First Semester | ECED36 Infant and Toddler Program Ms. Abby-Gail C.

Encarnacion

Module 1
Prenatal
Development
Introduction
While you might think of child development as something that begins during infancy, the prenatal period
is also considered an important part of the developmental process. Prenatal development is a time of
remarkable change that helps set the stage for future psychological development. The brain develops
over the course of the prenatal period, but it will continue to go through more changes during the early
years of childhood.

Objectives
At the end of this chapter, it is expected that you will be able to:
▪ outline stages and major milestones of prenatal development;
▪ identify and describe possible environmental factors and their effects on the developing embryo
or fetus; and
▪ describe components of good prenatal care.

Instructions
You are given four days to finish reading this module and do the activities, including the pretest and
posttest. Follow the suggested timeline:
Day 1
Overview of the Course (Synchronous Session)

Day 2
Chapter I: Stages and Major Milestones of Prenatal Development

Day 3
Chapter II: Possible Environmental Factors and their Effects on the Developing Embryo or Fetus
Chapter III: Components of Good Prenatal Care

Day 4
Submission of Infographic about Prenatal Development

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First Semester | ECED36 Infant and Toddler Program Ms. Abby-Gail C. Encarnacion

Pretest

Enumerate the following:

A. Stages and Major Milestones of Prenatal Development

1. ______________________
2. ______________________
3. ______________________

B. Possible Environmental Factors and their Effects on the Developing Embryo or Fetus
1. ______________________
2. ______________________
3. ______________________
4. ______________________

C. Components of Good Prenatal Care

1. ______________________
2. ______________________
3. ______________________
4. ______________________
5. ______________________

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First Semester | ECED36 Infant and Toddler Program Ms. Abby-Gail C. Encarnacion

Pretest Feedback

Enumerate the following:

A. Stages and Major Milestones of Prenatal Development

1. Germinal stage
2. Embryonic stage
3. Fetal stage

B. Possible Environmental Factors and their Effects on the Developing Embryo or Fetus
1. Alcohol
2. Illegal drugs
3. Smoking
4. Maternal stress and depression

C. Components of Good Prenatal Care

1. Acquiring nutritional information.
2. Tracking the baby’s development
3. Learning about labor and delivery
4. Reducing risks of complications
5. Testing for certain conditions

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First Semester | ECED36 Infant and Toddler Program Ms. Abby-Gail C. Encarnacion

I. Stages and Major Milestones of Prenatal Development

The process of prenatal development occurs in three main stages. The first two weeks after conception
are known as the germinal stage, the third through the eighth week is known as the embryonic period,
and the time from the ninth week until birth is known as the fetal period.

A. Germinal Stage
The germinal stage begins at conception when the sperm and egg cell unite in one of the two fallopian
tubes. The fertilized egg is called a zygote. Just a few hours after conception, the single-celled zygote
begins making a journey down the fallopian tube to the uterus.

Cell division begins approximately 24 to 36 hours after conception. Through the process of mitosis, the
zygote first divides into two cells, then into four, eight, sixteen, and so on. A significant number of zygotes
never progress past this early part of cell division, with as many as half of all zygotes surviving less than
two weeks.

Once the eight-cell point has been reached, the cells begin to differentiate and take on certain
characteristics that will determine the type of cells they will eventually become. As the cells multiply, they
will also separate into two distinctive masses: the outer cells will eventually become the placenta, while
the inner cells form the embryo.

Cell division continues at a rapid rate during the approximately week-long journey from fallopian tube
to uterus wall. The cells develop into what is known as a blastocyst. The blastocyst is made up of three
layers, each of which develops into different structures in the body.

1. Ectoderm: Skin and nervous system

2. Endoderm: Digestive and respiratory systems
3. Mesoderm: Muscle and skeletal systems

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First Semester | ECED36 Infant and Toddler Program Ms. Abby-Gail C. Encarnacion

Finally, the blastocyst arrives at the uterus and

attaches to the uterine wall, a process known as
implantation. Implantation occurs when the cells nestle
into the uterine lining and rupture tiny blood vessels.
The connective web of blood vessels and membranes
that form between them will provide nourishment for
the developing being for the next nine months.
Implantation is not always an automatic and sure-fire
process.

Researchers estimate that approximately 60% of all

natural conceptions never become properly
implanted in the uterus, which results in the new life
ending before the mother is ever aware she is
pregnant.

When implantation is successful, hormonal changes

halt the normal menstrual cycle and cause a whole
host of physical changes. For some people, activities
they previously enjoyed such as smoking and drinking
alcohol or coffee may become less palatable, possibly part of nature’s way of protecting the growing
life inside them.

B. Embryonic Stage
At this point, the mass of cells is now known as an embryo. The beginning of the third week after
conception marks the start of the embryonic period, a time when the mass of cells becomes distinct as a
human. The embryonic stage plays an important role in the development of the brain.

Approximately four weeks after conception, the neural tube forms. This tube will later develop into the
central nervous system including the spinal cord and brain. The neural tube begins to form along with an
area known as the neural plate. The earliest signs of development of the neural tube are the emergence
of two ridges that form along each side of the neural plate.

Over the next few days, more ridges form and fold inward until a hollow tube is formed. Once this tube
is fully formed, cells begin to form near the center.3 The tube begins to close and brain vesicles form.
These vesicles will eventually develop into parts of the brain, including the structures of the forebrain,
midbrain, and hindbrain.

Around the fourth week, the head begins to form, quickly followed by the eyes, nose, ears, and mouth.
The blood vessel that will become the heart start to pulse. During the fifth week, buds that will form the
arms and legs appear.

By the eighth week of development, the embryo has all of the basic organs and parts except those of the
sex organs. At this point, the embryo weighs just one gram and is about one inch in length.

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First Semester | ECED36 Infant and Toddler Program Ms. Abby-Gail C. Encarnacion

By the end of the embryonic period, the basic structures of the brain and central nervous system have
been established. At this point, the basic structure of the peripheral nervous system is also defined.

The production of neurons, or brain cells, begins around day 42 after conception and is mostly complete
sometime around the middle of pregnancy.

As neurons form, they migrate to different areas of the brain. Once they have reached the correct
location, they begin to form connections with other neural cells, establishing rudimentary neural networks.

C. Fetal Stage
Once cell differentiation is mostly complete, the embryo enters the next stage and becomes known as a
fetus. The fetal period of prenatal development marks more important changes in the brain. This period
of development begins during the ninth week and lasts until birth. This stage is marked by amazing
change and growth.

The early body systems and structures established in the embryonic stage continue to develop. The neural
tube develops into the brain and spinal cord and neurons continue to form. Once these neurons have
formed, they begin to migrate to their correct locations. Synapses, or the connections between neurons,
also begin to develop.

Between the ninth and twelfth week of gestation (at the earliest), reflexes begin to emerge. The fetus
begins to make reflexive motions with its arms and legs.

During the third month of gestation, the sex organs begin to differentiate. By the end of the month, all
parts of the body will be formed. At this point, the fetus weighs around three ounces. The fetus continues
to grow in both weight and length, although the majority of the physical growth occurs in the later stages
of pregnancy.

The end of the third month also marks the end of the first trimester of pregnancy. During the second
trimester, or months four through six, the heartbeat grows stronger and other body systems become
further developed. Fingernails, hair, eyelashes, and toenails form.5 Perhaps most noticeably, the fetus
increases about six times in size.

So what's going on inside the brain during this important period of prenatal development? The brain and
central nervous system also become more responsive during the second trimester. Around 28 weeks, the
brain starts to mature faster, with an activity that greatly resembles that of a sleeping newborn.

During the period from seven months until birth, the fetus continues to develop, put on weight, and
prepare for life outside the womb. The lungs begin to expand and contract, preparing the muscles for
breathing.

While development usually follows this normal pattern, there are times when problems with prenatal
development occur. Disease, malnutrition, and other prenatal influences can have a powerful impact on
how the brain develops during this critical period.

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First Semester | ECED36 Infant and Toddler Program Ms. Abby-Gail C. Encarnacion

II. Possible Environmental Factors and their Effects on the Developing Embryo or Fetus

When the zygote attaches to the wall of the uterus, the placenta is formed. The placenta provides
nourishment and oxygen to the fetus. Most everything the mother ingests, including food, liquid, and even
medication, travels through the placenta to the fetus—hence the common phrase that a mother “eats for
two.” Anything the mother is exposed to in the environment affects the fetus; if the mother is exposed to
something harmful, the child can show life-long effects.

Teratogens
A teratogen is any environmental substance or agent—biological, chemical, or physical—that can have a
detrimental effect on a developing fetus. Exposure to teratogens during the prenatal stage can
significantly raise the risk of birth defects. Several factors influence the amount of damage a teratogen
can have, including dose or level of exposure, heredity, age of the teratogen, and any other negative
influences (for example, several teratogens or a teratogen combined with poor health). There are several
known teratogens that expectant mothers are advised to avoid during pregnancy, including alcohol,
prescription and/or illegal drugs, and tobacco.

A. Alcohol
Alcohol and most drugs cross the placenta and affect the fetus. Alcohol use during pregnancy has been
found to be the leading preventable cause of mental disabilities in children in the United States (Maier &
West, 2001). Excessive maternal drinking while pregnant can cause fetal alcohol spectrum disorders
(FASD) with life-long consequences for the child, ranging in severity from minor to major. It is unknown
how much alcohol is necessary to cause damage, and so doctors typically recommend that alcohol should
be completely avoided during pregnancy. Physically, children with FASD may have a small head size and
abnormal facial features. Cognitively, these children may have poor judgment, poor impulse control,
higher rates of ADHD and learning issues, and lower IQ scores. These developmental problems and
delays persist into adulthood (Streissguth et al., 2004). Based on studies conducted on animals, it also has
been suggested that a mother’s alcohol consumption during pregnancy may predispose her child to like
alcohol (Youngentob et al., 2007).

Each organ of the fetus develops during a specific period in the pregnancy, called the critical or sensitive
period. Research into FASD has demonstrated that the time during which a developing fetus is exposed to
alcohol can dramatically affect the appearance of facial characteristics associated with FASD.
Specifically, this research suggests that alcohol exposure that is limited to day 19 or 20 of gestation can
lead to significant facial abnormalities in the offspring of primates (Ashley, Magnuson, Omnell, & Clarren,
1999). Given regions of the brain also show sensitive periods during which they are most susceptible to
the teratogenic effects of alcohol (Tran & Kelly, 2003).

B. Prescription and/or Illegal Drugs

Use of any type of drug—whether illegal, prescription, or over-the-counter—can be dangerous during
pregnancy. Illegal drugs such as heroine, cocaine, and methamphetamine can cause a myriad of
problems for the developing fetus: babies can be born addicted to certain drugs and are also more
likely to be born prematurely, have low birth weight, and experience other physical defects. Many end
up with attention and behavioral problems as well.

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Prescription drugs taken during pregnancy such as streptomycin, tetracycline, some antidepressants,
progestin, synthetic estrogen, Accutane, thalidomide, and diethylstilbestrol (known as DES)—as well as
over-the-counter drugs such as diet pills—can also result in teratogenic outcomes for the developing fetus.
Thalidomide causes bodily deformities as well as damage to internal organs. DES-exposed fetuses have
been shown to have higher rates of cancer and infertility as adults. Additionally, high doses of aspirin are
known to lead to maternal and fetal bleeding, although low-dose aspirin is usually not harmful. The
classification of a drug (as A, B, C, D, or X) allows a mother to make determinations about using drugs
during pregnancy: for example, class A drugs are deemed always safe, whereas class X drugs have
proven to be damaging to the fetus.

C. Smoking
Smoking tobacco is also considered a teratogen because nicotine travels through the placenta to the
fetus. When the mother smokes, the developing baby experiences a reduction in blood oxygen levels.
According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2013), smoking while pregnant can result in
premature birth, low-birth-weight infants, stillbirth, and sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)—the sudden
and unexplained death of a child less than one year of age. Other issues that can be caused by prenatal
exposure to smoking are inattentiveness, muscle tension, and colic (a form of pain which starts and stops
abruptly and occurs due to muscular contractions in the body). The more a mother smokes or is exposed
to second-hand smoke, the greater the risk; however, quitting (even after smoking during pregnancy)
greatly reduces the risks of these problems.

D. Other Teratogens
Other teratogens that affect prenatal development include radiation, pollution, and infectious disease.
Radiation increases the risk of childhood cancer, as well as emotional and behavioral disorders; because
of this, it is recommended that pregnant women avoid x-rays unless absolutely necessary. Pollution, such
as exposure to mercury or PCBs, can cause physical deformities, abnormal speech, and difficulty with
coordination. Maternal infections such as viruses or parasites can also cause brain damage to the fetus, or
even death.

E. Maternal Stress and Depression

Any form of prenatal stress felt by the mother can have negative effects on various aspects of fetal
development and can cause harm to both mother and child. When a mother is under stress, physiological
changes occur in the body that could harm the developing fetus. Additionally, a stressed mother is more
likely to engage in behaviors that could negatively affect the fetus, such as smoking, drug use, and
alcohol abuse. Prenatal depression is often caused by the stress and worry that pregnancy can bring,
only at a more severe level. Other factors that can put a person at risk for prenatal depression include
unplanned pregnancy, difficulty becoming pregnant, history of abuse, and economic or family problems.

The use of antidepressants in pregnancy, mentioned above, has been associated with a variety of risks
for the fetus with varying degrees of proof of causation. While some studies clearly show the adverse
outcomes of prenatal antidepressant exposure, others are less clear—and complications arise because
depression itself is independently associated with negative pregnancy outcomes. Determining the extent
to which adverse outcomes are caused by antidepressant use or by depression—or a combination of
both—is difficult to measure; it is also important to factor in the negative consequences of a mother going
off prescription antidepressants during pregnancy, which may adversely affect her health in other ways.

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First Semester | ECED36 Infant and Toddler Program Ms. Abby-Gail C. Encarnacion

III. Components of Good Prenatal Care

Women who suspect they may be pregnant should schedule a visit to their health care provider to begin
prenatal care. Prenatal visits to a health care provider usually include a physical exam, weight checks,
and providing a urine sample. Depending on the stage of the pregnancy, health care providers may also
do blood tests and imaging tests, such as ultrasound exams. These visits also include discussions about the
mother's health, the fetus's health, and any questions about the pregnancy. The following are five benefits
and important aspects of prenatal care:

1. Acquire nutritional information. Prenatal care doctors can provide accurate information about the
importance of proper nutrition and how to choose a diet that ensures you get the vitamins and
minerals you need. This may include dietary suggestions and foods to avoid, the number of
calories to eat per day, and advice on vitamin supplements.

2. Track the baby’s development. Growth rate serves as a critical indicator of the baby’s health and
development. Your prenatal doctor will take measurements of your baby’s growth during visits to
ensure that development is progressing in a healthy manner. Ultrasounds will also provide an
indicator on the baby’s gender.

3. Learn about labor and delivery. A prenatal care provider can help you learn about what to
expect during labor and your options for delivery, including natural and cesarean deliveries.
Prenatal visits allow you to ask questions about delivery procedures and express your concerns, in
order to help you create a labor and delivery plan.

4. Reduce risk of complications. The information and care you receive during a prenatal visit can
help reduce the risk of pregnancy complications. Your doctor can provide information on how to
reduce risks and the harm caused by exposure to substances such as alcohol and tobacco.

5. Test for certain conditions. Prenatal care doctors can test for some medical and genetic conditions
and provide information on treatment.

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First Semester | ECED36 Infant and Toddler Program Ms. Abby-Gail C. Encarnacion

Posttest

A. Identify the stage of prenatal development described in the following items.

________________1. This stage marks more important changes in the brain. It begins during the ninth
week and lasts until birth.

________________2. This begins at conception when the sperm and egg cell unite in one of the two
fallopian tubes. The fertilized egg is called a zygote.

________________3. This is a time when the mass of cells becomes distinct as a human.

B. Write true or false.

________________1. A tetragon is any environmental substance or agent—biological, chemical, or

physical—that can have a detrimental effect on a developing fetus.

________________2. Smoking tobacco is also considered a teratogen because nicotine travels

through the placenta to the fetus.

________________3. When a mother is under stress, physiological changes occur in the body that
could harm the developing fetus.

________________4. COVID19 can be considered a teratogen.

________________5. A pregnant woman is encouraged to eat anything she wants to satisfy her
cravings and avoid depression.

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First Semester | ECED36 Infant and Toddler Program Ms. Abby-Gail C. Encarnacion

Posttest Feedback

A. Identify the stage of prenatal development described in the following items.

____Fetal stage____1. This stage marks more important changes in the brain. It begins during the
ninth week and lasts until birth.

__Germinal stage __2. This begins at conception when the sperm and egg cell unite in one of the two
fallopian tubes. The fertilized egg is called a zygote.

__Embryonic stage _3. This is a time when the mass of cells becomes distinct as a human.

B. Write true or false.

______False_______1. A tetragon is any environmental substance or agent—biological, chemical, or

physical—that can have a detrimental effect on a developing fetus.

______True________2. Smoking tobacco is also considered a teratogen because nicotine travels

through the placenta to the fetus.

______True________3. When a mother is under stress, physiological changes occur in the body that
could harm the developing fetus.

______True________4. COVID19 can be considered a teratogen.

______False_______5. A pregnant woman is encouraged to eat anything she wants to satisfy her
cravings and avoid depression.

Reminder:
Do your infographics about the stages of prenatal development. See the learning guide for instructions.

References:
▪ National Institutes of Health. What are stem cells, and why are they important?. Updated 2016.
▪ Flaxman SM, Sherman PW. Morning sickness: A mechanism for protecting mother and embryo. Q Rev Biol.
2000;75(2):113-48. doi:10.1086/393377
▪ U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Office on Women's Health. Stages of pregnancy. Updated April 18,
2019.
▪ https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-psychology/chapter/prenatal-development/

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