The Science of Timekeeping
The Science of Timekeeping
The Science of Timekeeping
1
2
Table of Contents
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Hewlett-Packard is grateful to the three authors of this application
note for sharing their expertise. Their combined knowledge offers a
resource which will undoubtedly be considered a classic reference on
the science of timekeeping for decades to come.
David W. Allan
David W. Allan was born in Mapleton, Utah on September 25, 1936. He
received the B.S. and M.S. degrees in physics from Brigham Young Univer-
sity, Provo, Utah and from the University of Colorado, respectively. From
1960 until 1992 he worked at the U.S. National Institute of Standards and
Technology (NIST), formerly the National Bureau of Standards (NBS). His
work with time and frequency research, development and generation has
been with colleagues throughout the U.S. as well as in many other coun-
tries. In cooperation with several colleagues, his principal contributions
have been: 1) development of internationally adopted methods of charac-
terizing the performance of clocks, oscillators and time and frequency
distribution systems — known as the Allan variance, the Modified Allan
variance and the Time variance; 2) development of a time-scale algorithm
technique which combines clock readings for optimum and robust perfor-
mance of the output — being better than the best clock in the ensemble
and which has been used for more than 28 years to generate official time
from NBS/NIST; 3) development of the dual-mixer time difference tech- David W. Allan
nique, which allows clock measurements at the sub-picosecond level; 4)
development of the GPS common-view time transfer technique, which is
used to transfer clock times from around the world to the International
Bureau of Weights and Measures for the generation of International Atomic
Time and UTC, and for the comparison of the frequencies of the best
primary standards in the world, and which provides a major benefit to the
timing for NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory’s (JPL’s) Deep Space tracking
Network; 5) development of improved timing in support of the measure-
ments of millisecond pulsars and the discovery, in this regard, of a random-
walk effect of the total electron content in the galactic interstellar medium;
6) the development of a method of separating out the various error compo-
nents causing inaccuracies in the Global Positioning System (GPS) perfor-
mance; 7) the measurement of the relativistic Sagnac effect for the rotating
Earth using GPS to transport time around the world; and 8) the invention
of techniques (algorithms and measurement procedures) which allow a
clock or set of clocks to always be correct; a patent associated therewith
was later licensed by Hewlett-Packard and formed the basis of the HP
SmartClock technology.
Since retiring from NIST, Dave has developed a method of defeating the
degradation (Selective Availability) on the GPS for timing purposes.
Most recently, he led an R&D effort which has the potential of real-time
satellite orbit determination at the centimeter level.
400 BC -1600 AD
Aztec calendar
1900 -1600 BC
Stonehenge
1583
Galileo discovers
pendulum period
constancy
1094
Sung Su’s Chinese
water clock
perfected
1656
Huygens pendulum
clock
1918
Quartz crystal
oscillator
developed
1955
Essen amd Parry
start keeping time
with cesium
atomic clock
1964
HP’s First Cesium
Clock (HP 5060A)
introduced
6
Milestones in the Progress
of Timekeeping
1736
Harrison H1
chronometer
tested at sea
1948-49
Lyons develops
first atomic clock
(ammonia)
1960
11 12 1
10 2
6 3
8 4
6 6 6
HP 105B Quartz
Frequency 1978
Standard
introduced First GPS Block 1
satellite launched
1993
GPS declared
operational
and HP 58503A
GPS Time and
Frequency
Receiver
introduced using
HP SmartClock
technology
1991
HP 5071A Primary
Reference Standard
(cesium) introduced 1997 to the Future
NAVSTAR Block 2R,
next generation of
satellites
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Introduction to the Science of Timekeeping
There is no such thing as a singular true time derived from natural
phenomena. Yet we live in a world in which time is nearly as important
— and taken for granted — as the cycles of nature. “What time is it?” is
a question asked almost as automatically as taking a breath. Far more
seldom the question is asked, “What is time?” Depending on the
circumstances, a degree of accuracy is sought when we ask for the
time. A remote farmer might gauge the setting sun to determine the
approach of dinnertime. Most people glance at their watch or a nearby
clock to calibrate their day’s activities. Though few individuals are
involved in the process of consulting the accuracy of atomic clocks, the
impact of their accuracy is so far-reaching in society that virtually
everyone benefits thereby. Nevertheless, no watch or clock is com-
pletely accurate. Each has its own errors due to rate imperfections and
errors in setting. Your watch will display a time that is different from
the time displayed on any other watch, so you can never really know
precisely what time it is. The correct time is simply based on an agreed
standard. Currently, Universal Time Coordinated (UTC) has been
established as the world time scale.
In the 15th century, explorers took to the high seas in search of new
worlds and exotic treasures. To navigate, seafarers could determine
their latitude by using a sextant to observe the position of the sun at
midday or bright stars at night. Unfortunately, determining longitude
was more difficult. Because the earth rotates, measuring longitude
requires both a sextant and an accurate clock. In the 15th and 16th
centuries, clocks were insufficiently accurate to navigate with any
certainty, and this all too often led to disaster.
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For half a century, all manner of charlatans and pseudo-scientific
crackpots tried to claim the prize, but none could solve the fundamen-
tal scientific problem of determining longitude at sea. During this time,
John Harrison (1693–1776), a woodworker and musician from
Lincolnshire, devoted his life and genius to solving the problem.
Through intuition and sheer effort he developed a clock, a maritime
chronometer, that kept time accurate to one second per day. Harrison’s
chronometer was a great advance for maritime navigation — overcom-
ing the harsh environmental conditions encountered at sea. Using a
copy of Harrison’s clock, Captain James Cook mapped the Polynesian
islands and the Pacific Ocean regions. He wrote in his log book great
praise for the new navigational instrument, “our trusty friend the
watch” and “our never failing guide.”
Over time, clocks have improved dramatically and needs have changed,
so GMT has evolved to UTC. The acronym UTC is an English-French
mixture for Coordinated Universal Time (Temps Universel Coordonné
in French). Following International Telecommunications Union
Recommendation TF.536 on Time-Scale Notations, it was internation-
ally agreed to write Universal Coordinated Time as UTC, rather than
CUT or TUC, making it language-independent. GMT was based on
mean solar time. UTC is based on a definition of the second that is
nearly a million times more accurate. Under the general umbrella of la
Convention du Mètre , this new second is based on a quantum reso-
nance within a cesium atom.
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Precise Timing Applications Pervade Our Society
The number and variety of applications using precise timing are
astounding and increasing. Currently, the count of precise timing
components manufactured and marketed each year is in the billions.
The world has evolved into the information age, and precise timing is at
the heart of managing the flow of that information so that it is reliable,
robust and inexpensive. Thus, all of mankind may use it efficiently and
effectively.
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The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a classic example of using
precise timing for accurate positioning. Many navigation systems
predating GPS also use atomic clocks, but they are ground-based. GPS
features a set of 24 orbiting satellites, each with a synchronized atomic
clock on board. It effectively puts a super-accurate clock in the sky for
everyone to see with the eyes of modern technology. At any given time
and at any point on Earth, at least four of these satellites can be seen. A
precise timing device in a GPS receiver is used by its computer to
calculate the time of flight of the signal from each of the observable
satellites. Since the signals travel at the velocity of light, and this is
known exactly, the receiver’s computer can turn the time of flight into a
very accurate estimate of the distance to each satellite — accounting for
some delays in both the neutral and ionized parts of the atmosphere.
GPS satellites also broadcast their positions. Information received from
four satellites yields four equations which can be solved for four un-
knowns: latitude, longitude, altitude, and GPS-system time. In this
process, the high accuracy of the GPS atomic clocks is transferred to
the precision quartz-crystal clock inside the receiver. Therefore, high
accuracy position and time are readily available (from which velocity
can be deduced), and a multitude of users are capitalizing on this. GPS
is like a free utility with application opportunities limited only by our
imaginations. As a result, the number of users, and the variety of uses of
GPS have literally exploded.
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barcode scanning because all of the emitted photons are in step —
providing a high-intensity and highly directed beam of light. The laser’s
high intensity spot of light bounces off the light and dark spaces of the
barcode. The timing of intensity changes of the reflected light allows
the decoding of four different widths of bars and more than 50 bits of
information in the blink of an eye. While the precise frequency and
timing requirements for this application are very relaxed, the laser
principle makes it work. In the United States, mail handling has been
facilitated greatly with the use of optical barcode scanners. Lasers are
also at the heart of the success of the popular laser printer and are
used extensively in copiers as well. CD-ROMs and CD music disks are
read with lasers at megahertz rates, and now laser dental drills can
repair cavities pain-free.
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Clocks and Timekeeping
Almost any clock may be considered a two-part device (see Figure 1).
First, a clock will have an oscillating device for determining the length
of the second or some other desired time interval. This is usually
referred to as the clock’s frequency standard, which oscillates at some
rate determined by the laws of physics. Historically, the pendulum was
the classic source of time interval. Currently, the typical wristwatch has
as its frequency standard a quartz-crystal tuning fork with an oscillation
frequency of 32,768 Hz (one Hertz, abbreviated Hz, is a cycle per
second). This number of oscillations is convenient for the associated
digital electronic circuit, because if this number is divided by 215, which
is easy for a digital chip divider, the result is one cycle or pulse per
second.
Oscillator Counter
(Frequency Device) (Counts Periodic Events)
Cs - 133 Atom
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As an example of this first part of a clock, a pendulum’s theoretical
frequency is given by
g/l
ν=
2π
where g is the gravitational acceleration at the location of the pendu-
lum and l is the length of the pendulum bob’s support wire. Specifi-
cally, an ideal pendulum that swings through its lowest point once per
second (one full cycle every two seconds, 0.5 Hz) will have a length l =
99.3621 centimeters if it is at sea level and at 45° latitude. By its nature,
a pendulum clock will depend upon several parameters, including both
its location and its environment since, for example, most materials
expand with increasing temperature. An increase in temperature would
cause the support wire to get longer and the pendulum clock to slow
down.
The current official definition of the second is much more elegant and
was agreed upon in 1967. It is based on the simple equation, E = hν.
The energy difference is specific to a particular quantum transition in
the cesium-133 atom, whose unperturbed frequency has been defined
as 9,192,631,770 Hz. When the defined number of cycles transpire for
the electromagnetic signal associated with the photon either being
given off or absorbed by this quantum transition, we have one official
second.
The quality of a clock depends on how well it is set, how accurate and
stable its frequency is, and the degree of immunity the clock has to
environmental changes. Using modern techniques, a clock coupled
with a microprocessor and sensors can be made to compensate for
some of its timing instabilities. The quartz crystal oscillator provides a
cost-effective means of achieving reasonably good clock stability, and
properly interfaced with a computing capability and set of sensors, it
15
can be very effective [4]. Typically, atomic clocks are much less
sensitive to environmental changes but significantly more expensive. In
addition, the intrinsic nature of atomic clocks usually yields a more
accurate estimate of correct frequency for the determination of the
second. The choice of which clock is most appropriate for a given
application should be considered from a systems point of view.
Four useful measures for describing the quality of a clock are: fre-
quency accuracy, frequency stability, time accuracy, and time stability.
These measures are not all independent. A clock’s frequency (or rate)
accuracy is how well it can realize the defined length of the second. A
commonly-used measure is the change in the error of a clock’s time
divided by the elapsed time, t, over which the change occurred. This is
often called the fractional or normalized frequency departure, y(t), and
is a time-dependent, dimensionless number. The goal of the Harrison
chronometers was to have y(t) less than three seconds per day, 3/86400
= 3.5 × 10–5. The best primary frequency standards in the world today
have y(t) values less than 1 × 10–14. Of course, the smaller the number,
the better the clock. (See Appendix A for more details regarding these
measures.)
Time accuracy by definition means how well a clock agrees with UTC.
There are often cases where what is needed is consistency of time at
several locations in a system. What may be important is the time
accuracy of each of the clocks with respect to the system. This is
exactly the case for the U.S. Department of Defense’s (DoD’s) Global
Positioning System (GPS) whose time differs from UTC. Specifically,
the GPS time broadcast by each of the satellites needs to be synchro-
nous with all of the other satellites in the constellation to within a
small number of nanoseconds in order for the system to work properly.
This is accomplished for GPS by the presence of atomic clocks on
board the satellites. The telecommunications industry is another
classic example, where large amounts of data are being transported
among many network nodes. These nodes need to be carefully synchro-
nized or data will be lost or transmissions will be faulty (a missing line
in a FAX, for example).
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Time stability is usually correlated with frequency stability, but it is
often useful as a measure of changes with respect to some uniform
flow of time in time-measurement systems and/or time-distribution or
time-dissemination systems. For instance, consider the clock men-
tioned before, which gains one second a day and does this day after
day. While its time accuracy may be degrading a second a day from its
initial setting, it would have perfect frequency stability, and conse-
quently perfect time predictability. If the time or frequency errors of a
clock can be estimated, then compensating corrections can be made.
If the time and rate (frequency) of a clock with good stability are
calibrated against some better clock, then an estimate of that better
clock’s reading can be used should the better clock not be available. In
a hierarchy of calibrations, at the peak of the pyramid are the primary
reference standards. In the case of a Primary Frequency Standard,
“primary” means it can provide the length of the second indepen-
dently. In determining their accuracy, some Primary Frequency
Standards are taken through a series of measurement cycles to obtain
a best estimate of the second; this often precludes these standards
from running continuously as is needed for clock operation. In such a
case, the technique of having a secondary clock that has been cali-
brated in rate by a Primary Frequency Standard allows the secondary
clock to perpetuate an estimate of the time of the Primary Frequency
Standard, had it been operating as a clock on a continuous basis. This
is an important technique in timekeeping that is used extensively in
the generation of UTC.
To measure time precisely, we must account for the delay between the
clock and the user. For example, when you look at a clock, you don’t
see what time it is, but what time it was when the light that reflected
the time toward your eye left the clock. This is like the delay of sound;
the lightning is seen and then the thunder is heard. The speed of sound
is about a million times slower than the speed of light. Light travels 30
centimeters (about one foot) in a nanosecond, so the delay for a clock
in the same room as the observer is only several nanoseconds. This
delay for GPS satellite orbits is of the order of 70 milliseconds (thou-
sandths of a second). In telecommunication networks, these delays can
be very important. GPS timing receivers estimate and account for the
signal-propagation delay from the satellites to the receiver.
From the above, it is apparent that the performance one sees from a
clock is affected by signal propagation variations and delays, changes
intrinsic to the clock, and environmental perturbations on the clock
(see Figure 2). See Appendix A for a more detailed discussion of
accuracy, stability, precision, and uncertainty in specifying clock
performance.
Perceived Performance =
18
The Definition of the Second and its General
Importance
In 1967, it was agreed by the 13th General Conference of Weights and
Measures (CGPM [Conférence Générale des Poids et Mesures] Resolution
1) that: “The second is the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of the radia-
tion corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of
the ground state of the cesium-133 atom.” The current best accuracy for
the realization of the second so defined is a value “y(t),” as defined above,
of 3 × 10–15 [6]. This is equivalent to ±1 second in 10 million years.
At the time of the definition, the atomic second was made to agree as
much as possible with the ephemeris second based on astronomical
measurements. The 9,192,631,770 Hz assigned to the above cesium
transition was the result of a three-year cooperative between L. Essen
at the National Physical Laboratory (NPL) in Teddington, England and
W. Markowitz at the U.S. Naval Observatory (USNO) in Washington,
D.C. NPL supplied the cesium clock, and USNO provided the astro-
nomical measurements via a clever dual-rate moon camera which
could simultaneously compensate for the different movement of the
moon and the stars [7]. The occultation of the latter by the former gave
a very accurate estimate of ephemeris time. The commonly received
transmissions of the National Bureau of Standards time and frequency
radio transmission on WWV were used to relate the two times.
Historical Perspective
Historically, in an agrarian society, timing was tied to sunrise, sunset
and the seasons, and astronomical observations provided both parts of
the clock: the frequency standard (one cycle per day for the earth’s
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spin) and the counter (calendar). Toward the end of the 19th century,
the improved accuracy of the astronomical measurements of Simon
Newcomb demonstrated that the exact fractional number of days in a
year varied from year to year. It was later determined that the length of
the day changes at a level of about 1.5 × 10–9 for y(t) from day to day or
from year to year. In addition, there is an apparent decrease in the spin
rate of the earth of about 2 × 10–10 per year.
In 1960 these irregularities in the spin rate of the earth led to a new
definition of the second. Prior to this time, since there are 86,400
seconds in a day, the second was defined as “1/86400 of a mean solar
day.” The new definition used as its frequency standard the one-cycle-
per-year orbit period of the earth around the sun along with other
astrometric data, such as the orbit period of the moon around the earth.
The second was redefined as “the fraction 1/31556925.9747 of the
tropical year 1900 January 0 at 12 hours ephemeris time.” This defini-
tion, the ephemeris second, was the official length of the second from
1960 until 1967 when the atomic second, based on a hyperfine transi-
tion in cesium, was introduced. The ephemeris second was difficult to
measure and required one-year averages. In contrast, the atomic second
could be measured in timescales on the order of one-to-ten days.
The idea of an atomic clock was actually conceived in the early 1940s
by Nobel laureate I. I. Rabi. The first atomic clock, based on a micro-
wave resonance in the ammonia molecule and using the microwave
photon-absorption principle, was introduced to the world in 1949 by
Harold Lyons of the National Bureau of Standards (then based in
20 Washington D.C.). Its stability was not much different from that of the
spin rate of the earth, and it did not remain in operation as a useful
working clock, but it was an important philosophical and scientific step.
In the early 1950s, Lyons’ group researched the possibility of using a
cesium beam as an atomic frequency standard. This pioneering work
demonstrated the potential for high-accuracy atomic frequency standards.
However, this development was never turned into an operating atomic
clock. In other words, the second part of the clock — a continuous and
indefinite accumulation of atomic seconds — was not incorporated.
It was not until June of 1955 that L. Essen and J. V. L. Parry of the
National Physical Laboratory in Teddington, England introduced the
first operating atomic clock — also based on cesium. Over the next
several years, the improved accuracy and uniformity of cesium-beam
clocks became readily apparent, and the world community was ready
for a new definition. Hence, in October of 1967 at the 13th convocation
of the General Conference of Weights and Measures, it was declared
that: “The second is the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of the
radiation corresponding to the two hyperfine levels of the ground state
of the cesium-133 atom.” This particular cesium resonance was agreed
upon under la Convention du Mètre and remains to the present time as
the official definition of the second for the world community. Fortu-
nately, the choice of cesium for the definition was a good one, and it is
evident that this definition is likely to remain with us for some time to
come. It has been well commercialized; cesium-atomic clocks now
number in the thousands.
The main environmental effect was just the seasonal temperature of the
living room. Pressure, humidity, shock and vibration effects were
probably negligible compared to the temperature effects.
Ashby also plays the piano, and we hoped his musical training would
assist in minimizing the trigger-time measurement noise as he operated
the camera. In theory, the 1/1000-second (1 millisecond) shutter speed
should easily stop the LCD readout, since it only changes every
10 milliseconds (1/100-second). However, in many cases, the LCD
readouts were caught in transition.
Appendix A explains some of the details of the tools used to analyze the
data. Once we developed the film, we extracted the readings of each of
the three clocks with a readout precision of 10 milliseconds (ms) and a
reading once per day. The theoretical standard deviation on 10 ms
rollover precision is only 2.9 ms. Contributions to the measurement
noise will also come from the precision with which the shutter is
22
100.0 0.0
50.0 Watch #1
Watch #2
Time Error in Seconds
–50.0 –1.0
Watch #3 Watch #2
–100.0
Watch #1 –1.5
–150.0 Watch #3
–200.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 120 130 140 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 120 130 140
Time in Days From Start of Experiment Time in Days From Start of Experiment
Figure 3. A plot of the time error of three stopwatches with Figure 4. After calibrating the clock rate (frequency) for
data taken daily for 145 days. each of the three stopwatches, these rates were subtracted
from the data and the residual time errors are shown here.
pushed plus the delay in the atomic-clock signal across the telephone
line. Since the experiment was also in Boulder and only one telephone
exchange office processed the call, this delay should be the order of a
millisecond. We therefore have a near perfect time reference as
compared with all the other time-deviation mechanisms observed in
this experiment.
The clocks were synchronized with the Boulder atomic clock at the
beginning of the experiment. Figure 3 is a plot of the daily time errors
including the initial point when the three clocks were synchronized.
The frequency accuracies of the three clocks were: –1.17, +0.48, and
–0.81 seconds per day for clocks 1, 2, and 3 respectively. If these rates
are divided by the number of seconds in a day (86,400 s/day) we obtain
the dimensionless frequency inaccuracy for each of the three clocks:
–1.36 × 10–5, +0.56 × 10–5, and –0.94 × 10–5, respectively. These values
are typical for stopwatches of this quality. A wristwatch has the
advantage of being controlled by the body’s temperature, and the
quartz crystal is usually preset to run on the correct frequency at
this temperature.
If we now use the Boulder atomic clock to calibrate the rate of each of
the three clocks and remove these rate offsets per the above numbers,
we then observe the residual errors shown in Figure 4. It will be
noticed that these errors, on a peak-to-peak basis, are nearly a hundred
times smaller than those shown in the previous figure. A high degree of
long-term correlation is also observed between the three clocks —
especially between clocks 2 and 3. This probably is due to their being
subject to the same temperature environment and having very similar
temperature dependence.
0.4
0.3 10 –5 53 ms White PM
0.2
0.1
Measurement Noise
Mod. σy (τ)
0.0 10 –6
–0.1
–0.2 3 ms Flicker FM
–0.3 10 –7 Clock Noise
–0.4
–0.5 1 day
–0.6 10 –8
–0.7
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 120 130 140
10 4 10 5 10 6 10 7
Time in Days From Start of Experiment Averaging Time, τ (seconds)
Figure 5. After subtracting calculated frequency offsets and Figure 6. If we now analyze the frequency stability of series
frequency drifts from the data, we obtain the time error 2 minus series 3 using the methods developed in Appendix
residuals shown here. A, we obtain the plot shown here.
the beginning, in the middle and at the end of the data, respectively,
and T is the total time duration of the data set — in our case 145 days.
If the drift for each of the three time series is calculated and subtracted
from the data, we have the time error residuals shown in Figure 5.
Let’s denote the residual time error shown in Figure 5 as three time
series x1(i), x2(i), and x3(i) for each of the three clocks with the i
designating the day count from the beginning of the experiment. As
explained in Appendix A, we can calculate the day-to-day time stability
for each of these three time series and we obtain 48 ms, 52 ms, and
54 ms, respectively. These values will be the sum of the shutter-trigger
time noise, the LCD rollover noise, and the quartz tuning-fork noise
(measurement noise + counter noise + frequency standard noise). Of
course, the frequency standard’s deviations can come from internal
mechanisms or be driven by the environment. At this point, we cannot
deduce how much is coming from each of these different sources.
As will be shown in Figure 6, at an averaging time of 1 day, the mea-
surement noise is well above the crystal oscillator noise. In this case as
was implemented above, a three-point frequency drift estimator can be
shown to be a simple and efficient estimator, where the three points
are the first, middle and last time-error points. Having removed the
mean frequency to obtain the residual time error data for Figure 4
results in the first and last point being zero. Hence, the above equation
for the frequency drift can be simply obtained by D = –8 x(N/2)/T 2 ,
where x(N/2) is the middle time-error point and T is the data length.
The residuals shown in Figure 5 are probably made up of measurement
noise, correlated effects driven by a common temperature for all three
stopwatches, and long-term random variations of the quartz crystal
oscillators.
Since the data were taken each day at the same moment within 1 ms,
we can subtract one time series from the other on a day-by-day basis.
The effect of the shutter-trigger noise will cancel in these differences
since the error is identical to within 1 ms. We can write the difference
x12(i) = x1(i) – x2(i), etc. for x13(i) and x23(i). In the case of random-
24
uncorrelated deviations, the cross variances average to zero, and we
may solve for the unknown variances with the following equations:
σ 12 = 1 σ 12
2 2
+ σ 13 − σ 223 , σ 22 = 1 σ 12
2
+ σ 223 − σ 13
2
and
2 2
σ 23 = 1 σ 13
2
+ σ 223 − σ 12
2
.
2
We have here three equations with three unknowns. Solving for these
variances and taking the square root yields day-to-day time stabilities
for the LCD rollover noise of: 27 ms, 40 ms, and 36 ms, respectively,
which is much larger than the theoretical value of 2.9 ms. At this point,
we may wonder if this is clock noise. We will show later that it is not.
We can now deduce the shutter-trigger noise — how well our piano
finger follows the Boulder atomic clock. By squaring the total day-to-
day time stability given earlier for each of the three time series and
then subtracting the estimated variance for the LCD rollover noise just
deduced, we end up with an estimate of the variance for the shutter-
trigger measurement noise. Taking the square root of these calcula-
tions yields 40 ms, 33 ms, and 40 ms respectively. Taking an average of
the three variances and taking the square root yields 38 ms for how
well a person can push a button in synchronism with an accurate time
signal.
UTC was set synchronous with UT1 at 0000 hours on January 1, 1958,
and until 1972, a different technique was used to keep UTC in close
agreement with UT1. During that time, both frequency steps and 0.1-
second time steps were used to chase the instabilities in Earth time.
Table 1 lists the steering corrections introduced to keep UTC in reason-
able agreement with UT1.
UTC is generated after the fact because of the goal to have its second
be as close as possible to the definition and the goals of uniformity and
reliability. These goals are achieved by taking the times of about 230
clocks from 65 different laboratories scattered around the world and
26
Table 1. Frequency Offsets and Step Adjustments of UTC,
until 1 July 1997
1961 Jan. 1 - 1961 Aug. 1 1.422 8180 + (MJD – 37300) × 0.001 296
1961 Aug. 1 - 1962 Jan. 1 1.372 8180 + " "
1962 Jan. 1 - 1963 Nov. 1 1.845 8580 + (MJD – 37665) × 0.001 1232
1963 Nov. 1 - 1964 Jan. 1 1.945 8580 + " "
1964 Jan. 1 - 1964 Apr. 1 3.240 1300 + (MJD – 38761) × 0.001 296
1964 Apr. 1 - 1964 Sep. 1 3.340 1300 + " "
1964 Sep. 1 - 1965 Jan. 1 3.440 1300 + " "
1965 Jan. 1 - 1965 Mar. 1 3.540 1300 + " "
1965 Mar. 1 - 1965 Jul. 1 3.640 1300 + " "
1965 Jul. 1 - 1965 Sep. 1 3.740 1300 + " "
1965 Sep. 1 - 1966 Jan. 1 3.840 1300 + " "
1966 Jan. 1 - 1968 Feb. 1 4.313 1700 + (MJD – 39126) × 0.002 592
1968 Feb. 1 - 1972 Jan. 1 4.213 1700 + " "
1972 Jan. 1 - 1972 Jul. 1 10 (integral number of seconds)
1972 Jul. 1 - 1973 Jan. 1 11
1973 Jan. 1 - 1974 Jan. 1 12
1974 Jan. 1 - 1975 Jan. 1 13
1975 Jan. 1 - 1976 Jan. 1 14
1976 Jan. 1 - 1977 Jan. 1 15
1977 Jan. 1 - 1978 Jan. 1 16
1978 Jan. 1 - 1979 Jan. 1 17
1979 Jan. 1 - 1980 Jan. 1 18
1980 Jan. 1 - 1981 Jul. 1 19
1981 Jul. 1 - 1982 Jul. 1 20
1982 Jul. 1 - 1983 Jul. 1 21
1983 Jul. 1 - 1985 Jul. 1 22
1985 Jul. 1 - 1988 Jan. 1 23
1988 Jan. 1 - 1990 Jan. 1 24
1990 Jan. 1 - 1991 Jan. 1 25
1991 Jan. 1 - 1992 Jul. 1 26
1992 Jul. 1 - 1993 Jul. 1 27
1993 Jul. 1 - 1994 Jul. 1 28
1994 Jul. 1 - 1996 Jan. 1 29
1996 Jan. 1 - 1997 Jul. 1 30
1997 Jul. 1 - 31
The lengths of the seconds used in the generation of TAI and UTC are
the same; that is, they are based on the world’s primary frequency
standards in the same way. Though the frequencies are the same, the
times are not with the constraint that TAI minus UTC is an exact
integer number of seconds. The integer number changes as leap
seconds are introduced into UTC. Subtracting the right number of leap
seconds from TAI yeilds UTC. This may be confusing to some because
we speak of adding leap-seconds. But, in fact, we are subtracting a
whole SI second from the uniform and monotonically increasing
reading of TAI to obtain the leap-second-adjusted UTC. The appear-
ance of adding comes because there are 61 seconds in that minute
containing one. Watching a UTC clock with a stepping seconds hand
when this happens, we note the hand spends two seconds on
28
the 60 before moving on in a regular fashion. Table 2 shows the rela-
tionship between TAI and UTC. As can be seen, TAI – UTC = 31
seconds as of 1 July 1997.
While the source of the second for International Atomic Time (TAI) is
derived from the primary frequency standards throughout the world,
the flywheel to remember the calibrations provided by these standards
is the 230 or so contributing clocks. These clocks are like the counter,
adder, or accumulator for the world’s official time UTC. For example,
if one of the 230 clocks loses 20 nanoseconds per day as averaged over
the last month, there is a certain probability that this rate will continue
over the current month. Hence, this clock can be used to predict the
time based on the best estimate of the second as given by the primary
frequency standards. Each of the 230 clocks receives a weighting
factor according to its performance. The weighted average of the best
estimate of current predicted time across all of the available clocks
yields TAI.
It takes about one month to collect all of the data and to perform the
calculations to generate TAI and UTC times. In order to obtain a real-
time estimate of UTC, there are 50 timing centers around the world
that generate their own current estimate of UTC. (See Table 4 for list
of timing centers.) These are called UTC(k), where the “k” denotes the
particular timing center. For example, UTC(NIST) and UTC(USNO
MC) are the UTC estimates generated by the National Institute of
Standards and Technology in Boulder, Colorado and by the United
States Naval Observatory’s Master Clock in Washington, D.C. NIST has
responsibility for determining the length of the second for the United
States as well as supplying this value to the BIPM. USNO has responsi-
bility for supplying time and frequency for the Department of Defense
(DoD). Both organizations, in diverse and non-overlapping ways,
supply time for the United States and for the BIPM, and their time
scales are usually synchronous to within about 20 nanoseconds [12].
When the data are reported to the BIPM, each of the 230 contributing
clocks is reported with respect to the UTC(k) available to or generated
by that timing center. Each UTC(k) — including a clock at the Paris
Observatory — is measured over a five day average against GPS time.
When these time differences are subtracted, each UTC(k) is known
against the Paris Observatory clock using GPS as a transfer standard,
which drops out in the subtraction [13]. These time difference data,
along with the UTC(k) minus the local clock time differences, are
communicated to the BIPM for the latter’s calculation of TAI and UTC.
The BIPM then sends out a monthly bulletin, which reports the time
differences of each of the UTC(k)s with respect to UTC for the previ-
ous month to the interested user community. This bulletin is like a
“report card” telling each timing center how well they have done in
predicting UTC. When it is received, it tells you “officially” what time it
was! What time it is is predicted, estimated and made available to the
world from the different UTC(k)s in the contributing nations.
29
By international agreement all of the timing centers have been given a
goal to keep their UTC(k)s within 100 ns (nanoseconds) of UTC.
Currently, the best predictions are approximately 10 ns. A plot of some
of the UTC(k)s is shown in Figure 7. Significant progress has been
made within several countries toward improving the accuracy of the
UTC(k)’s which provide a real-time estimate of UTC.
Figure 7. An example of some of the
UTC- UTC(K) 1996 Circular-T Data best estimates of UTC as predicted
and kept by a selected set of timing
400 centers, which also contribute data
Time Difference in Nanoseconds
30
time, no such step occurs in GPS time. But GPS time is still steered to
agree as well as possible with UTC(USNO MC), as if no leap seconds
had occurred since 1980. In practice, the steering performance is much
better than the one-microsecond specification; typically, it is well
within 40 nanoseconds.
For 1995, Figure 8 shows the frequency distribution of all the clocks
contributing to UTC. Figures 9 and 10 show the distributions of the
HP 5071As and the primary frequency standards, also contributing
31
Figure 8. A histogram showing the
Histogram of Frequency Offsets (TAI- Clock) for 1995 frequency accuracy of all the clocks
(All Clocks) contributing to TAI and UTC with
180 histogram box size of 5 × 10–13.
# of units = 288
160
Mean Offset = 0.5E–13
# of Units per Frequency Bin
100
80
60
40
20
0
–30 –25 –25 –20 –15 –5 0 5 10 15 20 25
Clock Frequency Offset (TAI - Clock), parts in 10E13
100
std dev = 1.38E–13 the HP 5071A, and the standard
std dev of mean = 0.13E–13 deviation is 7 times better.
80
60
40
20
0
–30 –25 –25 –20 –15 –5 0 5 10 15 20 25
Clock Frequency Offset (TAI - Clock), parts in 10E13
0
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
Clock Frequency Offset (TAI - Clock), parts in 10E13
32
to UTC. Even though the standard deviation of the mean of the
HP 5071As’ frequencies is about the same as that of the primary
frequency standards throughout the world, one may ask the question
about the statistical independence of same-model-number devices.
The standard deviation shown for the HP 5071As’ frequencies is
seven times better than the manufacturer’s accuracy specification of
1 × 10–12, and the mean value only differs by –5 × 10–14. As can be seen
from the pie chart in Figure 11, the percentage of weight assigned to
the HP 5071As is more than 2/3 that for the entire UTC ensemble —
even though the total number is less than half of all the contributors
to UTC. This, again, is because of the excellent long-term frequency
stability and time predictability of these clocks.
Also, in the last few years, the accuracies available from cesium
primary frequency standards has improved remarkably. The emerging
technologies that have brought about these improvements in cesium
primary frequency standards are laser energy-state pumping and
detection, laser cooling using photon pressure down to near absolute
zero temperature, followed by a photon pressure pulse giving rise to a
controlled low-velocity cesium fountain. Nearly a factor of ten im-
provement in accuracy has already been achieved and the end is not in
sight. The cesium fountain work has been led by Andre Clairon at the
Laboratoire Primaire du Temps et des Fréquences [LPTF] in Paris,
France, and the laser energy-state cesium selection and detection by
Robert Drullinger at the National Institute of Standards and Technol-
ogy (NIST) in Boulder, Colorado. These have been major break-
throughs since Lyons developed the first cesium-beam device in the
early 1950s.
Figure 11. A pie chart showing the
distribution of clocks and the assigned
BIPM International Atomic Time weighting factors assigned by the BIPM
Component Clocks by Clock Weight for the clocks composing the UTC time
scale for the month of December 1996.
OSA (0.85%) FTS (0.03%)
Primary Clocks (2.04%)
Hydrogen (18.32%)
HP 5071A (72.96%)
HP 5061A/B (5.80%)
(Data as of 2/25/97)
33
The variance used to determine the weighting factors for the TAI and
UTC computation is the frequency stability taken over an averaging
time of two months, and six values (one year’s worth of data) are used
to compute a six-sample variance. The weighting factors shown in
Figure 11 are proportional to the reciprocal of the variance except that
they are not allowed to exceed an upper limit of weight.
The primary standards are located in Canada (NRC CsV, CsVI A and
CsVI C), France (LPTF JPO and FO1), Germany (PTB CS1, CS2, and
CS3), Japan (CRL Cs1), Russia (SU MCsR 102) and USA (NIST-7). The
high accuracy and continuous operation of the PTB primary frequency
standards has made them major contributors to the accuracy of the SI
second used in TAI and UTC [16].
34
The black-body radiation shift was discovered, theoretically, by Wayne
Itano of NIST in 1982 [17]. It is due to the isotropic black-body radiation
emitted from the surroundings of the atomic beam in a cesium atomic
clock. The size of the black-body radiation shift is only –1.76 × 10–14 at
300°K (27°C). Recently, two laboratories developing the next genera-
tion of cesium fountain clocks have measured this shift, their results
confirming theory [18,19]. Because the theoretical basis of the shift was
sufficiently strong, the March 1996 CCDS (Comité Consultatif pour la
Définition de la Seconde) decided to include this effect. This resulted in
a step change in the SI second of about this amount. TAI and UTC are
being gradually steered to agree with this improved value.
1 000 000s
Stonehenge
Egg Timer
1 000s Earth Spin
Harrison Clocks
1 Second
ch
at Earth Orbit
W
nt
Clock Timekeeping Ability
e
em h
0.001s cap a t c Rb Gas Cell
(Millisecond) Es tz
W
u ar m
Q ulu
nd
0.000 001s Pe Millisecond Pulsar
(Microsecond) r
Super to
la
Conducting s c il UTC
Cavity a lO
0.000 000 001s y st
Cr Cs Beam
(Nanosecond) tz
ar
Qu H-Master
Hg Ion Storage
0.000 000 000 001s
(Picosecond) 6000 Years
1 1 1 100
Hr Day Yr Yrs 1 Million Years
0.000 000 000 000 001s
(Femtosecond) 10–3 1 103 106 109 1012 1015
1 Min
The reference for coordinate time for Earth has been given us by
international conventions. In 1971 the General Conference of Weights
and Measures stated that: “International Atomic Time (TAI) is the time
reference coordinate established by the Bureau International de l’Heure
on the basis of the readings of atomic clocks operating in various
establishments in accordance with the definition of the second, the unit
of time of the International System of Units.” In 1988, the responsibility
for TAI was transferred to the Time Section of the Bureau International
des Poids et Mesures, BIPM. In 1980, the Comité Consultatif pour la
Définition de la Seconde, (CCDS) declared: “TAI is a coordinate time
scale defined in a geocentric reference frame (origin of the frame at the
centre of the Earth) with the SI second as realized on the rotating geoid
as the scale unit.” Here SI stands for the International System of Units.
For a clock fixed on Earth at distance r from the earth’s center and at
geocentric latitude θ, the fractional frequency shift is
Δ ν ν = V r , θ – Ω E2 r 2 cos 2 θ / 2 – V a 1 , 0 – Ω E2 a 12 / 2 / c 2
( ) ( )
where V(r,θ) is the earth’s gravitational potential including quadrupole
and perhaps higher multipole moment contributions, ΩE is Earth’s
angular rotation rate (one cycle per sidereal day), and a1 is Earth’s
equatorial radius. The terms proportional to Ω E2 arise because of the
spin of the earth. They can be thought of as contributions to the
effective gravitational potential in the rotating frame. Since clocks at
rest anywhere on the geoid tick at the same rate, it is convenient to
evaluate the last correction term along with the true gravitational
potential V(a1,0) at the earth’s equator. If the earth-fixed clock is at
height h above the geoid, the combination of terms gives a fractional
frequency shift of approximately gh/c2 where g is the measured value
of the acceleration of gravity.
For a clock moving with velocity v through the ECI frame the term
1 Ω E2 r 2 cos 2 θ must be replaced by 1 2 v 2 . Einstein’s second-order
2
Doppler correction states that a clock moving at a velocity “v” with
respect to an inertial frame will appear to run slow when compared
with synchronized clocks in the inertial frame by a fractional amount
2 2
“ v 2 c ”. This is the reason for the second and fourth terms in the
above correction equation. For clocks in GPS orbits, the second-order
Doppler corrections cause the clocks to run slow by 0.823 × 10–10 with
respect to clocks at the geoid. On the other hand, the purely gravita-
tional frequency shifts cause GPS satellite clocks to run fast with
respect to clocks at the geoid by 5.289 × 10–10. The sum of these two
effects is 4.46 × 10–10. GPS satellite clocks are slowed by this amount
before launch in order for the broadcast signals to be correct when
used anywhere near the earth.
Since the GPS orbits are not perfectly circular, the eccentricity of each
satellite’s orbit is broadcast in its data message. The GPS receiver
software has to calculate the additional relativistic effects due to this
eccentricity. The magnitude of this effect can be several dozens of
nanoseconds for GPS orbits. The eccentricities of Russia’s equivalent
system to GPS, called GLONASS, tend to be much smaller than for
GPS. It appears that the very small eccentricity effect in the GLONASS
system is accounted for at the transmitters by modulation of the
transmitted clock coefficients. GLONASS was designed so that the
receivers can get by without having to calculate this relativistic effect.
38
Clocks being compared at different longitudes on Earth’s surface have
to include the relativistic Sagnac effect due to the rotation of the earth.
The size of the effect is given by 2ΩEAp/c2 = Ap × 1.6227 nanoseconds
per square megameter (Mm2) where ΩE is the angular velocity of the
earth. Ap is the total area, projected on Earth’s equatorial plane,
mapped out by the radius vector from the center of the earth to the
portable clock or to the electromagnetic signal carrying the time. The
correction is positive going eastward. In other words, if a perfect
portable clock were transported eastward around the globe on the
geoid, so slowly that its velocity relative to the ground didn’t matter,
then when it returned to its starting point, 207.4 nanoseconds would
have to be added to its reading for it to agree with its reading if it had
been left at the point of departure. The circumference of Earth is about
40 Mm — giving it a cross sectional area of 127.8 Mm2 at the equator
(127.8 × 1.6227 = 207.4 ns). For receivers at known locations such as
timing centers, when GPS time is transferred by a signal from satellite
to ground, the Sagnac effect has to be programmed into the receiver in
order to estimate the projected area of the triangle having corners at
the GPS satellite sending the signal, the receiver’s location, and the
center of the earth.
The question arises, “what about the effects due to the moon and the
sun and the fact that Earth is not in a circular orbit?” These effects are
well understood. The reference frame of choice for relativistic correc-
tions on and about the earth is a non-rotating Earth-centered frame —
an ECI frame. Fortunately, since our ECI frame is in free fall about the
sun, Einstein’s Principle of Equivalence implies that for near-earth
clocks relativistic corrections as viewed from our ECI frame remain the
same over the course of a year at very high levels of accuracy. This self
consistency holds for clocks being compared in the vicinity of the earth
[22, 23, 24]. As soon as timing measurements are made outside our
Earth-Moon system, other coordinate systems and relativistic consider-
ations enter in.
39
Table 4. Acronyms and Locations of the Timing Centers Which Maintain
a Local Approximation of UTC, UTC(k), or/and an Independent Local
Time Scale, TA(k)
40
Table 4. (continued)
hours.
10 –9 TV Line-10
–10
*and Mod.σy(τ)
10
GOES
10 –11
WWVB
10 –12
Loran-C Time Transfer via
10 –13 2-way TV Line-10 or Loran-C
Satellite* GPS Carrier
Phase* GPS Direct
10 –14
GPS Common View
10 –15 and 2-way Satellite*
10 –16
10 0 10 1 10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6 10 7 10 8
Sample Time, τ (seconds)
41
State-of-the-art techniques are used to communicate the time and
frequency data to the BIPM for the calculation of UTC. With the
frequency stability of clocks continually improving, the short-term
instabilities of the transfer techniques have increasingly become a
problem and limit the short-term instabilities achievable for UTC. The
initial flat portion of the UTC curve in Figure 12 is due to the instabili-
ties of the time transfer technique. Figure 14 gives the time stability of
some state-of-the-art time transfer techniques.
–1
–1
–1
–1
4
10
10
10
10
10
–1
µs 10 –6 techniques.
10
Loran -C
5
–1
10 –7
(seconds)
10
6
–1
10 –8
10
G PS QU
ACV RB GPS
7
–1
ns 10 –9 CS CV
10
TW
STF
T
8
–1
10 –10
10
σx(τ)
S
–1
42
In recent years, there has been a rapid increase in the use of GPS as a
source of UTC. With minimal effort and little cost, one-microsecond
accuracies are readily achieved. There are many applications, however,
where much better timing is needed, and most of these situations need
a real-time output, such as for telecommunications or the power grid.
However, the degradation in the GPS signal caused by SA can cause
some hundreds of nanoseconds peak-to-peak variations. The current
GPS common-view technique, which avoids the SA degradation to a
large extent, only gives time differences between two clocks after the
fact.
A novel approach was developed a few years ago in which the nature of
the instabilities of SA was studied [15]. Understanding the character of
these instabilities as compared with the very different character of
the instabilities in precision clocks allowed real-time filters to be
designed for timing receivers in fixed locations. Using, for example, the
HP 5071A cesium-beam clock with an appropriate filter design essen-
tially eliminates the SA in real-time. If clocks using quartz crystal
oscillators or rubidium gas-cell frequency standards are used instead, a
good level of SA filtering is still achievable. The clock using rubidium
offers better filtering than one using a quartz-crystal oscillator, but the
latter can be built more cost-effectively and with better reliability.
Products based on these SA filtering concepts have become very
popular and useful for precision network timing. Figure 14 illustrates
the time stability achievable using these SA filtering concepts as
compared with some other precision timing techniques. They are
denoted as the Enhanced (EGPS) technique.
44
1992 between McDonald (Texas) and Grasse (France), with a stability
of 100 picoseconds and an accuracy on the order of 1 nanosecond. The
light pulses carry the temporal information from one clock to another.
A clock on board a satellite is used as a relay between Earth clocks to
allow time transfer between remote clocks. One could also use the
technique to place a reference clock on the satellite and use the optical
time-transfer to synchronize the Earth clocks to this reference.
Figure 15.
Time-transfer
stability between
40 ps a ground clock and
the satellite clock
for T2L2.
15 ps
σx(τ)
45 fs
45
regularly transmitted to the T2L2 coordination center for analysis.
The accuracy of the time-transfer between the satellite clock and the
ground clock integrated over ten days is estimated at 50 picoseconds,
considering that the ground and satellite contributions are equal. This
implies that the frequencies of the ground clock and the satellite clock
can be compared with an accuracy in the range of 6 × 10–17. However,
it must be stressed that the time origin at the satellite is arbitrary, so it
is not possible to know the phase between the ground clock signal and
the satellite clock signal.
Plans are in hand to test the next generation of atomic clocks and
time-transfer techniques in space. Scheduled for launch around 2003,
Atomic Clock Ensemble in Space (ACES) is a multi-Agency proposal
between the United States, the Russian Federation, Japan, Europe and
Canada to fly an ensemble of the next generation of atomic clocks
onboard the International Space Station Alpha. ACES would consist
of an ensemble of externally-mounted payloads. In the benign,
microgravity environment of space, the fractional frequency stability
and accuracy attainable should be in the range of 10–16 to 10–17.
46
ACES will become an essential Time and Frequency research platform.
The applications are immense and include:
ACES would also be the first step towards testing of atomic clocks in
space prior to their commercialization. This would be of great benefit
for:
Atomic clock development with ACES could greatly benefit the devel-
opment of the next-generation of Global Navigation Satellite Systems
(GNSS), with the potential for orders of magnitude improvement over
existing GPS and GLONASS systems [26].
The USA plans to provide a second frequency for civilian use on the
Block 2F GPS satellites. This signal would provide civil users an
accurate measurement of the GPS signal through the ionosphere —
now one of the biggest uncertainties in precision airline navigation.
47
Improvements in satellite position prediction and clock accuracy are
in progress. Inter-satellite links are being implemented with the GPS
Block 2R program that should already increase the time and position
accuracy available from GPS. The Block 2R satellites are scheduled for
launch starting 1997.
48
Transport Satellite (MTSAT) launch is scheduled for 1999, with a
replacement satellite in 2005. MTSAT alone will not meet requirements
for primary means of navigation, but it will probably provide a compo-
nent to the future Asian region wide-area system. The Indonesian
government is also currently planning to launch two additional Geosta-
tionary satellites with navigation payloads to complement MTSAT in
the South-Eastern Asia region. The first satellite is expected to be
launched in 2000.
The European Space Agency (ESA) has made significant progress in its
development of the wholly-civil GNSS2. Following an initial GNSS2
Mission Analysis study of system architectures in 1995, ESA is now
concentrating on the key technical issues such as satellite orbit
configurations. The program is aimed at early demonstration of a flight
experiment by 1999, although an increase in Member State contribu-
tions to the GNSS2 program could mean seeing this time scale re-
duced. This ambitious project is expected to be funded through public-
private initiatives. Both the European Space Agency and the European
Commission are giving their full backing to the program, indicating its
importance towards the future competitiveness of European industry.
It remains that Europe is keen to see implementation of a developmen-
tal system as soon as possible. GNSS2 is expected to achieve full
operation around 2007-2010 and remain operational until at least the
year 2025.
49
Ultimately, the decision to fabricate the next-generation GNSS will be
taken at the political and institutional levels. Who needs it? Who will
pay for it? Only through international cooperation and coordination
can there be a truly seamless, international, next-generation GNSS. The
European Space Agency is currently engaged in discussions with the
Russians, Japanese and Americans to ensure that there is a common
goal and to minimize the duplication of effort. The cost of providing
such a system would be prohibitive without the cooperation of all
partners.
Currently, for example, GPS and GLONASS are not synchronized and
use very different coordinate reference frames [28]. One of the major
differences between GPS and GLONASS is that they use different
references for time and space. For time reference, GPS relies for its
GPS Time on UTC(USNO MC), Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) as
realized by the USNO. GLONASS relies for its GLONASS Time on
UTC(SU), UTC as realized by the Russian Federation. UTC is produced
by the BIPM and is the internationally recognized time reference for
the whole Earth.
In the past UTC(SU) and GLONASS time have been off several micro-
seconds from UTC. UTC(USNO MC) has kept very close synchroniza-
tion to UTC — within 20 ns. At the 13th Session of the CCDS (Comite
Consultatif pour la Definition de la Seconde) held on 12-13 March 1996,
it was recommended (Recommendation S4 (1996)):
50
0.1 ps
Optical Ion Traps 1 ps
Explosion in Timekeeping
F U T U R E
Mercury Ion Traps 10 ps
Hydrogen Masers
Performance has Provided Primary Cesium 100 ps
Major Benefit to Society
1 ns
During this Millennium
1 µs
Quartz Crystal
10 µs
100 µs
Shortt Clock
1 ms
Reifler Clock
Free Pendulum Clocks 10 ms
10 ks
1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
Year - A.D.
The fact that UTC is not available in real-time means that none of the
users having real-time synchronization needs can use world official
time. The number of users needing real-time synchronization is in-
creasing rapidly; hence, they have found alternative solutions for
synchronizing their timing networks. The measurement noise associ-
ated with communicating time from one location to another is of such
a nature that the performance of state-of-the-art clocks cannot be
utilized at a distance. This measurement noise also degrades the short-
term stability of UTC.
52
The long-term performance accuracy and stability of UTC can take
advantage of the best clocks in the world and are currently doing so.
This is because the measurement noise can be averaged away over a
long enough time. The problem is that as clocks continue to improve,
the amount of time needed to average away the measurement noise is
getting longer and longer.
Thus there is a need for both real-time access to UTC and improved
methods of communicating time and frequency between clocks and
to the user community. Both problems are being addressed by the
international time and frequency metrology community, and solutions
will undoubtedly be forthcoming. Neither problem is insurmountable.
As clocks improve and as methods for communicating time and
frequency improve, the resulting available accuracies will also
improve.
Conclusions
We have seen how precise timing has provided significant benefit to
society, and we anticipate an increase in its contribution. The basic
reference for timing is UTC. The time and frequency input to UTC
comes from timing centers around the globe. Most national timing
centers generate real-time estimates of UTC that are used for con-
sumption in their respective countries. Since atomic clocks were
invented a half century ago, we have witnessed a factor of a million
improvement. These improvements have been in both the quantity and
the quality of the time and frequency signals provided to the user
community. Not surprisingly, the number of users has increased
dramatically over the last two decades. GPS has become the lead
supplier of very accurate time and frequency information, specifically
for UTC as predicted by USNO [30].
In the past, many of the precise time users were content to deduce
time and frequency information after the fact. An increasing number of
current users need precise time in real-time with very little lapse in
real-time processing of the data to deduce a current best estimate of
UTC or some timing signal. Although UTC is now only available more
than a month after the fact, there are numerous predicted estimates of
UTC, available in real-time, to satisfy most of the user community.
There is some pressure to make world official time, UTC, available in
real-time. This is under study and is possible; reasonable solutions
have been proposed.
Acknowledgments
This note is an accumulation of the ideas and work of many notable
contributors to the far-reaching success of precise timekeeping in
modern society. We wish to take our hats off to the several who have
gone before — laying the important groundwork that allows us to be
where we are today. It would be too difficult to name names because
of the diversity of foundational activities that bring us here. Our efforts
have been to capture some of the historical perspective, highlight
where we are now, and anticipate where new discoveries in precision
metrology and timekeeping will propel us.
54
Allan has also provided very valuable editorial assistance. Mrs. Sylvia
Chantler and the NPL library staff have been most helpful in research-
ing questions. The sponsorship of Hewlett-Packard (SCD) and the
assistance of their editorial staff have been the mainstay to the project.
55
Appendix A
Next, carry this analogy over to an atomic clock. Suppose each flip of
the coin is the clock’s effort over one second to determine the length
of the SI second and it is able to do so with a standard deviation of
1 × 10–11. Then the second to second stability would be 1 × 10–11. The
56
uncertainty of the mean value of the SI second measurement after
100 seconds (100 flips of the coin) would be
1 × 10 –11 / 100 = 1 × 10 –12 .
This is the inaccuracy of the mean value as averaged over 100 seconds.
An ideal clock, like the flip of a coin, will have an error in each fre-
quency measurement that is random and uncorrelated with any of the
past errors — the coin has no memory of any of its past flips. However,
since the time of a clock results from adding or integrating the fre-
quency or rate of a clock, the time errors get integrated or added also.
So like the people’s distance, xi, from the origin, the time error, xi, for
each clock adds up all of the independent frequency errors. The xis
follow what is called a random-walk process. And even though it is
random, the time error at any point in time correlates with the past
because it is an accumulation of all of the past errors. We can never
know the exact amount of these errors because there is no perfect
reference; hence, errors, as will be discussed in more detail below, are
often referred to in the sense of probabilities. For example, from a
normal distribution as illustrated above, 68 percent of the time the
errors would lie within one standard deviation (1 σ) of the mean value
or estimate of the measurand.
We may write the time error of a clock in terms of its frequency offset
t
as follows: x ( t ) = ∫0 y ( t ′ ) dt ′ .
Hence, if the frequency offset is positive, the time-error ramps early. If
the frequency offset, y0, is constant, we may simply write the time error
as follows: x(t)=y0 t. Early and late are sometimes confusing to people.
At the moment a clock is early its reading will be larger than a correct
clock, and if late, then smaller. Another confusion sometimes arises
57
because the period between cycles, P, is the reciprocal of frequency,
ν=1/P. When we take the derivative of this equation and normalize it,
we have δν/ν=–δP/P=y(t) — note the minus sign in front of the δP/P. In
other words, if the frequency offset is high, the period, P, is low, etc.
The SI second is the accumulation “. . . of 9,192,631,770 periods . . .”
derived from the defined cesium resonance. So, for example, if a
primary frequency standard measures the second of TAI as being too
long, then TAI’s frequency is too low.
Definitions:
The definitions for accuracy, error, frequency instability, precision,
synchronization, syntonization, and uncertainty are given in the
Glossary and Definitions on page 81. These definitions are generally
acceptable within the time and frequency community. As much as
possible these definitions have been drawn from the work of the
International Telecommunications Union (ITU) and the International
Standards Organization (ISO). See also IEEE Standards 1139-1988 and
1193-1994 [34, 35].
Commentary on Measures:
Since the true measurand is never known in reality, the accuracy
estimates are usually given with a 1 σ (68.3%), 2 σ (95.5%), or 3 σ
(99.7%) — depending upon the confidence level desired. The percent-
ages given are for a normal distribution. To have a valid accuracy
estimate, both the random as well as the systematic errors have to be
included. For frequency accuracy the measurand is the SI second. For
time accuracy the measurand is UTC, or one may specify accuracy
with respect to a network reference clock, for example.
58
instability can be written as a dimensionless number; 1 × 10–12 for
example. A clock having this instability would be stable to one part in
1012. As discussed in this text, the terms are often used interchangeably
because of the lack of confusion.
There are five different noise types used to model time and frequency
devices: white-noise time or phase modulation (PM), flicker or 1/f PM,
white-noise (random and uncorrelated) frequency modulation (FM),
flicker-noise or 1/f FM, and random-walk FM. The white-noise FM is
classical for atomic clocks and is like our coin toss experiment. As
explained above, in this case the time deviations are random-walk in
nature. This is because the integral of the frequency is proportional to
the time and the integral of white noise is random walk. The classical
variance is nonconvergent for the last two noise types. The two-sample
variance is not only convergent for all the noise types, but with the
observation of the dependence of the variance while the averaging time
τ is changing, the type and level of noise can be inferred except for
white-noise PM and flicker-noise PM, which have similar τ dependence.
The value of τ can be easily changed in the analysis software.
59
As an illustration of a σy(τ) diagram, Figure A1 portrays the region of
instabilities for the most important kinds of precision clocks and
oscillators that are now in use by the Time and Frequency community.
–14
HM
–15
–16
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Log (τ), seconds
How well the time of a clock can be predicted depends upon the
prediction algorithm, the kind(s) of noise in the clock, how well the
systematics are understood and have been modeled, and the kind(s) of
measurement noise and how well they have been averaged or filtered.
The systematic effects are often driven by environmental changes —
such as may be caused by temperature effects. Hence, to perform
satisfactory prediction it may be necessary in some cases to factor in
environmental parameters.
60
Optimum predictors have been designed in many clock applications.
Here optimum means in a minimum squared error sense. It may be
shown that if the systematics and the measurement noise have been
properly dealt with, then the optimum prediction error for the random
part of the clock’s behavior is given by xrms(τp) = K(α)τpσy(τp). This
is the root-mean-square prediction error for a prediction interval τp,
and the K(α) depends upon the kind of limiting noise in the clock. For
the five noise types outlined above (α = +2, +1, 0, –1, –2), K(α) has
the following values: 2/3, ~1, 1, 1.2, and 1, respectively. The optimum
prediction algorithms are different for each of the five noise types. For
the even integer values of α, they are simple and can be deduced from
the powerful and useful statistical theorem that the optimum estimate
of a white-noise process is the simple mean. For the odd values of α,
the prediction algorithms are complex, but simple ones have been
designed that are close to optimum. In reality, most clocks are charac-
terized by more than one noise type and the prediction algorithms
become correspondingly more complex, but prediction procedures
can be designed to be very tractable and close to optimum.
The above five values of α have proven very useful in modeling the
random fluctuations observed in precise time and frequency systems.
This α actually denotes the exponent on the Fourier frequency, f, for
the spectral density, Sy(f). The spectral density is a measure of the
power present at different Fourier frequencies. The Fourier frequency,
in contrast to the carrier frequency, is associated with the power in the
residuals (i.e., the fluctuations of the frequency y(t)) around the
nominal carrier frequency value. Suppose a quartz crystal oscillator has
61
a carrier frequency of 5 MHz and its frequency is temperature-
dependent. If the environmental temperature for this standard goes up
and down on a daily basis, we would expect the frequency fluctuations
to have a strong Fourier frequency component at one cycle per day. A
spectral density plot of Sy(f) would show this bright-line component at
f = 1 cycle per 86400 seconds = 0.000 011574 Hz.
Since the time residual fluctuations are the integral of the frequency
fluctuations, it can be shown that for these power-law model pro-
cesses, the spectral density of the time residuals, Sx(f) ~ f β , and β = α –
2. So in the case of white-noise PM just discussed, where α = +2, then
β = 0, all Fourier frequencies of the time fluctuations have equal power
density. Both the IEEE and the ITU have recommended Sy(f) and Sx(f)
as useful measures of clock performance. These are called frequency-
domain measures of stability.
The three variances (AVAR, MVAR, and TVAR) are called time-domain
measures of stability, and have the additional virtue that the above
spectral densities can be written in terms of these variances. In fact,
the dependence of these variances has a close correspondence to
62
the Fourier frequency dependence. Specifically, if AVAR, MVAR,
µ µ′ η
and TVAR are proportional to τ , τ , and τ , respectively, then
α = – µ – 1, α = – µ ′ – 1, β = – η – 1, and η = µ ′ + 2. The correspond-
ing ranges of values over which these variances follow these three
equations are –2 ≤ µ < 2 , – 3 ≤ µ ′ < 2 , and – 1 ≤ η < 4 , respectively, and
are illustrated in Table A1. Table A2 shows the mathematical represen-
tations for the three time-domain variances. Table A3 provides the
actual relationships between the frequency-domain measures cited
above and the time-domain measures — remembering that TVAR = τ2
MVAR/3. Of course, the square root of each of these three variances are
alphabetically denoted ADEV, MDEV, and TDEV, respectively as they
were introduced above. They are written symbolically as follows: σy(τ),
Mod. σy(τ), and σx(τ), respectively.
2 fh sin 4 πfτ
( ) df
σy ( τ ) = 2 ∫0 ()
Sy f
,
( πfτ ) 2
where fh is the high-frequency cutoff for the applicable measurement
system. The kernel of this integral looks like a variable bandpass filter
centered at Fourier f = 1/2τ and going to zero at f = 0 and at f = 1/τ on
either side of the center frequency. Hence, the center of the effective
bandpass filter decreases as τ increases. If τ values are taken such that
τ = nτ0, where n = 2i (i = 0, 1, 2, 3 . . .) and τ0 is the initial data spacing,
then a σy(τ) diagram provides an analysis of stability over a nominally
square window in the frequency-domain — ranging from f = 1/2τmax to
1/2τ0 , where τmax is the largest τ value available from the data set. The
transfer functions for the other two variances are similar. For details
see reference [31], pp 97-108, and/or [36].
+2 White PM
Dissemination Systems
Tel. Comm.
Network
Time/Frequency
+1 Flicker PM
Quartz
MVAR α = – µ' – 1
AVAR α = – µ – 1
TVAR β = – η – 1
0 White FM
Passive Hydrogen
Active Hydrogen
–1 Flicker FM
Rubidium
Cesium
–2 Random Walk FM
63
Table A2. AVAR, MVAR, and TVAR mathematical representations
1
AVAR Two-Sample or σ 2y (τ) = ( Δy )2
Allan Variance 2
1
= ( Δ2 x )2
2τ 2
MVAR Modified 2 1
Allan Variance
Mod. σ y ( τ) = (Δ2 x )2
2τ 2
2
( 2π ) τ 2 σ 2 τ f 1
3 0 2
τ σ x τ f
–1
()
Flicker PM
A * y() 3.37
12 τ –1σ 2 τ f –2
White FM 2 τ 1σ 2y τ f 0
() 2 x()
( 2π )
1 τ 0 σ 2 τ –1 20 τ –2 σ 2 τ f –3
Flicker FM y f () 2 x ()
2ln2 ( 2π ) 9ln2
6 τ –1σ 2 τ f –2 240 τ –3 σ2 τ f –4
Random Walk FM 2 y() 4 x ()
( 2π ) ( 2π ) 11
*
A=1.038 + 3ln(2πfhτ)
64
effects, non-normal distributions are observed from time to time.
Following the above procedure is in essential conformity with the
BIPM’s guideline on uncertainty, and this procedure is distribution
insensitive.
The time error caused by frequency drift is given by 1/2 Dt2, where D is
the amount of the frequency drift and t is the time since the clock was
both synchronized and syntonized. D is y(t)/t, where y(0) = 0 due to
being syntonized at that point in time. This time error is sometimes
called the time-interval error (TIE). The frequency inaccuracy caused
by frequency drift is given by Dt. Frequency drift, of course, is one
form of instability and affects the measures outlined above as follows:
σ y τ = Mod .σ y τ = Dτ
() () 2
For the time stability measure the TIE≅1.2 σx(τ) due to frequency drift,
where τ is now the time since synchronization and syntonization. The
time interval error is important in setting up a network in order to
know how often the clocks need to be calibrated to avoid exceeding
some TIE or to have an adequate “holdover” time.
Since the uncertainty needs to combine the errors from both the
systematic as well as the random parts of the timing system, it is
apparent that there will be a dependence of the uncertainty on the
averaging time since the random part is almost always τ dependent. As
an important example, consider the case where two clocks are being
compared and the limiting measurement noise is white-noise PM. It has
been shown that the uncertainty in the frequency comparison due to
this kind of measurement noise decreases as τ − 3 2 and is given by
2 × Mod.σy(τ). The frequency estimate, in this case, is deduced from
the slope of a linear regression to the time-difference measurements
taken as a time series between the two clocks. Because the white-noise
PM tends to average away so quickly, it is almost always the case that
the systematics dominate in the long-term. Hence, in specifying an
uncertainty an averaging time may also need to be given. A lot of effort
has been put into uncertainty specification documents, but that which
is most helpful is experience and common sense.
65
Appendix B
John Harrison finished his first pendulum clock when he was 19. The
Bocklesby Park tower clock, finished in 1722 when he was 29, is still
running and is made mostly of wooden parts. He avoided sticky oils,
which changed viscosity with temperature, by using a special hard-
wood which exuded its own natural oil. He later developed the bi-
metallic strip concept to accommodate changing temperatures. The
concept of bearings also came out of his creative mind. Some of the
land clocks made by John Harrison with the assistance of his brother
have been reported to have accuracies of one second a month, which is
astounding for that era.
Having a clock with which to compare was a serious problem for them.
He and his brother devised a sidereal clock composed of the edge of a
window in their home and a neighbor’s chimney. As this would provide
occultation of a particular star as the earth spun against the celestial
sphere, they would mark the time on their local clock. Apparently, they
could do this to better than a fraction of a second, but measurement
noise undoubtedly was a significant problem. If they achieved accura-
cies better than a second a month (4 × 10–7), this is only about forty
times worse than the annual spin-rate variations of the earth!
A pendulum clock will not work at sea because its time uniformity is
dependent upon the regular motion of a swinging bob. Newton, envi-
sioning this irregular motion of a rolling, rocking ship added on top of
66
an attempted pendulum chronometer, implied that a seaworthy clock
TIME ERROR
capable of determining accurate longitude may never be built. Harrison
Kendall 1 Chronometer
devised a counter-rotating pair of barbell-like pendulums connected by 25000
springs at the top and bottom, so that one spring was under compres-
67
The second approach avoids the need for a data set taken as a time
series. For these Harrison-like clocks, such time-error series are rarely CLOCK RATE HISTOGRAM
Kendall 1 Chronometer
available. But if we have a time-prediction error over a given length of 300
time, Figure 12 is directly amenable to plotting that point as obtained
240
from experimentation. From that data point, we can effectively work
120
apparent that the frequency stability deteriorated while it was in the
90
second gallery. There are also several large frequency steps, most of
which go positive from the nominal average value during this latter 60
segment of data. The clock suffered far fewer stoppages while in the
30
first gallery. In the second gallery, the frequency tended to go high for a
few days after the clock was rewound following a stoppage. 0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Number of Days
Figure B3 is a histogram plot of the data in Figure B2. The data values
Figure B4. A time error plot after
are in units of seconds per day. The double distribution is a result of subtracting a calibrated frequency
the different clock rates at which K-1 nominally operated in the two offset from the numbers over the first
different galleries housing the clock during data acquisition. Notice that 230 days — the time it was housed in
the first gallery. As compared to
the upper distribution is skewed to the higher clock rate values. These Figure B1, notice that this calibration
higher skewed values appeared to occur following some of the occa- reduces the peak-to-peak error by
sional weekend stoppages. about a factor of 150. Notice also the
general parabolic shape to the curve —
indicative of a negative frequency
Since K-1 is over 200 years old, we felt it necessary to give it every drift.
advantage because of the natural deterioration of all mechanical
devices; hence, we only analyzed in detail the first segment of the data.
Figure B4 is a plot of the time error for this segment after removing the
mean frequency. This would nominally be equivalent to a calibrated
clock rate correction. Notice that by this procedure the peak error
reduces from about 2,000 seconds down to 150 seconds. One sees a
68
nominal parabolic shape to this curve that could be caused by a
frequency drift. A linear regression line was subtracted from the TIME ERROR minus Drift
Kendall 1 Chronometer
frequency data for this first segment, and Figure B5 shows the remain- 75
ing time errors. In this case the peak error drops by more than a factor
Second Segment
Figure B7 is a plot of the time error of the Mudge Chronometer data 3
taken in 1777. This is a continuous time-error series taken over 203 2 First Segment
1.5
days — one measurement per day. The clock-rate offset is quite a bit
10 –5
smaller for the Mudge chronometer than for the Kendall. Since this can 10 4 10 5 10 5 10 7 10 8
be calibrated out, this should not be used as the most significant Averaging Time, τ (seconds)
criteria of clock performance. Figure B8 is the corresponding fre-
quency plot, and one can see evidence of a change in the average Figure B6. A plot of the frequency
frequency starting at about day 165. If a calibrated mean frequency is stability for the data taken in each of
subtracted from the data, the resulting timer error is shown in Figure the two galleries. K-1 was about a
factor of two less stable during its time
B9. The change in slope at day 165 clearly shows a frequency step in the second gallery than in the first.
change at that point. Notice the hump in the stability plot
for τ values of the order of one to two
weeks. This is apparently due to the
steps in frequency occurring every few
weeks. Notice also that the long-term
τ = 128 days value is almost in line with
extrapolated stability curve from the
first segment. In other words, it
appears that whatever caused K-1’s
rate to go high for a few days, this
effect tended to average out over long
enough time — a very good attribute.
69
One wonders if something was done to the clock to induce this change.
This is clearly not approximated by a parabola, so no frequency drift TIME ERROR DATA
Mudge No. 1 Chronometer
was subtracted. The frequency stability of this clock is shown in Figure
1000
B10 — a most commendable result for that period. The lower curve is
–05.0
–10.0
–15.0
–20.0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Number of Days
For the electrical engineer or physicist who may be reading this, and
Tau Sigma
for any others interested in the spectral density of these clock residual 8.64e+04 2.66e–06
these Harrison and subsequent chronometers are truly astounding and Window:
2
1 Hanning
have clearly revolutionized how we navigate. GPS is having a similar 1.50
impact now.
0.00
–1.50
Note: same component at one
cycle per week
–3.00
10 –3 10 –2 10 –1 10 0
Fourier Frequency, f, Cycles/day
71
Appendix C
72
Table C1. Characteristics of some potential sources and dissemination techniques for precise time-and-frequency
reference information
Type Typical time- Typical Coverage Availability Ease of Use Approximate Example Comments (1995)
transfer frequency relative system
accuracy transfer user cost
capability capability ($ US 1995)
HF broadcast1 1-10 ms 10–6 to 10–8 Global Continuous, Depends on 50 to 5,000 Many Accuracy depends on
(over 1 day) but operator accuracy services path length, time of day,
and location requirements worldwide. receiver calibrations,
dependent See Rec. 7682 etc.
LF broadcast 3 1 ms 10–10 to 10 –11 Regional Continuous Automatic 3,000 to See Rec. 768 Depends on distance
5,000 from the source and
diurnal propagation
(ionosphere height)
LF navigation 1µs 10–12 Regional Continuous Automatic 5,000 to Loran C4 Northern hemisphere
(pulsed) 12,000 coverage. Stability and
accuracy based on
ground wave reception.
VLF 10 ms 10–11 Global Continuous Automatic 4,000 Omega6 Carrier resolution can
broadcast 5 (over 1 day) provide better time
accuracy
Television 10 ns for 10–12 to 10–13 Local Dependent Automatic 5,000 Calibration required for
broadcast common view (over 1 day) upon local timing
(terrestrial broadcast
links) schedule
Navigation 20-500 ns 10–9 to 10–13 Global Continuous Automatic 3,000 to GPS and One day averaging
Satellite, (See notes 15,000 GLONASS necessary to meet
broadcast in Table C2) specified frequency
transfer capability. Best
broadcast system
available today with
commercial receivers.
Navigation 5-20 ns 10–13 to 10–15 Inter- Continuous Automatic 10,000 to GPS and Most accurate, widely
satellite, (over 1 day) continental (calculated data 20,000 GLONASS used time synchroniza-
common after the fact) acquisition. per site tion method that is
view Requires post available today (1995)
processing. with commercial
receivers for baselines
less than 8000 km.
Meteoro- 100 µs Not recom- Regional Continuous Automatic 4,000 to GOES7 May not be available
logical mended for (satellite 5,000 during satellite eclipse.
satellite, frequency footprint)
broadcast transfer
73
Table C1. Characteristics of some potential sources and dissemination techniques for precise time-and-frequency
reference information (continued)
Type Typical time- Typical Coverage Availability Ease of Use Approximate Example Comments (1995)
transfer frequency relative system
accuracy transfer user cost
capability capabilty ($ US 1995)
Television 0.5-10 µs 10–10 to 10–11 Regional Dependent on Automatic 7,000 DBS9 Without correction for
broadcast (satellite broadcast data Satellites satellite position
satellite footprint) schedule acquisition
10-100 ns 10–12 to 10–13 Regional Dependent on Post- 7,000 DBS With correction for
(satellite broadcast processing of Satellites satellite movement
footprint) schedule data required
Communica- 1-10 ns 10–14 to 10–15 Regional Continuous Data 50,000 North Most accurate
tion (satellite (as scheduled) acquisition per site American operational method at
satellite, footprint) can be and this time.
two-way automatic European
(depending networks
on satellite). exist.
Post
processing
required.
Telephone 1-10 ms 10–8 Telephone Continuous Automatic 100 Europe and Phone line must have
time code (over 1 day) calling North same path in both
range America directions. Assumes
computer and software
availability.
Optical fiber 10-50 ps 10–16 to 10–17 Local, less Continuous Automatic Transmitter Dedicated to Cable must be
than 50 km and receiver frequency temperature stabilized,
$30,000 per transfer (e.g. 1.5, underground).
set plus
cable and
underground
installation
costs.
100 ns 10–13 to 10–14 Long Continuous Automatic Not Synchronous Part of digital
(over 1 day) distance, applicable. Digital communication system
2000 km The Hierarchy
equipment (SDH)
is a part of network
a specific
communica-
tion system.
Microwave 1-10 ns 10–14 to 10–15 Local Continuous Automatic 50,000 to Sensitive to atmo-
link 75,000 spheric conditions and
multipath effects. Must
be 2-way to achieve
stated accuracy and
stability.
Coaxial cable 1-10 ns 10–14 to 10–15 Local Continuous Automatic 5 to 30 Sensititve to tempera-
per meter ture, VSWR, humidity,
barometric pressure.
74
Table C2. Additional information relating to the practical use of the various alternative sources of
time-and-frequency signals
HF broadcasts There are approximately 13 stations worldwide broadcast- Inexpensive receivers and antennas available. Diversity receivers
ing on one or more of the allocated HF frequencies. use multiple HF frequencies to partially compensate for
Several others operate on other HF frequencies. Typical propagation effects. Simple short- or long-wire antennas are
services include standard frequencies, time signals and often usable. Other antenna design information can be found in
time intervals, time codes, voice time announcements, and amateur-radio handbooks.
UT1 time information. These services provide a convenient, Reception is generally better for the lower frequencies (<10 MHz)
easy-to-use source of UTC at modest accuracy levels. during nighttime hours and for the higher frequencies (>10 MHz)
Although HF signals can be received at large distances, during daytime hours. Reception may be intermittent due to
propagation effects can limit received accuracy and propagation disturbances and/or interference. Optimum reception
stability. Multiple stations operating on the same allocated is usually during daytime or nighttime hours when the ionosphere
frequencies may cause mutual interference in some areas. is most stable.
Reception conditions are often highly variable, depending
on factors such as season, time of day, solar activity, Voice time announcements provide a few tenths of a second
atmospheric conditions, etc. Some HF services are being accuracy. For better accuracies down to about 1 ms special
shut down in favor of other alternatives. ITU Recommenda- measurement techniques and equipment, such as oscilloscopes
tion ITU-R TF.768 contains a complete listing of HF and electronic counters, may be required. Receiver delay
services, including details of the content and format of the calibration is also necessary for highest accuracy.
broadcasts. Frequency-measurement accuracy is limited to about 1 × 10–7 by
ionospheric motion. Beat-frequency techniques are often used
along with oscilloscopes and/or counters. Frequency measure-
ments may also be inferred from daily time-difference measure-
ments.
Calculation of signal path delays is complicated by uncertainties
in the number of signal “hops” between the station and the user
and the height of the reflecting layer at any point in time. Single
hops can usually be assumed for distances of less than 1600 km.
LF broadcasts This category includes broadcasts operating in the LF band Relatively inexpensive receivers and antennas are available from
(30 - 300 kHz) that are useful sources of UTC time or commercial sources in regions served by suitable broadcasts.
frequency but excluding navigation-system broadcasts Commercial receivers are self-contained and provide a variety of
such as Loran-C. These broadcasts are of two types: outputs that can often be specified by the user. More sophisti-
(1) dedicated time-and-frequency dissemination services cated phase-tracking receivers are also available which allow
such as DCF77, HBG, WWVB, and JJF2; and (2) stations users to establish direct frequency traceability to accepted
operating in the sound-broadcasting service that have sources for UTC.
stabilized carriers and/or additional phase-or-amplitude Typical antenna types for these broadcasts include long-wire
modulations that provide coded time information. The designs (e.g., 50 - 100 meters), whip antennas (e.g., 3 meters), air-
dedicated services generally use frequencies in the loop antennas which are helpful in discriminating against
40 - 80 kHz range. interference, and small ferrite-loop antennas.
Many of these LF broadcasts provide users with very Reception conditions vary with the transmitter power, the user’s
complete time-of-year information coded form and have location, and, in some cases, the season and time of day. For
found wide acceptance in many timekeeping applications. longer paths between transmitter and user, avoid making
Time accuracies of less than 1 ms are possible. When measurements when there is sunrise or sunset anywhere along
used as a frequency standard, LF broadcasts, including the the path.
stabilized sound broadcasts, offer calibration accuracies
of less than 1 × 10–11 when averaged for about 1 day. Frequency calibrations of local oscillators may be performed by
Reliable coverage areas of the various broadcasts range continuously monitoring the phase difference between the local
from a few hundred kilometers up to 3000 km. oscillator and the received LF broadcast. Proper evaluation of the
resulting phase recordings, however, requires some operator skill
For more details on the available broadcasts for time-and- and experience in interpreting and accounting for various phase
frequency use, see ITU Recommendation ITU-R TF.768. shifts and possible “cycle slips”.
Destructive interference may occur between the first-hop
skywave and the groundwave, causing a sharp drop in received
field intensity at certain distances from the transmitter. For a
60 kHz LF broadcast, this distance is about 1200 km.
75
Table C2. Additional information relating to the practical use of the various alternative sources of time-and-frequency
signals (continued)
LF navigation Approximately 65 Loran-C stations scattered throughout Special Loran-C timing receivers and antennas are available
broadcasts (pulsed) the northern hemisphere continuously broadcast high- commercially. The more expensive models acquire and track
power navigation signals on a frequency of 100 kHz. These appropriate Loran-C signals automatically. Non-automatic
stations are arranged in chains of 4-5 stations each. Each receivers require significant operator experience and skill for
chain transmits groups of precisely controlled pulses at an optimum timing performance.
assigned unique Group Repetition Interval. Because the In order to use Loran-C to keep a local clock steered to UTC an
navigation signals are synchronized and syntonized by output 1 Hz pulse from the receiver can be synchronized to UTC
atomic standards and are carefully monitored and by using “Time of Coincidence” tables published by the US Naval
controlled, they can be very useful as time-and-frequency Observatory. These tables give the specific times when the start
references. of the Loran-C signal being received is coincident with a UTC
The Loran-C transmissions do not contain complete time- second. Some Loran-C timing receivers can perform this
of-day information and are not a direct source of UTC time. synchronization automatically.
However, if a user’s clock is initially set to UTC by some At large distances from the station the Loran-C skywave signal
other means, Loran-C can be used to keep the local clocks may sometimes be used for timing at the 50 - 100 ms level even
to within a few microseconds of UTC over long periods of when the primary groundwave signal is unusable.
time. Frequency calibrations using Loran-C can provide
1 × 10–12 accuracy when averaged over 1 day or more. Seasonal effects on Loran-C propagation may cause timing
variations of several microseconds. At this level receiver delays
Although reception from at least three different stations is also need to be considered.
necessary for navigation, time-and-frequency measure-
ments require reception from only a single station. Frequency calibrations of a local oscillator can be accomplished
by recording the phase difference between Loran-C and the local
system or by daily measurements of the phase difference using a
counter. Accuracies as good as 1 × 10–12 are possible with
24-hour averaging.
The development of very low cost Loran-C receivers (under
$1,000) for navigation creates some possibilities for their
adaptation for time-and-frequency applications, providing that the
necessary technical expertise is available.
VLF broadcast There are a number of broadcast stations operating in the Typical equipment used includes phase-tracking receivers, loop
10 - 30 kHz range that are useful for time-and-frequency antennas, and chart recorders. Receiving system delays need to
applications. These include broadcasts primarily intended be calibrated for best results.
for long-distance communications or navigation but which
are highly stabilized in frequency and time by referencing Receivers used with MSK transmissions need to reconstruct a
to multiple atomic standards. Propagation is relatively phase-coherent carrier by suitable multiplication and mixing. For
stable over very large distances (thousands of kilometers), further information on MSK signals see Note #10 to Table 2 in
which can permit phase-tracking receivers to maintain ITU Recommendation ITU-R TF.768.
phase to within a few microseconds over long periods of Omega stations are located in the United States (North Dakota
time. VLF broadcasts typically do not contain complete and Hawaii), Japan, Argentina, La Reunion, Liberia, Norway, and
UTC time information and are useful primarily as a Australia. Since each station transmits multiple frequencies in
frequency reference. sequence, use of one of the Omega navigation frequencies for
The Omega Navigation System is one VLF system that is calibration requires that a commutator be used to turn the phase-
useful for time-and-frequency applications. It features tracking receiver on and off at the proper times in order to receive
eight worldwide, 10-kW transmitters providing continuous only the particular frequency of interest.
and redundant global coverage. Each station transmits the Propagation effects often limit the useful accuracy of VLF signals,
four navigation frequencies of 10.2, 11.05, 11.33, and 13.6 especially for very long path lengths. There are, for example,
kHz sequentially in a time-shared mode. Other “unique” predominant diurnal and annual variations caused by ionospheric
frequencies in the 10 -13 kHz range are also transmitted by changes. Results may also be influenced by unpredictable sudden
each station. ionospheric disturbances (SID), which typically alter the
Several nations also operate VLF communication stations ionosphere for 20 - 30 minutes, and by polar cap absorption (PCA)
that are useful, particularly for frequency calibration. At events, which alter the polar ionosphere for up to a week.
least some of these stations operate in an MSK (minimum In addition to the diurnal and annual variations in propagation
shift keying) mode, requiring the use of special receiving delays at VLF, other variations have been observed with periods
equipment and techniques to recover a phase-stable of 27, 29.53, and 14.765 days due to various solar and lunar effects.
carrier frequency.
In recent years the use of VLF broadcasts for time-and-frequency
comparisons has declined due to the emergence of other systems
and techniques.
76
Table C2. Additional information relating to the practical use of the various alternative sources of time-and-frequency
signals (continued)
Television A number of different techniques have been tried for time- Typical equipment needed includes suitable television receivers,
broadcast and-frequency dissemination and comparison that use antennas, counters, and data recorders. The television receivers
(terrestrial links) television broadcast signals. These include the insertion of must be modified to extract the particular synchronization pulse
time-and-frequency information into the television signal, from the received TV signal.
the stabilization of television carrier frequencies and At each measurement site arrange for the local clock pulse to
synchronization pulses, and the common-view reception of start the counter and the received TV signal to stop the counter.
a single television broadcast at multiple sites within a local About 10 such once-per-second measurements are usually
area. The first two techniques are still in use in limited sufficient to achieve excellent results.
geographical areas, but the common-view reception
technique is the most widely used television method. Since the measurements must be made simultaneously at each
site and the resulting data must be exchanged, active cooperation
The common-view method allows the precise time among the sites is necessary.
comparison among multiple sites within the coverage area
of a single TV station. Each site simultaneously measures By making such comparisons each day over a period of time, very
the time difference between a particular synchronization accurate frequency comparisons are possible based on the
pulse in the TV signal and its local clock. Subtracting the observed changes in the daily time differences. This assumes that
measurements from two different sites provides the the differential propagation path delay remains stable or is
difference between the local clocks plus a fixed differen- independently calibrated each time.
tial propagation delay. The local clock comparisons have a The technique is especially advantageous within a limited local
typical uncertainty of about 10 ns. region because of its simplicity, relatively low cost, and high
accuracy.
Navigation satellite There are two major satellite navigation systems in use as A variety of receivers are commercially available, especially for
broadcast of 1995 which offer outstanding time-and-frequency the GPS broadcasts. Some versions have been produced which
dissemination capabilities. These are the US Global can receive both GPS and GLONASS. Very small omnidirectional
Positioning System (GPS) and the Russian Global antennas are usually provided with the receivers. Costs have
Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS). The US Transit decreased sharply with the increasing demand and timing
system offers a third choice, but it will not be discussed receiver packages are available in early 1995 for $3,000 - $15,000.
further in view of its lower accuracy, higher cost, and Most receivers are highly automated. During initial setup they can
anticipated limited lifetime. be programmed to automatically track enough satellites to
While there are some differences between the two determine the receiver coordinates with sufficient accuracy to
systems in terms of signal structure and content, use of the support submicrosecond timing. Some care must be used in
frequency spectrum, and satellite orbits and configuration, locating the antenna to minimize multipath effects. After setup,
their similarities are much more important for time-and- receivers can continue to acquire and track all selected satellites
frequency users. Both GPS and GLONASS employ in a totally automatic mode.
redundant on-board atomic clocks, continuous global Many receivers can be easily controlled by the user to track only
coverage from 21 - 24 operational satellites, precisely certain satellites at certain times. Time differences between the
timed broadcasts which can be related to UTC(USNO) and received GPS signal and a local clock can often be stored in the
UTC(SU), respectively, to within 100 ns, and satellite- receiver’s memory for later analysis.
position information included in the broadcasts which can
be used for accurate path delay compensation by the Although the times of individual GPS and GLONASS clocks differ
user’s receiver. At least four satellites are always in view from the overall satellite system time which, in turn, differs from
from any location (required for navigation), but reception UTC, sufficient additional data are included in the satellite
from only one satellite is sufficient for time-and-frequency broadcast formats to allow a receiver to, in principle, adjust its
comparison. For accurate time the receiver’s antenna output timing signal to be with about 100 ns of UTC(USNO) or
position must also be known. UTC(SU). The actual display and output times, and their
relationship to the relevant UTC time scales, may vary from
Both GPS and GLONASS are essentially fully operational receiver to receiver, depending on the particular manufacturer
as of 1995 and provide a combined total of more than 40 and model and the effects of Selective Availability in the case of
satellites for time-and-frequency applications. Commercial the GPS signals.
development of receivers is proceeding rapidly with a
(continued) resulting sharp decrease in user costs.
77
Table C2. Additional information relating to the practical use of the various alternative sources of time-and-frequency
signals (continued)
Navigation satellite The presence of Selective Availability (SA) on the GPS Typical timing accuracies of 20 - 500 ns and frequency accuracies
broadcast signal overtly degrades the GPS timing information. A of 10–9 to 10–13 (depending on various factors) make these
(continued) Memorandum of Agreement between the US Department navigation satellite systems the best current broadcast source of
of Defense and the Department of Transportation highly accurate time-and-frequency for use with commercial
guarantees the availability of GPS, and the SA level is receivers.
expected to remain at about the current (1995) level. The Given the level and characteristics of GPS SA, a system approach
civilian use of GPS has surpassed the military use and ratio for obtaining UTC timing information has proven beneficial in
of civilian-to-military use is expect to continue increasing. inexpensive multichannel receiver designs. Using a systems
It is the intention of the U.S. to discontinue the use of GPS approach, the final time-and-frequency accuracy and stability will
Selective Availability within a decade. Beginning in 2000, depend on the receiver, the characteristics of the reference clock
the U.S. President will make an annual determination on and the processing algorithms. The performance of the output
continued use of GPS SA. improves with the performance of the reference clock. The
processing algorithms can also significantly impact the output
performance of the timing system. Levels of performance
achieved using quartz oscillators, rubidium frequency standards,
and cesium-beam frequency standards for the reference
oscillator are 10–11, 10–12, and 10–13, respectively. Timing
performance with respect to UTC can be better than 100 ns.
Navigation satellite For general background information on the GPS and Each site participating in a common-view measurement needs an
(common-view GLONASS systems see the preceding entry in this Table. appropriate GPS or GLONASS receiver and antenna, data-
mode) recording capabilities, and a communication link to other
In the common-view mode of operation with GPS or
participating sites. Accurate receiver location is also required, but
GLONASS users at two separated sites each receives a
this can often be determined automatically by the receiver itself
signal from the same satellite at the same time. Subtract-
operating in the navigation mode if the position is averaged over a
ing the (satellite – local clock) data from the two sites
few days.
provides the time difference between the local clocks. The
advantage is that, in this process, variations or errors in Care must be taken to ensure that the measurements extend over
the satellite clock are common to both paths and therefore exactly the same time period at each site. The receiver must also
cancel. If the SA degradation process for GPS is be programmed to track the proper satellite that is in common
implemented so as to cause variations in the satellite view with the other sites. Typical track lengths are 13 minutes.
clock, such changes do not affect the common-view A subcommittee of the Consultative Committee for the Definition
measurement accuracy. On the other hand, if SA causes of the Second has recommended standard data formats and other
satellite-position errors to be broadcast, such errors will procedural matters to facilitate the use of this method on a
not be totally compensated for in the common-view regular basis.
measurement because each site is receiving the signal
over a somewhat different path. The technique is usable for baselines between sites of up to
8,000 km.
The common-view method allows time comparison
accuracies of 5 - 20 ns over intercontinental distances, The results from many regular common-view time comparisons
even in the presence of SA (as it is presently implemented among national and international timing centers are published
in early 1995). Frequency comparisons can be derived from and archived by the BIPM.
such data to an accuracy of 10–13 to 10–15. To facilitate Receiver-system delays should be calibrated for the highest
common-view time comparisons among timing laborato- possible comparison accuracy and the antenna coordinates
ries throughout the world the BIPM in Paris generates and should be known to within less than 1 meter.
distributes suitable common-view tracking schedules
showing which satellites are appropriate for this method at The use of multichannel receivers in the common-view mode can
various times. provide a convenient frequency-transfer capability at the 10–14
level. The potential exists, for example, by using the GPS carrier
phase, for extending this performance down to the 10–15 region by
averaging over days.
78
Table C2. Additional information relating to the practical use of the various alternative sources of time-and-frequency
signals (continued)
Meteorological Since 1974 the US Geostationary Operational Environmen- Commercial receivers with small antennas are available from
satellite broadcast tal Satellite System (GOES) has included a time code several manufacturers. Recent versions use the transmitted
referenced to the UTC(NIST) time scale. The time code is satellite position information to correct for path delay and update
disseminated continuously from two geostationary it each 1 minute. Initial setup requires the operator to enter the
satellites located normally at 75 and 135 degrees West position coordinates of the receiver location.
longitude. Satellite position data are also transmitted to The GOES time code transmissions are at 2 frequencies near
users so that suitable automatic receivers can compute 469 MHz. Because these frequencies are also allocated to the
the signal path delay and correct their 1-Hz outputs land-mobile service in the US, some interference, particularly
accordingly. Specified time code accuracy as delivered to near large metropolitan areas, can be expected. Receivers are
the user is 100 µs. The normal time code coverage area reasonably effective in “flywheeling” through such periods of
includes most of the Western hemisphere with overlapping interference.
coverage of much of North and South America.
In regions of low signal strength or frequency interference use of
The GOES time code includes information on the current simple helical or Yagi antennas may improve reception.
year, day of year, hour, minute, second, UT1 correction,
system accuracy, and indicators for Daylight-Saving Time The received time code typically shows diurnal variations with a
and leap seconds. peak-to-peak amplitude of 10 - 70 µs due primarily to imperfec-
tions in the software used to compute satellite position
predictions.
The European Meteosat system and the Japanese Geostationary
Meteorological Satellite (GMS) system are basically similar to the
GOES system but do not currently transmit a time code.
GOES satellites suffer time-code signal outages for about 2 hours/
day during Spring and Fall eclipse periods each year. Receivers
cost about $5,000 (1997).
Geostationary The Indian INSAT geostationary satellites also transmit a Commercial receivers are available (1993) at a cost of about
satellite, UTC-referenced time code as one feature of this $4,000. Antenna requirements are modest.
multipurpose multipurpose system. As in the GOES case the time code
broadcast signal also includes satellite-position information which
allows the user to compute and compensate for the signal
path delay.
The INSAT satellite footprint limits primary coverage to the
region of the Indian subcontinent. Within this region the
time accuracies of about 20 µs and frequency accuracies
of 5 × 10–10 are possible.
Television The measurement technique is the same as reported in the The equipment needed includes a small dish antenna, a
broadcast case of terrestrial links, but the signals are received in commercial satellite TV receiver, and a TV-synchronizing-pulse
(satellite links) common view from a direct-broadcast satellite (DBS), extractor.
extending the coverage area to a nearly continental
dimension. A time interval counter at each site measures the time differences
between the local clock pulse and the received TV signal from the
The main source of error in the determination of the clock satellite. Two series of at least 10 such measurements, taken 12
differences arises from the variations in the position of the hours apart, are needed daily. A data-acquisition system is also
geostationary satellite used. This drawback can be needed for data storage and exchange with the other stations for
reduced in different ways, leading to the accuracy ranges processing of the results.
reported in Table C-1.
The correction for satellite-longitude drift which degrades the
It is possible to remove the 12-hour and 24-hour periodic results can be obtained in several ways: (1) from the satellite
variations by averaging and also, most importantly, to position parameters supplied by the satellite-control station; (2)
remove the satellite longitude drift observed in the time from pseudorange measurements performed by a single station;
comparisons with various techniques. (3) from GPS satellite measurements performed by at least 3
stations; or (4) from the time measurement performed at 3 ground
stations that observe 2 satellites.
79
Table C2. Additional information relating to the practical use of the various alternative sources of time-and-frequency
signals (continued)
Communication At the current time the most precise and accurate method The earth-station equipment needed at each user site must be
satellite (two-way) for time comparisons between remote sites is the compatible with the particular satellites being used for time
simultaneous, two-way exchange of timing signals through transfer. Typical costs, including the necessary modems, may
communication-satellite channels. The high accuracy reach $50,000 per site. Operator skills needed for proper operation
achievable results from the use of a two-way exchange of may be more stringent than for most of the other techniques
signals which effectively eliminates the need for precise discussed.
knowledge of the satellite’s position, the high degree of Since the two-way technique is essentially a point-to-point
path reciprocity in the two directions, and the wide communication system, it should not be regarded as a general
bandwidth of the satellite channel which permits efficient dissemination technique.
signal design.
As typically implemented, two or more sites exchange timing
One disadvantage of the technique is the need for each signals on a regular basis, several times per week. Because of the
site to both transmit and receive signals and then to inherent time stability of the method, it is usually only necessary
exchange the data for post-processing. The earth station to perform the exchanges for a few minutes per time. The
equipment at each site tends to be rather expensive, measurement process involves measuring the difference between
especially if the system is highly automated. Participants in the satellite-signal arrival time and the local clock. Such
the time transfers must coordinate with each other and measurements are often made once per second for a period of a
with the satellite-system operator. few minutes. Subtraction of the simultaneous measurements at
Because of the potential accuracy of near 1 ns and the each site, divided by 2, provides the difference between the site
precision of 0.1 – 0.5 ns, many timing laboratories in clocks (except for corrections that may be needed to account for
various parts of the world are developing a two-way differences in equipment delays).
time-transfer capability. Special modems are being For the highest achievable accuracy of 1 – 10 ns it is important to
developed which are optimized for high accuracy and calibrate the signal delay through the ground-station equipment.
long-term stability. Suitable satellite channels appear to be This may be a difficult problem since the relevant quantity needed
available throughout the world at reasonable cost. is the difference between the delays through the transmit and
Frequency transfer is obtained most efficiently by using receive portions of the system. Several specialized techniques
continuous data.* If, for example, one hour’s worth of one- have been developed for this purpose.
second data are taken with a standard deviation of 200 ps, Depending on the particular satellite system being used and the
and the data are well modeled by white noise PM, then the locations of the stations, extensive administrative procedures may
frequency transfer uncertainty is only 3.2 × 10–15. be required in order to certify the earth-station equipment and
gain acceptance for satellite access.
Telephone time A number of timing centers in Europe and N. America have Equipment requirements to use such services are minimal. Aside
code (two-way) established services designed to disseminate coded UTC from the computer or other equipment containing the clock to be
time information over telephone lines in an automated set, only a suitable modem, access to a telephone line, and clock-
mode. Typically, computers or other automated systems setting software is needed. In order to perform the path delay
are programmed by the user to dial such services as compensation the user may also need to be able to echo the
needed, receive an ASCII time code from the timing center, received signal back to the timing center.
reset the local clock to the correct time, and, in some
Usually, a telephone connection time of only a fraction of a minute
cases, to automatically compensate for the path delay
is needed to perform a satisfactory time transfer.
through the telephone link. Depending on the particular
service, the path delay compensation can be performed Software for using such services is relatively simple to develop by
either by the time center’s equipment or at the user’s site. users or some versions of example software are often available
The compensation for delay is based on measurements of via computer bulletin boards, from the timing centers, or from
the round-trip delay time and assumes that the path is commercial sources at reasonable cost.
reciprocal. Most of the available telephone services can also be used on a
Time-transfer accuracies of 1 - 10 ms are possible, even one-way mode where there is either no compensation for path
when satellite links may be involved. In addition to the UTC delay or a fixed, average delay is used. Accuracy for this mode
time of day, most services established to date also include may be in the range of 0.1 to 0.5 seconds.
information on the year, day of year, UT1 corrections, leap By making periodic measurements of a local clock using one of
second warnings, and indicators for Daylight-Saving Time. the telephone services, an average frequency can be determined.
Accuracies of about 10–8 are possible with 1-day averages. The
most efficient frequency transfer accuracies are obtained by
staying on-hook. * (See Figure 13.)
–3
* In the case where the measurement noise is limited by white-noise PM, the frequency transfer uncertainty (1σ) is given by
12 N 2 σ / τ 0 ,
where N is the number of time difference measurements, σ is the standard deviation of those measurements, and τ0 is the data spacing.
80
Table C2. Additional information relating to the practical use of the various alternative sources of time-and-frequency
signals (continued)
Optical fiber Optical fibers offer excellent potential for transferring time- In a practical implementation of a fiber-optic link for time-and-
and-frequency signals with very high accuracy over both frequency transfer at highest possible accuracy levels, it is
short (<50 km) and long distances. While dedicated UTC important to stabilize the temperature of the cable. The nominal
dissemination services using optical-fiber distribution do coefficient of delay with respect to temperature is 7 ppm/°C. In
not currently exist, the technique is included here in order to meet the stated performance in Table C-1 for links longer
recognition of its future potential. than 50 km, the cable should be put underground to a depth of at
least 1.5 m.
Two types of fibers, multimode and single mode, are in use
today. Multimode fiber is generally used to transmit digital For a dedicated optical-fiber link for time-and-frequency transfer,
data and low frequencies over a relatively short distance the cost is about $30,000 per site for transmitters and receivers
(e.g., 1 km). Single-mode fiber is best for longer distances plus the cost of the cable and its underground installation.
(e.g., 50 km) and supports wide bandwidth (e.g., 5 MHz to
Insertion loss is about 0.5 dB/km.
100 GHz). Single-mode fiber with a 1,300 nm laser is
required to meet the performance given in Table C-1 for Potential users and suppliers of UTC should maintain current
local distances. awareness of the development of regional, national, and
international digital synchronized telecommunication networks.
The accuracies stated in Table C-1 for long fiber-optic links
Such networks may provide an excellent, convenient means for
have been achieved in a digital telecommunications
distributing high-accuracy UTC time-and-frequency in the future.
system adhering to CCITT Recommendations G.707, 708,
and 709 over a distance of 2,400 km. This particular system
was designed to meet ITU-T requirements as well as to
perform time-and-frequency-transfer experiments.
Microwave link The use of microwave links to distribute time-and- Equipment is relatively expensive ($50,000 - $75,000).
frequency within local areas can provide accuracies as Results are sensitive to atmospheric conditions and multipath
high as 1 – 10 ns for timing and 10–14 to 10–15 for frequency effects.
when used in a two-way mode.
For highest accuracy two-way operation is required with a
continuously operating feedback loop for nulling out phase delay
variations.
Coaxial cable Coaxial cables offer a convenient means of transferring Cable cost is about $5 - $30 per meter.
time-and-frequency information over distances of less
than several hundred meters. To achieve the accuracy Insertion loss is dependent on cable length, type and the
performance given in Table C-1, careful attention must be frequency used.
paid to temperature environment, temperature stability, Solid-dielectric cable has a coefficient of delay of 250 ppm (or
and the type and length of cable. Good temperature even greater at 24°C). Air dielectric is 15 ppm, but must be dry-
stability can be achieved by burying the cable at least nitrogen pressurized with a dual-stage pressure regulator in an
1.5 m underground. environment controlled to with 1°C.
81
Glossary and Definitions
82
Frequency The frequency change, typically averaged for an
Instability interval, τ, with respect to another frequency.
Generally one distinguishes between frequency drift
effects and stochastic frequency fluctuations.
Special variances have been developed for the
characterization of these fluctuations.
83
Mean Solar Day A division of time equal to 24 hours and representing
the average length of the period during which the
earth makes one revolution on its axis with respect to
the sun.
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85
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14. J.D. Crum, 1996 GPS Time Transfer Performance, Proc. 1996
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16. See Annual Report of the BIPM Time Section for Specific Calibra-
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86
24. G. Petit, P. Wolf, Relativistic Theory for Picosecond Time Transfer
in the Vicinity of the Earth, Astronomy and Astrophysics, 1994,
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87
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