926 Clean – Soil, Air, Water 2012, 40 (9), 926–932

Adalberto Noyola
Alejandro Padilla-Rivera
Research Article
Juan Manuel Morgan-Sagastume
Leonor Patricia Güereca Typology of Municipal Wastewater Treatment
Flor Hernández-Padilla
Technologies in Latin America
Instituto de Ingenierı́a, Universidad
Nacional Autónoma de México, This paper presents an analysis of the wastewater treatment plants in six Latin
Coyoacán, Mexico City, Mexico American and Caribbean countries. Based on a sample of 2734 municipal treatment
facilities, the applied processes are classified by sizes (influent flow) and type of
technologies. The distribution of the technologies is also presented for each of the
six countries. In addition, a representative municipal wastewater characterization,
based on influent data from 174 treatment plants, is proposed. Results show that
stabilization ponds, activated sludge, and the upflow anaerobic sludge blanket reactors
represent 80% of the treatment facilities of the sample, providing treatment to 81% of
the total flow considered. Moreover, 67% of the plants in the sample are small (flow
<25 L/s) and the very small facilities (influent flow <5 L/s) are extensively applied in the
region (34% of the sample), especially in Mexico and Brazil. The use of very small
treatment plants may result in low energy efficiency systems and on possible incom-
pliance of the discharge standards. This common practice in several countries in Latin
America should be revised in order to improve the environmental performance of such
facilities.
Keywords: Energy consumption; Operational costs; Small wastewater treatment plants; Wastewater
characterization; Wastewater infrastructure
Received: December 15, 2011; revised: April 17, 2012; accepted: May 22, 2012
DOI: 10.1002/clen.201100707

1 Introduction the limitations and conditions of the region, offering innovating,

and adaptative options to existing conventional solutions [1].
Population growth in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) has
Water systems were initially designed for hygiene and sanitation
surpassed the capacity of national and local governments in order to
reasons; however, given the need to achieve long-term sustainability,
meet the demand for water supply and sewerage. With the historical
the objectives of urban water systems need to go beyond the pro-
economic resources allocated to the sector in the last decade, many
tection of public health and environmental quality. It is necessary to
LAC countries have been able to provide water and sanitation ser-
reduce the impacts to natural resources, to optimize the use of
vices to millions but not enough to achieve universal access to this
energy and water, to reduce waste generation and to allow nutrients
highly important determinant of public health [1]. Moreover,
recycling for crops [3]. Selection of a particular wastewater treat-
unplanned urban growth has given priority to water services and
ment technology (WWTT) should not be based primarily on technical
sewerage, resulting in an imbalance between available water resour-
or economical issues but should also be the result of the integration
ces and water quality protection, so treatment of wastewater and
of technological, economic, social, and environmental activities
solid waste disposal has lagged [2]. This is confirmed with data from
that surround it, seeking wastewater reuse opportunities as far as
the Water and Sanitation Program that established that LAC
possible [4].
countries reached 91 and 79% coverage of water supply and sewer-
It is necessary to emphasize that the wastewater treatment sector
age, respectively, but provided treatment to just 15% of municipal
has a responsibility to contribute to reduction of greenhouse gas
wastewater (www.wsp.org/wsp/sites/wsp.org/files/11142007111614_
(GHG) emissions and overall energy consumption. To achieve this
Latinosan_Final.pdf).
goal, accurate diagnosis and new analysis tools are necessary so that
Based on the foregoing context, it is imperative for LAC region to
government agencies, water utilities, and regulatory agencies can
develop and implement new solutions in order to fill the gap of
better meet the challenge of reducing the carbon footprint of the
existing infrastructure for wastewater management, with new
sector while improving its environmental and economic sustainabil-
administrative and technological systems that should consider
ity [5].
In this paper, the most adopted WWTT for LAC region are iden-
tified and classified according to their treatment capacity, together
Correspondence: Dr. A. Noyola, Instituto de Ingenierı́a, Universidad with a representative wastewater characterization. Also, significant
Nacional Autónoma de México, Coyoacán, 04510 Mexico City, Mexico differences of national regulations for water discharge are pointed
E-mail: [email protected] out based on a comparative analysis. Finally, a comparison of oper-
Abbreviations: BOD, biochemical oxygen demand; GHG, greenhouse gas; ational cost and energy consumption of the three more representa-
UASB, upflow anaerobic sludge blanket tive WWTT is presented.

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Clean – Soil, Air, Water 2012, 40 (9), 926–932 Wastewater Treatment Technologies in Latin America 927

2 Materials and methods served: small (0–25 L/s), medium (25.1–250 L/s), big (250.1–2500 L/s),
and huge (>2500 L/s) as reported by CEPIS (www.bvsde.paho.org/
A representative sample of LAC countries was established in order to bvsaar/e/proyecto/instrucciones.html). To relate the size of the popu-
adjust to the time frame and economic resources of the study. Data lation served (or city) with the design treatment capacity of the
collection was carried out by means of two types of questionnaires WWTP, a per capita water allocation of 235 L/day was assumed, with
(general and specific) designed in order to characterize each munici- a corresponding 85% wastewater generation [6].
pal wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) identified in the sample of The three most representative treatment technologies were
each country, considering technical, environmental, and economic selected according to their respective number of facilities and to their
aspects. The information from the general survey was focused on the accumulated flow, taken from the sample of 2734 WWTP. The sample
design and operational flow as well as on the type of treatment included 199 facilities with two biological processes in series (pre- and
process, including sludge handling and odor control. The specific post-treatment). In such dual processes, two WWTT were counted,
survey, applied to a fraction of the general sample, gathered data on each with the influent flow reported for that specific WWTP.
capital and operational costs, electricity consumption, and achieved Energy requirements were determined based on preliminary siz-
water quality. The information was obtained and verified with the ing of electrical equipment. With this data, operating costs were
help of a group of experts in each selected country. calculated. Mass balances, energy requirements, materials, and
The sample considered 2734 WWTP divided as follows: 702 facili- equipment as well as cost estimations were determined by a process
ties in Brazil (estimated total facilities: 2985), 177 in Chile (estimated simulator and its associated database developed for this study. This
total facilities: 263), 139 in Colombia (unknown estimated total information is the basis for the inventory of a life cycle assessment,
facilities), 32 in Guatemala (estimated total facilities: 87), 1653 now under way as part of this project.
in Mexico (estimated total facilities: 1833), and 31 in Dominican
Republic (estimated total facilities: 56). An important decision for
the sample integration was that 204 septic tanks reported were not 2.3 Regulations for wastewater treatment in LAC
taken into account, as they are considered as preliminary treatment A review of the different environmental regulations for wastewater
(142 of such facilities in Mexico, 64 in Brazil, and 3 in Dominican discharge in LAC was carried out for the six selected countries.
Republic). The sample and the estimated total facilities did not This is a complex topic, since there are countries in LAC with lax
consider very small private plants (hotels, shopping malls, residen- regulations and others with very strict standards.
tial buildings, etc.). General parameters were selected for comparison purposes
according to severity of the standards (lax and strict regulations) as
2.1 Selected countries in LAC shown in Tab. 1. Minimum and maximum values established
for each country regulation were used in order to identify their
The selection of countries representing LAC region was mainly based characteristic intervals. Based on this, a regional discharge standard
on a comparative analysis according to the sanitation coverage, can be proposed for this work, in order to define a common treatment
population, and gross domestic product. A sample of six countries target for the energy and operational cost comparison: biochemical
was selected to represent a general status of wastewater treatment in oxygen demand (BOD) 30 mg/L, total suspended solids (TSS) 30 mg/L,
LAC. Brazil and Mexico are by themselves representative of the and fecal coliforms (FC) 1000 MPN/100 mL). These values are con-
region, as they count for half the population of LAC, also for being sidered realistic for the present sanitation situation of developing
part of the so-called emerging economies. For the Andean Countries countries, even if more stringent standards are applied in developed
(Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Venezuela) Colombia was countries, where nutrient (nitrogen and phosphorous) removal is
selected to represent this area, due to its important sanitation cover- considered.
age (83%) and the strength of their water institutions and utilities.
For Southern Cone region (Paraguay, Chile, Argentina, and Uruguay),
Chile was selected because of its leadership on water services, with the 3 Results and discussion
highest wastewater treatment coverage in the area (93%). 3.1 Most representative treatment technologies
Finally, for the Central America and the Caribbean sub-region, in LAC
Guatemala, and Dominican Republic were chosen. Those countries
have medium to high sanitation coverage compared to other The sample of 2734 WWTP led to a distribution of the type
countries in the area, the latter representing the insular countries. of technologies used in the six LAC countries, according to their
Additionally, Guatemala was selected for its high vulnerability to
climate change (http://maplecroft.com/themes/cc/).

Table 1. Parameters considered for comparison of discharge standard in

2.2 Technologies commonly used in LAC LAC

The information of the WWTP obtained in the six countries con- Lax legislation Strict legislation
sidered location (city and county or state, according to the country’s
Oil and grease (mg/L) Oil and grease (mg/L)
political division), name if any, population served, design treatment Settleable solids (mL/L) Biochemical oxygen demand BOD5 (mg/L)
capacity, actual influent flow, integration of treatment process, Floating matter (mg/L) Total suspended solids TSS (mg/L)
sludge management, odor and emissions control, and final disposal Biochemical oxygen Nitrogen (mg/L)
of treated water. From that information, the three most representa- demand BOD5 (mg/L) Phosphorus (mg/L)
Fecal coliform (MPN/ 100 mL)
tive treatment technologies were identified based on four flow
Helminth eggs (eggs/L)
ranges (Q1, Q2, Q3, and Q4) according to the size of the population

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928 A. Noyola et al. Clean – Soil, Air, Water 2012, 40 (9), 926–932

Even if stabilization ponds have the higher number of installa-

tions, they are designed for medium to small flows, in agreement
with the limitations of this technology (high flat land requirement)
resulting in an average size of 24.5 L/s. On the other hand, activated
sludge provides treatment to almost two thirds of the flow with a
quarter of the facilities in the sample, with an average size of 137.0 L/s.
The UASB reactor is situated at the third place in terms of the
number of facilities, with an average size of 28.8 L/s. This anaerobic
technology has gained a major position for municipal sewage treat-
ment in LAC in relatively short time (around 20 years) considering
that most of the technologies used in LAC, excepting enhanced
primary treatment, wetlands and aerobic submerged filters have
been available for several decades. Another important ‘‘newcomer’’
is the enhanced primary treatment, referring to a primary settling
improved with the addition o chemicals (usually ferric chloride). For
the sample considered in this work, the average size of this type of
treatment plant is 894.4 L/s.
Figure 1. Distribution of treatment technologies in LAC according to their
The three more used technologies in LAC have significant differ-
type.
ences. Stabilization ponds and UASB have low energy needs, result-
ing in reduced operational costs. Moreover, UASB is a compact
technology, requiring a very small foot print, an important
number and to their accumulated flow (Figs. 1 and 2, respectively). advantage for urban areas. However, a limitation of UASB is the
Generic names for each technology were adopted according to cur- lower effluent quality that may be achieved with this process, need-
rent engineering practice. The number of technologies is higher ing a post-treatment step in most of the cases [7]. On the other hand,
than the number of WWTP (2933 vs. 2734) due to the existence of activated sludge needs a high energy input and produces excess
199 facilities using two processes (two types of treatment technol- sludge that should be treated and managed, but it is a compact
ogies in series, as pre- and post-treatment). Also, it is worth mention- installation and reaches a high effluent quality when properly oper-
ing that under the item ‘‘activated sludge’’ all process variants are ated. A simpler process variant of activated sludge, known as
included, mostly conventional and extended aeration. extended aeration, is mainly applied for small flows, having the
Data from Fig. 1 show that the three more adopted technologies in advantage of producing less sludge already digested, but with a
LAC are stabilization ponds (1106 facilities, 38% of the sample) higher energy need per cubic meter treated if compared with the
followed by activated sludge (760, 26%) and the upflow anaerobic conventional activated sludge process. Regarding the accumulated
sludge blanket reactor, known as UASB (493, 17%). These three flow, the third technology is the enhanced primary treatment, with
technologies correspond to 2359 facilities (80% of the sample). The the biggest average facilities in terms of treated flow (894.4 L/s vs.
first two technologies turn out to be the more representative in 137.0 L/s of activated sludge). This technology has been adopted in
terms of flow treated (Fig. 2), with a clear contribution of activated few, but large, facilities, when the needed effluent quality is not
sludge (104.1 m3/s, 58%) followed by stabilization ponds (27.1 m3/s, strict; its main drawbacks are an important consumption of coagu-
15%). With this typology, the enhanced primary treatment appears lant reagent and an increased production of primary sludge.
in the third place with an accumulated flow of 16.1 m3/s, 9%) fol- The percentage distribution of the number of treatment technol-
lowed by the UASB reactor (14.2 m3/s, 8%) corresponding all together ogies in each selected country is presented in Fig. 3, with clear
to 90% (81% not considering enhanced primary treatment) of the differences among them. First of all, Chile has a particular pattern,
total flow treated by the facilities of the sample. with only two technologies, mostly activated sludge (64%), followed

Figure 2. Accumulated flow treated per each type of technology applied in Figure 3. Distribution of treatment technologies per type and per selected
LAC. country.

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Clean – Soil, Air, Water 2012, 40 (9), 926–932 Wastewater Treatment Technologies in Latin America 929

Figure 4. Size distribution according to the influent flow. (a) All WWTP in the sample, (b) smallest WWTP in the sample.

by aerated ponds; trickling filters are used only in 1% of the sample. into consideration that most of the WWTP were included in such
This country also has the higher treatment coverage (93%) of the six flow range (1842 facilities). The results are shown in Fig. 4b.
considered countries, a service that will reach 100% in 2012. Chile It is clear that the use of small WWTP is a very common practice in
has a strong regulation institution and a fully privatized water LAC, even in big cities, representing 67% of the sample. In addition,
sector, with high efficiency (commercial and technical) water util- the very small facilities with an influent flow <5 L/s (2160 population
ities [8]. On the other hand, more diverse patterns characterize the equivalent) are extensively applied in the region (34% of the sampled
rest of the countries, being worth noting Brazil, with UASB as the facilities).
second most used technology (30%) after stabilization ponds (43%); In order to better describe the 1842 small size treatment plants, a
Mexico, with facilities for every technology considered in the figure distribution was obtained for each country in the sample, consid-
and the only reported constructed wetlands (7%); and Dominican ering the mentioned five subdivisions of the smallest flow interval
Republic, with high presence or aerated ponds (40%) followed by (Q1). The results are summarized in Tab. 2.
UASB (18%). The aerated ponds in this country, however, are inter- Mexico and Brazil have installed most of the small WWTP in the
mittently aerated due to electric energy shortage. The low oper- region (61% of those <25 L/s) and have used them extensively (75 and
ational costs associated to stabilization ponds and UASB reactors 59% of the country sample, respectively), this not being the case in
seem to be the reason for the predominance of these two techno- the other countries studied. Moreover, the smallest WWTP (flow
logies in Brazil, a country that improved and established the use of <5 L/s) represents 60% of the small WWTP in Mexico and 35% in
the UASB concept for municipal wastewater treatment [7]. Brazil. These very small facilities may have operational problems
Based on the previous data, the three most representative treat- considering the limited technical and financial resources of many
ment technologies for the selected countries are stabilization ponds, small and medium size water utilities. In a sample of 166 WWTP in
activated sludge and UASB reactors. As mentioned, this group the southeast of Brazil, Oliveira and von Sperling [9] found that many
accounts for 80% of the treatment facilities and 81% of the treated treatment facilities did not comply with the designed effluent stan-
wastewater flow of the studied sample. dards. Data obtained in Mexico also supports those findings, mostly
for small WWTP. Such being the case, the effectiveness of the treat-
ment infrastructure in the Latin American region may not be as
3.2 Size distribution of WWTP
expected, with the exception of the large WWTP that have proper
The distribution of the facilities by size (flow) obtained for the administrative and operation organizations.
already defined flow intervals (Q1, Q2, Q3, and Q4) is presented in As a result, the environmental impacts generated by many small
Fig. 4a. Furthermore, the size distribution was obtained for the WWTP could be greater than building a flow-equivalent properly
interval with the smallest flow values (Q1) by using 5 subintervals operated big wastewater treatment plant [3]. The higher energy
(0.1–5 L/s; 5.1–10 L/s; 10.1–15 L/s; 15.1–20 L/s; and 20.1–25 L/s) taking consumption per treated cubic meter found for the smaller facilities,

Table 2. Distribution of the smallest WWTP in the sample, according to their country.

Country Flow range, % (number) Total %

(number)
0–5 L/s 5.1–10 L/s 10.1–15 L/s 15.1–20 L/s 20.1–25 L/s

Brazil 35 (143) 27 (110) 16 (67) 13 (55) 9 (38) 100 (413)

Chile 10 (8) 22 (18) 33 (27) 17 (14) 18 (15) 100 (82)
Colombia 8 (5) 24 (16) 27 (18) 27 (18) 14 (9) 100 (66)
Guatemala 25 (7) 11 (3) 39 (11) (0) 25 (7) 100 (28)
Mexico 60 (752) 18 (221) 10 (127) 8 (97) 4 (49) 100 (1246)
Dominican Republic 57 (4) (0) (0) 14 (1) 29 (2) 100 (7)
Total (919) (368) (250) (185) (120) (1842)

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930 A. Noyola et al. Clean – Soil, Air, Water 2012, 40 (9), 926–932

Table 3. Comparison of the regulations for discharge into water bodies from different countries of LAC considering selected parameters

Country Brazil Chile Colombia Guatemala Mexico Dominican Republic

d)
Regulation [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15]
a)
BOD5 (mg/L) 35–60 Load removal >80% 100c)–200 30–150 35–100
Oil and grease (mg/L) NA 20 Load removal >80% 10b) 15 NA
Settleable solids (mL/L) NA NA-5 NA NA 1 NA
Floating matter NA NA Absent Absentc) Absent NA

NA, not applicable.

a)
Receiving water body should maintain a 3–10 mg/L concentration.
b)
Compliance goal by 2024.
c)
To be met by new wastewater discharges.
d)
Values are for average daily limits.

as mentioned in Section 3.4, is an additional argument on this The raw wastewater characterization was obtained for 158 WWTP
concern. However, the different impacts can only be assessed in a of the sample and a statistic analysis was performed in order to
case by case basis, considering the whole system, from the collecting determine an average characterization of raw municipal sewage for
sewer to the site and type of final disposal. LAC. Table 4 shows the average values for the selected parameters,
together with a reference default value commonly used.
The characterization shown in Tab. 4 has slightly higher values
3.3 Wastewater quality parameters than the reference, excepting total phosphorous. Oliveira et al. [18]
An analysis of the discharge regulations of the six countries studied also found higher influent values than those reported in inter-
suggests a classification into three types: the regulations that set national literature, based on a sample of 166 WWTP in Brazil. The
maximum limits to be met by wastewater discharged into receiving data in Tab. 4 may be used as a more representative characterization
bodies (applicable to Mexico, Guatemala, and Chile), the regulations for municipal sewage in the Latin American region.
which are focused on the receiving body in order to preserve its
water quality (Brazil), and those that require a removal percentage
3.4 Operational costs and energy consumption
of the organic load rate discharged (Colombia and Dominican
Republic). Table 3 shows water quality standards for each country Concerning the operational costs (US $/m3), as expected, these are
considering selected parameters for discharge into water bodies. higher for very small facilities (Fig. 5) mainly due to the relative high
In this comparison, nitrogen and phosphorus are not considered, weight of staff wages and the electromechanical equipment with
as municipal technologies in the sample are not designed to reduce over-specified power requirements, due to limitations of commer-
these parameters. It can be seen that the only parameter included cially available sizes at the low end of the product catalogue range.
in the regulations of all countries is BOD, which presents a wide However, no clear differences emerge when comparing the same
variation, between 30 and 200 mg/L. process with medium and big flow ranges. The well-known concept
It is important to note that Brazil has the more stringent discharge
standard in terms of BOD as it regulates the quality of receiving
waters, while other countries control the concentration of the efflu-
ent discharged into the receiving body. Therefore, it is not possible to
compare these regulations. The wide variation in the criteria for
standards may be due to the monitoring, control, and enforcing
capacity of each country. Also, internal political or economical
interests may play a role for not allowing adequate development
of the environmental regulations. Additional obstacles and oppor-
tunities associated with the implementation and enforcing of dis-
charge standards in developing countries are discussed by von
Sperling and Chernicharo [16].

Table 4. Mean characterization of municipal wastewater for LAC

Parameter Average value Standard Default value

proposed deviation (medium strength)
for LAC [17]

BOD5 (mg/L) 244 17.0 220

COD (mg/L) 557 40.3 500
TSS (mg/L) 264 31.1 220
Total N (mg/L) 42 1.4 40
Total P (mg/L) 7 0.7 8 Figure 5. Operation costs per volume of treated wastewater for three
FC (MPN 100 mL 1
) 1.2  107 1.4  106 1  107 different process arrangements (a: flow range 0–25 L/s; b: flow range
25–525 L/s).

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Clean – Soil, Air, Water 2012, 40 (9), 926–932 Wastewater Treatment Technologies in Latin America 931

of economy of scale reduces normalized costs for larger facilities. wastewater infrastructure in Latin America is a base for developing
Similar findings have been reported [4, 19]. The comparison is made comprehensive mitigation strategies for the sector, as it allows
considering similar effluent quality for the three processes, a con- the identification of opportunities for the selection of technologies
dition that the UASB reactor cannot accomplish unless associated and for improving the operation of the treatment plants. This
with a post-treatment step (activated sludge in this case). is particularly relevant considering the expected increase in treat-
Figure 6 shows the energy consumption per cubic meter of treated ment facilities due to the important lack of this service in
wastewater (kWh/m3). Lower values are associated to stabilization Latin America.
ponds, while higher values are found for activated sludge, as most of
the energy is consumed by the aeration equipment. The small
and medium plants were found to consume more energy per unit 4 Conclusions
volume than the larger ones. Stabilization ponds have a very low The most representative technologies in LAC are: stabilization
consumption (<0.1 kWh/m3) followed by UASB with activated sludge ponds, activated sludge and UASB reactors, representing 80% of
as post-treatment (<1 kWh/m3 for flows >5 L/s) and activated sludge WWTP in the sample and providing 81% of the treated municipal
(<1 kWh/m3 for flows >10 L/s). The process simulator used to gen- wastewater. An important technology, due to its contribution to the
erate the data considered extended aeration and sludge drying beds amount of treated wastewater, is the enhanced primary treatment,
for flows <100 L/s, conventional activated sludge with aerobic which accounts for 9% of the treated effluents with <1% of the
digester and centrifuge for the interval between 101 and 400 L/s WWTP. It should be noticed that the UASB technology has gained
and conventional activated sludge with anaerobic digestion and a major position for municipal sewage treatment in LAC, mainly in
centrifuge for bigger flows. Average energy consumption of Brazil, in relatively short time (around 20 years).
0.821 kWh/m3 has been established for activated sludge [20]. Most of the facilities in LAC treat small flows (<25 L/s) representing
The use of energy is directly linked to GHG emissions due to fossil 67% of the sample. In addition, the very small facilities (influent flow
fuels burning for electricity generation. As a consequence, energy <5 L/s) are extensively applied in the region (34% of the WWTP in the
intensive technologies for wastewater treatment contribute to GHG sample), especially in Mexico and Brazil.
emissions and to climate change. Based on sustainability concepts, The common practice in LAC consisting in the use of very small
the selection of treatment technologies must take into account WWTP can be considered un-efficient in terms of energy use,
direct and indirect environmental impacts under a broad perspec- together with a certain risk of not complying with the discharge
tive, not only effluent quality compliance and capital and operational standards. This practice should be revised in order to improve the
costs. In this sense, the water sector, and particularly the wastewater environmental performance of such facilities.
industry, is facing the challenges posed by climate change, including Brazil has the strictest regulations in comparison with the other
adoption of mitigation actions and adaptation strategies [5]. In this countries in the sample, since their maximum permissible limits are
new context, the lack of quantitative data evaluating the GHG set in order to maintain the water quality of the receiving bodies, in
emissions from specific processes is crucial to propose mitigation contrast to countries that base their control on the discharge stan-
options. Wastewater treatment presents an opportunity to reduce dards into the water body. Moreover, there is a broad diversity of
GHG emissions, mainly methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O), two approaches and standards for water pollution control in Latin
gaseous compounds that are produced, under anaerobic or aerobic America.
conditions, during the treatment process [21]. The typology of the Energy consumption in the water sector of LAC is expected to grow
due to the increase in the number of treatment facilities needed
for improving the current treatment coverage. The typology of
the existing wastewater infrastructure in Latin America may help
for developing comprehensive mitigation strategies, allowing the
identification of opportunities for the selection of technologies with
better environmental performance.

Acknowledgments
This publication is one of the results of the Regional Network Latin
America of the global collaborative project ‘‘EXCEED – Excellence
Center for Development Cooperation – Sustainable Water
Management in Developing Countries’’ consisting of 35 universities
and research centres from 18 countries on 4 continents. The authors
highly acknowledge the support of German Academic Exchange
Service DAAD for taking part in this EXCEED project.

The authors have declared no conflict of interest.

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