UNIT THREE

SEWAGE and SEWERAGE SYSTEMS

• In the past disposal of waste from water closets was carried
out manually and wastewater generated from kitchen and
bathrooms was allowed to flow along the open drains.
• This primitive method was modified and replace by a system,
in which these wastes are mixed with sufficient quantity of
water. This waste is carried through closed conduits under the
conditions of gravity flow to a treatment plant where the
wastes are treated before disposal into receiving bodies, land
or water.
• The new systems gets rid of potential risks of bad smell,
spread of diseases, and contamination of environment, but is
costly because it requires a huge amount of fresh water for
carriage, network of pipelines, pumping and other
appurtenances, and regular O and M.
 SEWAGE and SEWERAGE SYSTEMS
Contd.
• Sewage: It is a broad term that indicates the liquid waste originating from
the uses of water. It includes domestic wastewater (discharge from toilets,
urinals, kitchen, bathrooms etc), wastewater generated from commercial
establishments, institutions, industrial establishments and also the ground
water and storm water that may enter into the sewers. Its contains a
variety of pollutants, e.g. organic, inorganic and inert matter which maybe
floating, suspended or dissolved in water, large quantities of malodorous
gases, and it contains numerous pathogenic or disease producing
bacteria.
• Storm water: It indicates the rain water of the locality.
• Sanitary sewage: . It is the wastewater generated from the lavatory
basins, urinals and water closets of residential buildings, office building,
theatre and other institutions. This is very fouling in nature.
• Industrial wastewater: It is the wastewater generated from the industrial
and commercial areas. This wastewater contains objectionable organic
and inorganic compounds that may or may not be amenable to
conventional treatment processes.
 SEWAGE and SEWERAGE SYSTEMS
Contd.
• Sullage: This refers to the wastewater generated from bathrooms,
kitchens, washing place and wash basins, etc. Composition of this waste
does not involve higher concentration of organic matter and it is less
polluted water as compared to sewage.
• Night Soil: It is a term used to indicate the human and animal excreta.
• Sewer: It is an underground conduit or drain through which sewage is
carried to a point of treatment, discharge or disposal. There are two types
of sewer systems:
• Combined sewers: which carry both sanitary and storm water together in
one network of pipeline.
• Separate sewer: where two separate sets of pipes are laid, one for storm
water and the other for sanitary sewage.
• Sewerage: The term sewerage refers to devices, equipments and
appurtenances for the collection, transportation and pumping of sewage.
Basically it is the science of collecting and carrying sewage by water
carriage system through sewers.
 SEWAGE and SEWERAGE SYSTEMS
Contd.
TYPES OF SEWERAGE SYSTEM
The sewerage system can be of following two types.
• Combined system: In combined system along with domestic sewage, the run-
off resulting from storms is carried through the same sewers of sewerage
system. In countries like India where actual rainy days are very few, this system
will face the problem of maintaining self cleansing velocity in the sewers
during dry season, as the sewage discharge may be far lower as compared to
the design discharge after including storm water. They are therefore liable for
silting during non-monsoon season, hence they are to be laid at steeper
gradients, which require more number of pumping stations, particularly for
flat terrain.
• Combined system is good for congested areas as it is easy to lay only one pipe
rather than two pipes as required in other systems. In an area where rainfall is
spread throughout a year, there is no need of flushing of sewers, as self
cleansing velocity will develop due to more quantity because of addition of
storm water. Capital expense on installation, pumping and O and M of
treatment plant is much more because of large flows. Also sewage may
overflow in rains and will spoil public hygiene.
 SEWAGE and SEWERAGE SYSTEMS
Contd.
• Separate System: In separate system, separate conduits are used;
one carrying sanitary sewage and other carrying storm water run-
off. The storm water collected can be directly discharged into the
water body since the run-off is not as foul as sanitary sewage and
no treatment is generally provided. Whereas, the sewage collected
from the city is treated adequately before it is discharged into the
water body or used for irrigation to meet desired standards.
Separate system is advantageous and economical for big towns.
• As sewage flows in separate pipe, hence the quantity to be treated
at sewage treatment plant is small, resulting in economy of
treatment. Also cost of pumping and sewerage is much less because
the pipe diameter is much smaller for sanitary sewage alone ( storm
is usually carried in open surface drains). However in this system
self cleansing velocity may not develop at some locations and
hence sewers may require flushing.
 PATTERNS OF COLLECTION SYSTEM
• The network of sewers follows a kind of hierarchy. It starts from
individual house (house sewer). The house sewers discharge the
sewage to laterals. The laterals discharge the sewage into branch
sewers or sub-mains and sub-mains discharge it into main sewer
or trunk sewer. The trunk sewer carries sewage to the common
point where adequate treatment is given to the sewage and
then it is discharged.
• The sewers are laid under streets following a few patterns which
depend upon:
The topographical and hydrological features of the area.
The location and methods of treatment and disposal works.
The type of sewerage system employed, and
Extent of area to be served.
 PATTERNS OF COLLECTION SYSTEM
(Contd.)
• Perpendicular pattern
It carries the water through
the shortest route.
Suitable for separate sewerage
system especially for
conveying storm sewage.
This pattern is not suitable for
combined sewerage system,
because treatment plant is
required to be installed at
many places; otherwise it will
pollute the water body where
the sewage is discharged.
 PATTERNS OF COLLECTION SYSTEM
(Contd.)
• Interceptor pattern
Suitable for combined
sewerage system.
Interceptor carries
sewage to a common
point, where it can be
disposed off with or
without.
Overflows can be
provided to handle large
flows.
.

PATTERNS OF COLLECTION SYSTEM

(Contd.)
Radial Pattern
It is suitable for land
disposal.
In this pattern sewers are
laid radially outwards
from the centre, hence
this pattern is called as
radial pattern.
The drawback in this
pattern is more number of
disposal works are
required.
 PATTERNS OF COLLECTION SYSTEM
(Contd.)
• Fan Pattern
This pattern is suitable for a
city situated at one side of
the natural water body. The
entire sewage flows to a
common point where one
treatment plant is located .
The drawback in this
pattern is that larger
diameter sewer is required
near to the treatment and,
with new development of
the city the load on existing
treatment plant increases.
 QUANTITY ESTIMATION OF SEWAGE

• Before designing the sewer, it is necessary to know the

discharge i.e., quantity of sewage, which will flow in
because far lower estimation than reality will soon lead
to inadequate sewer size after commissioning and the
sewers may not remain adequate for the entire design
period. Similarly, very high discharge estimated will
lead to larger sewer size affecting economy of the
sewerage scheme, and the lower discharge may not
meet the criteria of the self cleansing velocity and
hence leading to deposition in the sewers.
• Since sewers are designed to serve for some more
future years, engineering skills have to be used to
accurately estimate the sewage discharge.
 Estimation of Dry weather flows
• Sanitary sewage is generated :
a) Water supplied by water authority for domestic, industrial and various
public uses
b) water drawn from other sources such as, wells, tube wells, lake, river, etc.
After the desired use the water is discharged as sewage in to sewers.
c) Water entering the sewers through cracks and leaky joints. The quantity of
the water depends upon the height of the water table above the sewer
invert level and permeability of the ground soil and it is very difficult to
estimate. While estimating the design discharge, following suggested
discharge can be considered (CPHEEO Manual, 1993)

Unit Minimum Maximum

L/ha.d 5000 50000
L/km.d 500 5000
L per day per manhole 250 500
 Estimation of Dry weather flows
(Contd.)
d) During rainy season rainwater also enters sewer lines through faulty joints or cracks in
sewers. This inflow is difficult to calculate. Generally, no extra provision is made for this
quantity. This extra quantity can be taken care of by extra empty space left at the top in
the sewers, which are designed for running ¾ full at maximum design discharge.

e) The water loss, through leakage in water distribution system and house connections,
does not reach consumers and hence, not appear as sewage. Also certain amount of
water is used for such purposes, e.g. boiler feed water, water sprinkled over the roads,
streets, lawns, and gardens, water consumed in industrial product, water used in air
coolers, etc. may not reach the sewers

Net quantity of sewage = Accounted quantity of water supplied from the waterworks +
Addition due to unaccounted private water supplies + Addition due to infiltration –
Subtraction due to water losses - Subtraction due to water not entering the sewerage
system

Generally, 75 to 80% of accounted water supplied is considered as quantity of sewage

produced.
Variations in Sanitary Sewage Flow
Fluctuation in flow occurs from hour to hour, day to day and from season
to season.
If the flow is gauged near its origin, the peak flow will be quite
pronounced. As sewage flow in sewer lines, more and more sewage is
mixed in it due to continuous increase in the area being served by the
sewer line. This leads to reduction in the fluctuations (peak flow) in the
sewage flow. For smaller township this variation will be more pronounced
due to lower length and travel time before sewage reach to the main
sewer and for large cities this variation will be less.
For estimating design discharge following relation can be considered:
Maximum daily flow = Two times the annual average daily flow
For smaller population served (less than 50000) the peak factor can be
2.5, and as the population served increases its value reduces. For large
cities it can be considered about 1.5 to 2.0. Therefore, for outfall sewer
the peak flow can be considered as 1.5 times the annual average daily
flow.
 Variations in Sanitary Sewage Flow
(Contd.)
• Maximum hourly flow = 1.5 times the maximum daily flow =
Three times the annual average daily flow
• The minimum flow passing through sewers is important to develop
self cleansing velocity to avoid silting in sewers. This flow will
generate in the sewers during late night hours. The effect of this
flow is more pronounced on lateral sewers than the main sewers.
Sewers must be checked for minimum velocity as follows:
• Minimum daily flow = 2/3 Annual average daily flow
• Minimum hourly flow = ½ minimum daily flow = 1/3 Annual
average daily flow
• The overall variation between the maximum and minimum flow is
more in the laterals and less in the main or trunk sewers. This ratio
may be more than 6 for laterals and about 2 to 3 in case of main
sewers.
 Design of Sanitary Sewers
The most common formula used for design of sewers is the Manning’s formula as below:

Manning’s Formula
This is most commonly used for design of sewers. The velocity of flow through sewers can be
determined using Manning’s formula as below:

Where,
V = velocity of flow in the sewer, m/sec
R = Hydraulic mean depth of flow, m = A/P
A = Cross section area of flow, m2
P = Wetted perimeter, m
n = Rugosity coefficient, depends upon the type of the channel surface i.e., material and
lies between 0.011 to 0.015. For brick sewer it could be 0.017 and 0.03 for stoneware.
S= Hydraulic gradient, equal to invert slope for uniform flows
 Design of Sanitary Sewers
The sewers are designed to flow under gravity with 0.5 to
0.8 full at designed discharge, i.e. at the maximum
estimated discharge when a velocity of about 1 -1.6 m/s
is desirable
It is necessary that a minimum velocity (i.e., about 1/3 of
the average discharge) of about 0.45 m/s and an average
velocity of about 0.9 m/sec develops in sewers too.
However even if the minimum velocity ensues in the
sewer once a day the sewer gets flushed and remains
clean.
 Example:

• Calculate the velocity of flow, and discharge in a sewer of circular

section having diameter of 1m laid at a gradient of 1 in 500. Use
Manning’s n = 0.012. Assume that sewer is running half full.

V = (1/0.012) ( ¼) 2/3 (1/500)1/2

= 1.479 m/s

Q = V A = 1.479 (3.14) (12/8) = 0.581 cumecs

Note that the design and analysis becomes complex when sewer
is running part full for which proportional discharge curves are
used.
Hydraulic Elements Chart
 Example
• Calculate the velocity of flow and corresponding discharge in a sewer of
circular section having diameter equal to 1 m, laid at a slope of 1 in 500.
Sewer runs at a depth of 0.6 depth. Use Manning’s n = 0.012

When sewer runs full

Q = A V = ((3.14) (12)/4) x(1/0.012) x(1/4) 2/3 x (1/500) 1/2

= 1.162 cumecs

V = ((1/0.012)) x(1/4) 2/3 x (1/500) ½ = 1.479 m/s

From chart when d/D = 0.6; q/Q = 0.671, v/V = 1.072

So q = 0.671 (1.162) = 0.78 cumecs, and v = 1.072 ( 1.479) = 1.586 m/s

 Example
• A town has a population of 100,000 persons with a per capita water supply of 200 L/d. Design a
sewer running 0.7 times full at maximum discharge. Take Manning’s n= 0.013 at all depths of flows.
The sewer is to be laid at a slope of 1 in 500. Take a peak factor of 3.

Average sewage flow per day = (100000) (200) (0.8)/(24x3600x1000) = 0.185 cumecs.
Peak flow = (3) (0.185) = 0.555 cumecs

This is q at 0.7 depth; Now from graph for d/D = 0.7, q/Q is 0.85 and v/V is 1.12

So Q = 0.555/0.85 = 0.6536

When sewer runs full

Then Q = A V = 0.6536 = (3.14) (D2)/4 (1/0.013) (D/4) 2/3 (1/500) ½

0.6536 = 1.052 D 8/3

Solving D = 0.836 m Contd.

 Example Contd.
V = Q/A = 0.6536/ (3.14x 0.836x0.836/4) = 1.19 m/s

So v at 0.7 depth shall be 1.12(V) = 1.12(1.19) = 1.33 m/s ok (1.0-1.6)

qmin = 1/3 of average flow = 0.185/3 = 0.0617 cumecs

qmin/Q = 0.0617/0.6536 = 0.0944

For qmin/Q = 0.0944; d/D = 0.21 and vmin/V = 0.625

So vmin = 0.625 (1.19) = 0.744m/s which is more than 0.6 m/s - ok

 QUANTITY ESTIMATION OF STORM
WATER
Factors Affecting the Quantity of Storm Water:
The surface run-off resulting after precipitation contributes to the storm water. The
quantity of storm water reaching to the sewers or drains is very large as compared
with sanitary sewage.

Major factors affecting the quantity of storm water flow are as below:
i. Area of the catchment
ii. Slope and shape of the catchment area
iii. Porosity of the soil
vi. Intensity and duration of rainfall

Measurement of Rainfall
The rainfall intensity could be measured by using rain gauges and recording the
amount of rain falling in unit time. The rainfall intensity is usually expressed as
mm/hour or cm/hour. The rain gauges used can be manual recording type or
automatic recording rain gauges.
 Estimation of Quantity of Storm
Water
Rational Method
The quantity of storm water is considered as function of intensity of
rainfall, duration and coefficient of runoff.
Time of Concentration: The period after which the entire catchment
area will start contributing to the runoff is called as the time of
concentration.
The rainfall with duration lesser than the time of concentration will
not produce maximum discharge.
The runoff may not be maximum, even when the duration of the
rain is more than the time of concentration. This is because in such
case the intensity of rain reduces with the increase in its duration.
The runoff will be maximum, when the duration of rainfall is equal
to the time of concentration and is called as critical rainfall
duration.
 Estimation of Quantity of Storm
Water Contd.
The time of concentration is equal to sum of inlet time and time of travel.

Time of concentration = Inlet time + time of travel

Inlet Time: The time required for the rain in falling on the most remote
point of the tributary area to flow across the ground surface along the
natural drains or gutters up to inlet of sewer is called inlet time.

Time of Travel: The time required by the water to flow in the drain
channel from the mouth to the point under consideration or the point
of concentration is called as time of travel.

Time of Travel (Tt) = Length of drain/ velocity in drain

 Estimation of Quantity of Storm
Water Contd.
• Runoff Coefficient: The total precipitation falling on any area is
dispersed as percolation, evaporation, storage in ponds or reservoir
and surface runoff. The runoff coefficient can be defined as a
fraction, which is multiplied with the quantity of total rainfall to
determine the quantity of rain water, which will reach the sewers.
The runoff coefficient depends upon the porosity of soil cover,
wetness and ground cover. The overall runoff coefficient for the
catchment area can be worked out as follows:

Overall runoff coefficient, C = [A1.C1 + A2.C2 + ….+ An.Cn] / [ A1 +

A2 + …+ An]
Where, A1, A2, …. are types of area with C1, C2, …. as their
coefficient of runoff, respectively.
 Rational Method
Storm water quantity can be estimated by rational method as
below:

Storm water quantity, Q = C.I.A / 360

Where,
Q = Quantity of storm water, m3/sec
C = Coefficient of runoff
I = intensity of rainfall, mm/hour, and
A = Drainage area in hectares
OR

Q = 0.278 C.I.A
Where, Q is m3/sec; I is mm/hour, and A is area in square kilometer
 Example
Determine designed discharge for a combined system serving population of 50000 with rate
of water supply of 135 LPCD. The catchment area is 100 hectares and the average coefficient
of runoff is 0.60. The time of concentration for the design rainfall is 30 min and the relation
between intensity of rainfall and duration is I = 1000/(t + 20).

Solution
Estimation of sewage quantity
Considering 80% of the water supplied will result in wastewater generation,
the quantity of sanitary sewage = 50000 x 135 x 0.80/1000 = 5400 m3/day = 0.0625 m3/sec
Considering peak factor of 2.5, the design discharge for sanitary sewage = 0.0625 x 2.5
= 0.156 m3/sec

Estimation of storm water discharge

Intensity of rainfall, I = 1000/(t + 20)
Therefore, I = 1000/(30 + 20) = 20 mm/h
Hence, storm water runoff, Q = C.I.A/360
= 0.6 x 20 x 100/(360) = 3.33 m3/sec
Therefore, design discharge for combined sewer = 3.33 + 0.156 = 3.49 m3/sec
 Example
The catchment area is of 300 hectares. The surface cover in the catchment can be
classified as given below:

Type of cover Coefficient of runoff Percentage

Roofs 0.90 15
Pavements and yards 0.80 15
Lawns and gardens 0.15 25
Roads 0.40 20
Open ground 0.10 15
Single family dwelling 0.50 10

Calculate the runoff coefficient and quantity of storm water runoff, if intensity of rainfall is
30 mm/h for rain with duration equal to time of concentration. If population density in the
area is 350 persons per hectare and rate of water supply is 200 LPCD, calculate design
discharge for separate systems and combined system.
 Solution
Estimation of sanitary sewage quantity
Considering 80% of the water supplied will result in wastewater generation,
the quantity of sanitary sewage = 350 x 300 x 200 x 0.80/1000 = 16800 m3/day =
0.194 m3/sec
Considering peak factor of 2.5, the design discharge for sanitary sewage = 0.194 x
2.5
= 0.486 m3/sec

Estimation of storm water discharge

Intensity of rainfall, I = 33 mm/h
C= 0.9 x 0.15 + 0.8 x 0.15 + 0.15 x 0.25 + 0.4 x 0.2 + 0.1 x 0.15 + 0.5 x 0.1 = 0.4375
Hence, storm water runoff, Q = C.I.A/360
= 0.4375 x 33 x 300/(360) = 12.03 m3/sec
Therefore, design discharge for combined sewer = 12.03 + 0.486 = 12.516 m3/sec
 Example
• A trapezoidal open channel has a bottom width of 5.0 m and its sides
slope at an angle of 45°. If the depth of flow is 2.0 m, calculate the area of
flow A, the wetted perimeter P, and the hydraulic radius R.

• Top width = 5 + 2(2tan45) = 9 m

Bottom width = 5 m (given)

Average width = (9 + 5)/2 = 7 m thus area = 7 x 2 = 14 m2

Wetted perimeter = 2 x (2 / cos45) + 5 = 10.656 m

R = A/P = 1.314 m
 Example
• A rectangular river channel 4.6 m wide carries has a bed slope of 1:400
and a Manning’s n value of 0.040 s/m1/3. Calculate the depth of flow, D,
that corresponds to a discharge of 2.83 m3/s.

• Q = A (1/n) R2/3 S1/2 where B = 4.6m, n = 0.040 and S = 0.0025

• 2.83 = 4.6D(1/0.04)[4.6D/(4.6D + 2D)]2/3 0.00251/2

• 2.83 = 5.75D[4.6D/(4.6D + 2D)]2/3

• 0.492 = D[4.6D/(4.6D + 2D)]2/3

• Which gives D= 0.729 m