TITLE

Marcet Boiler.

OBJECTIVE

1) To study the relationship between the pressure and temperature of saturated steam in
equilibrium with water.
2) To obtain the saturated pressure curve.
3) To understand the concept of relationship of pressure and temperature steam in
equilibrium with water.

INTRODUCTION

Thermodynamics is the study of heat and temperature and their relation to energy and
work, between a system and its surrounding; in this case the property in the system will
change.

Generally, ideal gas obeys the equation of state shown below:

PV= nRT (equation 1)

Where,

P = Absolute pressure (Pa)

V = Volume (m³)

n = Amount of substance (moles)

R= Ideal gas constant (J/K.mol)

T = Absolute temperature (K)

However, real gas does not absolutely obey the equation of state. A few changes on
the ideal gas equation of state allow its application in the properties of real gas. When energy
increases within water, the increasing of activities among the molecules enables the increase
in the number of molecule escape from the surface until an equilibrium state is reached. The

1
state of equilibrium depends on the pressure between the water surface and steam. At lower
pressure, the molecules become easier leaving the water surface while less energy required in
achieving the state of equilibrium (boiling point). The temperature where equilibrium occurs
at a given pressure level is called saturated temperature (Mughal, n.d.).

The Marcet Boiler is used to investigate the relationship between the pressure and
temperature of saturated steam in equilibrium with water at all temperature levels between
the atmospheric pressure and 10 bars ("This Experiment Marcet Boiler Engineering Essay",
2015).. The experimental slope (dT/dP) SAT obtained is compared to the theoretical value
determined through calculation from the steam table.

Clausius-Clapeyron states, (Equation 2):

Whereby,

Vf =specific volume of saturated liquid

v g   = specific volume of saturated vapor

2
hf  = enthalpy of saturated liquid

hg  = enthalpy of saturated vapor

hfg = latent heat of vaporization

The following formulas are used to calculate the Average Temperature, dT, dP, Measured
Slope, Calculated Slope, vfg and hfg.

T increase+ T decrease
Equation 3: Average Temperature, T avg = (K)
2

Equation 4: dP @ 1.1 bar = P abs @ 1.1 bar – P abs @ 1.0 bar (kPa)

Equation 5: dT @ 1.1 bar = T avg @ 1.1 bar – T avg @ 1.0 bar (K)

dT
Equation 6: @ 1.1 bar =¿) (K/kPa)
dP

Equation 7: vfg = vg – vf

Tvfg
Equation 8 : Calculated Slope = (K/kPa)
hfg

3
APPARATUS

Figure 1: Unit Construction for Marcet Boiler (Model :HE 169)

The apparatus above consist of:

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1. Pressure Transducer
2. Temperature Controller
3. Pressure Indicator
4. Control Panel
5. Bench
6. Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge
7. Temperature Sensor
8. Pressure Relief Valve
9. Water Inlet Port
10. Heater

METHOD

Part 1: Start –up Procedure

5
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Part 2: Experimental Procedures

6
DATA COLLECTION

Table 1: i) Experimental Results for the effect pressure on temperature.

Temperature dT dP Measured Slope

Increase Decrease Average (K) (K) (kPa) DT/Dp (K/kPa)
373.0 374.3 373.7 - - -
374.9 377.1 376.0 2.4 10 0.235
376.9 379.5 378.2 2.2 10 0.220
379.4 381.8 380.6 2.4 10 0.240
381.9 384.0 383.0 2.3 10 0.235
384.0 386.0 385.0 2.1 10 0.205
386.0 387.8 386.9 1.9 10 0.190
387.8 389.7 388.8 1.9 10 0.185
389.7 391.2 390.5 1.7 10 0.170
391.4 393.1 392.3 1.8 10 0.180
393.0 394.7 393.9 1.6 10 0.160
394.6 396.2 395.4 1.5 10 0.155
396.1 397.8 397.0 1.6 10 0.155
397.6 399.1 398.4 1.4 10 0.140
398.9 400.5 399.7 1.3 10 0.135
400.3 401.8 401.1 1.4 10 0.135
401.6 403.1 402.4 1.3 10 0.130
402.9 404.4 403.7 1.3 10 0.130
404.1 405.5 404.8 1.2 10 0.115
405.4 406.7 406.1 1.2 10 0.125
406.5 407.9 407.2 1.2 10 0.115
410.9 413.0 412.0 4.8 50 0.095
415.8 417.8 416.8 4.9 50 0.097
421.0 422.2 421.6 4.8 50 0.096
424.8 425.8 425.3 3.7 50 0.074
428.5 429.4 429.0 3.6 50 0.073
431.8 432.8 432.3 3.4 50 0.067
435.0 435.8 435.4 3.1 50 0.062
437.8 438.8 438.3 2.9 50 0.058
440.6 441.4 441.0 2.7 50 0.054
443.2 444.1 443.7 2.6 50 0.053
445.2 446.6 445.9 2.3 50 0.045
447.1 448.9 448.0 2.1 50 0.042
449.5 451.2 450.4 2.4 50 0.047
451.7 452.7 452.2 1.8 50 0.037

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Table 2: ii) Experimental Results for the effect of pressure on temperature.

Specific Volume,v (m³/kg) Enthalpy,h (kJ/kg) Calculated Slope(Tvfg/hfg) Percentage Error

vf vg vfg hf hg hfg (K/kpa) (%)
0.001043 1.6940 1.6930 417.436 2674.95 2257.51 0.28021 -
0.001045 1.5496 1.5485 428.775 2679.18 2250.41 0.25873 -10.10
0.001047 1.4285 1.4274 439.299 2683.06 2243.76 0.24142 -9.74
0.001049 1.3254 1.3244 449.132 2686.65 2237.52 0.22598 5.84
0.001051 1.2367 1.2356 458.367 2689.99 2231.62 0.21203 9.77
0.001053 1.1594 1.1583 467.081 2693.11 2226.03 0.20033 2.28
0.001054 1.0914 1.0904 475.336 2696.04 2220.70 0.18997 0.02
0.001056 1.0312 1.0302 483.184 2698.81 2215.63 0.18075 2.29
0.001058 0.9775 0.9765 490.668 2701.42 2210.75 0.17246 -1.45
0.001059 0.9293 0.9282 497.825 2703.89 2206.07 0.16505 8.31
0.001061 0.8857 0.8847 504.684 2706.24 2201.56 0.15826 1.08
0.001062 0.8462 0.8451 511.273 2708.48 2197.21 0.15209 1.88
0.001063 0.8101 0.8091 517.615 2710.62 2193.01 0.14645 5.52
0.001065 0.7771 0.7760 523.731 2712.66 2188.93 0.14122 -0.87
0.001066 0.7467 0.7457 529.637 2714.62 2184.98 0.13640 -1.04
0.001067 0.7187 0.7176 535.350 2716.50 2181.15 0.13195 2.26
0.001068 0.6928 0.6917 540.884 2718.31 2177.43 0.12781 1.68
0.001070 0.6687 0.6676 546.251 2720.04 2173.79 0.12397 0.05
0.001071 0.6463 0.6452 551.462 2721.72 2170.26 0.12034 -4.65
0.001072 0.6254 0.6243 556.527 2723.33 2166.80 0.11699 6.41
0.001073 0.6058 0.6047 561.455 2724.89 2163.44 0.11382 1.03
0.001079 0.5242 0.5231 584.311 2731.97 2147.66 0.10034 -5.62
0.001084 0.4624 0.4613 604.723 2738.06 2133.34 0.09013 7.08
0.001088 0.4139 0.4128 623.224 2743.39 2120.17 0.08209 14.49
0.001093 0.3748 0.3737 640.185 2748.11 2107.93 0.07540 -1.89
0.001097 0.3426 0.3415 655.877 2752.33 2096.45 0.06987 4.28
0.001101 0.3156 0.3145 670.501 2756.14 2085.64 0.06518 2.71
0.001104 0.2926 0.2915 684.216 2759.6 2075.38 0.06115 1.37
0.001108 0.2728 0.2717 697.143 2762.75 2065.61 0.05764 0.62
0.001111 0.2555 0.2544 709.384 2765.64 2056.26 0.05456 -1.03
0.001115 0.2403 0.2392 721.018 2768.30 2047.28 0.05184 2.19
0.001118 0.2269 0.2258 732.113 2770.76 2038.65 0.04938 -9.73
0.001121 0.2149 0.2138 742.725 2773.04 2030.32 0.04717 -12.30
0.001124 0.2041 0.2030 752.901 2775.15 2022.25 0.04520 3.83
0.001127 0.1943 0.1932 762.683 2777.12 2014.44 0.04337 -17.23

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Table 3: i) Experimental Results for the effect of temperature on pressure.

9
Pressure (bar) Temperature dT dP Measured Slope
Increase Decrease Average (K) (K) (kPa) dP/dT
1.0 373.0 374.3 373.7 - - -
1.1 374.9 377.1 376.0 2.4 10 4.255
1.2 376.9 379.5 378.2 2.2 10 4.545
1.3 379.4 381.8 380.6 2.4 10 4.167
1.4 381.9 384.0 383.0 2.3 10 4.255
1.5 384.0 386.0 385.0 2.1 10 4.878
1.6 386.0 387.8 386.9 1.9 10 5.263
1.7 387.8 389.7 388.8 1.9 10 5.405
1.8 389.7 391.2 390.5 1.7 10 5.882
1.9 391.4 393.1 392.3 1.8 10 5.556
2.0 393.0 394.7 393.9 1.6 10 6.250
2.1 394.6 396.2 395.4 1.5 10 6.452
2.2 396.1 397.8 397.0 1.6 10 6.452
2.3 397.6 399.1 398.4 1.4 10 7.143
2.4 398.9 400.5 399.7 1.3 10 7.407
2.5 400.3 401.8 401.1 1.4 10 7.407
2.6 401.6 403.1 402.4 1.3 10 7.692
2.7 402.9 404.4 403.7 1.3 10 7.692
2.8 404.1 405.5 404.8 1.2 10 8.696
2.9 405.4 406.7 406.1 1.2 10 8.000
3.0 406.5 407.9 407.2 1.2 10 8.696
3.5 410.9 413.0 412.0 4.8 50 10.526
4.0 415.8 417.8 416.8 4.9 50 10.309
4.5 421.0 422.2 421.6 4.8 50 10.417
5.0 424.8 425.8 425.3 3.7 50 13.514
5.5 428.5 429.4 429.0 3.6 50 13.699
6.0 431.8 432.8 432.3 3.4 50 14.925
6.5 435.0 435.8 435.4 3.1 50 16.129
7.0 437.8 438.8 438.3 2.9 50 17.241
7.5 440.6 441.4 441.0 2.7 50 18.519
8.0 443.2 444.1 443.7 2.6 50 18.868
8.5 445.2 446.6 445.9 2.3 50 22.222
9.0 447.1 448.9 448.0 2.1 50 23.810
9.5 449.5 451.2 450.4 2.4 50 21.277
10.0 451.7 452.7 452.2 1.8 50 27.027

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Table 4: ii) Experimental Results for the effect of temperature on pressure.

Specific Volume,v (m³/kg) Enthalphy,h (kJ/kg) Calculated Slope Percentage Error

vf vg vfg hf hg hfg hfg/Tvfg (K/kPa) (%)
0.001044 1.6415 1.6405 421.42 2676.44 2255.02 3.6789 -
0.001046 1.5214 1.5204 431.13 2680.05 2248.92 3.9340 7.55
0.001047 1.4162 1.4151 440.42 2683.47 2243.05 4.1910 7.80
0.001049 1.3111 1.3100 450.57 2687.17 2236.60 4.4858 -7.66
0.001051 1.2151 1.2141 460.73 2690.84 2230.11 4.7967 -12.72
0.001053 1.1415 1.1404 469.20 2693.87 2224.67 5.0669 -3.87
0.001055 1.0764 1.0753 477.25 2696.72 2219.47 5.3348 -1.36
0.001056 1.0156 1.0146 485.31 2699.55 2214.24 5.6140 -3.86
0.001058 0.9647 0.9637 492.53 2702.06 2209.53 5.8723 0.17
0.001060 0.9141 0.9130 500.17 2704.70 2204.53 6.1555 -10.80
0.001061 0.8717 0.8707 506.97 2707.02 2200.05 6.4156 -2.57
0.001062 0.8341 0.8331 513.35 2709.18 2195.83 6.6661 -3.32
0.001064 0.7962 0.7951 520.16 2711.47 2191.31 6.9431 -7.62
0.001065 0.7646 0.7635 526.13 2713.46 2187.33 7.1917 -0.68
0.001066 0.7366 0.7355 531.67 2715.29 2183.62 7.4274 -0.27
0.001068 0.7078 0.7068 537.64 2717.25 2179.61 7.6896 -3.81
0.001069 0.6823 0.6812 543.19 2719.05 2175.86 7.9383 -3.20
0.001070 0.6579 0.6568 548.74 2720.84 2172.10 8.1929 -6.51
0.001071 0.6380 0.6369 553.44 2722.35 2168.91 8.4120 3.26
0.001073 0.6155 0.6144 558.99 2724.11 2165.12 8.6788 -8.48
0.001074 0.5971 0.5960 563.70 2725.60 2161.90 8.9073 -2.43
0.001079 0.5243 0.5233 584.27 2731.95 2147.69 9.9633 5.35
0.001084 0.4619 0.4609 604.89 2738.10 2133.22 11.1056 -7.72
0.001089 0.4082 0.4071 625.56 2744.05 2118.49 12.3420 -18.48
0.001093 0.3719 0.3708 641.54 2748.48 2106.94 13.3609 1.13
0.001097 0.3393 0.3382 657.56 2752.78 2095.22 14.4409 -5.42
0.001101 0.3132 0.3121 671.88 2756.49 2084.61 15.4524 -3.53
0.001105 0.2908 0.2896 685.36 2759.88 2074.52 16.4498 -1.99
0.001108 0.2715 0.2704 698.00 2762.96 2064.96 17.4237 -1.06
0.001112 0.2549 0.2538 709.80 2765.74 2055.94 18.3665 0.82
0.001115 0.2396 0.2385 721.62 2768.44 2046.82 19.3472 -2.54
0.001118 0.2279 0.2268 731.27 2770.58 2039.32 20.1692 9.24
0.001121 0.2173 0.2162 740.49 2772.56 2032.07 20.9787 11.89
0.001124 0.2060 0.2049 751.06 2774.77 2023.71 21.9340 -3.09
0.001126 0.1980 0.1968 758.99 2776.38 2017.39 22.6658 16.14

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Graphs-Part 1: The effect of pressure on the temperature.(Saturated Steam Curve)

500.0
450.0 f(x) = 8.54 x + 376.3
400.0
Average Temperature,T (K)

350.0
300.0
250.0
200.0
150.0
100.0
50.0
0.0
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0
Absolute Pressure,P (bar)

Figure 2 shows the relationship between the Average Temperature, T and the
Absolute Pressure, P of the saturated steam in equilibrium with water.

0.300

0.250

0.200
Slope (K/kPa)

0.150

0.100

0.050

0.000
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0
Absolute Pressure (bar)

Measured Slope versus Absolute Pressure

Calculated Slope versus Absolute Pressure

Figure 3 shows the relationship between the Measured Slope and the Calculated Slope
with the Absolute pressure of the saturated steam in equilibrium with water.

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Part 2: The effect of temperature on pressure (Saturated Vapour Pressure Curve)

12.0

10.0
Absolute Pressure (bar)

8.0

6.0

4.0

2.0

0.0
360.0 370.0 380.0 390.0 400.0 410.0 420.0 430.0 440.0 450.0 460.0
Temperature(K)

Absolute Pressure (bar) versus Temperature (K)

Linear (Absolute Pressure (bar) versus Temperature (K))

Figure 4 shows the relationship between the Absolute Pressure and the Average
Temperature of the saturated vapour in equilibrium with water.

25.00000

20.00000
Slope (K/kPa)

15.00000

10.00000

5.00000

0.00000
360.0 370.0 380.0 390.0 400.0 410.0 420.0 430.0 440.0 450.0 460.0
Temperature (K)

Measured Slope vs Temperature Calculated Slope vs Temperature

13
 Figure 5 shows the relationship between the Measured and Calculated Slope with the
Temperature of the saturated vapour with equilibrium with water.

ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

Graph Analysis

Part 1: Saturated Steam Curve

Figure 2 shows the steam saturation curve which portrays the relationship between the
absolute temperature and the absolute pressure of the steam with the slope of dT/dp. Based on
the graph, it can be understood that the temperature of the steam is directly proportional to
the pressure. This can be proven using the Clausius-Clapeyron equation which is

dT
=TΔv / Δh, whereby when the pressure increases, the temperature increases.
dP

Figure 3 shows the relationship between the measured slope and the calculated slope with the
absolute pressure of the saturated steam in equilibrium with water. Based on the graph, it can
be seen that both the measured and the calculated slope are inversely proportional to the
absolute pressure of the vapour.

Part 2: Saturated Vapour Pressure Curve

Figure 4 shows the saturated vapour pressure curve which portrays the relationship between
the absolute pressure and the absolute temperature with the slope of dp/dT. The graph obeys
the Clausius-Clapeyron Equation which states that the equilibrium between water and water
vapour depends upon the temperature of the system. If the temperature increases, the
saturation pressure of the water vapour increases.

Figure 5 shows the relationship between the measured and calculated slope with the
temperature of the water. Both the measured and the calculated slope are directly proportional
to the absolute temperature of the water.

14
Discussion

1) Is it reasonable to consider the saturated steam as an ideal gas?

Based on the figures obtained in Table 1 and 2, for example, for a saturated steam of 1.1 bar
at a constant volume, it should be showing a temperature below than the temperature
recorded from the experiment which is 376 K. Even though, the concept of ideal gas can be
applied because the temperature goes up with pressure, but the values are not the exact values
and steam tables are needed.

1) From a theoretical point of view, discuss why saturated gas cannot considered as an
ideal gas?

From a theoretical point of view, it is certainly not reasonable to consider the saturated steam
as an ideal gas because ideal gas is a gas in which the molecules have no interaction and they
occupy negligible space. Saturated steam is obtained when the boiling point of water is
reached and then water start vaporising. The water’s temperature stop rising until all water is
vaporised as water goes from a liquid state to a vapour state using latent heat of vaporization.
So as long as there’s some liquid water left, the steam’s temperature is the same as the liquid
water’s and therefore, a steam is a saturated steam and cannot be an ideal gas.

2) Why steam is allowed to come out when water starts to boil for 30 seconds?

Steam quality is a measure of the amount of liquid water contaminating the steam. (For
example, steam at 100% quality contains no liquid water and appears as a 100% clear gas,
while steam at 90% quality contains 90% steam by weight and 10% water by weight in the

15
form of a fog, cloud, or droplets.) Water droplets in high-velocity steam can be as abrasive as
sand particles. They can erode pipe fittings and rapidly eat away at valve seats. And if a
puddle of water is allowed to accumulate in steam pipes, it will eventually be picked up by
the high-velocity steam and accelerated to near-steam velocity, increasing chances of it
crashing into elbows, tees, and valves. This can lead to erosion, vibration, and water hammer.
This water hammer will gradually - and sometimes catastrophically - loosen pipe fittings and
supports. Since steam is produced by the rapid boiling of water in high-heat flux boilers, it
can entrain (or draw in and transport) water as it escapes from the water surface. This
entrainment, while damaging to the steam system, is independent of boiler efficiency.
Basically, both high- and low-efficiency boiler operation can produce - or not produce -
excessive entrainment. While entrainment cannot be completely prevented, it can be
minimized by proper boiler and steam system operation. Therefore, the steam is allowed to
come out when the water starts to boil for about 30 seconds to maintain the efficiency of the
boiler.

3) What happens when air exists within the closed vessel? Does the temperature become
higher or lower for the same pressure when air exists?

When air exists within a closed vessel, the presence of the air molecules will increase the
number of molecules inside the container. The higher the number of molecules, the higher
the higher the kinetic energy, hence, the temperature becomes higher with the presence of
air.

4) Do you think the measured temperature data agrees well with the data from the steam
table?

The values of the measured temperature are almost the same with the temperature rom the
steam table. Therefore, it can be said that the measured data agrees well with the data
from steam tables.

5) What are the most significant causes of error in temperature measurement?

a) Sensor calibration

Sensors calibration errors can be due to offset, scale and linearity errors. In addition, each

16
 of these errors can drift with time and temperature cycling. Hysteresis (where a value
depends on the direction from which it was approached) can be noticed with some
sensors, but the effect is usually small with the exception of the bimetallic strip where it
may be several degrees. Platinum RTD's are considered the most accurate and stable of
standard sensors. However, individually calibrated thermocouples can come close over
the same temperature range. The platinum based thermocouples can be just a stable as
platinum RTD's and cover a higher temperature range.

b) Heat conduction in sensor leads

All sensors with the exception of non-contact and maybe the fibre optic types require
that wires be brought to the sensor. These wires are usually copper, an excellent heat
conductor. The placement of these wires can have a significant impact on accuracy.

The wires allow heat flow into or out of the sensor body, requiring the sensing
element to be in better thermal contact with the material being measured than would
otherwise be needed. When measuring the temperature of thermal insulation
materials, this can be a major source of error.

c) Radiation

Radian heat can be a major source of error in measuring air temperature. A sensor in
sunlight is almost certain to read significantly higher than the actual air temperature.
To avoid this error the sensor must be shielded from source of radiant energy. The sun
is the most obvious source, however just about any object that is at a different
temperature to the air is a potential source (or sink) of troublesome radiant energy.

6) What are the cause of error in pressure measurement?

Instrument drift (systematic) - Most electronic instruments have readings that drift
over time. The amount of drift is generally not a concern, but occasionally this source
of error can be significant and should be considered.

7) What are the most significant cause of error in your calculation?

17
 The error percentage should not cross or exceed 10% for this experiment as the
experiment is done in enclosed surface and no volume of experimenting samples are
allowed to escape from the system. However, based on the data obtained from
experiment, the percentage of errors is within the range of -17.23 to 14.49 for the data
of dT/Dp whereas for dP/dT, the percentage errors ranged within -10.80 to 16.14.
This might happen due to the present of air in the boiler and the measurements
reading errors that happen during the experiment.
There are several sources of error of the experiment that are quite significant:
1) Measurement reading accuracy.
2) Room temperature and pressure.
3) Stability of the material.
4) The calculations of the data obtained.

The most significant causes of error would be measurement reading accuracy because
the person who took the reading of temperature shown digitally might have taken the
reading at which it has not stabilised yet.

CONCLUSION

This laboratory experiment is a success because all the objectives are achieved. Based
on the graphs plotted from the values obtained from the experiment, the Clausius-
Clapeyron Equation which states that the pressure and the temperature of saturated
water is directly proportional of each other has been proven to be valid. Besides, the
concept of this laboratory is also well understood. As executed in the laboratory, the
procedure is started by heating water with constant pressure until it reached boiling
point. Then, closing the valve which created a constant volume system. This forces
the pressure to increase as the temperature rises. Thus, studying the direct relation
between pressure and temperature for water at that point. In addition, it is essential to
close the valve as we reach boiling point to make sure we are now in a constant
volume process, otherwise pressure would have never increased, causing the

18
 objectives of the experiment to be not achieved.

RECOMMENDATION

The difference between the theoretical values and the actual values is caused by errors
with certain calculated acceptable percentages. In this experiment, the relationship
between pressure and temperature is found to be directly proportional. When
compared to the theoretical slope, the experimental slope shows a small deviation
between them because of certain errors. In order to get accurate data and result, the
experiment should be repeated about 2 to 3 times and by calculating the average
reading from the experiments. Besides, before doing the experiment, students need to
learn on how to use the equipment to avoid failure in completing the experiment.

REFERENCE

1. This Experiment Marcet Boiler Engineering Essay. (2015). UKEssays. Retrieved 23

April 2017, from https://www.ukessays.com/essays/engineering/this-experiment-
marcet-boiler-engineering-essay.php
2. Mughal, I. Lab2E5 Marcet Boiler. Academia.edu. Retrieved 23 April 2017, from
https://www.academia.edu/9474636/Lab2E5_Marcet_Boiler
3. Lab2E5 Marcet Boiler. Academia.edu. Retrieved 7 Jan 2015 from
https://www.academia.edu/9474636/Lab2E5_Marcet_Boiler
4. Marcet Boiler Lab Report. Scribd.com. Retrieved 7 Jan 2015 from

19
 http://www.scribd.com/doc/51634867/Marcet-Boiler-Lab-Report#scribd
5. Watkins, T. The Clausius-Clapeyron Equation: Its Derivation and Application.
Sjsu.edu. Retrieved 24 April 2017, from
http://www.sjsu.edu/faculty/watkins/clausius.htm

APPENDIX

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