11/3/2020 Austenite Martensite Bainite Pearlite and Ferrite structures - TWI

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AUSTENITE MARTENSITE BAINITE

PEARLITE AND FERRITE
STRUCTURES

  

Austenite and ferrite

Austenite was originally used to describe an iron-carbon alloy, in which the iron was in the

face-centred-cubic (gamma-iron) form. It is now a term used for all iron alloys with a basis of

gamma-iron. Austenite in iron-carbon alloys is generally only evident above 723°C, and below

1500°C, depending on carbon content. However, it can be retained to room temperature by

alloy additions such as nickel or manganese. Similarly, ferrite was a term originally used for

iron-carbon alloys, in which the iron was in the body-centred cubic (alpha- or delta-iron)

morphology, but is now used for the constituent in iron alloys, which contains iron in the
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alpha- or delta-iron form. Alpha ferrite forms by the slow cooling of austenite, with the
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associated rejection of carbon by di usion. This can begin within a temperature range of 900°C
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to 723°C, and alpha-ferrite is evident to room temperature. Delta ferrite is the high

temperature form of iron, formed on cooling low carbon concentrations in iron-carbon alloys

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from the liquid state before transforming to austenite. In highly alloyed steels, delta ferrite can

be retained to room temperature.

Austenite/delta ferrite (Courtesy IIW)

Ferrite (TWI photo no.0711)

Alpha ferrite (F) and pearlite (P) (TWI photo no.0709)

When iron carbon alloys transform from austenite on cooling, the solubility limit of carbon in

ferrite is commonly exceeded. Under slow cooling conditions, carbides are formed, and at

faster cooling rates carbon may be trapped in solid solution.

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Pearlite

Pearlite is usually formed during the slow cooling of iron alloys, and can begin at a

temperature of 1150°C to 723°C, depending on the composition of the alloy. It is usually a

lamellar (alternate plate) combination of ferrite and cementite (Fe3C). It is formed by eutectoid

decomposition of austenite upon cooling by di usion of C atoms, when ferrite and cementite
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grow contiguously, C precipitating as Fe3C between laths of ferrite at the advancing interface,
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leaving parallel laths of Fe and Fe3C which is pearlite.

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Martensite (TWI photo no.0717)

Martensite

Martensite is formed in steels when the cooling rate from austenite is su ciently fast. It is a

very hard constituent, due to the carbon which is trapped in solid solution. Unlike

decomposition to ferrite and pearlite, the transformation to martensite does not involve atom

di usion, but rather occurs by a sudden di usionless shear process. The term is not limited to

steels, but can be applied to any constituent formed by a shear process which does not involve

atom di usion or composition change. The martensite transformation normally occurs in a

temperature range that can be de ned precisely for a given steel. The transformation begins at

a martensite start temperature (Ms), and continues during further cooling until the martensite

nish temperature (Mf) is reached. Ms can occur over a wide range, from 500°C to below room

temperature, depending on the hardenability of the steel. The range Ms to Mf is typically of the

order of 150°C. Many formulae have been proposed to predict the martensite start

temperature. Most are based on the composition of the steel, and a selection are listed in the

following table:

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Proposer's name Formula

Savage (1942) Ms (°C) = 500 - 300C - 35Mn - 20Cr - 15Ni - 10Si - 10Mo

Grange and Steward Ms (°C) = 538 - 341C - 39Mn - 39Cr - 19Ni - 28Mo
(1946)

Steven and Haynes Ms (°C) = 561 - 474C - 33Mn - 17Cr - 17Ni - 21Mo
(1956)

Andrews I (1965) Ms (°C) = 539 - 423C - 30.4Mn - 12.1Cr - 17.7Ni - 7.5Mo

Andrews II (1965) Ms (°C) = 512 - 453C +217C2 - 16.9Ni +15Cr - 9.5Mo - 71.5CMn -
67.7CCr

Beres and Beres For 0.03<C<0.35,

(1993)
Ms (°C) = 454 - 210C + 4.2/C - XNi -YMn - ZCr(eq) - 21Cu

Where X, Y, Z are factors that change with the appropriate

elemental composition

Cr(eq) = Cr + Mo + 1.5Si + W + V + Al

Beres and Beres [1] stated that their formulae were within 40°C of the actual Ms , in all cases

studied, whereas other formulae had larger scatter bands. More recently, Ms models have

been developed through the use of neural networks, trained on experimental data and using

further data to validate and test the model, a reasonable approximation of Ms can be

identi ed. Such models are available on the web [2] and can be used with compositional

information. Neural networks based on the relationship between the chemical composition,

transformation temperature and kinetics during continuous cooling enable calculation of a CCT

diagram for the steel. These also take into account the in uence of alloying elements on the
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phase transformation curves, as well as the resulting hardness. It is also possible to predict
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quantitatively the microstructure of the steel e.g. the percentage of ferrite, pearlite and bainite
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etc. [3]

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Models combining the kinetics of martensitic transformation with mechanics, in view of

microstructural development are also applicable. Finite element analysis enables evaluation of

the local stress and strain elds as well as monitoring the kinetics of martensitic

transformation and development of the understanding on critical parameters such as e ect of

austenite grain size on the resulting martensitic microstructure. [4]

In-situ experimental studies based on synchrotron radiation can also result in valuable data to

support computer models, as real-time study of such di usionless phase transformations will

be crucial to broaden the understanding of microstructural development and related

structure-property relationships. [5]

Bainite

Bainite is formed at cooling rates slower than that for martensite formation and faster than

that for ferrite and pearlite formation. There are two forms of bainite, known as upper and

lower bainite.

Upper bainite (TWI photo no.B1d21)

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Lower bainite (TWI photo no.B1d7)

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Upper bainite generally forms at temperatures between 550 and 400°C. There are several

proposed formation mechanisms, based on the carbon content and transformation

temperature of the steel, resulting in slightly di erent morphologies. Low carbon steels exhibit

ne bainitic laths, nucleated by a shear mechanism at the austenite grain boundaries. Carbon

solubility in bainitic ferrite is much lower than in austenite, so carbon is rejected into the

austenite surrounding the bainitic ferrite laths. When the carbon concentration in the

austenite is high enough, cementite nucleates as discrete particles or discontinuous stringers

at the ferrite/austenite interfaces. As the carbon content increases, the cementite laments

become more continuous, and at high carbon contents, the bainitic ferrite laths are ner with

the cementite stringers more numerous and more continuous. The structure can appear more

like pearlite, and is termed 'feathery' bainite.

Lower bainite generally forms at temperatures between 400 and 250°C, although the precise

changeover temperature between upper and lower bainite depends on the carbon content of

the steel. The transformation nucleates, like upper bainite, by partial shear. The lower

temperature of this transformation does not allow the di usion of carbon to occur so readily,

so iron carbides are formed at approximately 50-60° to the longitudinal axis of the main lath,

contiguously with the bainitic ferrite. With low levels of carbon, the carbide may precipitate as

discrete particles, following the path of the ferrite/austenite interface. However, the overall

mechanism of lower bainite formation is independent of carbon content in the main. The

appearance of lower bainite strongly resembles that of martensite, but lower bainite is formed

by a mixture of shear and di usional processes rather than just shear.

References

1. Beres L andSubscribe
Beres Z: 'Neue
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Martensitbildungstemperatur der Stahle', Schweisstechnik (Wien), 47 (12),
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December 1993, pp186-188
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2. Sourmail T and Garcia-Mateo C: 'A model for predicting the Ms temperatures of
steels' Computational Materials Science Volume 34, Issue 2, September 2005.

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11/3/2020 Austenite Martensite Bainite Pearlite and Ferrite structures - TWI

pp213-218.

3. L A Dobrzanski & J Trzaska: 'Application of neural networks to forecasting the CCT

diagrams', Journal of Materials Processing Technology, Vol. 157-158, 2004, pp 107-
113.

4. G Reisner, E A Werner and F D Fischer: 'Micromechanical modelling of martensitic

transformation in random microstructures', Int. Journal of Solids & Structures, Vol.
35, Issue 19, 1998, pp. 2457-2473.

5. R G Thiessen et al: 'Phase eld modelling and synchrotron validation of phase

transformations in martensitic dual phase steel', Acta Materialia, Vol.55, Issue 2,
2007, pp 601-614.

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