ECE6414 - Analog Circuits and Systems Design Page i

INTEGRATED CIRCUIT CONTINUOUS TIME FILTERS

Outline - Sections
1 Introduction to Continuous Time Filters
2 Passive Filters
3 Integrators
4 Biquads
5 Filter Design
6 Filter Tuning
7 Summary

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SECTION 1 - INTRODUCTION TO CONTINUOUS TIME FILTERS

Integrated Filter Categories

Integrated Filters

Digital Filters Analog Filters

Analog Continuous-Time Filters Analog Sampled-Data Filters

Passive Gm-C Current

Filters (RC Filters Mode Filters
and RLC) Switched Switched
Capacitor Current
Filters Filters
MOSFET-C Active RLC Log-Domain
Filters Filters Filters
Fig.11.1-01

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Types of Filters
• A continuous time filter is a filter whose variables are continuous both in time and in amplitude.
• A discrete-time (analog sampled-data) filter is a filter whose variables are continuous in amplitude but not
in time.
• A digital filter is a filter whose variables are discrete both in time and in amplitude.
Example:

8
7
Continuous Sampled and held
6
time signal analog value
Amplitude

5
4
3
2
1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Sample times
__t
T Fig.11.1-02

A digital signal would only have the amplitude values of 0, 1, 2, through 8.

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Digital Filters
Current technology constrains digital filtering to 5-10MHz or less.

Input Anti-Aliasing DSP Smoothing Output

ADC DAC
Filter Processor FIlter
Fig. 10-5

Programmability is the key feature as well as unlimited resolution.

Practical problems include:
• The need for analog anti-aliasing filters
• Large chip area requirements
• Electromagnetic compatibility with low level analog signals
• Requirements for a high resolution, high speed analog to digital converter (ADC)
• Power consumption at high frequencies

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Analog Continuous-Time Filters

Continuous-Time Filters
Advantages:
• No clock feedthrough
• No oversampling requirement
• Less dissipation than digital filters
• Higher frequency capability than switched capacitor filters
• No anti-aliasing filter required
• Uses a large body of classical filter theory and data
Disadvantages:
• Accuracy of the time constants must be achieved by tuning
• Linearity of resistor or transconductance implementations
Discrete-Time Filters
Advantages:
• Very accurate, tuning not required
• Switched capacitors are a well-known technique
Disadvantages:
• Clock feedthrough
• Limited in frequency by the oversampling ratio

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• Requires an anti-aliasing filter

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Dynamic Range of Filters

Dynamic Range:
Pmax Vsat2
DR = P =
N VN2
where
Pmax (Vsat) = maximum signal power (voltage) at the filter output (typically for 1% THD)
PN (VN) = integrated noise power (voltage) in the bandwidth of interest at filter output
Noise Performance:
6th-order continuous-time filter1-
3kTQ Vsat2Cint
VN2 = C ⇒ DR = 3kTQ
int
Optimum DR for continuous-time filters2
Vsat2Ctotal
DRopt = 4kTFQ

where

1
H. Khorramabadi and P.R. Gray, “HIgh Frequency CMOS Continuous-Time Filters”, IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits, pp. 939-948, Dec. 1984.
2
G. Groenewold, “The Design of High Dynamic Range Continuous-Time Integratable Bandpass Filters,” IEEE Trans. Circuits and Systems, pp. 838-
852, Aug. 1991.

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Ctotal = total capacitance of the filter’s integrators

F = noise factor used to account for possible excess noise contributions by nonideal devices
Dynamic Range- Continued
Upper bound on DR for a general high-Q bandpass filter
Vsat2Ctotal
DRopt ≤ 2πkTFQ

The dependence of DR on power dissipation and bandwidth are†

ηPdiss
DRopt =
4πkTFBQ2
where
η = efficiency factor relating the power consumed by the filter to the maximum signal output power
B = filter bandwidth
In general, the mechanism responsible for limiting the DR in high Q filters is the regenerative gain
associated with the high-Q poles.

Typical DR ≈ 70-90dB depending upon the architecture (AGC’s, etc.)

†
W.B. Kuhn, “Design of Integrated, Low Power, Radio Receivers in BiCMOS Technologies,” Ph.D. Dissertation, Electrical Engineering Dept., Virginia
Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, 1995.

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General Approach for Continuous and SC Filter Design

Normalized Frequency Cascade of

LP Filter Transform the First- and/or
Low-Pass,
Root Roots to HP, Second-Order
Normalized
Locations BP, or BS Stages Denormalize
Filter with a
passband of the Filter
1 rps and an Realization
Normalized Frequency First-Order
impedance Transform the
Low-Pass Replacement
of 1 ohm. L's and C's to
RLC Ladder of Ladder
Realization HP, BP, or BS Components

All designs start with a normalized, low pass filter with a passband of 1 radian/second and an impedance of
1Ω that will satisfy the filter specification.
1.) Cascade approach - starts with the normalized, low pass filter root locations.
2.) Ladder approach - starts with the normalized, low pass, RLC ladder realizations.

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Follow-the-Leader Feedback Design (FLF)†

Besides the cascade and ladder approaches, there is a third approach called follow-the-leader feedback.

-bN
-b3
-b2
-b1

Vin Σ T1 T2 T3 TN

a0 a1 a2 a3 aN

Σ Vout Fig.11.2-01

The various Ti are second-order bandpass transfer functions

This structure can realize both zeros and poles.

†
A.S. Sedra and P.O Bracket, 1978, Filter Theory and Design: Active and Passive, London: Pitman.

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Primary Resonator Block

Similar to FLF except that there is no feedforward paths and consequently it cannot realize complex zeros.
-bN
-b3
-b2
-b1

Vin Σ T T T T Vout
Fig.11.2-02

Easier to design and uses identical second-order blocks.

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Denormalization of Filter Realizations

All filters are designed assuming a cutoff frequency of 1 radian/sec. and an impedance level of 1 ohm. In
order to move the filter frequency to the desired frequency a denormalization must be performed. For active
filters, the impedance denormalization is a free parameter that can be used to adjust the final values of the
components.
Frequency and Impedance Denormalizations:

Denormalization Denormalized Denormalized Denormalized Denormalized

Resistance, R Conductance, Gm Capacitor, C Inductor, L
Frequency: R = Rn Gm = Gmn Cn Ln
C= L=
s = ωPBsn = Ωnsn Ωn Ωn

Impedance: R = zoRn Gmn Cn L = zoLn

Gm = z C= z
Z = zoZn o o

Frequency and R = zoRn Gmn Cn zoLn

Impedance: Gm = z C= L=
o z oΩ n Ωn
Z(s) = zoZn(Ωnsn)

Note that the design of switched capacitors is done in such a manner that denormalization is not necessary.

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SECTION 2 - PASSIVE FILTERS

Comparison of Active and Passive Filters

-
+

Active Filters
Passive Filters
Fig.11.1-03

Characteristic Active Filters Passive Filters

Dissipation Requires power Dissipationless
Linearity Limited Linear
Noise Active plus thermal Noiseless (except for R’s)
Size Small Large
Compatibility with integration Good Poor
Midband gain Not constrained Equal to less than unity

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Passive Filters
Categories:
Discrete ceramic (piezoelectric)
Crystal
Acoustic wave
Surface (SAW)
Bulk (BAW)
LC
General Characteristics:
• Fractional bandwidths are small (0.1% to 3%)
• Shape factors are moderate (16 to 20dB of attenuation at 2 to 3 times the nominal bandwidth)
• Insertion loss is moderate (1.5 to 6dB)
• Cost is low ($0.3 to $3) when purchased in large quantities
• No power dissipation
• Low noise figure

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Passive Filter Performance

Part No. Type Applicatio Frequency BW Shape IL Price

n Factor

Toko HCFM8- Ceramic AM 262 kHz 6kHz -16dB @ 6dB $1

262B Broad-cast (2.3%) ±9kHz
IF
Toko CFMR- Ceramic AM 455kHz 6kHz -16dB @ 6dB $1
455B Broad- (1.3%) ±9kHz
cast IF
MuRata Ceramic Pager IF 450kHz 6kHz -40dB @ 6dB -
SFP450F (1.3%) ±12kHz
MuRata Ceramic Television 4.5MHz 120kHz -20dB @ 6dB -
SFE4.5MBF Sound IF (2.7%) ±270kHz
MuRata Ceramic FM Broad- 10.7MHz 230kHz -20dB @ 6dB $0.3
cast IF (2.1%) ±290kHz
ECS-10.7-15B MCF Cellular 10.7MHz 25kHz -40dB @ 2.5dB $3
Phone IF (0.2%) ±25kHz
Siemens B4535 SAW DECT IF 110MHz 1.1MH -20dB @ - $3
z (1%) ±1.5MHz
MuRata LFC30- LC Cellular 881MHz 25MHz -20dB @ 3.5dB -
01B0881B025 RF (2.8%) ±78MHz
Toko 6DFA- Dielectri Cellular 881MHz 25MHz -20dB @ 1.8dB -
881E-11 c RF (2.8%) ±78MHz

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Toko 6DFA- Dielectri Cordless 914MHz 1MHz -24dB @ 2.2dB -

914A-14 c Phone RF (0.1%) ±45MHz

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Passive RLC Filters

RS
Passive filters consist of:
• Inductors
RL
• Capacitors
Realizations: Lowpass Filter with zeros at infinity
1.) Geometrically centered
2.) Arbitrary (difficult)
Advantages of passive filters: RS
• Low noise (no noise)
• High frequency - up to the GHz range RL

Disadvantage of passive filters:

Lowpass Filter with jω zeros Fig.12.6-4
• Poor IC compatibility
• Difficult to tune

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RC Filters (Polyphase Filters)

A polyphase filter is a fully symmetric RC network with multiple inputs.
• Depending on the phase and amplitude relation of the inputs, it rejects some inputs and passes others.
• Every input vector set can be decomposed into the unit vector sets.
R
V1 θ1 Vo1
C V1 θ1 Vo1 V4 θ4
R
V2 θ2 Vo2
C
R
V3 θ3 Vo3 Vo2 Vo4
C
R
V4 θ4 Vo4
C V2 θ2 V3 θ3
Vo3

Input frequency = 1 Fig10-PF1

2πRC
1 jωRC
Lag: T(jω) = Lead: T(jω) =
jωRC + 1 jωRC + 1
Arg[jω} = -tan-1(ωRC) Arg[jω] = 90°-tan-1(ωRC)

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RC Polyphase Filters - Continued

Polyphase filters will add the counter-clockwise phase sequences and reject the clockwise phase sequences.

Counter-clockwise Clockwise
quadrature sequence quadrature sequence
R R
V 0° V 0°
C C
R V' 0°+45° R V' 0°+45°
V 90° + V 270° +
C V' 90°-45° C V' 270°-45°
= 2V' +45° =0
R R
V 180° V 180°
C C
R R
V 270° V 90°
C C

Input frequency = 1 Input frequency = 1

2πRC 2πRC Fig. 10-PF2

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Applications of Polyphase Filters

1.) Quadrature Signal Generation:
Quadrature signals are generated from a differential signal by means of the polyphase filter.

R V -45°+V 225°= V -90°

C 2 2
R
V 45°+ V -45°= V 0°
C 2 2
V 0° R
V 90°
C
V 180° R
V 180°
C Fig. 10-PF3

2.) Unwanted Signal Rejection:

If the desired signal and the unwanted signal have opposite sequences, the unwanted signal can be
rejected by the polyphase filter.

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Wideband Polyphase Filters

Staggered polyphase filters:
R
VinI VoutI
C 5 10 15 20 25
R 0 f(MHz)
VinQ VoutQ
C -10 1st
R
VinI VoutI -20
C

Image Rejection (dB)

2nd
R -30
VinQ VoutQ
C 3rd
-40
4th
-50
-60
Polyphase Filter N
Polyphase Filter 2
Polyphase Filter 1

-70
-80
-90
-100
Four stages of polyphase filters in cascade with different center frequencies.
Fig10-PF4

• Wideband image rejection can be obtained with staggering several polyphase stages
• Wider polyphase filter band ⇒ Large number of stages ⇒ More loss

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Practical Design Issues of Polyphase Filters

1.) Component Matching:
From Monte Carlo simulations it has been found that:
Ultimate Image Rejection > -20·log10(σComponent)
(For 60dB image rejection a 0.1% matching between R’s and C’s is required)
The matching requirements will set the minimum area of the R’s and C’s
Comments-
1
• In general, σ2Component ∝ Area

• Measurements on poly resistors of a 1µm CMOS process gave σ < 0.1% for a resistor area of 2800µm2
• Approximate matching of capacitors is σ ≈ 0.1% for a capacitor area of 220µm2

2.) Cutoff Frequency of the Resistors:

At high frequencies, the polysilicon acts as a transmission line and does not provide the desired phase
shift.
1
fResistor =
2πL2R Cox
where L is the length of the resistor and R is the sheet resistance of the polysilicon and Cox is the oxide
capacitance. This property of the resistors sets the maximum length of the resistors.

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Practical Design Issues of Polyphase Filters - Continued

3.) Capacitive Loading Mismatch:
• Symmetric loading has no effect on the image rejection property of the polyphase filter.
• Low impedance loads (ZLoad) increases the polyphase filter loss.
• Matching between the output loads is required
Normally, the load is either another polyphase filter which is sufficiently matched by the gate
capacitance of the amplifier following the polyphase filter.
Rule of thumb from worst case simulations:
σCload·CLoad
If CLoad < CPoly, the ultimate image rejection > -20log10 C


 Poly 
If CLoad > CPoly, the ultimate image rejection > -20log10(σCload)

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Practical Design Issues of Polyphase Filters - Continued

4.) Differential Output instead of Quadrature Differential Output:

VinI R VoutI VinI R VoutI

C C Q
VinQ Amplifier VinQ
R VoutQ R VoutQ
C C
VinI R VoutI VinI R VoutI
Dummy
C Capacitors C Q
VinQ R VoutQ for VinQ R VoutQ
Matching
C C Fig. 10-PF5

• Last polyphase stage can provide up to 3dB • Outputs load each other, therefore the
of gain with small loading capacitors maximum gain is 0 dB
• Dummy capacitors try to match the output • This is an order of magnitude less
loading on all branches sensitive to load mismatches if
• Because of the matching issue, this is useful CLoad<<CPoly and almost zero
in high image rejection systems only if sensitivity to load mismatch if
CLoad<<CPoly CLoad>CPoly

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Practical Design Issues of Polyphase Filters - Continued

5.) Polyphase Input and Output Impedance at Pole Frequency:
At the polyphase pole frequency, the input and output impedance of the polyphase filter is R||(1/sC)
which is independent of the load and source impedance.

Zin = R||(1/sC) R
ZLoad
at f = 1/(2πRC) C
R
ZLoad
C
R
ZLoad
C
R
ZLoad
C
Fig. 10-PF6

6.) Input Impedance at DC:

If the load is a capacitor, then the input impedance at DC is high.
If the polyphase filter is driven by a current source a peak is experienced at low frequencies.
(Should be driven by a low impedance source)

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Practical Design Issues of Polyphase Filters - Continued

7.) Polyphase Noise:
• The resistors in the polyphase filters generate noise at the output ( vn2 = 4kTRpoly)

• If several polyphase filters are in cascade, the noise of the previous stage is attenuated by the following.
Therefore, the last stage noise becomes dominant.
• There is a tradeoff between the loading of the polyphase filter on the preceding stage (which sets the loss)
and the noise of the polyphase filter which establishes the resistor.
8.) Polyphase Voltage Gain and Loss:
RPoly RPoly
Vout
Vout
Vin 0° CPoly ZLoad CPoly

2Vin 45° ZLoad

Vin 90°
Fig. 10-PF7

Therefore,
 ZLoad 
|Vout| = 2 Z  |Vin|
 Load+ZPoly
a.) Output open circuit: ZLoad>>ZPoly ⇒ 3dB gain
b.) ZLoad = ZPoly ⇒ 3dB loss

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c.) At high frequencies, capacitive loads cause severe loss

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Layout Issues for Polyphase Filters

• 60dB image rejection requires 0.1% matching among R’s and C’s of the R
polyphase filter. Dummy
C
Elements
• Therefore, careful layout is vital to preserve the matching property. R

Gradient Cancellation
C
R
Comments:
C
1.) Common centroid layout is used to cancel the process gradients R

2.) The dummy elements eliminate systematic mismatch C

R
3.) Minimized total width of the layout further decreases the gradient. C
R
Dummy C
Elements R
C

Gradient Cancellation
R
C
R
C
R
C
R
C
Dummy
Elements R
Fig10PF-8

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Layout of Polyphase Filters - Continued

• Each interconnect line has the same length and the same number of corners using the following serpentine
structure:

A B

C D

Fig.10-PF9

• The capacitance on interconnect lines is balanced.

To
Ground Fig.10-PF10

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SECTION 3 - INTEGRATORS
The Role of the Integrator in Active Filters
In most active filters, the summing integrator is the key building block (the primitive).
v1 k1
v2 k2 Σ vo

vn kn Fig.11.4-01

k1 k2 kn
Vo(s) = ± s V1(s) ± s V2(s) ··· ± s Vn(s)

Classical realization:
Damping Resistor

C
Vout(jω) -1 R
H(jω) = = Vin
Vin(jω) jωRC Vout

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Integrator Nonidealities

dB Phase Shift
180°
Ao
R C 135°
Vin Vout
- GB log10ω 90°
0dB
+ ωa ωi 45°

ωi GB GB 10GB log10ω
0°
ωa ωa 10ωa
10 10 Fig10-10

The op amp is approximated as:

Ao GB
A(s) = =
s s + ωa
1+
ωa
The integrator behavior is degraded by:
• Finite Ao in the low frequency region
• Finite GB in the high frequency region

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Integrators - Continued
Biquad uses ±summing integrator with damping for second-order stages.

k1

k2 k4

Vin Σ Σ Vout

k3

Leapfrog uses direct integrator implementation.

+ - + -
Σ Σ

kS kL

Vin
+ Σ - + Σ -
Vout

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OTA-C (GM-C) Integrators

Integrator:
Iout
+ - + + Vout(s) GM
Vin G C Vout
- + M- - Vin(s) = sC
Iout

What is a GM?
A transconductance amplifier with a
linear relationship between Iout and Vin. It must be tunable.
Iout
Iout
Imax
Imax
GM
1 Vin
Vin

-Imax
-Imax

Advantages: Disadvantages:
High frequency GM must be linear and tunable
Simple Sensitive to parasitic capacitances at the output nodes

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Differential output requires common mode feedback

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Nonideal Performance of the OTA-C Integrator

We will consider the single-ended version for purposes of simplicity.
Sources of nonideal behavior are:
1.) Finite output resistance
2.) Frequency dependence of Gm
3.) RHP zero due to feedforward (found in Miller compensation)

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Finite Output Resistance of the OTA-C Integrator

Model:
-GmRo
+ + Vout -GmRo
GmVin C sC
Vin Ro Vout
Vin = =
1 sCRo+1
- - Ro+sC
OTA Fig.11.4-02

Frequency Response:
Phase
dB Shift
180°

90°
0dB ω
1 ωI
RoC 0° ω
1 ωI
RoC
Fig.11.4-03

Solution:
Make Ro large by using cascode configuration

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Finite Bandwidth of the OTA-C Integrator

Model:

+ +
Gm(0)Vin
C Vout Vout -Gm(0)
Vin sτa+1 =
Vin sC(sτa,+1)
- -
OTA Fig.11.4-04

Frequency Response:
dB
Phase
Shift

90°
0dB ω
ωI 1
τa 0° ω
ωI 1
τa
Fig.11.4-05

Solution:
Use higher fT MOSFETs (smaller channel lengths)

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RHP of the OTA-C Integrator

Model:
Cz
+ +
Vin GmVin C Vout
- -
Vout -Gm-sCz -(Gm-sCz)
OTA Fig.11.4-06
Vin = s(C+Cz) ≈ sC

Frequency Response:
Phase
dB Shift
180°

Gm 90°
Cz
0dB ω
ωI
0° ω
ωI 1
τa
Fig.11.4-07

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Solution:
Neutralization techniques

Fig.11.4-08

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OTA-C Integrators
VDD VDD VDD VDD
VDD VDD VB1

VB1 M3 M4
VB2
Voutn C Voutp
M3 Voutn Voutp
Vinp Vinn VB3
M1 M2
Vinp VC Vinn
M5 M1 M2
VC

VB4

Simple OTA Folded-Cascode OTA Fig.11.4-10

Simple OTA:
Suffers from poor linearity, signal-to-noise limitations, and low output resistance
Folded-Cascode OTA (M3 in active region):
gm1 1 W3
Gm = 1+ g R ≈ R = Kn’ L (VC-VS3-VTn)
m1 M3 M3 3

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Suffers from linearity and excessive power dissipation†

†
F. Krummenacher, and G.V. Ruymbeke, “Integrated Selectrivity for Narrow-Band FM IF Systems,” IEEE J. os Solid-State Circuits, vol. SC-25, no. 3,
pp. 757-760, June 1990.

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OTA-C Integrators - Continued

Linearization Schemes:
VDD

ID
I+Iout I-Iout
I+Iout I-Iout
M1
M2 QD
+ Q1 Q2
M3
Vin
M4 + RD
-
Vin M1 M2
I I -
I
VSS
VSS
(a.) (b.)
(a.) M3-M4 work in a saturation-active mode for positive Vin and in an active-saturation mode for
negative Vin. Can result in a linear operation. I varies GM. (b.) M1 and M2 are in active region. Current
is proportional to VDS1 (VDS2). ID varies GM.

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OTA-C Integrators - Continued

Tradeoff between power and linearity:
VDD VDD
VCMFB VCMFB VCMFB VCMFB

VB2 VB2 VB2 VB2

- V + - V +
out out
VB3 VB3 VB3 VB3
VC Vinp VC Vinn
Vinp Vinn + +
M1 M2 M1 M2
- -
VB4 M3 VB4 M3
VB4 VB4

Low-power consumption OTA Linearized OTA Fig.11.4-11

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OTA-C Integrators - Continued

Practical implementation of an OTA with 90µA of power supply current.

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OTA-C Integrators - Continued

Biasing Circuit for the previous OTA:

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Linearized OTA-C Integrator

VDD

M2 M1
vout

M4 C M3

vin V2 V1

M6 M5

Fig. 11.4-9

This circuit provides a linear transconductance relationship as follows:

Let KN’(W/L)N = A KP’(W/L)P

∴ VGSP -|VTP| = A (VGSN -VTN) and VGSN+VGSP = Vin +V where V1=V2=V

Combining these two equations gives
Vin +V-VTN-|VTP| 2
1 W (Vin +V-VTN-|VTP|)
VGSN-VTN = ⇒ iD = 2 KN L
A +1 A+1+2 A
W
iD1 - iD2 KN L
∴ Gm = V = 2· (V-VTN-|VTP|) Tuning?
in A+1+2 A

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GM-C-OTA Integrator
Integrator:
2C
Iout
+ - + +
Vin G OTA Vout
- + M- -
Iout
2C

Vout(s) Iout Vout 1 GM

Vin(s) = ·
Vin Iout = GM =
sC sC

Advantages:
Avoids influence of parasitic capacitances.
High frequency (20MHz, 6th-order filter for disk-drive read channels)
Tuning can be done by current multiplication of Iout
Disadvantages:
More noise - two active elements (GM and OTA)

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MOSFET-C-Op Amp Integrator

Integrator:
VC1
i1
v1
2C iD2 iD1 2C

i1 R
v1 - + + - + +
Vout VC2 Vout
v2 + - - + - -
i2
R
2C iD3 2C
iD4
v2
i2
VC1
Differential input resistance is (see Sec. 4.2):
v1-v2 v1-v2 1
Rin = 2R = i -i = = , v1,v2 ≤ min{(VC1-VT),(VC2-VT)}
1 2 β (VC1-VC2)(v1-v2) β (VC1-VC2)
Advantages:
Straight-forward implementation of RC active filters
Insensitive to parasitics
Disadvantages:
Requires input currents

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Amplifiers must be able to drive the resistors

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MOSFET-C-OTA Filters
Integrator:
Replace the op amp of MOSFET-C-OP AMP filters with a high-gain OTA. At high frequencies, if the
GM is large, the circuit behaves as an op amp.
2C
i1 R
v1 - + +
OTA Vout
v2 + - -
i2
R
2C

Typically requires bipolar devices to get high-enough GM.

Has been used to build filters at video frequencies.

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MOSFET-C-Op Amp Integrator Performance

Ideal Performance: M1 i1
vx+ =VLO
Uses FETs in the triode region to C
M3
achieve a linear four-quadrant multiplier. i2 -+
Ideal Operation (Op Amp Gain = ∞): vi- vo
M2 i3 vi+ + -
 Vy  Vx 1 Vx2 vx- = VLO C vo
I1 = K’ VGS + 2 - VT 2 - 2  2  
 M4 i4
    
 Vy  -Vx 1 -Vx2
I2 = K’ VGS - 2 - VT  2  - 2  2  

vy+ vy-
      Fig. 12.5-19A
=VRF = VRF
 Vy  Vx 1 Vx2
I3 = K’ VGS - 2 - VT 2 - 2  2  

    
 Vy  -Vx 1 -Vx2
I4 = K’ VGS + 2 - VT  2  - 2  2  

     

K’ + - K’ K’ VxVy VxVy K’
Vout = sC (Vo - Vo ) = sC (+I4 - I3 - I1 + I2) = sC  2 + 2  = sC VxVy
 

K’
∴ Vout = sCVinVC

As long as the following conditions are satisfied, the integrator will be linear.
Vinp,Vinn ≤ min{(Vy+-VT),(Vy- -VT)}

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MOSFET-C-Op Amp Integrator Performance

Previous circuit with a finite op amp gain (A):
Vo -Vo
Vout = Vo+-Vo- = A (Vi+-Vi-) = AVin ⇒ Vi+ = 2A and Vi- = 2A

 Vy Vout Vx Vout 1 Vx Vout2

I1 = K’ VGS + 2 - 2A - VT 2 - 2A  - 2  2 - 2A  
     
 Vy Vout  Vx Vout 1  Vx Vout2
I2 = K’ VGS - 2 - 2A - VT- 2 - 2A  - 2 - 2 + 2A  
     
 Vy Vout Vx Vout 1 Vx Vout2
I3 = K’ VGS - 2 + 2A - VT 2 + 2A  - 2  2 + 2A  
     
 Vy Vout  Vx Vout 1  Vx Vout2
I4 = K’ VGS + 2 + 2A - VT- 2 + 2A  - 2 - 2 + 2A  
     
K’/sC
Vout = 1 (+I4 - I3 - I1 + I2)
1+A

K’/sC VxVy VTVout VGSVout VxVy VGSVout VTVout

=  + A 
1 2 + A - A + 2 - A 
1+A
 1  2K’/sC  K’
Vout 1 + A A (VGS - VT) = sCVxVy
  

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K’/sC
∴ Vout = 1 2K’/sC VinVC
1 + A + A (VGS - VT)

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MOSFET-C-Op Amp Integrator Performance

Previous circuit with a finite op amp gain (A) and a threshold variation (∆VT+ and ∆VT-):
 Vy Vout Vx Vout 1 Vx Vout2
 +
I1 = K’ VGS + 2 - 2A - VT - ∆VT  2 - 2A  - 2  2 - 2A  
     
 Vy Vout  Vx Vout 1  Vx Vout2
 +
I2 = K’ VGS - 2 - 2A - VT - ∆VT - 2 - 2A  - 2 - 2 + 2A  
     
 Vy Vout Vx Vout 1 Vx Vout2
-
I3 = K’ VGS - 2 + 2A - VT - ∆VT  2 + 2A  - 2  2 + 2A  

     
 Vy Vout  Vx Vout 1  Vx Vout2
-
I4 = K’ VGS + 2 + 2A - VT - ∆VT - 2 + 2A  - 2 - 2 + 2A  

     
K’/sC
Vout = 1 (+I4 - I3 - I1 + I2)
1+A
 + 2 - 2 
K’/sC VxVy ∆VT Vo VTVo Vo VGSVo VxVy ∆VT Vo VTVo Vo VGSVo
= 1  2 + A + A + 2- A + 2 + A + A - 2- A 
2A 2A 
1+ A

K’/sC  2Vout Vout 

 + - 
Vo = Vout = 1 VxVy - A (VGS - VT) + A (∆VT + ∆VT )
1+A

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K’/sC
∴ Vout =  1  2K’/sC K’/sC 
VinVC
+ -
1 + A (VGS - VT) - 1 + A (∆VT + ∆VT )
1 +  1 + 
 A  

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True Active RC Filters

Integrator:
R
2R
2C
i1
v1 2NR
- + +
R Vout
v2 + - -
2R i2
2C
2NR

Advantages:
Good linearity
Wide dynamic range
Disadvantages:
Op amp must be able to drive resistances
Requires large area

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Log Domain Integrator

Log domain filters are essentially gm-C filters with an exponential relationship for gm.
A log domain lowpass filter:
VCC VCC

Analysis: Ib
Note that VBE1 + VBE2 = VBE3 + VBE4 iin iout
⇒ i1i2 = i3i4 ⇒ iinIb = i3iout Q2 Q3

dvBE4 Q1 Q4
Idamp
But, i3 = iC + Idamp = C dt + Idamp Ib C

and
dvBE4 d iout CVT diout CVT Logarithmic Exponential
C = CV Log domain integrator
dt T dt ln I  = i = i s·iout compressor
out dt
expander
 s  out
Fig. 10-15
∴ iinIb = (sCVT + Idamp)iout
Ib
iout Ib CVT
⇒ i = sCV + I = Idamp (set Idamp = 0 for true integrator)
in T damp
s + CV
T
Comments:
• The corner frequency of the filter depends on temperature (tuning is required)

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• Lack of pure logarithmic VI characteristics and finite β of the BJTs lead to linearity degradation
• Good for high frequency (100MHz)

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Log Domain Filters - Continued

Differential log-domain integrator:

Io Ip+ Ip- Io

Iout+ Q2 Q1 Q7 Q8
Iout-
V+ V-
Vout+ Vout-
Io Io
C C

Ip+ Iout
In+ In- In+ Vout+
Io Io V+
Q5 Q11 Iout
Vout-
Q4 Q3 Q9 Q10 V- In-
Ip-
C C

Q6 Q12
R R
Fig. 10-LD1

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Current Mode Integrator

Circuit:
VDD

I I I I KI
ip if iout
in a
+
C va
1:1 - 1:1 1:K
in-ip- if

Summation of currents at node a gives:

in - ip - if = sCva + gmva
Also,
-if = gmva
Combining,
-sCif gm
in - ip - if = g - if → if = sC (ip - in)
m

Thus,
iout = Kif = (ip - in)
Use the dc current sources (I and KI) to tune the transconductances.

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Current Mode Integrators - Continued

Current-Mode Integrator Nonidealities:
Small signal model-
if
ip in
v1 v2

gm gds C1 gmv1 gds gm gds C2 gmv2 gds

Analysis gives,
gm
4gds 1 + sgdsC2i - 1 - sC1i 
 
if =  p n
sC2  sC1  g m2   gm  
1 + 1 + 
 4gds gm 
• Dominant pole moves from the origin to -4gds/C2
• Unity gain frequency is gm/C2
• The undesired capacitance, C1, inversely affects the frequency of the non-dominant pole (gm/C1)
causing an undesirable excess phase shift at the integrator unity gain frequency
• If C2 >> C1, and one uses cascode techniques to reduce the output conductances, Q factors exceeding
20 can be achieved at high frequencies

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Current Mode Filters - Continued

Fully-Balanced Current Mode Integrator:

Ideally, VDD
gm
iop - ion = sC (ip - in) ip I I I ion
In reality,
iop
 s C
1 - 
 z1
iop - ion = A  (i - i )
s p n
1 +  VDD
 p1
where I I I
ion iop
gm - gds in
A= gds
C
gm - gds
z1 = 2C
gd
and
gds
p1 = C + 4C
gd

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To achieve high Q factor, the RHP zero should be as large as possible.

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SECTION 4 - BIQUADS
The Biquad
A biquad has two poles and two zeros.
Poles are complex and always in the LHP.
The zeros may or may not be complex and may be in the LHP or the RHP.
Transfer function:
Vout(s) -(K2s2+ K1s + K0)  (s-z1)(s-z2) 
Ha(s) = V (s) = = K (s-p )(s-p )
in ωo  1 2 
s2 + Q s+ ωo2

jω

ωo

σ
ωo
2Q

Low pass: zeros at ∞ Bandstop: zeros at ±jωo

High pass: zeros at 0 Allpass: Poles and zeros are complex
Bandpass: One zero at 0 and the other at ∞ conjugates

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Development of a Biquad Realization

Rewrite Ha(s) as:
ωos
s2Vout(s) + Q Vout(s) + ωo2Vout(s) = -(K2s2 + K1s + K0)Vin(s)
Dividing through by s 2 and solving for Vout(s), gives
-1  ωo 1 
Vout(s) = s (K1 + K2s)Vin(s) + Q Vout(s) + s (K0Vin(s) +ωo Vout(s))
 2
 
If we define the voltage V1(s) as
-1 K0 
V1(s) = s  Vin(s) + ωoVout(s)
ωo 
then Vout(s) can be expressed as
-1  ωo 
Vout(s) = s (K1 + K2s) Vin(s) + Q Vout(s) - ωoV1(s)
 
Synthesizing the voltages V1(s) and Vout(s), gives (assuming inverting integrators)
Vin(s) sK2
Vout(s) ωo
-1 V1(s) Vin(s) K1
-1 Vout(s)
Σ s
Σ s
Vout(s) ωo/Q
Vin(s) K0/ωo
V1(s) -ωo
Fig.11.5-01

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Example of a Biquad Realization

Connecting the two previous circuits gives:
For negative integrators-
ωo
ωo/Q

Vin(s) -1 V1(s) -1 Vout(s)

K0/ωo Σ s
-ωo Σ s
sK2

K1 Fig.11.5-02

For positive integrators-

−ωo
−ωo/Q

Vin(s) 1 V1(s) 1 Vout(s)

K0/ωo Σ s
ωo Σ s
sK2

K1 Fig.11.5-03

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More Biquads
KHN:
-1 Vlp(s)
-KLP
Vin(s) Vhp(s) Vbp(s) Vlp(s) Vbp(s) Vout(s)
-1 -1
K1 Σ ωo
s
ωo
s
KBP Σ
Vhp(s)
KHP
1/Q
Fig.11.5-04

Tow-Thomas Biquad:
ωo

Vin(s) Vbp(s) Vlp(s) -Vlp(s)

-1 -1
ωoK1 Σ s
ωo
s
−1

ωo/Q
Fig.11.5-05

Needs some additions to make it a universal biquad.

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OTA-C BIQUADS
Building Blocks for OTA-C Biquads
Vi1 + Vi1 +
Gm1 Gm1
- -
Vi1 + Vo Vi1 + Vo Vi2 + Vo Vi2 + Vo
Gm1 Gm1 Gm2 Gm2
Vi2 - Vi2 - - -
- -
C Gm2 Gm4 C
Vi3 + Vi3 +
+ Gm3 + Gm3
- -

Fig.11.5-06

Integrator Amplifier Summing Amplifier Summing Integrator

Vi1-Vi2 Gm1Vin Gm1(Vi1-Vi2) Gm1Vi1 Gm2Vi2 Gm1Vi1 Gm2Vi2
Vo = sC = sC Vo = Gm2 = Vo = G + G Vo = sC + sC
m4 m4
Gm1 Gm3Vi3 Gm3Vi3
+ sC
Gm2Vin + G
m4

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A Single-Ended Bandpass OTA-C Biquad

-
Gm
+
C
Vout
+
Gmm1 -
- Gm/Q
C +
Vin -
Gm
+
Fig.11.5-13

Transfer function:
GM
Vout(s) C s
Vin(s) = GM GM2
s2 + QC s +  C 
 

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A Differential Bandpass OTA-C Biquad

+ -
C G
- M+

- + +
G C Vout
+ M- -

+ - + + -
Vin G GM/Q
- + M- - +

Transfer function:
GM
Vout(s) C s
Vin(s) = GM GM2
s2 + QC s +  C 
 

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Single-Ended OTA-C Biquad

Vo
- + -
Gm1 Gm2 Gm3
+ - + Analysis:
Cz
Σi=0 at Va ⇒ sCaVa-Gm4Vin+Gm1Vo = 0
Vin +
Va
-Gm4Vin+Gm1Vo
Gm4 Solving for Va, Va = - sCa
- Cb
Ca
Fig.11.5-07
Σi=0 at Vo ⇒ sCbVo+sCz(Vo-Vin)-Gm2Va+Gm3Vo =0

Combining equations gives,

 -Gm4Vin+Gm1Vo
sCbVo+sCz(Vo-Vin)-Gm2- sC

 +Gm3Vo =0
 a 
Which gives,


Gm2Gm1 



Gm2Gm4
sCb +sCz + sCa +Gm3Vo = sCz + sCa Vin
   
Cz Gm2Gm4
s 2 +
Vo s2CzCa +Gm2Gm4 Cb+ Cz Ca(Cb+ Cz)
∴ Vin = s2Ca(Cz+Cb) + sGm3Ca +Gm1Gm2 = sGm3 Gm1Gm2
2
s + C +C +C (C +C )
z b a z b

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A biquad with complex zeros on the jω axis.

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Differential OTA-C Biquad

Differential version of the previous biquad:

2CA 2CB
+
+ + + + + +
Gm1 Gm2 Gm3 Vout
- - - - - -
-
2CA 2CB

2Cz
+
+ +
Vin Gm4
- -
-
Fig.11.5-075
2Cz

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Example 4-1
Use the biquad of the previous page to design the following transfer function where K2=4.49434x10-1, K0 =
4.580164x1012, ωo = 2.826590x106 and Q = 6.93765.
Vout(s) K2s2+ K0
Ha(s) = V (s) =
in ωo
s2 + Q s+ ωo2

Find the values of all transconductances and capacitors and let Ca =2pF, Cb = 35pF and Gm1=Gm2.
Solution
Equating Ha(s) to the previous transfer function gives
Cz Gm2Gm4 ωo Gm3 Gm1Gm2
K2 = C +C , K0 = C (C +C ) , Q = Cb+Cz , and ωο2 = C (C +C )
b z a b z a b z
K2Cb 0.44943·35pF
Thus, Cz = 1-K = 1-0.44943 = 28.2264pF
2

Gm1=Gm2= ωο Ca(Cb+Cz) = 2.826590x106 2(35+28.2264) = 31.785µS

ωo 2.826590x106
Gm3= Q (Cb+Cz) = 6.93765 (35+28.2264)x10-12 = 25.760µS

K0 Gm4 K0 4.580164x1012
Note that 2 = G which gives Gm4 = 2 Gm1 = 31.785µS = 18.221µS
ωo m1 ωo (2.826590x106)2

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A Fully Differential, OTA-C General Biquad

2CA 2CB +
+ + + + + +
Gm1 Gm2 Gm3 Vout
- - - - - -
2CA 2CB -

2CX
+
+ + + +
Vin Gm4 Gm5
- - - -
-
Fig.11.5-12
2CX

Transfer function:
 Cx   G   Gm2Gm4 
  2  m5   
s + s +
Vout Cx+CB Cx+CB
 
CA(Cx+CB)
 
Vin =  Gm3   Gm1Gm2 
s2 + C +C s + C (C +C )
 x B  A x B

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Two-Thomas Lowpass Biquad

We shall use this circuit later in a filter example.

- Va
Vin Gm1 + Vout
+ Gm2
C1 -
C2 -
Gm3
Fig.11.5-14
+

Analysis:
Σi=0 at Va ⇒ sC1Va-Gm1(Vin-Vout) = 0 → sC1Va = Gm1(Vin-Vout)
Σi=0 at Vout ⇒ sC2Vo2 + Gm3Vout - Gm2Va = 0
Combining equations gives,
Gm1(Vin-Vout)
sC2Vo2 + Gm3Vout - Gm2 sC

=0 → (s2C1C2 + sC1Gm3 +Gm1Gm2)Vout = Gm1Gm2Vin
 1 
Gm1Gm2
Vout Gm1Gm2 C1C2
∴ Vin = = Gm3 Gm1Gm2
s2C1C2 + sC1Gm3 +Gm1Gm2 2
s +s C + C C
2 1 2

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Nonideal Effects in OTA Biquads

1.) Finite OTA output resistance. +
Gm1
Use structures that can absorb the output resistance. - Vout
Vin +
The admittances, Y1 and Y2, consist of a capacitor Gm0 +
in parallel with a resistor. The resistor can - Gm2
“absorb” the finite output resistances of the OTAs. -
Y1 Y2
Fig.11.5-08

2.) Finite OTA bandwidth.

Vout sRC +1 Vin
= G (0) +
Vin m sC(sτ ,+1) Gm1 Vout
a - C
If RC = τa , then the dominant OTA pole is canceled
R
Fig.11.5-09

An alternate approach:
+


Gm1(0)τa1- Gm2(0)τa2 Gm1 +
Gmeq = (Gm1(0)-Gm2(0)) 1 - s Gm1(0)-Gm2(0)  - Gmeq
 -
-
Gmeq = Gm1(0)-Gm2(0) if Gm1(0)τa1 = Gm2(0)τa2 Gm2 Fig.11.0-01
+

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MOSFET-C BIQUADS
General Second-Order Biquad
G4

C1 G5

CA CB
G2
G1
-+ G3 -+
+ +
Vin + - G3 + - Vout
- -
G1 CA CB
G2

C1 G5

Fig.11.5-11 G4

Transfer function:
 C1  G   G1G3 
  2  2   
CB s + CB s + CACB
Vout      
Vin = -  G   G3G4 
 2  5  
s + CBs + CACB
    

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SECTION 5 - IC FILTER DESIGN

A Design Approach for Lowpass Cascaded Filters
1.) From TPB, TSB, and Ωn (or APB, ASB, and Ωn) determine the required order of the filter approximation,
N.
2.) From the appropriate tables find the normalized poles of the approximation.
3.) Group the complex-conjugate poles into second-order realizations. For odd-order realizations there will
be one first-order term.
4.) Realize each of the terms using first- and second-order blocks.
5.) Cascade the realizations in the order from input to output of the lowest-Q stage first (first-order stages
generally should be first).
6.) Denormalize the filter if necessary.

More information can be found elsewhere1,2,3,4.

1
K.R. Laker and W.M.C. Sansen, Design of Analog Integrated Circuits and Systems, McGraw Hill, New York, 1994.
2
P.E. Allen and E. Sanchez-Sinencio, Switched Capacitor Circuits, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 1984.
3
R. Gregorian and G.C. Temes, Analog MOS Integrated Circuits for Signal Processing, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1987.
4
L.P. Huelsman and P.E. Allen, Introduction to the Theory and Design of Active Filters, McGraw Hill Book Company, New York, 1980.

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Example 5-1 - Fifth-order, Low Pass, Continuous Time Filter using the Cascade Approach
Design a cascade, switched capacitor realization for a Chebyshev filter approximation to the filter
specifications of TPB = -1dB, TSB = -25dB, fPB = 100kHz and fSB = 150kHz. Give a schematic and
component value for the realization. Also simulate the realization and compare to an ideal realization.
Solution
First we see that Ωn = 1.5. Next, recall that when TPB = -1dB that this corresponds to ε = 0.5088. We
find that N = 5 satisfies the specifications (TSB = -29.9dB).
Find the roots for the Chebyshev approximation with ε =0.5088 for N = 5. Therefore we can express
the normalized lowpass transfer function as,
 0.2895  0.9883  0.4293 
TLPn(sn) = T1(sn)T2(sn)T3(sn) = s +0.2895 2  2 .
 n sn+0.1789sn+0.9883sn+0.4684sn+0.4293

Next, we design each of the three stages individually.

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Example 5-1 - Continued

Stage 1 - First-order Stage Vin
+ Vout
Let us select OTA-C shown to realize the first-order stage. It Gm11
is easy to show that the transfer function is given as - -
C11
Gm21
Gm11n +
T1(sn) = sC Fig.11.6-01
11n +Gm21n
Equating to T1(sn) gives Gm11n = Gm21n = 0.2895S and C11n =1F.

Next, we unnormalize these values using a value of Ωn = 105·2π and an arbitrary impedance scaling
of zo = 105. Thus, we get the following denormalizes values of
0.2895S 1F
Gm11 = Gm21 = 5 = 2.895µS and C11 = 5 = 15.9pF
10 10 ·2x105π
Stage 2 - Second-order, High-Q Stage
The next product of TLPn(sn) is -
Gm12 + Vout
Gm12Gm22 Vin
+ Gm22
C12
0.9883 C12C22 -
C22 -
T2(sn) = 2 = Gm32 Gm12Gm22 Gm32
sn + 0.1789sn + 0.9883 2 +
s +s C + C C Fig.11.6-02
22 12 22
Assume that Gm12n = Gm22n and C12n = C22n = 1F. Equating coefficients gives,Gm12n = Gm22n =
0.99413S and Gm32n =0.1789S,

Denormalizing with Ωn = 105·2π and zo = 105 gives Gm12 = Gm22 = 9.94133µS, Gm32 =1.789µS

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and C12 = C22 = 15.9pF.

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Example 5-1 - Continued

Stage 3 - Second-order, Low-Q Stage
-
The next product of TLPn(sn) is Gm13 + Vout
Vin
Gm13Gm23 +
C13
Gm23
- -
0.4293 C13C23 C23
Gm33
T3(sn) = 2 =
sn+0.4684sn+0.4293 2 Gm33 Gm13Gm23 Fig.11.6-03
+
s +s C + C C
23 13 23
Assume that Gm13n = Gm23n and C13n = C23n = 1F. Equating coefficients gives,Gm13n = Gm23n = 0.6552S
and Gm32n =0.4684S,

Denormalizing with Ωn = 105·2π and zo = 105 gives Gm13 = Gm23 = 6.552µS, Gm33 =4.684µS
and C13 = C23 = 15.9pF.
Overall realization:

Vin - -
+ Vo1 Gm12 + Vo2 Gm13 + Vout
Gm11 + Gm22 + Gm23
- C12 - C13 -
C11 - C22 - C23 -
Gm21 Gm32 Gm33
+ + +
Fig.11.6-04

All capacitors are 15.9pF and Gm11 = Gm21 = 2.895µS, Gm12 = Gm22 = 9.94133µS, Gm32 =1.789µS, Gm13
= Gm23 = 6.552µS, and Gm33 = 4.684µS.

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Example 5-1 - Continued

Simulation results:
0

-10

-20

-30
dB
-40

-50

-60
10 100 1K 10K 100K 1M
Frequency (Hz) Fig.11.6-16
EXAMPLE 5-1 - OTA-C Cascade Filter R4 4 0 10000MEG
.OPTION LIMPTS=1000 G32 4 0 4 0 1.789U
VIN 1 0 DC 0 AC 1.0 G13 0 5 4 6 6.552U
R11 1 0 10000MEG C13 5 0 15.9P
G11 0 2 1 0 2.895U R5 5 0 10000MEG
C11 2 0 15.9P G23 0 6 5 0 6.552U
R2 2 0 10000MEG C23 6 0 15.9P
G21 2 0 2 0 2.895U R6 6 0 10000MEG
G12 0 3 2 4 9.94133U G33 6 0 6 0 4.684U
C12 3 0 15.9P .AC DEC 10 1 10MEG
R3 3 0 10000MEG .PRINT AC VDB(6) VP(6) VDB(4) VP(4) VDB(2) VP(2)

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G22 0 4 3 0 9.94133U .PROBE

C22 4 0 15.9P .END

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Low-Power, High Accuracy Continuous Time 450 KHz Bandpass Filter

450 KHz Bandpass filter specifications:

Specification Value
Lower Stopband 400 KHz
Lower Passband 439 KHz
Upper Passband 461 KHz
Upper Stopband 506 KHz
Passband Ripple <0.5dB
Stopband Attenuation >55dB
Tuning Resolution <1%
Power Consumption ≈2mA
Total Inband Noise <340µVrms
Cascaded-biquad BFP structure:
To compromise between the group delay and complexity, a Chebyshev approximation of 12th order is
used.
Vin Vout
Biquad 1 Biquad 2 Biquad 3 Biquad 4 Biquad 5 Biquad 6

Fig.11.6-06

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455 KHz Filter - Continued

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455 KHz Filter - Continued

Biquad Design:

2Ca 2Cb
+
+ + + + + +
Gm1 Gm2 Gm3 Vout
- - - - - -
-
2Ca 2Cb

2Cz
+
+ +
Vin Gm4
- -
-
Fig.11.5-075
2Cz

Biquad Gm1(S) Gm2(S) Gm3(S) Gm4(S) Ca(pF) Ca(pF) Cz(pF)

1 3.06493x10-5 3.06493x10-5 1.384522x10-5 1.58119x10-5 4.0 70 30
2 2.82619x10-5 2.82619x10-5 1.179439x10-5 1.553489x10-5 4.8 30 70
3 3.636792x10-5 3. 636792x10-5 1.376188x10-5 1.034177x10-5 3.8 70 50
4 3.481898x10-5 3. 481898x10-5 1.125281x10-5 1.449968x10-5 7.8 60 20
5 3.909740x10-5 3. 909740x10-5 1.064108x10-5 5.265746x10-5 10.4 60 8

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6 3.902157x10-5 3. 902157x10-5 1.188262x10-5 4.548467x10-5 6.8 60 40

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455 KHz Filter - Continued

Noise minimization of the OTA:
VDD VDD VDD VDD
The equivalent input-referred noise of the OTA is, VB5
VCMFB VCMFB

∑
 gmi 2  80/1 80/1 80/1 80/1
v n2 =2vni2 ∑ = 2g  eni
  2
M12 M10 M11 M13
 m1 
i=1,4,10,12 VB2 M8 M9 VB2
i=1,4,10,12 100/1 100/1
where - Vout
+

vni2 = Noise power of transistors M1, M4, M10, and M12 VB3
10/1 10/1
VB3
VC
Using the definition of flicker-noise spectral density we get Vinp M6 M7
Vinn
40/1 40/1
K F ∆f M3
eni2f = S(f) = C WL f VB4
M1
60/1
M2
VB4
ox 60/1 60/1
Substituting into the above equation gives M4 M5

v n2 = Fig.11.6-08

∑
 gmi 2  KFi ∆f  2 
2g  C W L f + 4kT 3g ∆f
 m1  ox i i  mi 
i=1,4,10,12
It can be shown that the equivalent input-referred noise is minimized in the bandwidth of interest if

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 1 KFp KP’ 2 -1  1.3x10-24 50µ -1

L1 ≈  
L 2 + KFn·KN’·L 2 ≈ 3.6x10-24·140µ·2 ≈ 1µm
1 + 
 4 10  

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455KHz Filter - Continued

Nominal Frequency Response:

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455KHz Filter - Continued

Temperature dependence of the filter:

We will consider the tuning of this filter in the next section.

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RF Image Reject Filter

In many RF and IF applications, bandpass filters are very difficult because large Q exacerbates the
difficulties in achieving the desired performance.
A possible solution is to use notch filtering in place of bandpass filtering. The following is an example
of a image reject filter suitable for GSM applications.
Typical heterodyne receiver:

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RF Image Reject Filter

Principle:

Does not require high-Q inductors

No stability problems
No excessive noise and linearity degradation

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RF Image Reject Filter

Filter Architecture:

Comments:
• Uses low-Q, on-chip spiral inductors
• Linearity and noise is determined by the transconductors and the impedance level
Transfer function:
rs g mz 1 − g mz r ω 2
s 2 + s( − )+( ) s2 + z s + ω z
I out Ls C Ls C Qz
Gm ( s ) = (s) = g m = gm
Vin r 1 ω
s2 + s s + s2 + p s + ω p
2
Ls Ls C Qp

where 1 − g mz rs ωz
ωz = Qz =
Ls C rs g mz
−
Ls C

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RF Image Reject Filter

Transconductors:
Io = gmVin
M1 M2
30/0.35 30/0.35
+
Vin
_

VBias for gm M3
100/2
VTune for gmz
Fig.11.6-09

Comments:
• Simple source-coupled differential pair is used for less noise
• Minimum size transistors is selected to minimize parasitic capacitance
• Linearity is a function of the gate-source overdrive voltage and hence the tail current

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RF Image Reject Filter

Frequency Response:

Tuning to be considered later.

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Q-Enhanced LC Filters
Second-order, Bandpass Filter:

+ -
G
Vin + M3 +
C L I2 +
- GM2 Center GM1 Vout
I3
RL - Freq. -

+
Filter -
Gain I1 Filter
R1 Gain
1GHz capability in bipolar.

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Q-Enhanced LC Filters - Continued

CMOS Q-enhanced Filter (Kuhn† ):
Second-order circuit-
VDD

L1A L1B
C1
+
+ Vout
Vin -
- M1A M1B
M2A M2B M3A M3B
CSA CSB
Ii Iq Io
Fig. HF07

Differential architecture allows:

• Negative resistances implemented by positive feedback (M2A & M2B)
• Reduces power supply noise
• Second-order nonlinearities are cancelled
• Increases the signal swing
Results:
Q’s of up to 10,000 at 100MHz

†
W.B. Kuhn, “Design of Integrated, Low Power, Radio Receivers in BiCMOS Technologies, PhD Dissertation, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State
University, Dec. 1995.

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Q’s of up to 100 at 200MHz

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Ladder Filter Design (Low Pass)

1.) From TBP, TSB, and Ωn (or APB, ASB, and Ωn) determine the required order of the filter approximation.
2.) From tables similar to Table 9.7-3 and 9.7-2 find the RLC prototype filter approximation.
3.) Write the state equations and rearrange them so each state variable is equal to the integrator of various
inputs.
4.) Realize each of rearranged state equations by continuous time integrators or switched capacitor
integrators.
5.) Denomalize the filter if necessary.

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Example 5-2 - Fifth-order, Low Pass, OTA-C Filter using the Ladder Approach
Design a ladder, OTA-C realization for a Chebyshev filter approximation to the filter specifications
of TBP = -1dB, TSB = -25dB, fPB = 100kHz and fSB = 150 kHz. Give a schematic and component value for
the realization. Also simulate the realization and compare to an ideal realization. Adjust your design so that
it does not suffer the -6dB loss in the pass band. (Note that this example should be identical with Ex. 5-1.)
Solution
From Ex. 5-1, we know that a 5th-order, Chebyshev approximation will satisfy the specification. The
corresponding low pass, RLC prototype filter is
L5n =2.1349 H L3n =3.0009 H L1n =2.1349 H
+ 1ž +
C4n = C2n =
Vin (sn ) 1ž Vout (sn )
1.0911 F 1.0911 F
- -

Next, we must find the state equations and express them in the form of an integrator. Fortunately, the
above results can be directly used in this example.

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Example 5-2 - Continued

R'  R0n 
V1'(sn) = s L Vin(sn) - V2(sn) -  R' V1'(sn)
Vin
L1n: (1) +
n 1n     Gm11
-
This equation can be realized by the OTA-C integrator shown which has one
V2 -
noninverting input and two inverting inputs. The transfer function for this V1'
Gm21
integrator is +

’ 1 ‘ V1 ' -
V1(sn) = C s Gm11nVin(sn) - Gm21nV2(sn) - Gm31nV1(sn) (2) C1
1n n Gm31
+
Choosing L1n = C1n = 2.1349F gives Gm11n = Gm21n = Gm31n = 1S Fig.11.6-10

assuming that R0n = R’ = 1Ω. Also, double the value of Gm11n (Gm11n = 2S) in order to gain 6dB and
remove the -6dB of the RLC prototype.
1
C2n: V2(sn) = s R'C [V1'(sn) - V3'(sn) ] (3) V1'
+ V2
n 2n
Gm12
This equation can be realized by the OTA-C integrator shown which has one -
noninverting input and one inverting input. As before we write that V3' - C2
Gm22
1 ‘ ‘ +
V2(sn) = s C Gm12nV1 (sn) - Gm22nV3(sn)  (4) Fig.11.6-11
n 2n
Choosing C2n = 1.0911F gives Gm12n = Gm22n = 1S

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Example 5-2 - Continued

R'
L3n: V3n' (s) = sL [V2(sn) - V4(sn)] (5)
3n V2
+ V3'
Eq. (5) can be realized by the OTA-C integrator shown which has one Gm13
noninverting input and one inverting input. For this circuit we get -
V4 - C3
‘ 1
V3(sn) = s C [Gm13nV2(sn) - Gm23nV4(sn) ] (6) Gm23
+
n 3n
Fig.11.6-12
Choosing L3n = C3n = 3.0009F givesGm13n = Gm23n = 1S
1  R' 
C4n: V4(sn) = sR'C [V3'(sn) - R  Vout(sn)] (7) V3' + V4
4n  6n Gm14
-
Eq. (7) can be realized by the OTA-C integrator shown with one noninverting and
- C4
one inverting input. As before we write that Vout
Gm24
1 ‘ +
V4(sn) = s C Gm14V3 (sn) - Gm24Vout(sn)  (8) Fig.11.6-13
n 4n

Choosing C4n = 1.0911F gives Gm14n = Gm24n = 1S

R6n V4
L5n: Vout(sn) = sL [V4(sn) - Vout(sn)] (9) + Vout
5n
Gm15
The last state equation, Eq. (9), can be realized by the OTA-C integrator shown -
which has one noninverting input and one inverting input. For this circuit we get Vout
- C5
Gm25
1 +
Vout(sn) ≈ s C [Gm15V4(sn) - Gm25Vout(sn)]. (10) Fig.11.6-14
n 5n

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Choosing L5n = C5n = 2.1439F gives Gm14n = Gm24n = 1S

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Example 5-2 - Continued

Realization:
Vin - - -
+ + Vout
Gm11 Gm21 Gm22 Gm23 Gm15
+ + + -
-
V1' V2 V3'
+ + + V4
Gm12 Gm13 Gm14
- -
C1 - - -
Gm31 G
+ C2 C3 C4 + m25
C5

Fig.11.6-15

To denormalize, Ωn = 200,000π and pick zo =105.

∴ C1 = 33.9780pF, C2 = 17.3654pF, C3 = 47.7608pF, C4 = 17.3654pF, and C1 = 33.9780pF
All transconductances are Gmi = 10µS.

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Example 5-2 - Continued

Simulation of Example 5-2:
0

-10

-20

-30
dB
-40

-50

-60
10 100 1K 10K 100K 1M
Frequency (Hz) Fig.11.6-16

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10th Order Bandpass Ladder OTA-C Filter

Vin Vout
+ - + - + -

- + - + - +
+ - + - -+
- +

+ - + - + -
- + - +

+ - + - + -

One section

: An example of the leapfrog BPF structure - Order N = 10

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Log Domain Filters

Fourth-order log-domain bandpass filter:

V+ V-
(Io)
+ -
+Iout
V+ +
(Io)
V- -
-Iout
2C2 2C2 2C1 2C1
+ - V+ V- V+ V- + - + - V+ V-
(Io) (Io) (Io) (Io) (Io) (Io)
V+ V- + - + - V+ V- V+ V- + -

+Iin

-Iin 2C1 2C1 2C2 2C2

+ -
Ip+ In+
(Io)
+
(Io) V+ V-
V- - 2C1 = 32pF 2C2 = 8pF
I n - Fig. 10-LD2
Ip -
+Iin

-Iin

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Log Domain Filters - Continued

Measured results of the fourth-order, bandpass filter of previous page:

Characteristic Value
Frequency tuning range 50MHz - 130MHz
Integrator bias current 220µA @ fo = 130MHz
Integrating capacitors 8pF and 32pF
Power consumption with VCC = 5V 233mW @ fo = 130MHz
Quality factor ≈
3rd-order intermodulation distortion -45.6dB @ fo = 83MHz
Output current 3rd-order -14.5dBm @ fo = 83MHz
intercept point
Output noise power density @ fo = -152.4 dBm/Hz
83MHz

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SECTION 6 - FILTER TUNING

Tuning Methods For Continuous Time Filters
In all tuning methods, an on-chip reference circuit is monitored and tuned. The main filter becomes tuned
by virtue of matching with the on-chip reference circuit.
Common Techniques for Automatic Filter Tuning:
Resistive Tuning: Phase Tuning:

Main Filter Main Filter

Vc Vc
G or GM Resistance Phase
Comparator VCO Comparator Clock
External
Resistor

Frequency Tuning:

Main Filter
Vc
Phase
VCF External
Comparator
Signal

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Tuning Methods
Indirect method:
• The filter is tuned in place (“in situ”). A master filter which is not in the system is tuned and the tuning
signals are applied to the slave filter which is in the system.
• This can be done at a high rate so the filter is constantly being tuned or infrequently such as at power up
or during some predetermined calibration period.
Direct method:
• The filter is taken out of the circuit and tuned. If another filter has been tuned it can be inserted in the
circuit while the other filter is being tuned.

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Master-Slave (Indirect) Tuning Scheme

Comments:
• Filter (slave) does not need to be disconnected from the system
• Two filters are required

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Direct Tuning
Example:

Tuning procedure:
1.) The filter is take apart into several first- or second-order sections.
2.) Each section is tuned to the center frequency.
Comments:
• Necessary switches may influence the filter performance

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• Need to remember the tuning voltages (memory)

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Tuning a High-Q Bandpass Filter using Direct Tuning

Block diagram for the direct tuning of the previous 455KHz bandpass filter† .

Tuning procedure:
1.) The filter is removed from the circuit and a step voltage applied.
2.) The number of cycles in the ringing waveform and their period is used to tune the filter.
3.) Most tuning algorithms work better with a linear frequency tuning voltage relationship.

†
H. Yamazki, K. Oishi,, and K. Gotoh, , “An Accurate Center Frequency Tuning Scheme for 450KHz CMOS Gm-C Bandpass Filter,” IEEE. J. of
Solid-State Circuits, vol. 34, no. 12, pp. 1691-1697, Dec. 1999.

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A Linear, Differential-Compensated Tuning Scheme

Avoids the problem of nonlinearity in the tuning scheme.

Oscillations between two states of tuning iteration can occur. This becomes a problem as the frequency
closely approaches the desired frequency.

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A Tuning Scheme that Avoids the Oscillation Problem

Operation:
1.) A coarse tuning cycle using the LDC algorithm is used to find the actual frequency.
2.) The difference between the actual frequency and desired frequency is used to begin a successive
approximation cycle to fine-tune the filter.

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Example of the High-Q Filter Step Response

Generation of a square wave from the step response:

Tuning time is approximately 800µs to an accuracy within ±1%.

Rupper||RM3(gmrds)2
Note: Amplitude = gm1Ro ≈ RM3 ≈ (gmrds)2 if Rupper >> RM3(gmrds)2

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Constant-Q Tuning
By taking the advantage of the OTA topology and proper sizing, the Q-factor of the filter will remain
constant during tuning as illustrated below.

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Simulation Results of the 450KHz Filter

Parameters Simulated Results

Center frequency 450±1.8KHz
Bandwidth (-3dB) 22 KHz
Gain at 450 KHz (Max.) ≈ 8dB
Tunable frequency 225KHz to 675KHz
Tuning time 800µs
Total in-band noise 314µVrms
Maximum single-level <100dBµV
Power dissipation 2.2mA from 3V
Power Supply 3V

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Tuning of the RF Image Reject Filter

Filter:

Direct tuning method:

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Filter becomes a voltage controlled oscillator (VCO).

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Tuning Algorithm
Since the poles of the VCO and zeros of the filter are identical, tuning the poles tunes the zeros.
Need to tune both the frequency and the notch depth.
Root locations:

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Notch Filter and Tuning Circuits

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Notch Filter and Tuning Circuits - Continued

Entire circuit:

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Phase Detector and Lowpass Filter

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Amplitude-Locked Loop

Input rectified at the emitters of Q1 and Q2.

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Tuning Response

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Frequency tuning voltage

Q tuning voltage →

VCO output

Frequency response →

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Tuning From One Frequency to Another

Frequency control voltages for

1.175 GHz and 1.085 GHz

Q control voltage for 1.175 GHz

and 1.085 GHz →

Frequency response for 1.175

GHz and 1.085 GHz

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RF Image Reject Filter Layout

Simulation results: Notch attenuation over 200KHz ≈ 20-25dB, NF ≈ 3-4dB

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SECTION 7 - SUMMARY
Comparison of Filter Types

Filter Type Advantages Disadvantages Frequency Applications

Digital Precision, dynamic Power consumption, chip area, <10MHz Low IF filtering, baseband
range, programmability aliasing, ADC requirements, filtering and signal
external clock requirement processing
Passive LC Dynamic range, stability Quality factor, chip area >100MHz Power amplifier harmonic
suppression, low Q RF
preselection
Electro Dynamic range, stability Process modifications, chip area >100MHz RF preselection, IF
Acoustic filtering
Switched Precision Dynamic range at high Q, aliasing, <10MHz Low frequency, moderate
Capacitor external clock requirement Q IF filtering, baseband
filtering
Gm-C Frequency of operation Dynamic range at high Q, tuning <100MHz Moderate Q IF filtering,
requirement baseband filtering
Q-enhance- Dynamic range, stability Chip area, tuning requirement >100MHz RF preselection, IF
ment LC filtering
Current Mode Frequency of operation Dynamic range at high Q, tuning <150MHz Moderate Q IF filtering,
Filters requirement baseband filtering

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What is the Future of IC Filters?

• To be attractive, integrated circuit filters must be:
- Low power
- Accurate
- Small area
- Low noise
- Large dynamic range (linear)
• Active filters will be limited to around 100MHz and will be implemented by OTA-C, log-domain, current
mode techniques. The key is to reduce power, area and noise.
• The higher the Q in bandpass filters, the more difficult the filter is to implement
• RF filtering can be done using notch filters or filters with jω axis zero
• Submicron CMOS (<0.25µm) will allow filters to work at higher frequencies but the success of these
filters depends on clever circuit techniques.
• SiGe BiCMOS probably will allow integrated circuit filters up to 10GHz using clever circuit techniques.
• Switched capacitor filters continue to be the technique of choice up to several MHz.

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