific they are likely to be misunderstood.
● Too many points in their arguments

It is rare for all the points supporting your case to be of equal value. An
astute opponent will pick up on these and weaken the credibility of your
case.
18
OK
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Continued …
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18–27
18.9
… continued
behaviours
Behaviour used by effective negotiators
● Labelling their behaviour

This gives you the opportunity to draw the listener to the behaviour you
are about to undertake.
● Asking questions
Finding out as much as you can about their position will help you identify
common ground.
● Testing understanding
Check out that you have accurately understood their position, problems
and constraints.
● Summarising
Frequent summarising shows you have been paying attention and
listening accurately.
● Building on other’s ideas

Instead of knocking down their ideas, look for areas where you can build
on their suggestions to mutual advantage.
● Expressing feelings
Be open and honest about how you are feeling about how the
negotiations are progressing.When this is seen as being genuine it will
promote honest understanding and reciprocal behaviour.
OK
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18–28
Activity 19
Time management
Purpose
To enable participants to appreciate the importance

of managing time as a resource for project
managers.To introduce them to some of the
techniques associated with effective time
management and give them the opportunity to
develop them.
19

Activity 19
Time management
How do I plan my day and then work
my plan?
Purpose To enable participants to appreciate the importance
of managing time as a resource for project
managers.To introduce them to some of the
techniques associated with effective time
management and give them the opportunity to
develop them.
Application This activity covers a core skill for all project

managers, regardless of the size or complexity of
their project.
It could also form an integral part of any training

programme that aims to develop time management
skills. It is applicable to a wide range of management
and supervisory skills programmes,
for example,Time Management, Stress Management,
Assertion and Personal Effectiveness.
The activity can stand-alone but will be more

effective when used in conjunction with
Activities 4 and 5 The power of planning – parts one
and two. Some of the early material overlaps with
items included in Activity 16 Managing performance
and Activity 17 Managing conflict.
What happens You start the session by leading a discussion which

identifies that time management is a key resource
that is central to the role of the project manager. 19
The unusual nature and difficulties associated with
managing time are established.
You next introduce the participants to a five-step

approach which will enable them to manage their
time effectively.These steps are discussed and the
participants develop their skills through five linked
exercises.
19–1
The session ends with the opportunity for the

participants to review and make an action plan for
using the key points at work.They complete their
Learning review diary, where appropriate.
● Step one – Establish your goals: 15 minutes
● Step two – Set your priorities: 15 minutes
● Step three – Make your plan: 40 minutes
● Step four – Monitor your activity: 15 minutes
● Step five – Protect your plan: 40 minutes
● Review and action plan: 15 minutes.

resources 19.1 A typical day?
19.2 Typical management resources
19.3 Management – definition
19.4 Managing your time
19.5 Determining priorities

● OHT acetates

Open the session by asking the participants if they
recognise the character in OHT 19.1.
Show OHT 19.1

A typical day?
Point out that it is quite easy to empathise with his

plight. Most of us have probably felt like this at some
time in our jobs.
19–2
Remind the group that we have discussed in other

activities how a project manager has to manage a
number of resources.
Either
Show OHT 19.2

Typical management resources
or
Return to the flipchart you drew in Activity 17

Managing conflict (page 17–19).
Tell the group that there are a number of reasons

that our cartoon character could have got into such
a state.The one we want to concentrate on in this
session is the most frequent underlying cause.
Ask the group for their opinion of what this is;

they will probably reply, ‘Poor time management’.
Point out that time is notoriously difficult to manage.

Of all the resources it tends to be unique in that
there is a fixed amount for everyone. It is one
resource over which – in one way – we have no
control. Regardless of our job, seniority or
experience there are still only 24 hours in a day.
We tend to act as though we can create it, save it or
get ahead of it.What we can do is look to see how
well we are using it. For many managers, like our
cartoon figure, they don’t manage time, it manages
them.
One of the reasons for the emphasis on time

management for project managers is that all projects 19
have a unique start and finish point. Point out that
we discussed in previous activities that the
completion date is often fixed through your project
plan (see Activities 4 and 5 The power of planning).
Many projects have a penalty clause built in which
means the project manager’s organisation will have
to pay financial compensation to their client if the
project falls behind the agreed dates.Time
represents a clear measure of effectiveness, and
everyone will be using the same calendar.
19–3
Point out a common definition of management.

(This definition is used several times in this pack so
only show the OHT if the participants have not
covered this before.)
Show OHT 19.3

Ask the group to help you distinguish between

efficiency and effectiveness. Can you be efficient and
yet not be effective?
The answers you are looking for are that in time

management terms, effectiveness means using your
time to achieve the results or performance required
in your job. Efficiency means using your time to
maximise its productivity.You can perform your
tasks efficiently, i.e. you are doing things well, but to
be effective you need to focus on doing the things
that really need to be done.
What’s involved in managing your time?

To be an effective time manager you need to master
the following steps.
Show OHT 19.4

Managing your time
Show the OHT as an overview and then discuss

what’s involved in each step with the participants.
STEP ONE – ESTABLISH YOUR GOALS

All jobs exist for a purpose.The project manager’s
role is usually easier to define than many other
management positions. If you have documented a
goal or goals for the project then achieving that
goal(s) should become the purpose of your job.
Others in the project team will need to review what
their job contributes to the overall project.
19–4
Exercise One
Ask the participants to write down, in one or two
sentences, a statement of their job purpose. Point out
that it is important to state what they are doing as
distinct from what their staff or own manager is
doing.
Allow 15 minutes for Step one.
STEP TWO – SET YOUR PRIORITIES
Having established your goal or goals, the next step

involves identifying the priority activities that you
must achieve if you are to meet that goal.You should
be able to identify the main areas where personal
failure on your part would adversely affect the
project team’s performance.
Tell the group to use the 80/20 Rule – this rule of

thumb was identified by an Italian economist,
Wilfredo Pareto. He identified that in any range of
items it was often the vital few (the 20 per cent)
which had the greatest value in achieving the target
(they contributed 80 per cent to the overall effort).
Most people will have between four and six main

responsibilities for their post.They will perform
other activities, but these are the critical ones.
To be effective you must perform these priority
items on time.
Exercise two
Ask the participants to identify the key areas of
their posts. Point out that this shouldn’t be a full job
description but is used to highlight the priorities for
their job. 19
Allow 15 minutes for Step two.
STEP THREE – MAKE YOUR PLAN

Long-term planning
Knowing what your priorities are will help you plan
your work.These milestones will give you something
to focus on and develop plans of action well in
19–5
advance to meet them. Long-term plans need not

show the detail but are used to identify your major
activities and objectives.
Activity 5 The power of planning – part two describes

how to construct a Gantt chart (page 5–8).This will
help you identify bottle-necks and conflicts.Where
problems are identified you might be able to:
● bring forward the start date of activities

● secure additional resources
● drop certain activities
● postpone other activities.
Short-term planning
Remind the group that Prime Minister Harold
Wilson once said ‘A week is a long time in politics’.
This can also be true when managing a project.
If you let the time slip by you will not have made
the most effective use of your day.
The first step in using your day effectively is to work

out what you want to do with it.This will involve
you in establishing a daily ‘To do’ list.
Ask the participants to indicate which of them

already adopt this approach. For those who use it
and stick to it, it becomes an invaluable aid to time
management.
Exercise three
Hand a blank sheet of A4 paper to each participant
and ask them to make a list of all the tasks they
have to do when they return to work.The list
should contain all the activities they need to
complete for that day. Remind them to include
telephone calls, meetings, individuals they need to
speak to and all the other small jobs they could get
involved in.
Tell them not to try to think of any priority order

but simply write them down as they come to mind.
They will find that once they start writing they will
start to remember more and more items.
19–6
Give them about 5 minutes to generate their lists.

When they have finished listing all the tasks, they
can begin to prioritise them.
Urgent or important work

Tell the participants that the next step is to determine,
for each possible task they have identified, its
importance or urgency in relation to their key
priorities and work schedule.Ask them to review the
items and decide if they are urgent or important tasks.
Important tasks – those tasks that will lead to the

accomplishment of an important objective or
worsen it if they are not completed successfully.
Urgent tasks – those that have to be done in a very

short timescale.
Point out that at work there is often a constant pull

on our time between the two.The problem with
important tasks is that they often do not have to be
done straight away, whereas urgent tasks call for
immediate action. As a result we seem to be busy
but often wonder at the end of the day ‘Where has
my time gone? What exactly have I achieved today?’
This means that at the start of each day, having

generated a list of possible tasks we must stop to
ask ourselves several questions.
Show OHT 19.5

Determining priorities
Point out that the last question on the list shows

that identifying priorities is not an easy task as it 19
involves balancing many factors. As well as balancing
urgency and importance they will have to bear in
mind the relationship of each task to other matters,
as well as human and political considerations.
Exercise four
Ask the group to look through their list of tasks and
identify whether each is A, B or C.
19–7
A = Priority tasks. Must be done by me today.

B = Important tasks. Could be done by me or one
of my team.
C = Low priority tasks. An item we can postpone
until another time.
Tell the participants that using this discipline they

can then schedule their daily planner. Point out that
this approach has a number of advantages:
● You clearly establish your priorities and build

them into your day
● You can identify what you can delegate to your
staff
● You can see how much time you can devote to
non-priority items
● You don’t lose track of those items that have the
potential to be dangerous if they are ignored
completely
● You can turn down inappropriate requests and
book appointments in relation to your schedule.
Allow 40 minutes in total for Step three.
STEP FOUR – MONITOR YOUR ACTIVITY

Ask the participants who use a ‘To do’ list what are
the main problems they encounter that prevent
them using it effectively.There are two common
problems.
1. Starting at the wrong end
Rather than starting with the priorities they often

start the day by doing a few trivial items from
yesterday’s list.
This may give some satisfaction but quickly becomes

unproductive. Point out that the ‘To do’ list needs to
be drawn up at the start of each day (last thing
before you leave the office is the only viable
alternative). Any ‘C’ items are then re-evaluated.
Have they moved up the rating scale, or can they
safely be postponed again without any
repercussions?
19–8
2. Constant interruptions
One of our problems that can come from over-

scheduling is that we then have no slack in the day
to handle the items we haven’t planned but which
need our attention. Do not overfill your day. Keep
some time in reserve. Items invariably take longer
that anticipated and there are always going to be
unforeseen interruptions to your day.
A useful technique for gauging interruptions is to

keep a simple time-log.This should show you who is
interrupting about what and for how long. Keep this
alongside your daily schedule and you will soon spot
how much time is being diverted from your key
priorities.
Keep an eye open for any discernible patterns. Are

you prone to be interrupted at a particular time?
Is it about a similar topic area? Are you being
interrupted by the same person or the same types
of people? Having this information will help you to
achieve the next step.
Allow 15 minutes for Step four.
STEP FIVE – PROTECT YOUR PLAN

Point out that before you can resolve any problem
you have to work out what you want to change.
Monitoring your time will give you clear ideas about
where the interruptions are coming from. Now we
need a strategy either to prevent them from
happening, or to manage them in order to minimise
the disruption.
Exercise five
19
Divide the participants into two groups. Issue each
group with blank sheets of acetate and suitable
marker pens.Tell them that they have 15 minutes to
come up with at least twenty ideas for preventing or
managing interruptions. Point out that these ideas
can be as creative as they like – we can often find a
practical application for even the most outrageous
suggestion.
19–9
Get the groups under way. Give them a time check

and make sure they are keeping on track and have
enough material.
When they have finished, reconvene and lead a

plenary review. Clarify the thinking behind the ideas
displayed on the first group’s acetate. Now show
and discuss the second group’s list. Suggest items
based on your own experience. Ask the groups if
they want to add the other group’s ideas to their
own lists.
The following are some typical ideas:
● Have ‘open door’ access only at certain times –

let other people know when you will be available.
● Have a ‘closed door’ period – when your door is
shut no one interrupts you.
● Insist on all callers having an appointment.
● Go and hide somewhere – library, boardroom,
and so on.
● Work from home – during office hours of course.
● Have your telephone calls screened by your
secretary/assistant – give them a copy of your
schedule.
● Use ‘call divert’ – but do inform the person
you’ve diverted the calls to.
● Put your answerphone on – record a short
message and then turn the sound down.
The caller can still hear your message but you
won’t hear their recording.
● If you know someone is coming, try to intercept
them outside your office.
● Stand up when they come in, and remain standing;
if they sit down, sit on the edge of you desk.
● Walk gradually to the door and hold it open for
them.
● If they ask ‘Can you spare a minute?’ say no, but
arrange a time to meet later.
● Adopt a brief but businesslike manner – keep chat
to a minimum.
● If they want to talk about social/sporting events,
arrange to meet after work.
● If your interruptions are from the same people,
ask why. Do they lack confidence? Do they need
19–10
training? Are you giving them clear briefing about

what you want them to do?
● Issue clear written guidance on what’s required.
● Call a meeting.You can talk to a great number of
people at one time.Two-way communication will
allow all their questions to be answered.
● In an open-plan office put up a barrier (pot plant,
hat stand, etc.) that will stop casual callers
dropping in as they pass.
● Stick up a large, humourous sign or use some
other signal to show that you’re busy (one
colleague wore a jester’s hat – a ‘thinking cap’ –
which showed they were not to be disturbed.This
drew initial attention but other staff soon got the
message).
Photocopy the group’s OHT sheets and issue these

as a supplementary handout.
Allow 40 minutes for completing Step five.
REVIEW AND ACTION PLAN

Ask the participants to consider all the suggestions
on view.Which are most applicable to their current
situation?
After they have made their choice, lead a review of

the whole session. Ask them to consider which
items they would like to highlight for immediate use
when they return to work on their projects.
Give them some time to fill in their Learning review

diary (see ‘How to use this resource’ page xii).
Ask for some volunteers to disclose what they will 19

be attempting to incorporate after the course.
When all who wish to contribute have done so,

thank them all for their work and close the session.
19–11
TRAINER’S TIP
Fenman Limited also produce the following

materials on this area:
Setting Objectives training video (1994)
Time to be Effective Trainer’s Activity Pack
If you incorporate either in the session you will

need to adjust the timings accordingly.
19–12
A typical day?
19.1
19
OK
TO
Y
P
CO
19–13
Typical management
19.2
resources
Time Money
Methods People Materials
Premises Machinery
OK
TO
Y
P
CO
19–14
19.3
Management is the
efficient and effective use
of resources to achieve
results with and
through the efforts
of other people.
19
OK
TO
Y
P
CO
19–15
Managing your time

19.4
Step one – Establish your goals
Step two – Set your priorities
Step three – Make your plan
Step four – Monitor your activity
Step five – Protect your plan
OK
TO
Y
P
CO
19–16
Determining priorities
19.5
● Do I have to do this work today?

● Do I have to do this work now?
● Do I have to do this work at all?
● If I do this work, what would I have to
delay or abandon?
● Who else could do this work?
● What would happen if no one did this
work?
● How does this work relate to my key
tasks and objectives?
● Who else is involved or affected by this
task?
● How important are they to me?
19
OK
TO
Y
P
CO
19–17
19–18
Activity 20
Managing project
meetings
Purpose
To show participants what they can do to improve

the structure and process of meetings in order to
make them more effective.
20

Activity 20
Managing project
meetings
How do I ensure that my project
meetings are productive?
Purpose To show participants what they can do to improve
the structure and process of meetings in order to
make them more effective.
Application Managing meetings is a core skill for all project

managers.The activity would be useful for
participants who are members of project teams
even where they do not have direct responsibility
for convening and running a meeting.
This activity works well as a follow-on to Activity 9

Making a project presentation.The participants can
then practise their persuasive presentation skills in
the context of a competitive meeting.
It can also be used on broader-based management

training events such as Introduction to Management,
Assertiveness, and Team Leadership Skills, or form
the foundation of a more detailed course on
Managing Meetings.
What happens You lead a discussion which enables the participants

to identify the reasons why many of the meetings
they have attended are not effective.
The participants then work in two groups and draw

up a checklist of key points that need to be
considered before and during the meeting to ensure
20
its success.Their views are reinforced by two
handouts detailing seven steps to success.
You then provide an opportunity for the participants

to try out these key points by participating in two
linked exercises.The first is a preparatory meeting
for the second one.
20–1
The second meeting is carried out by the whole

group.The Chair and Secretary are selected from
among the participants.
The activity ends with a review of the exercise

which allows the key learning points to be identified
and turned into an action plan for each participant’s
continued development at work.They fill in their
Learning review diary (if appropriate).
Time Overall time available: 4 hours.

● Keys for effective meetings: 30 minutes
● Practical exercise – the management meeting
Part one – The regional meeting:

1 hour 15 minutes
Part two – The project review board meeting:
1 hour 15 minutes
● Review: 30 minutes
● Action plan: 10 minutes.
Material & ● 3 OHT masters:

resources 20.1 A typical attitude to meetings
20.2 Seven steps for setting up effective meetings
20.3 Seven steps for managing effective meetings
20.4 Seven steps for setting up effective meetings
20.5 Seven steps for managing effective meetings
20.6 The management meeting
20.7 Reaching a decision by consensus
participants
● OHT acetates
● Photocopying facilities for groups to use
20–2
In preparation Before the session, ask the participants to identify

an appropriate problem from their own work area
which might benefit from being discussed by
managers from a wider range of backgrounds.
Tell them that they should be prepared to discuss

the following points:
● identification of the problem

● their perception of the major issues involved
● an outline of any action already attempted
● some suggestions for alternative courses of action.
They should bring brief background data, papers,

visual aids, and so on.These may be copied to help
give the other course members an insight into the
problem area.
Show OHT 20.1

A typical attitude to meetings
Tell the participants that most managers spend a

large proportion of their time in meetings.
Unfortunately, most meetings are regarded as time
wasters. Ask the group to think of meetings they
have attended that they felt were a total waste of
time. Now ask them to tell you what contributed
towards that viewpoint.Write their answers on a
flipchart sheet.They should identify such issues as:
● there are too many meetings

● nothing is ever decided
● no agenda beforehand
● the meeting drifts off the point 20
● they last too long
● they lack focus
● one individual dominates
● people are allowed to drone on without coming
to the point
● you aren’t allowed to make the points you want
● decisions are taken by a cabal before the meeting
● we never start on time and always run late
20–3
● key speakers don’t arrive

● their deputies are unprepared
● we were asked to make a decision on the spot on
information we had only just seen
● conflict always breaks out between the same
groups of people
● no one listens, they just want to talk
● we come away saying ‘What was the point of
that?’
● no minutes are circulated, or
● we only get the minutes of the last meeting when
we arrive at the next
● no one is assigned responsibility so there is
usually no action between one meeting and the
next.
Point out that this sorry state of affairs usually

reflects the fact that many meetings are poorly
organised and controlled.The fault usually lies with
the people rather than the meeting. Allow
20 minutes for this introduction to the activity.
KEYS FOR EFFECTIVE MEETINGS

Divide the group into two sub-groups, A and B.
Inform them that they will both shortly be
participating in a meeting. Ask them to draw up a
checklist of key points that need to be considered:
Group A – Before the meeting

Group B – During the meeting
Issue each group with blank sheets of acetate and a

set of suitable marker pens. Check that they
understand what’s expected from them. Inform
them they have 15 minutes to complete the
exercise, and get them started.

a plenary review. Ask group A to go first, show their
transparency and discuss the points shown.
The type of suggestions you should expect to see

included are:
20–4
● Check you need a meeting – Only call a

meeting when it is really necessary. Could some
other method of communication achieve the
purpose more effectively?
● Establish the purpose – It is important to have

a clear idea of why the meeting has been called. Is
it to inform, to collect information, to make a
decision, to solve a problem? If they know what’s
expected of them, participants can be prepared.
● Issue an agenda – This will be your route map

for the meeting. It should show clearly what items
are going to be discussed in what order. Structure
the items logically and give each an approximate
time.
● Check the timing – Make sure that there are

not too many items for the topics and purpose of
the meeting. Overcrowding will mean that later
items are rushed or not covered at all.
● Decide who to invite – Be selective and invite

only those who will contribute.Too many people
will make it difficult for all to have a say.Too few
may not produce enough ideas or real consensus.
● Help them to prepare – As well as the agenda,

what other information do they need to help
them prepare thoroughly before the meeting?
● Book a venue – Where will the meeting take

place? Make sure the room is the right size with
the right equipment and furniture to suit your
purpose. Book the refreshments and any other
services you need.
20
Show OHT 20.2
Seven steps for setting up effective meetings

Seven steps for setting up effective meetings
20–5
Encourage the participants to combine their notes

with the ideas in the handout.
Now ask group B to report back using the same

approach as group A.Typical suggestions they should
volunteer include:
● Start on time – Do not wait for latecomers.

Even if you are the only one there on time,
as Chairperson begin!
● Stick to the agenda – It has been placed in

order of urgency, importance and the relationship
between items. Don’t divert from this unless it is
vital.
● Keep on track – Stick to the time allocated for

each item.The best way to do this is to keep your
focus and stick to the topic under discussion.
● Control the discussion – You need to

encourage participation without letting individuals
dominate the discussion. Make sure that you have
a balance of contributions from all present.
● Work for consensus – If the group are

committed to a decision they are most likely to
implement it. Imposed decisions may save time
but are likely to be resisted in the long term.
● Summarise decisions – Sum up after each

action point. Ensure that all members know
precisely what they have been assigned to do,
and by when.
● Finish on time – End the meeting promptly

when all your objectives have been achieved.
Close with a full summary of everything that has
been agreed. Agree a time when the minutes will
be circulated and when any follow-up meeting will
take place.
20–6
Show OHT 20.3

Seven steps for managing effective meetings

Seven steps for managing effective meetings
This work on key points should take about

30 minutes.
PRACTICAL EXERCISE –
THE MANAGEMENT MEETING
Inform the group that they are all members of
Fenscape Consulting – a nationwide organisation
that specialises in helping companies to manage
projects and problems.
The exercise will take place in two sections.
Part one – The regional meeting

The participants will work in small regional groups.
Members of your group are consultants
representing a region of the country – either North,
South, East or West.The purpose of the regional
meeting is to discuss the problems identified by the
individual group members.
Each member should be given the opportunity to:

● identify the problem
● give their perception of the major issues involved
● outline any action already attempted.
The rest of the group then discuss:

● alternative courses of action
● preferred option(s) for the future.
20
At the end of the preliminary meeting you should
decide which of the proposals your region will
support and present for approval to the project
review board meeting.Work cannot start on your
regional solution unless it has main board support.
20–7
During the board meeting your group must be

ready to introduce your proposed choice of action
in order to seek overall approval to proceed. Each
presentation should last no longer than 10 minutes.
The other members of your group must be ready to
contribute to the subsequent discussion.
Fenscape Consulting has established a reputation in

the marketplace for high-quality, cost-effective
solutions that really work. Any resolution will only
be passed by the board after a rigorous examination
to ensure that it will maintain the firm’s high
standards.
An OHP, flipchart and photocopier are available to

help each group to put over their case.
Each group is to appoint a Chairperson whose role

is to run the preliminary meeting along the
guidelines identified earlier. Each group should also
appoint a Secretary to liaise with the board meeting
Secretary.

The management meeting
Choose a Chairperson and a Secretary for the

board meeting
Before allocating participants to the groups, ask for
volunteers to chair and to act as Secretary of the
board meeting. Neither of these people will
participate in the regional group meetings.The
Chairperson will be responsible for setting up and
running the board meeting.The Secretary will assist
in setting up the board meeting, will liaise with the
Secretaries of the regional groups and collect
(and re-issue as appropriate) the paperwork
prepared before the board meeting.They will also
take the minutes of the action points from the main
meeting.
Check if the participants have any questions about

what is required of them. Allocate them to groups.
20–8
(You should aim to have at least four participants in

each group.) Tell them they have 1 hour to finish
their preliminary meeting. Get them under way and
then brief the Chairperson and Secretary for the
board meeting.
Tell the Secretary that their main jobs at this stage

are to liaise with the Secretaries of the regional
groups, to help determine their contribution to the
main meeting.They are also to help the Chairperson
set up the meeting using the guidelines discussed
previously.
During the meeting the Secretary will have a dual

role – to keep the minutes and to observe how the
Chairperson conducts the meeting.Tell the
Chairperson and Secretary that while the regional
groups are planning for the board meeting they
should both discuss the art of chairing meetings and
agree on how this particular meeting will be
conducted (as outlined in Handout 20.4 Seven steps
for setting up effective meetings).
Move between the regional groups giving any help

and advice requested.Try not to contribute to the
content of their discussion, but make sure they keep
focused and on time. Provide any support materials
they will need to make their presentation to the
main board meeting.
When the regional groups have finished, give the

Chairperson and Secretary for the board meeting
15 minutes to draw up and circulate the final agenda
together with any background information they
think necessary.When all participants have read the
material it is time to start the main board meeting.
This first part of the practical exercise should take

20
about 1 hour 15 minutes.
Part two – The project review board meeting

Each regional group comes to the board meeting to
present their case and to listen to and make
decisions on the proposals put forward by the other
regions.
20–9
Inform the group that the meeting is to be viewed as

an exercise in group decision making.They are to
aim for a consensus on whether they should accept
a regional proposal.This means that every member
must agree with a substantial part of the decision
before it is approved.

Reaching a decision by consensus
Discuss the points on the handout, and when

everyone understands the approach, get the meeting
under way.
During the proceedings the trainer’s role is to be a

‘fly-on-the-wall’.Try not to intervene on either the
content or process of the meeting. Make notes on
both effective and ineffective behaviour, from the
Chairperson, the Secretary and participants (you will
find the three previous handouts a good guide as to
what to look out for).
The meeting finishes when the Chairperson declares

it closed – which may be some time after the agenda
indicates.
Give the Secretary 15 minutes to finish the final

minutes and to issue a copy to all concerned.
Part two of the practical exercise should take about

1 hour 15 minutes.
REVIEW
Start the review by agreeing the minutes as a true
and accurate record of the decisions taken and
actions allocated by the meeting.
Now lead a discussion which explores how well the

exercise was handled.You could start with each of
the regional groups. Ask them for their opinion on
how well they managed the preliminary meeting.
Probe for specific evidence behind their ideas.
Ask them to identify one area where they did really
well and one area they could improve next time.
20–10
Add any comments based on your own

observations at the time.
Now move on to reviewing the main board meeting.

Start by asking the Chairperson for their views on
how the meeting unfolded. Probe to find out their
opinion on how well they managed the event as well
as the contribution of the group members. Ask them
what their main objectives were. How close did they
come to achieving them?
Now invite the Secretary to contribute from their

viewpoint. How did they feel they performed this
role? What were the problems they had in liaising
with the regional groups? How well did they think
the Chairperson ran the meeting?
You can now throw the discussion open.What did

the participants feel about the main board meeting?
Ask for comments on the performances of the
Chairperson and the Secretary. Make sure that any
criticisms are constructive and backed by specific
examples.
Finally, provide any outstanding feedback based on

your own observations. Much may confirm what the
participants have contributed. Express this, as it can
be useful confirmatory evidence for them.
If you have any fresh points, express them
constructively based on specific and observed
behaviour.
Allow 30 minutes for the review.
ACTION PLAN
When everyone has had the opportunity to
contribute, you have finished the review discussion. 20
Ask the participants to spend some time reflecting
back on the whole activity.What key learning points
have emerged? Ask them to think of their next
project meetings at work.What actions will they
take to transfer their learning and improve the
effectiveness of their meetings?
20–11
If you are using a Learning review diary (see ‘How

to use this resource’, page xii) ask the participants
to complete the appropriate section.
When they have finished their individual reflections,

reconvene and ask for volunteers to tell the group
briefly what are the key learning points for them,
and what action they intend to take.
When all who wish to speak have done so, thank

them for their work and close the session.
TRAINER’S TIP
From experience, the practical exercise is less

effective if the Chairperson and Secretary of the
board meeting participate as members of the
regional groups.They do not have enough time to
carry out their duties fully.You may be forced to
‘double-up’ because of a lack of numbers, but be
aware that you will be criticised for advocating
thorough planning and then not giving them the
time to put your advice into practice.
Using video recording

Using video recording to review the final meeting
can be an interesting process.This will, however,
considerably lengthen the time for the feedback.
When using the video, make a note on the
counter to help locate incidents of significant
behaviour.You can then use this selectively to
reinforce any feedback.The participants can be
offered the option of viewing the whole video or
even be issued with a copy if you have the
facilities.Video can be a strong medium for
convincing the sceptical that they did in fact say,
do and act in a particular way.
If you wish to illustrate good meetings behaviour

before the groups break into regional groups,
there are a number of excellent products on the
market.
20–12
A typical attitude
20.1
to meetings
Not all of our meetings are

a waste of time – some of
them are cancelled!
20
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20–13
Seven steps for setting up

20.2
effective meetings
● Check you need a meeting.
● Establish the purpose.
● Issue an agenda.
● Check the timing.
● Decide who to invite.
● Help them to prepare.
● Book a venue.
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20–14
Seven steps for managing

20.3
effective meetings
● Start on time.
● Stick to the agenda.
● Keep on track.
● Control the discussion.
● Work for consensus.
● Summarise decisions.
● Finish on time.
20
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20–15
Seven steps for setting up

20.4
effective meetings
● Check you need a meeting – Only call a meeting when it is really
necessary. Could some other method of communication achieve the
purpose more effectively?
● Establish the purpose – It is important to have a clear idea of why

the meeting has been called. Is it to inform, to collect information,
to make a decision, to solve a problem? If they know what's expected
of them, participants can come prepared.
● Issue an agenda – This will be your route map for the meeting.
It should show clearly what items are going to be discussed in what
order. Structure the items logically and give each an approximate time.
● Check the timing – Make sure that there are not too many items
for the topics and purpose of the meeting. Overcrowding will mean
that later items are rushed or not covered at all.
● Decide who to invite – Be selective and invite only those who will
contribute.Too many people will make it difficult for all to have a say.
Too few and you may not produce enough ideas or real consensus.
● Help them to prepare – In addition to the agenda, what other

information do they need to help them prepare thoroughly before the
meeting?
● Book a venue – Where will the meeting take place? Make sure the
room is the right size with the right equipment and furniture to suit your
purpose. Book the refreshments and any other services you need.
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20–16
Seven steps for managing

20.5
effective meetings
● Start on time – Do not wait for latecomers. Even if you are the only
one there on time, as Chairperson begin!
● Stick to the agenda – It has been placed in order of urgency,

importance and the relationship between items. Don't divert from this
unless it is vital.
● Keep on track – Stick to the time allocated for each item.

The best way to do this is to keep your focus and stick to the topic
under discussion.
● Control the discussion – You need to encourage participation

without letting individuals dominate the discussion. Make sure that you
have a balance of contributions from all present.
● Work for consensus – If the group are committed to a decision

they are most likely to implement it. Imposed decisions may save time
but are likely to be resisted in the long term.
● Summarise decisions – Sum up after each action point.

Ensure that all members know precisely what they have been assigned
to do, and by when.
● Finish on time – End the meeting promptly when all your objectives
20
have been achieved. Close with a full summary of everything that has
been agreed. Agree a time when the minutes will be circulated and
when any follow up meeting will take place.
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20–17

20.6
You are all members of Fenscape Consulting – a nationwide organisation

that specialises in helping companies to manage projects and problems.
The exercise will take place in two sections.
Part one – The regional meeting

Your group are consultants representing a region of the country – either
North, South, East or West.The purpose of your regional meeting is to
discuss the problems identified by the individual group members.
Each member should be given the opportunity to:

● identify a problem they have encountered at work
● give their perception of the major issues involved
● outline any action already attempted.
The rest of the group then discuss:

● alternative courses of action
● preferred option(s) for the future.
At the end of the preliminary meeting the group should decide which of
the proposals your region will support and present for approval to the
project review board meeting.Work cannot start on your regional solution
unless it has main board support.
During the board meeting your group must be ready to present their
proposed choice of action in order to seek overall approval.
Each presentation should last no longer than 10 minutes. The other
members of your group must be ready to contribute to the subsequent
discussion.
Fenscape Consulting has established a reputation in the marketplace for

high-quality, cost-effective solutions that really work. Any resolution will
only be passed by the board after a rigorous examination to ensure that it
OK
will maintain the firm’s high standards.
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20–18

20.6
… continued
An OHP, flipchart and photocopier are available to help you to put over
your case.
The group should appoint a Chairperson whose vote is to run the

preliminary meeting along the guidelines identified earlier.You should also
appoint a Secretary to liaise with the board meeting Secretary.
Part two – The project review board meeting

Each regional group comes to the board meeting to present their case and
to listen to and make decisions on the proposals put forward by the other
regions.
20
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20–19
Reaching a decision by
20.7
consensus
● Approach the subject with an open mind.
● Avoid conflict-reducing techniques such as a majority vote or trading

when reaching your decision.
● Avoid arguing for the sake of argument; base your approach on logic.
● Seek clarification on areas you are uncertain about.
● Avoid changing your mind simply to reach agreement.
● Do change your mind if you are convinced by the arguments put

forward.
● View differences of opinion as helpful rather than as a hindrance.
● If you agree with a proposal, say so and explain why.
● Contribute any information you have which may help others come to
an agreed solution.
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20–20
Activity 21
Problem solving
Purpose
To introduce participants to a systematic approach

to problem solving.To give them an opportunity to
practise the skills involved in using the approach on
a real work-based problem.
21

Activity 21
Problem solving
How do I resolve the problems which
arise when I implement my project
plan?
Purpose To introduce participants to a systematic approach
to problem solving.To give them an opportunity to
practise the skills involved in using the approach on
a real work-based problem.
Application The ability to solve problems effectively is a core

skill for all project managers.This activity should be
included on any foundation course that aims to
develop project management skills.
Problem solving is both a general management and a

life skill.This activity is equally applicable to a wide
variety of other training events. It has been used
successfully on Introduction to Management,Team
Leadership and Team Development, Counselling and
Personal Problem Solving, Assertiveness,Time and
Stress Management, and Meetings Skills courses.
What happens You introduce the session by establishing that all

managers have to deal with problems – it’s a central
part of their role.You ask the participants to identify
how they currently approach problem solving at
work.They then compare and contrast this with a
systematic approach to problem solving, a well
established seven-step approach.
Each of the seven steps is discussed and explored in

some detail.You spend considerable time on
Step four, introducing the participants to
brainstorming and setting an exercise that requires 21
two participants to identify a real current problem
suitable for use in the exercise.
You complete the systematic approach and the

session by getting the participants to monitor and
review their learning.They compile their Learning
21–1
review diary, if appropriate.They then make action

plans to use the new skills and knowledge back at
their workplace.

● Step one – Recognise the problem: 10 minutes
● Step two – Specify the problem: 10 minutes
● Step three – Identify the cause: 10 minutes
● Step four – Develop possible solutions:
45 minutes
● Step five – Evaluate solutions: 30 minutes
● Step six – Implement the best solution:
30 minutes
● Step seven – Monitor and review: 30 minutes.

resources 21.1 We’ve got a problem!
21.2 Systematic approach to problem solving
21.3 Sherlock Holmes quote
21.4 The problem pit
21.5 Think outside the box
21.6 Brainstorming – definition
21.7 Brainstorming – the ground rules
21.8 Choosing solutions
21.9 Brainstorming – the ground rules
21.10 Tips for brainstorming facilitators
21.11 Action planning format
21.12 The review process
participants
● OHT acetates
21–2
In preparation Before beginning the session, it will be helpful to

prepare some suitable topics for brainstorming as a
contingency should the group fail to identify any
suitable subject.
Show OHT 21.1

We’ve got a problem!
Ask the participants if any of them have encountered

any problems on their past projects.A show of hands
should reveal that most of them have encountered at
least one major problem in the past.
Point out that this does not mean they are poor
project managers. Projects are complex, and
unpredictable events will occur regardless of how
thoroughly you have planned. Remind them of the
Robert Burns’ quote:
‘The best laid plans of mice and men

Often go astray’
Any plan is only an estimate of what we think may

happen in the future.We weigh up past events,
estimate probabilities and forecast what we think
will happen in the future.
Draw a line on a flipchart sheet.
Our Plan
A B
Where we Where we
are now aim to be
What happens, however, is C – some unanticipated

event. Show on the flipchart sheet how C diverts 21
our plan.
A C B What should be happening
What is actually happening

21–3
Tell the group that the first thing to do in problem

solving is:
DON’T PANIC
Try not to worry about the word ‘problem’.Try

instead to see it as a challenge, as an opportunity to
make progress. Point out that if everything ran
smoothly there would be little need for project
managers.
What’s your current approach?

Ask the group to think about how they approached
solving a recent problem. Give them 5 minutes to
make a note of their approach. Now ask them to
work in small groups (three or four in each is ideal).
Tell them that you want them to discuss their
approaches and identify the common ingredients.
You then want them to record their recommended
approach to problem solving, covering all their ideas.
Issue them with blank sheets of acetate and suitable
marker pens.
Inform them they have 20 minutes to have their

discussion and to write their recommendations on
their acetate.
When the participants have finished the exercise,

reconvene and lead a plenary review. Ask each group
to show their completed acetate and talk through
the approach they advocate.You will probably find
that later groups cover similar ground to earlier
ones. Ask the later groups to report back only on
new approaches.
When you have reviewed all the groups’ suggestions,

ask them to compare and contrast their ideas with
the systematic approach to problem solving.
Show OHT 21.2

Systematic approach to problem solving
You will hopefully find that most of the participants

are already using some of this in their own
approaches. Inform them that in the rest of this
21–4
session we will examine what’s involved in the

various steps to make them more efficient.
Allow 30 minutes for this introduction to the activity.
STEP ONE – RECOGNISE THE PROBLEM

Your problem management will be helped if you
have some sort of early warning system that alerts
you to the fact that there is a problem. Ask the
participants for suggestions based on what they
currently do.You can anticipate ideas such as:
● regular monitoring of current plan

● management by walking about – gives an
opportunity to spot for yourself
● feedback mechanisms, triggered automatically
when, for example, supplies are running low
● being approachable – your team are usually able
to spot the problem at an early stage; make it
easy for them to come and tell you
● look after your customers – make it easy for
them to complain.
Point out that the definition of the problem may be

vague to start with.The true or exact nature of the
problem will only become apparent as more
information is acquired.This leads us to Step two.
Allow about 10 minutes for Step one.
STEP TWO – SPECIFY THE PROBLEM

Point out that you need to obtain all the facts
relevant to the problem. How far from your
anticipated plan has the actual performance shifted?
If the gap is small, you may decide that it falls within
an acceptable margin of error and decide to do
nothing about it. Ask for suggestions of what we can
do to specify.Typical answers will include: 21
● gather all relevant facts
● speak to people operating the system
● speak to people affected by the system
● take samples from other batches to identify the
scale of contamination
21–5
● talk to others involved in similar projects – are

they experiencing similar difficulties?
● use a computer simulation model that can predict
the extent of eventual damage if the problem is
not eradicated.
When you have gathered the relevant information,

you can now examine the facts critically.This leads
to Step three.
Allow about 10 minutes for Step two.
STEP THREE – IDENTIFY THE CAUSE

Inform the group that it is far too easy to address
the symptoms and not really identify the cause.
The presenting problem may then go away but the
problem still remains. Ask the group for some
examples of when they have fallen into this trap.
One typical example:
● A plumber clears an air lock in the water system

but doesn’t diagnose the faulty ball valve that is
the heart of the problem.They then have to make
repeated visits as the air lock continues to be a
problem.
Tell the participants that it is often a process of

elimination. Remind the group of Sherlock Holmes’s
approach.
Show OHT 21.3

Sherlock Holmes quote
One technique that is used to identify the cause of a

problem is called ‘the fishbone technique’.This
approach recognises that we know the effect of a
problem so we can work backwards to identify
probable causes.We then eliminate those that are
not causing the problem and are left with the real
issues we can work on. Because of this the fishbone
approach is sometimes called a ‘cause-and-effect’
diagram. (You will find further information and a
description of other uses of the fishbone technique
in Activity 4 The power of planning – part one.)
21–6
Having identified the cause you are now ready to

move on to the next step.
Allow 10 minutes for Step three.
STEP FOUR – DEVELOP POSSIBLE

SOLUTIONS
Inform the group that they need to try to generate
as many potential solutions as possible, rather than
concentrating on the first one that presents itself.
Project managers are busy people and there will
always be a temptation to seize the first expedient
solution and try to implement it. If they persevere
they may find a better solution that will be quicker,
easier and more efficient at solving the problem.
Show OHT 21.4

The problem pit
Point out that one of the problems we face as

managers is that we are stuck in a problem pit of
our own making.We cannot see beyond the
self-imposed barriers or restraints that we apply to
ourselves. Ask the group to participate in an
exercise to demonstrate what you mean.
Ask the participants to arrange six dots in the shape

of a triangle on their notepads. Instruct them to join
all six dots with three consecutive straight lines,
without taking their pens off the paper.
Check to see that they have all completed this

simple task:
21
Now ask them to draw nine dots arranged in a

square:
21–7
Ask them to join all nine dots by using four

consecutive straight lines without taking their pens
off the paper.
After a few minutes check to see if anyone has the

answer. Point out how they have preconditioned
themselves to stay within the boundaries from the
first drawing.
Reveal the answer or draw the answer yourself on

the flipchart.
Show OHT 21.5

Think outside the box
Tell the group that you will now introduce them to

a technique that will help them widen their choices
and develop creative answers to their project
problems.The technique is called brainstorming.
Explain that it has been around since the 1930s and

was first written about by Alex Osbourne,
a Madison Avenue advertising executive.
Brainstorming is a technique that you can use to
move into more fertile and creative ground and
discover that there are a number of different,
alternative routes you can use to solve your
problems.
Show OHT 21.6

Brainstorming – definition
Point out that the definition contains some of the

key attributes of brainstorming:
A range of ideas – these are not all good ideas,

21–8
you are going for quantity not quality.
A group of people – aim for between four and nine

participants. It will work best if you mix your group
by age, gender, experience, department, background,
discipline, and so on.
In a short time – sessions should be quick and fun.

Set a target that includes both time and number of
ideas, for example, 100 ideas in 20 minutes.
Explain that there are a number of ground rules that

they should apply at any brainstorming session to
ensure its success.
Show OHT 21.7

Brainstorming – the ground rules
Discuss each of the ground rules using some

examples that help emphasise the points.

Brainstorming – the ground rules
Tell the group that brainstorming is not the same as

free association. Although participants are
encouraged to think of wild ideas, they must always
focus their attention on the problem.The focus of
the activity is always on how to manage it.
To keep them on track and to stimulate their

imagination to come up with creative ways of
achieving your objective, Handout 21.10 offers some
tips for brainstorming facilitators.

Tips for brainstorming facilitators
Brainstorming in action
21
Ask for two participants to briefly describe a
problem that would be suitable to use for a
brainstorm.When they have given an overview to
the group, ask them to rephrase the problem in the
form of a question the group could brainstorm.
21–9
Divide the main group into two syndicate groups

and allocate a problem to each one.Tell them that
they have 20 minutes to come up with around
100 possible answers.
Supply each group with flipchart paper, marker pens

and Blu-Tack® or similar fixing material. Ask for a
volunteer to act as facilitator (if this is the problem
holder instruct them not to input suggestions, just
record and facilitate the group process). Check that
everyone understands what’s expected and get them
started.
Move between the groups. Keep them on track,

making sure they observe the ground rules
(remember, no evaluation), but do not interfere with
the flow of their ideas.
When the groups have finished, ask them to leave

their flipcharts on display.They can move around
and have a look at each other’s lists.This exchange
often produces fresh ideas for both groups.
Review the exercise. How difficult was it to be

creative? What were the main problems they
encountered using the ground rules and techniques?
What did they particularly enjoy? How could they
transfer this approach to their workplace?
Allow 45 minutes to complete the whole of

Step four.
STEP FIVE – EVALUATE SOLUTIONS

Having thought widely you are now in a better
position to make a choice about which range of
solutions you want to apply.
Explain that this next step is like using a chemical

filter.The ideas are poured through a funnel which
contains a number of filters. Each filter will only
allow certain items through.You should return to
the brainstormed ideas and ‘knock out’ those that
don’t pass certain criteria.You should identify these
according to the constraints that operate within
your organisation or industry. For example, in
21–10
advertising anything that is not ‘legal, decent or

honest’ would have to be rejected.
Inform the group that when they are considering

rejecting an idea they should always be open to how
it could be altered to make it acceptable. For
example, if an advertisement featured naked people,
it might be rejected as not being ‘decent’, however, if
they were clothed it would become acceptable.
Point out that one of the criticisms levelled at

creative approaches to problem solving is that it is
easier to decide what needs to be done than to
make it happen. One way of overcoming this
problem is to take practicality into account when
you are choosing solutions.
Show OHT 21.8

Choosing solutions
Ask the participants to return to their brainstormed

lists.They should devise a list of suitable criteria
they will use as filters. Using these they will then
knock out those items that don’t comply, until they
are left with a list of ‘winners’. Ask them to write
the winners on a fresh flipchart sheet for ease of
recognition.Tell them you would like this to be a
‘Top Ten’, in priority order if possible.
Reconvene the whole group when the smaller

groups have finished this exercise. Ask each group to
show their final list and to describe the process they
used to arrive at their ‘Top Ten’.What criteria did
they use? What difficulties did they encounter in
identifying their ‘Top Ten’? How did they decide on
priority items?
Allow 30 minutes for Step five. 21

Having reduced their options they are now ready to
move to Step six.
21–11
STEP SIX – IMPLEMENT THE BEST

SOLUTION
Point out that people tend to believe very little of
what you tell them but believe a lot if you follow up
your promises with action.What you need is an
action plan.

Action planning format
Point out that when completing the action plan you

should make sure of several particular points:
● Action points are specific. Describe them in clear

unambiguous terms.
● No action is allocated without a firm deadline.
● The whole project team should agree that this
solution is worth adopting.
● No one should be nominated for action unless
they agree to it.
● People who could influence the outcome are
informed about what is going on.
● Identify a clear and achievable first step, complete
with start date.
● Time is built in to monitor and review progress
towards the solution.
Ask the participants to return to their small groups

to help the problem holders work out an achievable
action plan. Ask them to write it onto acetate so
that it can be reviewed by the whole group.
Issue them with some fresh acetate sheets and

marker pens.Tell them they have 15 minutes to
complete this exercise.
Move between groups. Give help and advice where

necessary. Point out that you are not after
perfection, merely the application of the key points
covered.

a plenary review. Ask each group to show their
completed action plans.What difficulties did they
21–12
have to overcome during the exercise? How will this

affect their approach when they try this on one of
their own problems back at work?
Allow 30 minutes for Step six.
Having worked out an action plan, the next step is

to implement it.This, in turn, will lead to our final
step.
STEP SEVEN – MONITOR AND REVIEW

Whilst the action is taking place you should have
established milestones at which you will measure
progress to date. Is what you set out to do
happening? Is it making any difference? With some
problems you will find out quickly if your plan of
action is working. More complex problems take
more time and effort.You may not be clear you have
got the solution until you have implemented every
step of your plan.
Point out that successful problem solving requires

you to find the right solution to the right problem.
At the end of the process you will need to hold a
review.This will involve you in returning to the
original data you generated in Step two. Use this to
check that the problem has been solved. If you have
only addressed a cause, the problem will still exist –
although it may be in a modified form.
Tell the group they will need to cover the questions

listed in Handout 21.12 as part of the review
process.

The review process
Inform the participants that the final exercise in this 21

activity will involve them in monitoring and
reviewing each step covered in the session.
They need to work in pairs. Each partner explains
to the other how the approach covered differs from
their normal practice.Together they then identify
how they can incorporate the key lessons learned
21–13
into their previous problem-solving techniques.They

end their joint review by producing an action plan
along the guidelines established in Step six.
Check that they understand what’s required and

then get them under way.
When the pairs have finished and everyone has

produced an action plan, lead a plenary review of
the whole group.
Ask for a volunteer to discuss their future approach

to problem solving at work. Comment as
appropriate on their plans.
When all who want to volunteer have spoken, thank

them for their work. Ask them to fill in their
Learning review diaries, if you are using this
approach (see ‘How to use this resource’ on
page xii).
Allow 30 minutes for this monitor and review stage.
Finally close the session.
TRAINER’S TIP
Have a contingency plan in hand to use if none of

the participants has a real problem to use for the
brainstorming exercise (see ‘In preparation’, page
21–3). It’s helpful to use a common management
problem to which everyone can contribute,
for example, ‘In how many ways can we motivate
a demotivated team member?’
21–14
We’ve got a problem!

21.1
PROBLEM
21
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21–15
Systematic approach
21-2
to problem solving
Step one – Recognise the problem
Step two – Specify the problem
Step three – Identify the cause
Step four – Develop possible

solutions
Step five – Evaluate solutions
Step six – Implement the best

solution
Step seven – Monitor and review
OK
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21–16
Sherlock Holmes quote

21.3
‘When you have eliminated

the impossible, whatever
remains, however improbable,
must be the truth.’
21
OK
The Sign of Four by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle
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21–17
The problem pit

21.4
OK
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21–18
Think outside the box

21.5
21
OK
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21–19
Brainstorming –
21.6
definition
Brainstorming:
A technique for producing
a range of ideas from a group
of people in a short time.
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21–20
Brainstorming –
21.7
the ground rules

● Suspend judgement.
● Suspend constraints.
● Encourage quantity not quality.
● Cross-fertilise.
● Clarify and expand.
● Write them down.
21
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21–21
Choosing solutions
21.8
● Technically competent
A practicable solution that looks as if it will
actually work.
● Relevant
Addresses the core issues that are
troubling people.
● Politically acceptable
It will not be blocked by people powerful
enough to stop it.
● Cost/benefit
The benefits of introducing the idea will
outweigh the costs involved.
● Feasible
Everyone whose co-operation is needed
will put it into practice.
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21–22
Brainstorming –
21.9
the ground rules

● Suspend judgement – Theirs and yours.The aim is to collect as
many ideas as possible and leave evaluation until later.
● Suspend constraints – Encourage the participants to think of all the

possibilities.Wild ideas should be positively encouraged.
● Encourage quantity not quality – Keep the group going until they
run out of ideas.
● Cross-fertilise – Prompt them to combine ideas in different ways to

make new options, and add some suggestions of links yourself.
● Clarify and expand – Help clarify without criticising, and ask the
individual to expand briefly on that idea.
● Write them down – Creativity can be fun, exciting and fast moving,
so record the ideas so that none is lost.
21
OK
TO
Y
P
CO
21–23
Tips for brainstorming

21.10
facilitators
● Rephrase your problem as a question, for example, ‘How can we …?’
‘How many ways could we …?’
● Write the question on a flipchart.
● Display a poster or OHT to show the ground rules.
● Ask for ideas to solve the problem.
● Write suggestions onto the flipchart.
● Use a large felt-tip pen.
● Number each idea.
● Print the words for legibility.
● Combine upper and lower case lettering for ease of reading.
● Alternate colours for each idea.
● Use black, blue, green or purple for recording.
● Leave red, orange, yellow for highlighting ‘winners’ later.
● Allow 2–3 inches between lines.
● When you reach the bottom, display the sheet and start a new one –
don’t flip over.
● Say each idea aloud as you write it.
● Check out what they mean – but don’t evaluate.
● Clarify assumptions – you could get two ideas for the price of one.
● Use understandable shorthand, symbols, pictures, and so on, for
example, MBWA for ‘management by walking about’
££££ for ‘loads more money’.
● Get participants to abbreviate their ideas into short headlines.
● Encourage fun, laughter, noise and excitement.
● Build on people’s ideas, for example, ‘You mentioned holidays.Where
could we send them?’
● Don’t try to impose any order or sequence – write them as they come.
OK
TO
Continued …
P
CO
21–24
Tips for brainstorming

21.10
… continued
facilitators
● Involve everyone. Don’t let one person dominate, but don’t squash
them.
● Make sure everyone can see the flipchart.
● Don’t be concerned about your spelling – there won’t be time.
When the ideas dry up try some of the following:
● Introduce another rephrasing of the problem.

● Use quantity as a spur to more effort.
● Focus on and develop a previous idea.
● Call for a 2-minute break for some silent reflection.
● Identify the ‘wildest’ idea. How could it be developed into a practical
solution?
● Ask the participants to imagine they are someone else, for example,
how would Basil Fawlty manage the problem? What about Margaret
Thatcher? Superman? and so on.
● Take a coffee break, listen to some music or a relaxation tape.
Don’t give up too soon but recognise when the participants’ creative
powers have run dry, then …
FINISH THE SESSION.
21
OK
TO
Y
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21–25
Action planning format

21.11
Action Person Completion Resources

steps responsible date needed
● Action points are specific. Describe them in clear, unambiguous terms.

● No action is allocated without a firm deadline.
● The whole project team should agree that this solution is worth
adopting.
● No one should be nominated for action unless they agree to it.
● People who could influence the outcome are informed about what is
going on.
● Identify a clear and achievable first step, complete with start date.
● Time is built in to monitor and review progress towards the solution.
OK
TO
Y
P
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21–26
The review process

21.12
Reflect on your approach and answer the following questions:
● What caused the original problem?
● How effective was your solution?
● Is it likely to occur again?
● Has it identified a subsidiary problem that also needs to be addressed?
● How effective was your decision-making process?
● Did you have to modify your original action plan?
● Did you identify a contingency plan if your original approach was

unsuccessful?
● How effectively did you work as a project team to resolve this issue?
● What will you do differently next time as a result of the experience?
● What worked well, that you’d want to repeat next time?
21
OK
TO
Y
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21–27
21–28
Activity 22
Continuing
professional
development
Purpose
To enable the participants to rate their progress in

developing the competencies needed to be effective
project managers.To provide them with options
they can incorporate into an action plan for their
future development.
22

Activity 22
Continuing
professional
development
How can I continue to develop my
project management skills after this
event?
Purpose To enable the participants to rate their progress in
developing the competencies needed to be effective
project managers.To provide them with options
they can incorporate into an action plan for their
future development.
Application This activity has been designed to use at the end of

any training event that aims to improve the
knowledge and skills of project managers.
It can be easily adapted to suit the end of other

types of development activity. For this you will need
to review the competencies and substitute a set that
are more appropriate for another target audience.
What happens You start the session by drawing a comparison

between the end of a learning event and of a
project; both benefit from a period of review,
regardless of the outcome.
You introduce the participants to the concept of the

learning cycle and describe how it can be applied to
a variety of experiences.
The participants then take part in three exercises. In

the first they rate their current level of competency
as project managers. In the second they generate
ideas for a number of opportunities they could use 22
to develop their skills. In the third they develop an
action plan to put their ideas into practical action.
22–1
The session closes with a celebration that all the

events in this activity pack have been successfully
completed.

● Personal stocktaking: 30 minutes
● Identifying learning opportunities for
development: 30 minutes
● Develop an action plan: 30 minutes
● Final plenary review: 30 minutes.
Material & ● 2 OHT masters:

resources 22.1 Back to the future
22.2 The learning cycle
22.4 Learning and development opportunities
22.5 Action planning checklist
● OHT acetates
● Champagne (optional).
Show OHT 22.1

Back to the future
Point out that coming to the end of a training event

is a bit like coming to the end of a project.You have
been learning by doing it all the way but now we
have come to the final activity. Just as with a project
we need to spend time looking back at what
22–2 happened before we can go forward to the future.
Point out that this process of stopping, and taking

stock of what has happened before moving forward,
is a well-documented approach to learning.
It’s called The learning cycle.
Show OHT 22.2

The learning cycle
This popular model on how we learn was developed

by David Kolb. He uses it to describe learning as a
cycle. If the steps are followed in sequence the
desired learning will be the result.This will help you
ensure that you continue to develop your
professional competence.
The stages involve us in doing something

(experience); stopping to think what has happened
(reflection); thinking how we can fit this in to a
model or theory (generalising); and we then
decide how to test our conclusions and develop a
plan to improve our performance (action
planning).This leads us back to the start of the
cycle, which hopefully becomes an upward learning
spiral.
Point out that it is as important to do this when our

experience (of a course or practical project) has
been a successful one.There is a tendency to review
only when things have gone poorly.This is often
associated with the difficulties of preventing the
review from becoming an exercise in blame.
Point out that all experience – good, bad or

indifferent – should be seen as an opportunity to
learn and review.You could cite the example of top
performers in golf, tennis or the performing arts who,
even though they are at the top of their profession,
still practise and review their performance daily.
Allow 20 minutes for the introduction to this 22

activity.
22–3
PERSONAL STOCKTAKING
The first stage involves them in taking stock of their
current level of competence as Project Managers.

If the participants started the activities in this

resource at Activity 1 An introduction to project
management, they will have seen this Handout
before (see Handout 1.5 Project management
competencies). In that activity, it was used to
orientate them to the activities that were to come.
Now we will use it to identify their key learning
needs after all the activities have been covered.
Exercise one – Personal stocktaking

Suggest to the participants that they spend
15 minutes on their own reviewing and rating their
current level of competency in light of all the
activities they have undertaken on this training
event.
TRAINER’S TIP
A useful way of evaluating the amount of learning

gained by working through the activities in this
resource is to ask the participants to compare
their ratings on Handout 22.3 Project management
competencies with their ratings from Handout 1.5
Project management competencies. Ask them to
record on a flipchart at the side of the room
areas where they have made progress.
When they have finished their self-rating, the next

step is for each participant to work with a partner
from the group to discuss the evidence for their
ratings.This exercise works particularly well when
the partners have worked with each other in the
workplace.This will enable them to challenge or
confirm the rating with the authority of having seen
their partner in action.
22–4
Tell the pairs that at the end of the discussion you

want them both to agree on their top three
development needs. Point out that these could be
either competencies they already do well but would
like to improve further or activities where they are
falling below what is required from their role.
Reconvene the participants when they have

completed their rating.Ask for volunteers to share
with the group what key areas they need to focus on.
When all who want to have spoken, thank them and

move on to the next part of the activity.
Allow a total of 30 minutes for this section on

personal stocktaking.
IDENTIFYING LEARNING OPPORTUNITIES

FOR DEVELOPMENT
Point out that far too often people view personal
and professional development as something that is
done by the training department, and sit patiently
waiting for the arrival of the in-house brochure.
A more proactive manager looks for learning

opportunities both off and on the job, and with
some lateral thinking may even be able to identify a
range of work activities that can help them to
develop their skills.
Exercise two – Identify a range of options

Divide the group up into three smaller groups and
give each an acetate sheet and a set of suitable
marker pens.Tell them they have 15 minutes to
come up with at least 20 activities that a project
manager can use to develop their skills, knowledge
and experience.
Give them a few minutes to settle into their groups

and then start your stopwatch. Move around 22
between the groups to make sure they are on track.
Answer any questions about the activity but don’t
censor their efforts or attempt to take over.
22–5
Remember that at this stage it is their ideas we are

interested in, not yours.
At the end of the allotted time call a halt and

reconvene the groups. Ask for a volunteer to lead
the feedback, showing the range of events they have
identified. Hold on to the first group’s acetate and
make a note on it of any fresh ideas presented by
the second and third groups. In this way you will
build up a composite picture of all suggestions.
Complete this section by showing them the list of

items described in Handout 22.4. Discuss these but
only focus on the ideas the participants have not
previously suggested.The combination of ideas will
give them a checklist they can use to develop their
own abilities.

Learning and development opportunities
DEVELOP AN ACTION PLAN

Having identified the need, and many options to
satisfy it, tell the participants that we need to bring
the two together and complement them with a
clear plan of action.
Exercise three – Develop your action plan

Ask the participants to once again work with a
partner from the group.They should first identify
which of the many ideas generated they want to
pursue, then work out an action plan that shows
what they propose to do to meet their learning
objectives.

Action planning checklist
Move around to check progress. Give advice and

information where appropriate. Keep them on track
22–6
and on time. Remind them to change roles so that
both get an opportunity to have their action plan

reviewed.
Allow 30 minutes for all participants to develop

their action plan.
FINAL PLENARY REVIEW

When all the pairs have finished, reconvene the
group and lead a plenary review of the exercise.
How did it go? Did any difficulties arise? Are there
any areas that are still unresolved? Can you and the
rest of the group help with suggestions to overcome
them? What type of action are they going to take?
When you have finished the review process, point

out that as project managers they will all, at some
time, be responsible for managing a project team.
Ask them about the merits of doing the exercises,
they have done, together with their staff. If any want
to develop their project manager’s role further, we
can highly recommend The Manager as Trainer, Coach
and Guide, Eddie Davies, Fenman (1997), or
Continuing Professional Development, Sandy McMillan,
Fenman (1997).
Celebrate your success!

Remind the participants that one of the items you
identified for positive team working and motivation
was to celebrate your achievements. Congratulate
them all on completing the event and break out the
champagne.
Thank them for attending and wish them all the best
in developing their project management skills in the
future.
22
22–7
22–8
Back to the future

22.1
PAST PRESENT FUTURE
22
OK
TO
Y
P
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22–9
The learning cycle

22.2
HAVING
AN
EXPERIENCE
PLANNING THE REVIEWING THE

NEXT STEPS EXPERIENCE
CONCLUDING
FROM THE
EXPERIENCE
OK
TO
Y
P
CO
22–10
Project management
22.3
competencies
For each of the following competencies rate yourself on the following scale:
E = Exceptional – You can perform this competency at a high level in all

manner of circumstances.
M = Met – You can generally meet the requirements in this area.You may
still have a development need in order to meet the competency in
exceptionally difficult circumstances.
N = Not Met – Either there are considerable elements that require

improvement or you have not had the opportunity to experience and
develop this area.
1. Recognising Define the term ‘project’.

priority needs. Identify the key competencies.
Recognise priority needs.
2. Understanding Define the project manager’s role.

the role of the Have an overview of the project
project manager. life cycle.
3. Defining the Prepare mission statements.

end product. Define project objectives.
Identify constraints and
terms of reference.
4. Planning for Develop a work breakdown

success. structure.
Identify resource requirements.
Pinpoint sub-projects. 22
OK
TO
Continued …
P
CO
22–11
Project management
22.3
… continued
competencies
5. Sequencing Draw up a Responsibility

activities. Assignment Matrix.
Identify the critical activities.
Prepare a Gantt chart.
6. Budgeting. Prepare a budget.

Monitor costs.
7. Using Plan your presentation.

presentation Making an effective delivery.
skills. Handle objections.
8. Selecting your Adopt a systematic approach to

team. selection.
Choose the right mix.
9. Developing your Establish the characteristics of

team. effective teams.
Outline the stages of team
development.
10. Using project Understand the leadership role.

leadership skills. Develop an effective leadership
style.
11. Motivating the Understand team members’ needs.

project team. Take appropriate action to satisfy
them.
12. Using Ask effective questions.

communication Listen actively.
skills. Use appropriate body language.
OK
TO
continued …
P
CO
22–12
Project management
22.3
… continued
competencies
13. Putting it in Use an appropriate form of written

writing. communication.
Develop an effective style.
Devise a project report layout.
14. Controlling Set standards.

performance. Give feedback.
15. Influencing and Take a positive approach

resolving conflict. to disagreement.
Use a consensus approach.
Manage the poor performer.
16. Using negotiating Negotiation should be principled.

skills. Adopt effective behaviours.
Aim for a ‘win–win’ outcome.
17. Managing time. Identify priorities.

Diagnose ‘time-robbers’.
Plan your day.
18. Chairing Structure meetings for success.

meetings. Lead discussions.
19. Solving problems. Analyse what’s going wrong.

Develop alternative solutions.
Choose best solutions.
20. Making a Take stock of current level of

commitment to performance.
professional Review training and development 22
development. methods.
Draw up an action plan.
OK
TO
Y
P
CO
22–13
Learning and development

22.4
opportunities
20 work-based activities for developing your skills:
Coaching – Have the job holder act as a coach to one of their staff or
colleagues.
Delegation – Remember that this involves delegating a real part of your

job, not merely allocating a task they should be doing anyway.
Project work – Particularly relevant when the individual needs to develop

a skill that is not part of their current job.Working in a multi-disciplinary
team you can learn about other functions.
Job swaps – Can be organised informally within your section to cover for
sickness, leave, and so on.
Secondments – A more structured version of job swaps, usually for a

longer period and often involving other departments or outside
organisations.
Deputising – Good practice for individuals in line for promotion and/or

wanting to acquire management skills.
Shadowing – Accompanying and observing the manager or other team

member. Can be in preparation for job swaps or deputising.
Training – Planning and running an in-house training event, either to

reinforce existing skills or to learn a new subject.
Committee membership – A standing committee or special event.

Gives an insight into internal procedures and politics.
Hot-line – Manning a telephone response service, giving advice on unusual

or particularly difficult situations. Develops confidence and visibility.
OK
TO
Continued …
P
CO
22–14
Learning and development

22.4
opportunities
… continued
Writing reports – Involves preliminary research into a topic.

Opportunity to develop analytical and communication skills.
Making presentations – A useful follow-up to report writing. Develops

oral communication skills and the ability to defend your case.
External representation – Acting as an ambassador for the organisation

at an external event. Could also involve making a presentation.
Product champion – The section’s representative who will learn about

and be responsible for implementing a new product or procedure to your
department.
National representative – Representing the organisation on a national

body or forums.
Professional representative – Representing your specialism on internal

or professional bodies.
Trade union representative – Acting for other members at local or

national meetings.
Study visits – Learning and reporting back about best practice in other
organisations.
Trade exhibitions – Regional, national, specialist. Opportunity to update

on new products or services.
Vocational qualification – A work-related professional course combining

qualification with work-based projects.
22
OK
TO
Y
P
CO
22–15
Action planning checklist

22.5
1. What am I going to do?

– Which of my priority needs am I going to develop?
2. What steps am I going to take?

– What activities will help me meet my needs?
3. How am I going to start?

– Work out a clear first step for each activity.
4. When am I going to start?

– Commit to a specific, realistic start date.
5. How will I achieve it?

– What methods will I use? What resources will I need?
6. Who else will be affected?

– Who do I need to support me? How and when will I approach
them?
7. What could prevent me?

– Who or what might put obstacles in my way? How will I
overcome them?
8. How will I know when I’ve succeeded?

– How and when will I monitor my success?
OK
TO
Y
P
CO
22–16

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Project management pages 3 2/13/06 10:09 AM Page i

The Project Management Activity Pack

Published by Fenman Limited 1998 © Eddie Davies

Published by Fenman Limited

Commissioning Editor and Production: Angela Wilde

Text pages typeset by Norman Brownsword, Upminster

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data.

ISBN-13 978 1 903310 60 1

FENMAN ® registered trademark

1. An introduction to project management

2. The role of the project manager

3. Define the end product

4. The power of planning – part one

5. The power of planning – part two

6. Critical Path Analysis

9. Making a project presentation

10. Selecting the right person for your

11. Developing your project team

12. Project leadership style

13. Motivating your project team

14. Oral communication skills

15. Writing project reports

16. Managing performance

17. Managing conflict

18. Negotiation skills

19. Time management

20. Managing project meetings

21. Problem solving

22. Continuing Professional Development

About this resource

The activities are designed to be led by someone in the central role of

A word about copyright

You may not copy any other pages.

(a) to employees of yours who are attending any course that is

How to use this resource

Although these activities have been designed as stand-alone exercises, some

● run each activity as a separate session

Each activity has been designed to give participants the opportunity to

Participants will be introduced to new experiences, some of which will

Training is invariably an exhilarating and learning process for both the

How to use the CD-ROM

The contents of the CD-ROM

PowerPoint® slides of OHTs and handouts

– open PowerPoint® on your computer, then select the file on the CD

Please ensure that your use of the pages is subject to the

Searchable Adobe® Acrobat® file of the whole resource

Please ensure that your use of the pages is subject to the

Browse the contents of the CD-ROM

1. PowerPoint® Reader or Adobe Acrobat Reader® installation.

If you don’t have Microsoft PowerPoint® or Adobe® Acrobat® programs

Loading these programs on to your computer will enable you to read

2. Loading the PowerPoint® or Adobe® Acrobat® files outside the

If you wish to view the PowerPoint® slides or Adobe® Acrobat® PDF

Fundamentals of project management

Time and stress management

Recruitment and selection

Assertion and influencing

Budgeting and finance

2 The role of the project manager ✓ ✓