LEARNING MODULE

SCIENCE G9 Q1-4TH Week

Heredity: Inheritance and

Variation
Name:___________________________________ Ms. LORIELYN P. VILLANUEVA
Grade and Section:________________________ Science Teacher
Pre-Test

Multiple Choice: Read and analyze each item carefully. Choose the letter of the correct answer. Write the chosen letter
on a separate sheet of paper.

1. Which of the following statements is TRUE about non-Mendelian inheritance? 

a. It is a pattern of inheritance which follows the Law of Segregation. 
b. It is a pattern of inheritance which does not follow Mendel's Genetic Laws. 
c. It is a pattern of inheritance which was proposed by Sir Alexander Fleming. 
d. It is a pattern of inheritance that solely explains the existence of dominant and recessive traits. 
2. Which of the following is the correct use of a Punnett square?
a. testing for the presence of the recessive allele
b. determining the DNA sequence of a given gene
c. identifying the gene locus where allelic variations are possible
d. predicting the result of genetic crosses between organisms of known genotype
3. What non-Mendelian pattern of inheritance occurs when the phenotype of the offspring somewhere in between
the phenotypes of both parents and a completely dominant allele does not occur?
a. dominance b. codominance c. multiple allelesd. incomplete dominance
4. In incomplete dominance, the heterozygote offspring shows __________.
a. A phenotype of the dominant parent.
b. A phenotype of the recessive parent.
c. A phenotype that is intermediate between the 2 homozygous phenotypes.
d. A phenotype that is a combination between the 2 homozygous phenotypes.
5. In ABO Blood Group system, O is recessive. Therefore, for this blood type to be expressed, ___________.
a. Two O alleles must be present.
b. One O allele and 1 B allele must be present.
c. The alleles A, B and O must all be present.
d. The alleles A, B and O must all be present.
6. What type of non-Mendelian inheritance is shown in the picture below?

A. Codominance
B. Multiple Allelism
C. Polygenic Inheritance
D. Incomplete Dominance

7. In the ABO blood group systems in humans, what two alleles are codominant?
a. A & A b. A & B c. A & O d. B & O
8. ABO blood types are an example of____.
a. codominance b. dominance c. incomplete dominance d. multiple alleles
9. All the offspring of a cross between a red-flowered plant and a white-flowered plant have pink flowers. This means
that the allele for red flowers is ________ to the allele for white flowers.
a. codominant b. dominant c. incompletely dominant d. pleiotropic
10. What would be the genotype of a pink flower if it follows the rules for incomplete dominance, given that R= red and
W= white?
a. p b. pp c. rw d.RW
 NON-MENDELIAN PATTERNS OF INHERITANCE
Our modern understanding of how traits may be inherited through generations comes from the principles
proposed by Gregor Mendel in 1865. His experiment on Pisum sativum, or pea plants led to the following principles:
Independent assortment—Traits are inherited independent of each other.
Dominance—when pure parents with opposite traits are mated, the first generation shows only one trait
(dominant). The other trait (recessive) is hidden.
Segregation—when hybrids are crossed, the opposite traits are separated into different offspring in a ratio of
3:1 (dominant: recessive).
However, not all patterns of inheritance obey the principles of Mendelian genetics. In fact, many traits we
observe are a result of combined expression of alleles.
Non- Mendelian inheritance is a term that refers to any pattern of inheritance in which traits do not segregate in
accordance with Mendel’s principle, that is, each parent contributes one of two possible alleles for a trait.

Incomplete Dominance and

Codominance
Incomplete dominance occurs when one allele is unable to express its full phenotype in a heterozygous
individual. This results in an individual with a phenotype that is an intermediate of homozygous individual.
Red carnation is dominant over white carnation. Following Mendel’s principle of dominance, when these traits are
crossed, the dominant red carnation should hide the recessive white. Scientists after Mendel found out differently. In
1760, Josef Kolreuter crossed pure red carnation (RR) and pure white carnation (rr) and produced pink carnation—an
intermediate phenotype of red and white. The phenotype of the offspring is a “blend” of the parent’s phenotype. This is
an example of incomplete dominance.

P1
RR rr

F1

Rr Rr Rr Rr

Points to Remember in Incomplete Dominance:

Only the phenotype of the heterozygote is blended (or intermediate).
The alleles of the parents (which, in this case, are red and white-flowered plants) are still distinct and
separate from each other.
The genotypic ratio also becomes the phenotypic ratio since half of the gametes of the offspring carry half
of both the parents.
 From this cross, it appears that Mendel’s law of segregation is incorrect. But when two of the pink flowers were
crossed, 25% of the F2 was red, 50% pink, and another 25% was white, which is exactly the expected genotype ratio from
a monohybrid cross.
Rr

F2 Rr
R r R r

rR Rr rr

RR

Another pattern of inheritance that does not follow Mendel’s principles is Codominance. Read and analyse the
problem below.

A red bull is male cattle (CRCR) mated with a white female cow (C WCW). Predict the possible offspring by
filling up the Punnett square.
CW CW

CR

CR

In cattle, there are 3 different phenotypes. Those with red coats are homozygous for the red coat allele. Those
with white coats are homozygous for the white coat allele. Lastly, those cattle with red hairs mixed with white hairs are
said to be heterozygous and appears roan. The appearance of roan coats is due to the codominance of the red and white
coat color alleles.

In summary:

Cattle and Horse Coat Color

Genotype Resulting Phenotype
CRCR Red coat
CWCW White coat
R W
CC Roan coat (red hairs mixed with white)

In the given problem above, if we are to construct a Punnett square, it would look like the figure below.
 Figure 2. Codominance in cattle
Illustration by Chris T. Sagarino

 Predict the possible offspring of the parents.

As shown in the Punnett Square above, if a pure red bull mates with a pure white cow, all their offspring will express
both the alleles of the red bull and white cow. Thus, cattle with roan coat are produced with the said mating of parents.
The white coat has red patches on it.

 Predict the possible offspring of the parents.

As shown in the Punnett Square above, if a pure red bull mates with a pure white cow, all their offspring will express
both the alleles of the red bull and white cow. Thus, cattle with roan coat are produced with the said mating of parents.
The white coat has red patches on it.

Codominance is another form of intermediate inheritance that does not follow Mendel’s laws. In this form of
inheritance, the alleles of a gene pair in a heterozygote offspring are fully expressed or exhibited. As a result, the
offspring’s phenotype is the combination of the parent’s phenotypes.

Therefore, the trait is neither dominant nor recessive. Just like in incomplete dominance, the genotypic ratio
becomes the phenotypic ratio. Examples of this include A and B blood types in humans, sickle-cell disease, and coat
color in cattle and horses.

Points to Remember in Codominance:

The phenotype of the heterozygote is a combination of the phenotypes of the homozygous
parents.
The trait is neither dominant nor recessive.
Just like in incomplete dominance, the genotypic ratio becomes the phenotypic ratio.

A good practice makes perfect. So, try to answer the enrichment activities below for you to get a perfect score
on Codominance.
Activity

Codominance: Mysterious Fishes

Read and analyze the given problems. Answer the questions that follow.

B B R R
In
In aa certain
certain fish,
fish, blue
blue scales
scales (F
(FBFFB)) and
and red
red scales
scales (F(FRFFR)) are
are codominant.
codominant. When
When aa fish
fish
has
has the
the hybrid
hybrid genotype,
genotype, it it has
has aa patchwork
patchwork of of blue
blue and
and red
red scales.
scales.
Problem:
Problem: A A patchwork
patchwork fishfish was
was crossed
crossed with
with aa fish
fish that
that has
has blue
blue scales.
scales. A
A Punnett
Punnett
square is given below with the genotypes of the
square is given below with the genotypes of the offspring. offspring.
B B B B B B B R B R B R
F
FBF
FBFFBFFBF FBFFBFFBF
FRFFBFFRFFBF FRa.
a. How
How many
many fish/es
fish/es has/have
has/have red scales? _________
red scales? _________
b.
b. How
How many
many fish/es
fish/es has/have
has/have patchwork
patchwork scales?
scales? _________
_________

Multiple Alleles
Multiple alleles is a type of non-Mendelian inheritance pattern that involves more than just the typical two alleles that
usually code for a certain characteristic in a species. With multiple alleles, that means there are more than two
phenotypes available depending on the dominant or recessive alleles that are available in the trait and the dominance
pattern the individual alleles follow when combined together.

Gregor Mendel only studied traits in his pea plants that showed simple or complete dominance and had only two alleles
that could contribute to any one trait the plant showed. It wasn't until later that it was discovered that some traits can
have more than two alleles that code for their phenotypes. This allowed many more phenotypes to be visible for any
given trait while still following Mendel's Laws of Inheritance.

Most of the time, when multiple alleles come into play for a trait, there is a mix of types of dominance patterns that
occur. Sometimes, one of the alleles is completely recessive to the others and will be masked by any of those that are
dominant to it. Other alleles may be co-dominant together and show their traits equally in the phenotype of the
individual.

There are also some cases where some alleles exhibit incomplete dominance when put together in the genotype. An
individual with this type of inheritance connected to its multiple alleles will show a blended phenotype that mixes both
of the alleles' traits together.

Examples of Multiple Alleles

Multiple Alleles
The human ABO blood type is a good example of multiple alleles. Humans can have red blood cells that are of type A (IA),
type B (IB), or type O (i). These three different alleles can be combined in different ways following Mendel's Laws of
Inheritance. The resulting genotypes make either type A, type B, type AB, or type O blood. Type A blood is a combination
of either two A alleles (I A IA) or one A allele and one O allele (I Ai). Similarly, type B blood is coded for by either two B
alleles (IB IB) or one B allele and one O allele (I Bi). Type O blood can only be obtained with two recessive O alleles (ii).
These are all examples of simple or complete dominance.
Type AB blood is an example of co-dominance. The A allele and the B allele are equal in their dominance and will be
expressed equally if they are paired together into the genotype I A IB. Neither the A allele or the B allele is dominant over
each other, so each type is expressed equally in the phenotype giving the human an AB blood type.

Let’s consider this situation in the human ABO Blood Group system.

A homozygous A male marries a heterozygous B female. Fill up the Punnett square

below and answer the question.
IB i

IA

IA

1. What would be the possible blood types of their children? _____________________

2. What is the percentage of having a type O child? _____________________

In humans, the ABO Blood Group system is a character governed by multiple alleles. There are 3 alleles that governed
this system: IA, IB and i.

In summary:

Phenotypes Genotypes
Type A IAIA (homozygous), IAi (heterozygous)
Type B IBIB (homozygous), IBi (heterozygous)
Type AB I AI B
Type O ii

Let us try to solve the problem presented earlier in this lesson by making a Punnett square to show the cross
between parents. It would look like the one shown below.

FEMALE
IB I
MALE

IA IAIB IAi

IA IAIB IAi

 What would be the possible blood types of their children?

Based on the Punnett square above, the possible blood types of their children are Type AB and Type A.
 What is the percentage of having a type O child?
If we take a look back at the Punnett square, it is clearly seen that there is no Type O in the boxes. Therefore, there is 0%
chance of having a Type O child.

Points to Remember in Multiple Alleles:

 There are more than two alleles controlling a gene pair.
 More than two phenotypes are exhibited or expressed in the offspring’s.
 In the ABO Blood Group system:
 Alleles IA and IB are codominant of each other
 Alleles IA and IB are dominant over the i allele
 Alleles i i is always recessive.

What’s More
To gain more understanding about Multiple Alleles, these enrichment activities below are provided for you.
Read and analyze them well so that you will arrive on the right answers.

Activity

What’s Your Blood Type, Baby?

The table below shows the blood type of an individual. Predict using a Punnett square
the possible blood type on the basis of the given phenotypes of their family members.

Mother’s Blood TypeFather’s Blood TypeChild’s Blood TypeAAABABABBOO

Polygenic Inheritance

Polygenic traits are traits that arise from the interaction of a multiple pair of genes. The inheritance of a characteristics
determined by the cumulative action of many different genes, each with small individual effects, is called polygenic
inheritance. Examples of characteristics with type of inheritance are height, weight, shape, metabolic rate and skin color.
For example, let us assume that three dominant genes (D, E, F) control dark pigmentation because more melanin, a skin
substance or pigment that gives the skin its color is produced. The recessive alleles of these three genes (d), (e), (f)
control light pigmentation because lower amounts of melanin are produced. So a DDEEFF genotype has the maximum
amount of melanin and is very dark skinned; ddeeff genotypes have the lowest amount of melanin and very light
skinned; and a DdEeFf genotype has a medium amount of melanin and is intermediate in skin color.

Continuous and Discontinuous Variation

Variation

Variation is the differences between individuals within a species. This can be caused by inherited or environmental
factors. Variation can be continuous or discontinuous.

What is variation?

All people are human. They belong to the same species. Your friends and classmates may have different eye colour and
hair colour. Some will be boys and some will be girls. Some will be tall and some will be shorter. The presence of
differences between living things of the same species is called variation.

Variation between different species is usually greater than the variation within a species.

Continuous and discontinuous variation

Some of the features of the different organisms in a species show continuous variation, and some features show
discontinuous variation.

Continuous variation

Human height is an example of continuous variation. It ranges from that of the shortest person in the world to that of
the tallest person. Any height is possible between these values. So it is continuous variation.

For any species a characteristic that changes gradually over a range of values shows continuous variation. Examples of
such characteristics are:
 height
 weight

If you record the heights of a group of people and draw a graph of your results, it usually looks something like this:
 A bar chart to represent variation in height

The more people you measure, and the smaller the categories you use, the closer the results will be to the curved line.
This shape of graph is typical of a feature with continuous variation. Weight would give a graph similar in shape to this.

Discontinuous variation

A characteristic of any species with only a limited number of possible values shows discontinuous variation. Human
blood group is an example of discontinuous variation. In the ABO blood group system, only four blood groups are
possible (A, B, AB or O). There are no values in between, so this is discontinuous variation.
Here are some examples:
 blood group
 sex (male or female)
 eye colour

A bar chart to represent the frequency of each blood group in the population

Process Questions:
1. What is the difference between continuous and discontinuous variation?
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
2. Why are polygenic traits following a bell-shaped curve or normal distribution?
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

Nature vs. Nurture: What role does the environment play in the expression of a trait?

Inherited and Environmental

Inherited and environmental variation
Some variation within a species is inherited, and some variation is due to the environment.

Inherited causes of variation

Variation in a characteristic that is a result of genetic information from the parents is called inherited variation.

Children usually look a little like their father, and a little like their mother, but they will not be identical to either of their
parents. This is because they get half of their DNA and inherited features from each parent.

Each egg cell and each sperm cell contains half of the genetic information needed for an individual. When these join
at fertilisation a new cell is formed with all the genetic information needed for an individual.

Here are some examples of inherited variation in humans:

 eye colour
 hair colour
 skin colour
 lobed or lobeless ears
 ability to roll your tongue

Gender is inherited variation too, because whether you are male or female is a result of the genes you inherited from
your parents.

Environmental causes of variation

Characteristics of animal and plant species can be affected by factors such as:
 climate
 diet
 accidents
 culture
 lifestyle

For example, you will become heavier if you eat too much food, and you will become lighter if you eat too little. A plant
in the shade of a big tree will grow taller as it tries to reach more light.

Variation caused by the surroundings is called environmental variation. Here are some other examples of features that
show environmental variation:
 your language
 your religion
 flower colour in hydrangeas (these plants produce blue flowers in acidic soil and pink flowers in alkaline soil)

Process Question:
1. Are all the traits we have right now due to genetics? Why or why not?
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________

Synthesis Question:
1. What are the different ways that a trait may be inherited and expressed?
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
Epistasis

The interaction between two or more genes to control a single phenotype result in an inheritance pattern called
epistasis. It occurs when the action of one gene is modified by one or several other gens, which are sometimes called
modifier genes. A gene can either mask or modify the phenotype controlled by the other gene.

Masking epistasis occurs when a gene at one locus masks the expression of a gene at the second locus so its
phenotype is not expressed. Modifying epistasis occurs when a gene at one locus modifies or changes the expression of
the phenotype of a gene at the second locus. The gene that does the masking/modifying is referred to as epistatic, while
the gene that is masked/ modified is referred to as hypostatic.

Sex-Linked Traits

After Mendel’s garden peas, Thomas Hunt Morgan, an American geneticist studied genetic variations in
Drosophila melanogaster (fruit fly). In 1910, while examining a large number of drosophila, Morgan found one that had
white eyes instead of the normal red ones; the fly was male. Morgan had the white-eyed male mate with a red-eyed
female. All of the offspring in the first generation had red eyes. He then mated flies from this generation. As a result,
three-fourths of the second generation offspring had red eyes and one-fourth had white eyes. These results seemingly
conformed to the results Mendel observed in garden peas. However, there was one striking difference, that is, all of the
white-eyed flies were males (refer to figure 2.12).

Legend:
R: Dominant gene for red eyes r: Recessive gene for white eyes

XRXR Female, pure red-eyed XRXr Female, hybrid, red-eyed

Xr Y Male, white-eyed Xr YO Male, red-eyed

Xr Y X RXR XR Y X RXr
P White-eyed male x Red-eyed female (pure) A White-eyed male x Red-eyed female (pure)
1 Female 1 Female
F1 1 XR XR F2 XR Xr
Xr X R Xr XR Xr XR XRXR XR Xr
Female, red Female, red Female, red Female, red
Male Male
Y XR Y XR Y YO XR Y Xr Y
Male, red Male, red Male, red Male, white

Resulting F1: Resulting F1:

Genotype Genotypes
 XRXr—2/4 heterozygous red-eyed females  XRXR—1/4 pure red-eyed female
 XRX—2/4 red-eyed males  XRXr—1/4 hybrid red-eyed female
 XRXR—1/4 red-eyed male
 XRXR—1/4 white-eyed male

Phenotypes Phenotypes
 All offspring are red-eyed.  ¾ red-eyed (2 females, 1 male)
 ¼ white-eyed (male)

Figure2-12. Sex linkage explains the inheritance of red eyes and white eyes in drosophila.
Morgan performed other crosses and confirmed his idea that the genetic results were definitely related to the sex of the
individuals that were crossed. His investigation into the occurrence of white-eyed males in drosophila led to the
discovery of sex-determining chromosomes. He also discovered that traits unrelated to sex could be determined by
genes on the sex chromosomes. Such genes have since been named as se-linked genes, and the traits as sex-linked
traits. Several sex-linked genes were also discovered in human beings.

Sex-Influenced Traits
Sex-influenced trait is an autosomal trait that is expressed differently, in either frequency or degree, in males
and females. It acts differently in males than in females. The gene for baldness is not in the X chromosome but its
expression of dominance is affected by the sex of the individual involved. This means that one baldness gene is enough
to make a man bald. The genotype for males will therefore be BB or Bb. A woman must have two baldness genes to
make her bald. The genotype of a bald female will be BB.

Baldness Genes
Genotype in Symbols Males Females
BB Bald Bald
Bb Bald Not Bald (Normal)
bb Not Bald (Normal) Not Bald

Chemicals in the male body influence the action of this gene. Thus, baldness is a sex-influenced trait that is caused by
genes acting differently in males and females.

Sex Limited Traits

In this type of inheritance, autosomal genes are found in both sexes, but the trait is manifested only in one sex
for physiological or anatomical reasons. One example of sex- limited characteristics is the bright plumage of certain male
birds that does not appear in females of the same species. Roosters develop a large comb, while hens of the same breed
do not. Milk production is found in cows but not manifested in bulls. In humans, a son may inherit the growth of his
beard from his mother although his mother does not show it.

Process questions:
1. How is sex-related inheritance different from the other patterns of inheritance that you’ve studied? Why does
this type of inheritance matter?
____________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
2. How are sex-linked traits inherited?
____________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
Assessment
A. Identify which among the sentences below are facts about the pattern and which are not.
Instruction: Write T if the statement is correct. If False, change the underlined word to make the
sentence correct.

_____________ 1. In multiple alleles, there are more than two alleles controlling a gene pair.
_____________ 2. The resulting offspring’s produced exhibit the combination of the alleles of the parents.
_____________ 3. In the ABO Blood Group system, the allele i is always dominant over the other alleles.
_____________ 4. Multiple Alleles also occur in the fur color of rabbits and laboratory mice.
_____________ 5. The alleles IA and IB are codominant of each other.

B. Identify the number of offspring and the phenotypic and genotypic offspring of the given problem below.
 
In Smileys, eye shape can be starred, circular, or a circle with a star. Write the genotypes for the pictured
phenotypes

1. Show the cross between a star-eyed and a circle eyed.

a. What are the phenotypes of the offspring? ____________
b. What are the genotypes? __________
2. Show the cross between a circle-star eyed, and a circle eyed.
a. How many of the offspring are circle-eyed? ____________
b. How many of the offspring are circle-star eyed? ____________

C. Codominance and Incomplete Dominance

In cows, red and white coloration alleles are codominant. A cow that has both alleles will be ROAN (spotted with red &
white patches).

RR = red         WW = white       RW = roan

1. A roan cow is crossed with a red cow.

What percent of the offspring will be red? _____

2. A red cow is crossed with a white cow.

What percent of the offspring will be roan? _____

3. A roan cow is crossed with a white cow.

What percent of the offspring will be roan? _____
What percent will be red? ____
What percent will be white?_____

D. Select the letter of the best answer.

1. Haploid cells in the human body.

a. Contain 46 chromosomes c. are typical example of human cells.
b. are caused by allelic variation d. are gametes, which allow sexual reproduction
2. Hair color is determined by a single gene with a series of alleles, each resulting in different colors. Black, brown,
blond and other hair colors are examples of________________.
a. Incomplete dominance c. polygenic traits
b. Multiple alleles d. sex- linked traits
3. The trait for white eyes that is observed in fruit flies is an example of a __________.
a. Dominant trait c. sex-limited trait
b. Polygenic trait d. sex-linked trait
4. Which of the following is a deviation from Mendelian principles?
a. Crossing over occurs during meiosis.
b. Some forms of a gene may be dominant
c. The inheritance of characteristics is determined by factors (genes)
d. A gene can either mask or modify the phenotype controlled by the other gene.
5. The observable characteristics determined by specific segments of DNA.
a. Genes b. Traits c. Alleles d. breeding

Choose the letter that corresponds to the best answer.

Red-green color blindness is caused by an X-linked recessive allele. A color-blind man marries a
woman with normal vision whose father is color blind.

B—normal vision b—colorblindness

1. The chance that the couple’s daughter will be color blind.

a. 0 percent b. 25 percent c. 50 percent
2. The chance that a male child will be color-blind
a. 50 percent b. 100 percent c. 25 percent
3. The ratio of children with normal vision to those who will be color-blind will be_____.
a. 4:0 b. 1:1 c. 3:1
4. The genotype of the father/husband is _______.
a. XbY b. XBY c. XBYb
5. The genotype of the mothe/wife is _________.
a. XBXB b. XbXb c. XBYb

Red-eyed fruit flies have the dominant trait ( R ), white-eyed flies have the recessive trait ( r ). The
recessive allele Xr causes white eyes in males.
A cross was made between a heterozygous red-eyed female fruit fly and a white-eyed male fruit fly.
Answer the following questions:

6. Out of four offspring, how many will be red-eyed males?

a. 0 b. 2 c. 1
7. What will be the genotype of 50 percent of the female offspring?
a. XRXR b. XRXr c. XRY
8. What percentage of the male offspring will be white-eyed?
a. 50 b. 25 c. 75
9. What is the chance that the female offspring will be white-eyed?
a. 50 b. 25 c. 100
10. What is the genotype for the female parent?
a. XRXR b. XrXr c. XRXr

E. Short Response
1. Compare and contrast sex-linked traits, sex-limited traits, and sex-influenced trait.
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________

2. A woman is color blind. What are the chances that her son will be color blind? If she is married to a man with
normal vision. What are the chances that her daughter will be color blind?
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________

3. A normal daughter of a man with hemophilia, a recessive sex-linked trait, marries a man who is normal for the
trait. What is the probability that the couple’s daughter will become hemophiliac? Their son?
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________