Definition of PERT

PERT is an acronym for Program (Project) Evaluation and Review Technique,

in which planning, scheduling, organizing, coordinating and controlling
uncertain activities take place. The technique studies and represents the tasks
undertaken to complete a project, to identify the least time for completing a
task and the minimum time required to complete the whole project. It was
developed in the late 1950s. It is aimed to reduce the time and cost of the
project.

PERT uses time as a variable which represents the planned resource

application along with performance specification. In this technique, first of all,
the project is divided into activities and events. After that proper sequence is
ascertained, and a network is constructed. After that time needed in each
activity is calculated and the critical path (longest path connecting all the
events) is determined.

Definition of CPM

Developed in the late 1950s, Critical Path Method or CPM is an algorithm used
for planning, scheduling, coordination and control of activities in a project.
Here, it is assumed that the activity duration is fixed and certain. CPM is used
to compute the earliest and latest possible start time for each activity.

The process differentiates the critical and non-critical activities to reduce the
time and avoid the queue generation in the process. The reason for the
identification of critical activities is that, if any activity is delayed, it will cause
the whole process to suffer. That is why it is named as Critical Path Method.

Key Differences Between PERT and CPM

The most important differences between PERT and CPM are provided below:

1. PERT is a project management technique, whereby planning,

scheduling, organising, coordinating and controlling uncertain activities
are done. CPM is a statistical technique of project management in which
planning, scheduling, organising, coordination and control of well-
defined activities take place.
2. PERT is a technique of planning and control of time. Unlike CPM, which
is a method to control costs and time.
 3. While PERT is evolved as a research and development project, CPM
evolved as a construction project.
4. PERT is set according to events while CPM is aligned towards activities.
5. A deterministic model is used in CPM. Conversely, PERT uses a
probabilistic model.
6. There are three times estimates in PERT, i.e. optimistic time (to), most
likely time ™, pessimistic time (tp). On the other hand, there is only
one estimate in CPM.
7. PERT technique is best suited for a high precision time estimate,
whereas CPM is appropriate for a reasonable time estimate.
8. PERT deals with unpredictable activities, but CPM deals with
predictable activities.
9. PERT is used where the nature of the job is non-repetitive. In contrast
to, CPM involves the job of repetitive nature.
10.There is a demarcation between critical and non-critical activities in
CPM, which is not in the case of PERT.
11. PERT is best for research and development projects, but CPM is for
non-research projects like construction projects.
12.Crashing is a compression technique applied to CPM, to shorten the
project duration, along with the least additional cost. The crashing
concept is not applicable to PERT.

2 a)
Biggest Factors Affecting Labour Productivity in Construction
Poor labour productivity is one of the main reasons for costs overruns and projects falling behind
schedule. To help you identify and prevent poor productivity in your work force, listed below are some of
the most recognized factors affecting labour productivity in the construction industry in a recent study
by Intergraph.

1. Overtime

2. Morale and Attitude

3. Stacking of Trades

4. Absenteeism and Turnover

5. Mobilize/Demobilize
6. Errors and Omissions

7. Start/Stop

8. Reassignment of Manpower

9. Late Crew Build-up

10. Logistics

11. Security Check

12. Learning Curve

13. Hazardous Work Area

14. Dilution of Supervision

15. Holidays

16. Weather and Season Changes

17. Shift Work

18. Over-manning

19. Tool and Equipment Shortage

20. Alternating, Staggered, or Rotating Work Schedules

In the construction sector, technology hasn’t always been readily embraced, but with the rise of cloud
computing and mobile devices, it’s enabling businesses of all sizes to manage their information more
efficiently. Enabling your workers to communicate through technology as well as using it to assist in day
to day tasks can help maximize output and overcome some of these productivity draining factors.

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2 b)

Materials Management is the planning, directing, controlling and coordinating those activities which are

concerned with materials and inventory requirements, from the point of their inception to their introduction

into the manufacturing process.

It begins with the determination of materials quality and quantity and ends with its issuance to production

to meet customer’s demand as per schedule and at the lowest cost.

Materials Management is a basic function of the business that adds value directly to the product itself

Thus, material management is an important function of an organisation covering various aspects of input

process, i.e., it deals with raw materials, procurement of machines and other equipment’s necessary for

the production process and spare parts for the maintenance of the plant. Thus in a production process

materials management can be considered as an preliminary to transformation process.

2 c)

Game theory is a theoretical framework for conceiving social situations among competing players. In

some respects, game theory is the science of strategy, or at least the optimal decision-making of

independent and competing actors in a strategic setting.

3
10 Construction Site Safety Precautions You Might Be Skipping

One of the biggest challenges contractors have is making sure there aren’t any weak spots in their written
jobsite safety policies or how they're enforced.

To learn which construction safety regulations are top of mind at the Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA), look no further than its annual list of the most frequently cited serious violations.
This data can be used not only to make sure construction companies address what OSHA believes are
the most important issues, but also as de facto resource allocation guide that identifies which areas of
safety might need more attention.

1. Fall protection — residential construction

There’s a much higher risk of falls from roofs in the residential construction sector than in any other
sector. Residential contractors must provide the same fall protection as commercial contractors — for
example, safety nets, guard rails, personal fall arrest systems — for anyone working 6 feet or more above
lower levels.

Any fall protection program, for residential construction or otherwise, should begin with a site-specific  job
hazard analysis, which will determine what kind of safety equipment, including fall protection equipment,
is needed. Training workers on the equipment is just as important as providing it. (See number 5 on this
list.)

2.  Portable ladders not extended 3 feet above landing

Among construction workers, about 80 percent of fall injuries treated in an emergency room involve a
ladder.

If the ladder is too short to meet the 3-foot requirement, the top of the ladder must be fastened to a
secure support and the employer must add a grab rail or similar grasping device to the ladder to help
workers mount and dismount it.

3.  Eye and face protection

Dust, grit, tiny pieces of flying metal or wood, splashing chemicals, welding arc — all can damage the
eyes. In addition to providing eye and face protection (and conducting a job hazard analysis to determine
what protection is needed), employers must ensure that workers who wear prescription lenses either
incorporate that prescription into safety glasses or use safety eyewear that fits over their glasses.

4.  Fall protection – unprotected sides and edges

Falls are the most common cause of fatal injury in construction, and preventing them often involves
multiple targeted measures. Any working/walking surface that's 6 feet or more above a lower level must
be protected by guardrail systems, safety net systems or personal fall arrest systems.

5.  Fall protection – training

Employers must give training to any employee who might be exposed to fall hazards. Check out
OSHA’s Fall Prevention Training Guide for tips on providing fall prevention training.

6.  Head protection

“Struck by object” makes the “fatal four” list of construction accidents that cause the most fatalities, as
does “electrocution.”[10] Hard hats provide some protection against both. Employees who are in danger
of head injuries from construction debris, falling objects or electrical shock must wear hardhats or other
acceptable protective head gear.

7.  Aerial lifts – fall protection

Some two dozen workers die each year in aerial lift-related accidents. Many of those accidents involve
falls, so not using fall protection equipment is a major mistake. When working from an aerial lift,
employees must wear a body belt attached to either the boom or basket.

8.  Fall protection – roofing work on low-sloped roofs

An employer must provide fall protection to any employee working on a low-slope roof with unprotected
edges that are 6 feet or more above lower levels.

9.  General safety and health provisions – inspections by a competent person

 The burden to prevent workplace accidents lies with employers. As part of an accident prevention
program, employers must assign a competent person to conduct regular inspections of jobsites, materials
and equipment to make sure hazards are eliminated or managed.

10.  Scaffolds – fall protection

Employers must provide fall protection for any employee working on a scaffold at more than 10 feet
above a lower level

Types of Heavy Construction Equipment

Different types of heavy equipment commonly used in the construction are as follows:

1. Excavators

2. Backhoe

3. Dragline Excavator

4. Bulldozers

5. Graders

6. Wheel Tractor Scraper

7. Trenchers

8. Loaders

9. Tower Cranes

10. Pavers

11. Compactors

12. Telehandlers

13. Feller Bunchers

14. Dump Trucks

15. Pile Boring Machine

16. Pile Driving Machine

1. Excavators
Excavators are important and widely used equipment in construction industry. Their general purpose is to
excavation but other than that they are also used for many purposes like heavy lifting, demolition, river
dredging, cutting of trees etc.
Excavators contains a long arm and a cabinet. At the end of long arm digging bucket is provided and
cabinet is the place provided for machine operator. This whole cabin arrangement can be rotatable up to
360o which eases the operation. Excavators are available in both wheeled and tracked forms of vehicles.

2. Backhoe
Backhoe is another widely used equipment which is suitable for multiple purposes. The name itself telling
that the hoe arrangement is provided on the back side of vehicle while loading bucket is provided in the
front.

This is well useful for excavating trenches below the machine level and using front bucket loading,
unloading and lifting of materials can be done.

3. Dragline Excavator

Dragline excavator is another heavy equipment used in construction which is generally used for larger
depth excavations. It consists a long length boom and digging bucket is suspended from the top of the
boom using cable.

For the construction of ports, for excavations under water, sediment removal in water bodies etc. can be
done by dragline excavator.

4. Bulldozers
Bulldozers are another type of soil excavating equipment which are used to remove the topsoil layer up to
particular depth. The removal of soil is done by the sharp edged wide metal plate provided at its front.
This plate can be lowered and raised using hydraulic pistons.

These are widely used for the removal of weak soil or rock strata, lifting of soil etc.

5. Graders
Graders also called as motor graders are another type of equipment used in construction especially for
the construction of roads. It is mainly used to level the soil surface. It contains a horizontal blade in
between front and rear wheels and this blade is lowered in to the ground while working. Operating cabin
is provided on the top of rear axle arrangement.

Motor Graders are also used to remove snow or dirt from the roads, to flatten the surface of soil before
laying asphalt layer, to remove unnecessary soil layer from the ground etc.

6. Wheel Tractor Scrapers

Wheel Tractor Scrapers are earth moving equipment used to provide flatten soil surface through
scrapping. Front part contains wheeled tractor vehicle and rear part contain a scrapping arrangement
such as horizontal front blade, conveyor belt and soil collecting hopper.

When the front blade is lowered onto the ground and vehicle is moved, the blade starts digging the soil
above the blade level and the soil excavated is collected in hopper through conveyor belt. When the
hopper is full, the rear part is raised from the ground and hopper is unloaded at soil dump yard.

7. Trenchers
Trenchers or Trenching machines are used to excavate trenches in soil. These trenches are generally
used for pipeline laying, cable laying, drainage purposes etc. Trenching machines are available in two
types namely chain trenchers and wheeled trenchers.

Chain trenchers contains a fixed long arm around which digging chain is provided. Wheeled trenchers
contains a metal wheel with digging tooth around it. To excavate hard soil layers, wheeled trenchers are
more suitable. Both types of trenchers are available in tracked as well as wheeled vehicle forms.

8. Loaders
Loaders are used in construction site to load the material onto dumpers, trucks etc. The materials may be
excavated soil, demolition waste, raw materials, etc. A loader contain large sized bucket at its front with
shorter moving arm.

Loader may be either tracked or wheeled. Wheeled loaders are widely used in sites while tracked or
crawled loaders are used in sites where wheeled vehicles cannot reach.

9. Tower Cranes
Tower cranes are fixed cranes which are used for hoisting purposes in construction of tall structures.
Heavy materials like pre-stressed concrete blocks, steel trusses, frames etc. can be easily lifted to
required height using this type of equipment.

They consists mast which is the vertical supporting tower, Jib which is operating arm of crane, counter jib
which is the other arm carries counter weight on rear side of crane and an operator cabin from which the
crane can be operated.

10. Paver
Paver or Asphalt paver is pavement laying equipment which is used in road construction. Paver contains
a feeding bucket in which asphalt is continuously loaded by the dump truck and paver distributes the
asphalt evenly on the road surface with slight compaction. However a roller is required after laying asphalt
layer for perfect compaction.

11. Compactors
Compactors or Rollers are used to compact the material or earth surface. Different types of compactors
are available for different compacting purposes.

Smooth wheel rollers are used for compacting shallow layers of soil or asphalt etc. sheep-foot rollers are
used for deep compaction purposes. Pneumatic tyred rollers are used for compacting fine grained soils,
asphalt layers etc.

12. Telehandlers
Telehandlers are hoisting equipment used in construction to lift heavy materials up to required height or to
provide construction platform for workers at greater heights etc. It contains a long telescopic boom which
can be raised or lowered or forwarded.

Different types of arrangements like forklifts, buckets, cabin, lifting jibs etc. can be attached to the end of
telescopic boom based on the requirement of job.
13. Feller Bunchers
Feller buncher is tree cutting heavy equipment used to remove large trees in the construction field. They
cut the tree and grab it without felling, likewise gathers all the cut down trees at one place which makes
job easier for loaders and dump trucks.

14. Dump Trucks

Dump trucks are used in construction sites to carry the material in larger quantities from one site to
another site or to the dump yard. Generally, in big construction site, off-road dump trucks are used.

These off-road dump trucks contains large wheels with huge space for materials which enables them to
carry huge quantity of material in any type of ground conditions.

15. Pile Boring Equipment

Pile boring equipment is used to make bore holes in the construction site to install precast piles.

16. Pile Driving Equipment

Another heavy equipment used in construction site is pile driving equipment in case of pile foundation
construction. This equipment lifts the pile and holds it in proper position and drives into the ground up to
required depth.

Different types of pile driving equipment are available namely, piling rigs, piling hammer, hammer guides
etc. in any case the pile is driven into the ground by hammering the pile top which is done hydraulically or
by dropping.