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CH 28 Lecture Notes Physics

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150 views21 pages

CH 28 Lecture Notes Physics

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Lecture PowerPoint

Chapter 28
Physics: Principles with
Applications, 6th edition
Giancoli

© 2005 Pearson Prentice Hall


This work is protected by United States copyright laws and is provided solely for
the use of instructors in teaching their courses and assessing student learning.
Dissemination or sale of any part of this work (including on the World Wide Web)
will destroy the integrity of the work and is not permitted. The work and materials
from it should never be made available to students except by instructors using
the accompanying text in their classes. All recipients of this work are expected to
abide by these restrictions and to honor the intended pedagogical purposes and
the needs of other instructors who rely on these materials.
Chapter 28
Quantum Mechanics of Atoms
Units of Chapter 28

• The Wave Function and Its Interpretation; the Double-


Slit Experiment
• The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
• Quantum Numbers
• Complex Atoms; the Exclusion Principle
• The Periodic Table of Elements
• Lasers
28.1 Quantum Mechanics – “The” Theory
Quantum mechanics incorporates wave-particle
duality, and successfully explains energy states
in complex atoms and molecules, the relative
brightness of spectral lines, and many other
phenomena.
It is widely accepted as being the fundamental
theory underlying all physical processes.
On the flip side, quantum mechanics is
famously strange and weird when its ideas are
translated to the everyday world.
The Correspondence principle can resolve
most of these paradoxes
28.2 The Wave Function and Its
Interpretation; the Double-Slit Experiment
• de Broglie’s matter-wave
idea predicts that particles
like electrons should exhibit
interference just as light
does.

• An electron beam passing


through a double slit indded
produces an interference
pattern similar to that for
light.

• Interference happens
even if the electrons (or
photons) are sent through
one at a time!
28.2 The Wave Function and Its
Interpretation; the Double-Slit Experiment
The interference pattern is observed after many
electrons have gone through the slits.
If we send the electrons through one at
a time, we cannot predict the path any
single electron will
take, but we can
predict the overall
distribution.
28.3 The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

Quantum mechanics tells us there are limits to


measurement – not because of the limits of our
instruments, but inherently.

This is due to the wave-particle duality, and to


interaction between the observing equipment
and the object being observed.
28.3 The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
Werner Heisenberg showed that the more you
pin down one quantity, the more the other is
affected.
The product of these uncertainties has a finite
value: Plank’s constant.

This is called the Heisenberg uncertainty


principle.
It tells us that the position and momentum
of a particle cannot simultaneously be
measured with precision.
28.3 The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
It can also be written as a relation between the
uncertainty in time and the uncertainty in
energy:

This says that if an energy state only lasts for a limited time, its energy
will be uncertain.
In a high pressure gas, frequent collisions stimulate atoms in excited
states to de-excite and emit photons almost immediately. This shortening
of the lifetime produces an small variation in the emitted photon’s energy.
As a consequence, the width of spectral lines can directly reveal gas
pressure, for example in stars and gas clouds in outer space!
This effect is called Pressure Broadening
Think about how this situation is analagous to
the uncertainty principle….
A motion blurred photo
can be used to measure
the speed of an object,
but not its accurate
position.
A faster shutter speed
would freeze the motion
giving an accurate
position, but it would
not reveal the speed
28.6 Quantum Mechanics of the Hydrogen
Atom; Quantum Numbers
There are four different quantum numbers
needed to specify the state of an electron in
an atom.
Principal quantum number n gives the total
energy associated with a state or energy level.
28.6 Quantum Mechanics of the Hydrogen
Atom; Quantum Numbers
This table summarizes the four quantum
numbers.
28.7 Complex Atoms; the Exclusion
Principle
In order to understand the electron
distributions in atoms, another principle is
needed. This is the Pauli exclusion principle:
No two electrons in an atom can occupy the
same quantum state.
The quantum state is specified by the four
quantum numbers; no two electrons can have
the same set.
This led to the formation of Periodic table.
28.8 The Periodic Table of the Elements

We can now understand the


organization of the periodic table.
Electrons with the same n are in
the same shell. Electrons with the
same n and l are in the same
subshell.
The exclusion principle limits the
maximum number of electrons in
each subshell to 2(2l + 1).

Each value of l is
given its own letter
symbol.
28.8 The Periodic Table of the Elements

Electron configurations are written by giving


the value for n, the letter code for l, and the
number of electrons in the subshell as a
superscript.
For example, here is the ground-state
configuration of sodium (Z = 11):
28.8 The Periodic Table of the Elements
This table shows the configuration
of the outer electrons only.
28.11 Lasers
A laser produces a narrow, intense beam of coherent
light. This coherence means that, at a given cross
section, all parts of the beam have the same phase.
(a) Absorption of a photon.

(b) Stimulated emission – if the atom is


already in the excited state, the
presence of another photon of the same
frequency can stimulate the atom to
make the transition to the lower state
sooner. These photons are in phase.
28.11 Lasers
To obtain coherent light from stimulated emission,
two conditions must be met:

1. Most of the atoms must be in the


excited state; this is called an
inverted population.

2. The higher state must be a


metastable state, so that once the
population is inverted, it stays that
way. This means that transitions
occur through stimulated emission
rather than spontaneously.
28.11 Lasers

The laser beam is narrow, only spreading due


to diffraction, which is determined by the size
of the end mirror.

An inverted population
can be created by
exciting electrons to a
state from which they
decay to a metastable
state. This is called
optical pumping.
28.11 Lasers
A metastable state can also be created through
interactions between two sets of atoms, such as
in a helium-neon laser.
Summary of Chapter 28
• Quantum mechanics is the basic theory at the atomic
level; it is statistical rather than deterministic
• Heisenberg uncertainty principle:

•Electron state in atom is specified by four numbers:


n, l, ml, and ms
• Pauli exclusion principle: no two electrons in the same
atom can be in the same quantum state
• Electrons are grouped into shells and subshells
• Periodic table reflects shell structure

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