Week 1 Monday: Introduction

Course Introduction

-Need to do the revision quiz.

-Section A is on vibrations, damping, decay etc. Balancing of reciprocating masses
-Section B is on Orbital Mechanics – conservation of angular momentum and energy, etc. and also
3D dynamics, like cranes and robotics.

Intro to 2D Dynamics:
Dynamics is a branch of mechanics dealing with motion of bodies under the action of forces.
(Kinematics and Kinetics).

Week 1 Tuesday: 2D Dynamics Revision (Kinematics)

Kinematics = Rectilinear and curvilinear motion, displacement, velocity, acceleration, coordinates
and relative motion.

Kinetics = Force, mass, acceleration, work, energy, impulse and momentum.

Kinematics of a particle develops the relationships between displacement, velocity, and acceleration
as they move along trajectories. Kinematics of a rigid body uses the same relationships but considers
the rotational motion of the body.

Categories of Motion:
Rectilinear = 1 coordinate

Δs ds dv ds dv
v= = = ṡ ; a= =v̇ ; dt = = =¿ vdv =ads
Δ t dt dt v a
1 2
Integrating: v=v 0 + at s=s0 + v 0 t + a t
2
Plane Curvilinear motion = 2 coordinates

Velocity vector is tangential to the path. Acceleration vector is pointing in towards centre of radius.

Δ ⃗r d r⃗ ˙
⃗v = = = ⃗r where r is the distance from an origin to any point on the curved path. The
Δ t dt
ds
magnitude of v is speed and is a scalar: |⃗v|= =ṡ
dt
d ⃗v ⃗
Similarly, a⃗ = =v̇
dt

Space curvilinear motion = 3 coordinates

Relative Motion:
Absolute position of A: r⃗ A =⃗r B+ ⃗r A
B

Absolute velocity of A ⃗v A =⃗v B + ⃗v A /B

Same with absolute acceleration.

 Week 2 Monday: 2D Dynamics Revision (Kinetics of Particles)
- Force, Mass, Acceleration - Newton’s 2nd Law F=ma
- Work and Energy – Kinetic and potential energy
- Impulse and Momentum – linear and angular

Equation of Motion:

When a mass is subjected to the action of concurrent forces whose vector sum is ∑ F , when
applying Newton’s 2nd Law, the equation of motion is: ∑ ⃗
F =m ⃗a
Then, in scalar form: ∑ F x =m a x; and the same in any direction.

And for curvilinear motion, ∑ F n=m an ;∧∑ F t =ma t and also in radial and angular directions.

Frictional Forces:

Static Frictional forces ( f s )=μ s . N

Where N is the reactant force normal to the surface.

If the particle is moving : Kinetic Frictional Forces ( f k )=N . μk

Work and Energy:

Work: dU =⃗
F . d ⃗r =F t ds=Fcosαds

Then, U =∫ Ft ds

Elastic Potential Energy:

x2 x2
−1
U 1−2=−∫ Fdx=−∫ kxdx= k ( x 22−x 21 )
x1 x1
2

1 2
Elastic potential energy occurs in the deformation of an elastic body. V e = k x
2

Kinetic Energy:
 1
Kinetic energy of a particle (T) = m v2
2
Always positive, regardless of direction.

1 2 1 2
The total work done on a particle to bring it from v 1 to v2: U 1−2= m v 2− m v 1=T 2−T 1=ΔT
2 2

Potential Energy:

V g=mgh

Linear Impulse and Momentum

d ⃗˙
∑⃗
F =m ⃗v˙ = ( m ⃗v ) ;∨∑ ⃗
F =G
dt
Then the linear impulse – momentum principle:
t2 t2

∫ ∑ ⃗F dt=⃗G2−⃗
G1 → ∫ ∑ F x dt=( m v x )2− ( m v x )1 for the x direction.
t ❑1 t ❑1

Angular Impulse and Momentum:

The moment of linear momentum about a fixed point O is defined as angular momentum H O of P
about O and is given by:

H O =⃗r × m ⃗v
⃗

In scalar form: H O =mv ( rsinθ )

Week 2 Tuesday Lecture: Kinematics of a Rigid Body

Rigid bodies still deal with planar motion but also involve rotation and absolute motion.

For motion relative to non-rotating axes, we have relative velocity and relative acceleration.

For motion relative to rotating axes, we have relative velocity and acceleration, Coriolis acceleration

Rigid Body:

A system consisting of particles for which the distance between these particles remains unchanged.
Then the assumption of rigidity is that no deformation caused by the applied force.

Types of plane motion of a rigid body include: Rectilinear translation; Curvilinear Translation; Fixed-
axis Rotation; General Plane Motion (both translation and rotation).
Rectilinear Translation:
- A rigid body moving along a straight line and not rotating.
- Has the exact same displacement, velocity, acceleration relations as rectilinear particle motion:

1
v=v 0 + at ; s=s0 + v 0 t + a t 2
2
Curvilinear Translation:
Δ⃗r d r⃗ ˙ ds
Velocity : ⃗v = = = ⃗r ; its magnitude isthe speed : v=|⃗v|= = ṡ
Δ t dt dt
d ⃗v ˙
Acceleration: a⃗ = =⃗v
dt
Rotation:
Angular motion relations:

dθ dω d2 θ
ω= =θ̇α = = ω̇= 2 =θ̇˙
dt dt dt
ωdω=αdθ
Rotation about a fixed axis:

2 v2
a n=r ω =vω=
r
a t=rα

Absolute Motion:
An approach to describe the plane kinematics of rigid bodies. Makes use of geometric relations
which define the configuration of the bodies, then takes time derivatives of the defining geometric
relations to obtain velocity and acceleration. If the geometric configuration is complex, relative
motion analysis may be preferable.

Instantaneous Centre of 0 Velocity:

- Choose a unique reference point which momentarily has zero velocity.
- The rigid body is considered to be in pure rotation about the axis through this points as far as the
velocity is concerned.
*The rotational centre must be perpendicular to A and B velocity vectors*.

Then we know that: ⃗v A =r A .ω so we can solve for omega .

Week 3 Monday Lecture: Kinematics of Rigid Bodies cont.

Motion relative to non-rotating axis:
⃗v A =⃗v B + ⃗v A /B

v A /B =r ω

Or ⃗v ω × ⃗r
=⃗
A /B

So , ⃗v A =⃗v B + ⃗
ω × r⃗

Then relative acceleration due to rotation:

a⃗ A =⃗aB + ⃗a A / B=⃗a B + ( ⃗a A / B )n + ( a⃗ A /B )t

Where: ( a⃗ A / B )n=⃗
ω× (⃗
ω × ⃗r )∧( a⃗ A /B )t=⃗
α × r⃗

Trig Formula:
v=√ v 21 +v 22 +2 v 1 v 2 cosθ

Motion Relative to Rotating Axes:

a A =ao +a p / o+ 2 ( ω × v rel ) + a A / p

Week 3 Monday Lecture (2): Kinetics of Rigid Bodies

Deals with the relationships between the external forces acting on a body and the corresponding
translational and rotational movements of a body.

Forces acting on a rigid body can be replaced by: A resultant force applied at a chosen point and a
corresponding couple. A force will generate a couple moment if it is not going through the chosen
point.

If the chosen point is the mass centre of the body, then we have:
∑⃗
F =m ⃗a∧∑ ⃗ H˙ G= Í ω̇= Í α
M G =⃗ (recall H is the angular momentum.)

(I is the mass moment of inertia)

Translation:
∑⃗
F =m ⃗a∧∑ ⃗
M G = Í α =0

Fixed-Axis Rotation:
If rotation is not about the mass centre:

∑⃗
F =m ⃗a∧∑ ⃗
M O = Í O α

If rotation is about the mass centre:

∑⃗
F =m ⃗a=0

2
We know that a t=rα∧an=r ω

Then the motion equations are:

∑ F t=mrα∧∑ F n=mr ω2∑ M O=I O α ∧I O=I +mr 2

if we have radius of gyration : I O=mk 2o where k o is the radius of gyrationif not , I O=¿

Constrained Motion:
In application, most motion is under constraint, such as gear transmission, engine piston motion etc.
For constrained motions, kinematic relationships of the bodies need to be determined and to
combine them with force and moment equations.

IF WE HAVE ALPHA AND THETA, WE CAN FIND OMEGA USING ωdω=αdθ

Work and Energy:

We use these relations to describe motion which resulted from the effect of forces acting through
distances. If the system is conservative, velocity changes at the beginning and end of the motion
interval can be analysed by analysing the energy conditions.

Work Done by Force:

U =∫ ⃗
F . d ⃗r ∨U =∫ ( Fcosα ) ds
Work Done by a Couple:
U =∫ Mdθ

Kinetic Energy:
1
Energy of a translating rigid body :T = m v 2
2
1
Energy of a rigid body with ¿−axis rotation:T = I O ω2
2
1 1
Energy of a rigid body with general plane motion :T = m v 2+ I ω2Potential Energy:
2 2
Gravitational Potential Energy V g=mgh

1 2
Elastic Potential Energy V e = k x
2

Work-Energy Relation:
ΔU ' =ΔT + ΔV g + ΔV e
This method is for conservative systems of interconnected bodies, where energy loss due to negative
work of friction forces in negligible.

Week 3 Tuesday Lecture: Kinetics of Rigid Bodies cont.

Impulse and Momentum:
G=m⃗v
Linear momentum of any mass system, rigid or non-rigid, can be expressed as ⃗

Newton’s second law and its integrated form:

t2

∑⃗ G˙ ∫ ∑ ⃗
F =⃗ F . dt=G G1
⃗ 2− ⃗
t1

This can also be broken down into scalar form (x and y axes).

Angular Momentum:

So, if I is small, omega is large, and vice versa.

Analysis Procedure:
1) Kinematics:

- Identify the class of motion,

- Solve for any needed angular and linear accelerations
2) Diagrams (sketch):

- Draw free body and kinetic diagrams of the body or bodies

3) Equations of Motion (strategy):

- Apply equations of motion

- Combine with kinematic equations
- Count unknowns and independent equations

4) Solution

Week 4 Monday Lecture: Free Vibration of Particles

If vibration is not well treated, catastrophic failure can be caused.

Vibration can be classified into four major categories:

- Free, forced vibration (external force)

- Undamped, damped (energy dissipation)
- Linear, nonlinear (complexity)
- Deterministic, random.

To begin with, we will be looking at linear vibration with single degree of freedom (only vibrating in
one direction).

Equilibrium Position:
For spring type things, take the equilibrium position as reference.

Undamped Free Vibration: If there is no energy being dissipated (no dampening) the system will
continue to oscillate forever.

Applying Newton’s 2nd Law gives m ẋ˙ + kx=0.

k
Let ω n ( natural freq . ) =
2
√ m
Then , ẋ˙ + ω x =0Then we anticipate a simple harmonic motion for the system:
n
x= Acos ω n t+ Bsin ωn t
The constants depend on initial conditions ( A=x 0 ; B= ẋ 0 /ω n)
Then, we can simplify the above to: x=Csin ( ωn t+Φ ) .

2
Then, work out C and Phi in terms of A and B: C=√ A +B , ϕ=tan
2 −1
( AB )
Damped Free Vibration:
Newton’s 2nd Law gives: −kx −c ẋ=m ẋ˙ → m ẋ˙ +c ẋ+ kx=0
Introduce the substitutions:
k
1) viscous damping coefficient ( ω n )=
√ m
c
2) viscous damping factor∨damping ratio ( ζ )=
2 mω n
Then,
Damped Free Vibration Equation: ẋ˙ + 2 ζ ωn ẋ + ω2n x =0This can then be solved by:
λ 2+2 ζ ω n λ +ω2n =0 and solve.
λ1t λ 2t
Then x= A1 e + A2 e

Damping ratio (ζ )
The damping ratio determines the categories of damped motion:

1) Overdamped Motion: (ζ >1 ¿.

- λ 1,2 are distinct, real and negative. The motion of the system is non-vibratory, and decays
approaching 0 when t is sufficiently large.

2) Critically Damped ( ζ =1 ) :
λ 1,2 are equal and negative. The motion of the system is non-vibratory and decays approaching 0 in a
short period.

3) Underdamped ( ζ <1 ) :
System vibrates back and forth and gradually decays.
Damped natural frequency ( ωd ) =√ 1−ζ 2 ω n

Don’t worry about derivations but when underdamped:

x=C e−ζ ω t sin ( ωd t +Ψ )

n
In Summary:

Week 4 Tuesday Lecture: Forced Vibration of Particles

The difference between this and free vibration is that in free vibration, F=0.

Undamped Forced Vibration:

Damping constant (c)=0.
F0 sin ( ωt )
ẋ˙ +ω2n x=
m
The complete solution is the sum of the complementary solution x c (general solution), by setting the
right side to 0, and the particular solution x p. x=x c + x p
ẋ˙ +ω2n x=0 so x c =Csin ( ω n t +Ψ ) ( complementary solution ) .

Assuming the force should have the same form of the force: x p=Xsin (ωt )

F 0 /k F 0 /k
Then sub x with xp in the vibration equation: X = 2
→ x p= sin ωt
1−( ω /ωn ) 1−( ω /ωn )2

Then, x=x c + x p =Csin ( ω n t +Ψ ) + Xsin(ωt )

Damped Forced Vibration:

In the above, xc (the general solution), is a transient solution, it will die off in a while and has no
special interest. Xp is the particular solution and is a steady-state solution which is of primary
interest.

Energy Method:
Above, we’ve used Newton’s 2nd Law to derive the vibration equations. If the damping effect is
negligible, energy is thus conservative, so we can use energy methods.

We need to work out the total energy in the system. (taking the equilibrium position as reference.)

1 1
Elastic energy :V e = k ( x +δ st )2 − k δ 2st
2 2
(total deflection minus equilibrium energy)

Grav . Potential Energy :V g=−mgx

1 1 1
Then , V =V e +V g = k ( x+ δ st )2− k δ 2st −mgx= k x 2
2 2 2
1
Kinetic Energy : m ẋ 2
2
Total energy of the system is constant, so we have:

m ẋ˙ + kx=0

Week 5 Monday Lecture (1) - Forced Vibration cont.

Transmissibility:
Assume the base of 1 DOF, spring-mass-damper system varies with time, from
some external excitation. Both the spring and damper force will depend on the
relative displacement x-y.
m ẋ˙ + c ( ẋ− ẏ ) +k ( ẋ− ẏ ) =0m ẋ˙ + c ẋ+ kx=ky+ c ẏ=excitation force
y=Ysin ( ωt ) → ẏ=ωYcos ( ωt )
F excitation=ky + c ẏ=kYsin ( ωt ) +cωYcos ( ωt )=F 0 sin ( ωt −α )

Where : F 0=Y √ k 2 + ( cω )2¿ α =tan

−1
( −cω
k )
Displacement Transmissibility:

Force Transmissibility:

Week 5 Monday Lecture (2): Vibration of Rigid Bodies:

Rotational Vibration of a Bar:
1) Determine static spring force (force from weight of bar being held up by spring when ignoring the
force on the right). (Take moment about O).

2) Draw free body diagram.

3) Take moment about O: ∑ M 0=I O θ̇˙ (Don’t need to include the static spring force and gravity
force)

mg
4) Simplify and reorganise; assuming approximately cosθ ≈1 ; sinθ≈ θ ;∧P≈ . Should get it in
4
M O cos ( ωt )
the form of θ̇˙ +2 ζ ω n θ̇+ ωn θ=
2
Io
Comparison of Vibrations:

- Planar rigid-body vibration is analogous to that of particle vibration

- Variable of interest in particle vibrations is translation = x and for rigid body vibration is of
rotation θ .
- Equations of motion for rotational rigid-body vibrations has identical math.

Week 5 Tuesday Lecture: 2D Dynamics Review

Kinematics of Rigid Bodies:

1 2
- Translation very similar to a particle. s=v 0 t+ a t ; v=at +v 0
2
2
- Rotation: v=rω; a n=r ω ; at =rα
- Plane motion = combination of translation and rotation.
- v A =⃗
Relative motion: build up reference system on non-rotating axis. ⃗ v B +⃗
v A /B
n t
- Then taking time derivative: a⃗ A = ⃗aB + ⃗a A / B + ⃗a A ¿
- Building references on rotating axes: ⃗v A =⃗v B + ω
⃗ × ⃗r +⃗v rel
 - “Instantaneous centre of 0 velocity” Can always find a point which the body is rotating about
so we can assume pure rotation about it.

Kinetics of Rigid Bodies:

- ∑ F=ma ; ∑ M =Iα
- Work energy relationship
1 1 1
Kinetic Energy : m v 2o + I ω 2∨if not rotating about mass centre : I o ω2
2 2 2
- Moments of inertia:
o
1 1
For a :̊ I = m r 2 ; for a ring I =mr 2 ; for a slender Ī = ml 2∧for a slender not
¯ rotating about mass c
2 12
- Impulse-Momentum relationship:
t2
o ∫∑⃗
M . dt=I ω 2−I ω 1
t1
t2
o ∫ ∑ ⃗F . dt=m v2 −m v 1
t1
- Free Vibration – no damping:
o ẋ˙ +ω2n x=0
- Free Vibration – with damping
o ẋ˙ +2 ζ ωn ẋ+ ω2n x=0
- Forced vibration no damping
2 F0
o ẋ˙ +ωn = sin ( ωt ) note the second omegais the forcing frequency
m
- Forced vibration with damping
2 F0
o ẋ˙ +2 ζ ωn ẋ+ ωn= sin ( ωt )
m
- Transmission – forces being transmitted to the surface from the vibrations.
- When dealing with vibration problems always first determine equilibrium positions and use
them as the references to cancel them out.
 Week 6 Monday Lecture: Balance
Sources of Vibrations:
Vibration sources can often not be altered; e.g. atmospheric turbulence, earthquakes, road
roughness, engine combustion instability.

Some can, however, be altered; e.g. unbalance of rotating machines and reciprocating machines.

Imbalance:
Imbalance in machines is normally produced by machining errors or rotating parts such as gears,
fans, flywheels. Also, by variations in sizes of bolts, nuts, welds, etc.

Vibrations caused by unbalanced mass can be eliminated by removing eccentric mass, by adding an
equal mass in a position that cancels the effect of the imbalance.

Reaction force due to imbalance:

The amount of unbalance can be found if you rotate the element at a constant angular velocity at
two bearings. If the unbalanced mass m, is located at a radius r of the disc shown below, the
centrifugal force is mr ω2.

Applying moment equation to the system:

Σ M =Iα
Reaction forces at the two bearings:
2 a2 2 2 a1 2
F 1 l=mr ω a2 → F 1= mr ω F 2 l=mr ω a1 → F 2= mr ω
l l

Reaction Force of Rotating Masses:

The imbalance forces in this scenario are:
F =mi r⃗ i ω 2 which breaks downinto ; Fix =m i r i ω 2 cos θ i∧F iy=mi r i ω2 sinθ i
⃗
¿ the moments of each mass about A are :
∑⃗ Fi which breaks down into ; M Aix =m i r i l i ω 2 sin θi ∧M Aiy=m i r i l i ω2 cos θi
M Ai =l⃗ i × ⃗
If balanced, then all reaction forces in every direction should equal zero and the moment of the
centrifugal forces taken about any reference planes should also equal zero.

Balancing of a Reciprocating Engine:

Displacement of the Piston (P):

x p=r +l−rcosθ−lcosϕ ¿ r +l−rcos ( ωt )−l √1−sin 2 ϕ

´
Distance CB=lsinϕ=rsinθ=rsinωt

r2 2
Therefore , cosϕ= 1−
√ l2
sin ( ωt )

r2 2
√
x p=r +l−rcos ( ωt )−l 1− 2 sin ( ωt )
l

If r/l < ¼ then we can simplify this approximately to…

r2 2 r2 1−cos (2 ωt ) whi
√ 1−
l
ch gives…
2
sin ( ωt ) ≈ 1−
2l 2
2
sin2 ( ωt )sin ( ωt )=
2

r 2 1−cos ( 2 ωt )
x p=r +l−rcos ( ωt )−l 1− ( 2 l2 2 )
r r
(
x p=r 1+
4l) (
−r cos ωt + cos 2 ωt
4l )
Velocity and acceleration of piston:
r r
(
x˙ p=rω sinωt +
2l ) (
cos 2 ωt x˙ p=r ω 2 cosωt + cos 2 ωt
l )
Equations for Crankpin:

Connecting rod considerations:

Motion of connecting rod induces transverse forces which is complicated and difficult to model. So,
we replace with an equivalent two mass system. To keep total mass the same, and the centre of
mass we require;

The connecting rod is generally idealized as a mass-less link with two equivalent masses connecting
to its two ends of the piston and crank.

Inertia Forces:
if p and c are the piston and crank respectively, the inertia forces for one cylinder is:
r 2 ω2
(
F x =m p x¨p + mc ẍ c =( m p +mc ) r ω 2 cosωt +m p
l )
cos 2 ωt (Note this is the vertical inertia force
and y is the horizontal).
F y =m p ÿ p + mc ÿ c =−m c r ω 2 sinωt Where yp=0 since piston can only move vertically.
We need to balance the inertia forces to enable the engine to run smoothly. We counterbalance the
crank to make Fy=0. It is impossible to counter-balance the unbalanced mass of a piston so F x always
exists, hence a single cylinder engine is inherently unbalanced. A multiple cylinder engine is
developed to balance some or all of the inertia forces and torques.

Balancing of a 6 Cylinder Engine:

Complicated derivations so let t=0 and here are the results:
Force Balancing Conditions:

Moments about the y and x axes:

The balancing conditions for the moment:

So, this system can be rearranged to satisfy the two equations for complete balances of the inertia
forces and moments.
 Week 6 Monday Lecture (2) – Lagrange’s Equations.
Consider a simple pendulum swinging. The angle can uniquely determine the position of the mass,
so this is a system of one-degree-of-freedom. (The system can be determined by the x and y
coordinates; however, these are not independent as they are related by the radius).

Now consider a double pendulum with 2 masses. These masses can be uniquely
described using two coordinates ( θ1 ∧θ2 ) . Therefore, this is a two-degree-of-

freedom system.

Number of DOF = Number of generalized coordinates.

Another example of a 2DOF system would be a mass hanging from a spring

which has another mass hanging from a spring under it. This system will have 2
natural frequencies corresponding to the 2 natural modes of vibration. In lower
frequency, they move in the same direction, in-phase. In higher frequency, they
move in opposite directions, 180 degrees out of phase with each other.

Lagrange’s Equations:
A system with k degrees of freedom can be represented by k generalised coordinates for holonomic
systems, designated by q 1 , q 2 , … , q kwhich can be length, angle or any independent quantity that
defines the position of the system.

Consider a system of a single particle of mass m acted by a resultant force with components
F x , F y , F z . The motion of the system can be expressed as:

The relationships between the rectangular coordinates and the

generalised coordinates are:

So now, the equation in terms of generalized coordinates:

Thus the generalized force is the part in the first brackets and the generalized acceleration is the bit
in the second brackets.
The left side of the equation is the work done by the force during the ‘virtual displacement’ δ q1.

(Note, if the generalized coordinate is a dimensionless angle, the generalized force will have the
dimension of moment rather than force).
Then, introducing the Lagrangian function (or kinetic potential): L=T-V
(Where, T is KE and V is PE).

Lagrange’s Equation Observations:

- Obtain differential equations of motion expressed in the independent coordinates

- Require an expression for velocity rather than acceleration that often requires considerable
kinematics to determine.
- Are one of the most useful methods for advanced mechanics that involve systems of
multiple degrees of freedom.
- Lagrange’s equations establish the motion equations, but do not solve them.
SECTION B1:
Orbital
Mechanics
 Week 7 Monday Lecture 1 – Intro to Orbital Mechanics.
Orbital Mechanics:
The study of motion of objects in space under the influences of forces.

Kepler’s Laws:
Kepler’s First Law:
The orbit of each planet around the sun is elliptical with the sun being one of the focal points.

Kepler’s Second Law:

A line joining a planet and the sun sweeps out equal areas during equal intervals of time.

Kepler’s Third Law:

The square of the orbital period ( τ ) of a planet is directly proportional to the cube of the semi-major
axis (a) of its orbit.
τ2
=k Central Force Motion:
a3

The radial and tangential forces and acceleration are

given by:
−mg R 2E 2
2 −g R E
F r= F θ =0 a r = r̈ −r θ̇ = a θ=r θ̈+2 ṙ θ̇=0
r2 r2

g=acceleration of gravity at the surface R E=radius ¿ the surface .

By setting the initial condition θ=0 at r 0 ∧v 0 and solving the above acceleration equations gives the
equation of motion of the orbit:
d2u g R2E 1 2 −12 m
3
+u= Where :u= ;∧g R E =GM =μ G=gravitational constant=66.73× 10 Th
d θ2 r 20 v 20 r kg s2
ese can be solved to give:
r 1+ ϵ r v2
= where ϵ= 0 20 −1This is an equation for a conic section where ϵ is the eccentricity
r 0 1+ ϵcosθ g RE
of the section.

Conic Sections:
A conic section is the intersection of a plane
with a cone. By changing the angle of the plane
and its distance from the vertex, we can
produce a circle, ellipse, parabola, or a
hyperbola.

b2
√
ϵ = 1−
a2
The eccentricity

defines the type of orbital

trajectory as summarised above.
 Week 7 Monday Lecture 2 – Orbits
Angular Momentum in Orbital Mechanics:

H O =⃗r × m ⃗v =constant
⃗

Therefore, r⃗ is perpendicular to ⃗
H and the particle moves
o

in a plane perpendicular to ⃗
H .
o

Where the subscripts p and a

are the apogee (furthest point)
and perigee (closest point) of
the orbit respectively.

Using this to prove Kepler’s Second Law:

So, in equal periods of

time, equal areas
swept out = Kepler’s 2nd Law.

Finding orbit trajectory equation:

Combine the conic section equations from last lecture:
 r 20 v20
2
r 1+ ϵ r ( 1+ϵ ) r v 0 0
= →r = 0 We also know that ϵ = −1So then: g R2E2
r 0 1+ ϵcosθ 1+ ϵcosθ gR r= E
1+ ϵcosθ
But as we saw in the angular momentum equations: h=r 0 v 0=constant ; we also know g R 2E =μ

So then, the orbital trajectory equation is as follows:

h2
μ
r=
1+ ϵcosθ
Deriving the Orbit period equation for a circular orbit:
The area swept in one revolution A=π r 2

h v0 r 0
The areal velocity Ȧ= =
2 2

A 2 π r0
The period τ = =
Ȧ v0

r 0 v 20 g R2E
For a circular orbit the eccentricity is 0, meaning: ϵ =
g RE
2
−1=0 → v 0=
√ r0

2π 2 π 3 /2
Subbing this in: τ = 2
r 30 /2= r0
√g R E
√μ
2 π 3/ 2 1
Similarly for an Elliptical Orbit: τ = a wherea= (r a+ r p)
√μ 2
Therefore, we’ve proved Kepler’s Third Law.

Total Energy in Orbital Mechanics:

1 2
Kinetic Energy: T = m v
2
r r r
mμ 1
Potential Energy: V =−U=∫ F r ( r ) . dr =∫
∞ ∞ r 2
. dr=−mμ
r ∞
[]
=
−mμ
r
T +V v 2 μ
Therefore, the total energy per unit mass m: E= = − =constant
m 2 r
Substituting the angular momentum and orbit equation into the energy equation for θ=0 :
h 2 μ2 ( 1+ ϵ ) μ 2 ( ϵ−1 ) −μ
E= − = = (note , skipped some steps∈derivation)
r 20 2h 2 2 h2 2a

Escape Velocity:
Total energy is conserves so the minimum velocity at radius r to just get to infinity (to escape).
 v 2∞ μ v 2esc μ 2 μ (note: for the event horizon of a black hole, the
E∞ =
2 r∞
− =0=
2
− Therefore v ❑
r esc =
r √
escape velocity is the speed of light, c, so nothing can escape the event horizon, not even light,
which is why we can’t see it).

Week 7 Tuesday Lecture – Orbital Applications and Manoeuvres

Geostationary Orbits:
For example, a communications satellite placed in geostationary orbit will point to the same spot on
earth at all times. An equatorial geo orbit would not be very useful to cover a very high latitude as it
is too low, so instead use a highly elliptical, near polar orbit.

Advantages:
- Eliminates need for tracking antennae
- Covers a large patch of the earth
- No orbit decay

Disadvantages:
- Very high altitude means communication delay
- Can’t do repairs so expensive for reliability
- Limited orbit slots available
- Life limited (fuel) to keep satellite position

Low Earth Orbits:

LEO:
<1500km
- transfer orbit (250-300km)
- constellations of satellites for communications.

Polar Orbit:
- 90 deg to equator, passing over both poles.
- Possible to cover the entire earth’s surface as earth rotates
- Mapping, earth observation, some weather satellites.

Advantages:
- Easy to reach (fuel)
- Constellation of satellites avoids communication delay
- Easy to replace
Disadvantages:
- Not synchronous
- Needs lots of satellites.

Sun-Synchronous:
A polar orbit for which the satellite passes over the same point at the same time each day.
- Remote sensing
- 8 to 9 degrees off true polar
- approx. 1000km altitude

Medium Earth Orbit (MEO):

- Navigation and Communication
- GPS
- Galileo

High Earth Orbits:

- Higher than GEO
- Examples: Chandra X-Ray observatory spy satellites – quick dip to low altitude in atmosphere
(perigee) then out again.

Interplanetary Orbits:
- Used to transfer between planets; the sun is the central body
- Typically large eccentricities to do the transfer.

Hohmann Transfer:
Tangential burn/impulses are used to change the velocity and hence the geometry of an orbit to
achieve mission requirements.

Hohmann transfer is the most efficient transfer (least fuel) between

2 circular orbits provided the ratio of the orbits is less than 11.8.
Velocities of circular orbits:
μ μ
v1 =
√ √ rp
v 2=
ra
Perform first tangential burn/impulse to transfer

to an elliptical orbit which just touches both circular orbits.

Δ v 1=v p −v 1.

Perform second tangential burn to circularise and transfer to final

orbit. Δ v 2=v 2−v a

Determine the velocities at the apogee and perigee of each transfer orbit before solving the above:

μ 2 ra μ 2 r p Therefore,
vp =
√ ( )
r p r a +r p √
; v a= ( )
ra ra + r p
2 ra 2rp
Δ v 1=
√ (√
μ
rp r a +r p )
−1 ; Δv 2=
√( √ )
μ
ra
1−
r a +r p
Plane Rotation:
Orbit plane rotations are required due to location of launch (i.e.
launch from Kennedy space centre doesn’t get you to an
equatorial orbit). Plane rotations are achieved by changing the
direction of the velocity vector at the intersections of orbit 1 and
2 (say points A and B).

So,

v1 =v 2=v Δ v=2 vsin ( Δ2i )

Can combine inclination and circularisation manoeuvres to save fuel.

Week 8 Monday Lecture (1) – Interplanetary Transfer

Interplanetary Transfer:
Missions to other planets require a spacecraft to:
1) Escape Earth’s orbit (hyperbolic)
2) Use the sun to transfer to another planet (Hohmann) – known as heliocentric transfer (elliptical
orbit)
3) Encounter the planet however desired – flyby, collide, orbit, etc.

To design each patch of this trajectory, we only consider the attracting body which has the greatest
sphere of influence at each stage – this method is known as patched conics. (Sphere of influence is
2 /5
the surface around the planet on which the sun and planet have equal influence: R soi=α ( m/M )

Earth Escape (Hyperbolic Transfer):

We need to perform a transfer to a partial elliptical orbit

around the sun. These equations are with reference to a
planet at B, but in reality, it is not stationary. Therefore,
 absolute energy/velocity may be increased/decreased due to the hyperbolic flyby depending on the
direction of the velocity of the planet. Also recall that if we pass by in front of a planet we will slow
down and lose energy but if we pass by behind, we gain energy and go faster.

Heliocentric (Sun-centred) Transfer:

Once the craft leaves the Earth it will remain on that hyperbolic escape path until the sun becomes
the primary gravitational sphere of influence. (For simplicity, th e Earth’s influence stops, and the
Sun takes over).
The steps for calculations are as follows:

1. Determine required aphelion and perihelion velocities required for the transfer orbit
(Hohmann transfer).
2. Determine the required Earth escape (hyperbolic excess) velocity from the difference
between the Earth’s velocity and the transfer orbits exit velocity.
3. Determine the hyperbolic perigee velocity required to achieve the hyperbolic excess velocity
4. Determine the impulse/change in velocity from Earth orbit to achieve the hyperbolic perigee
velocity.
5. Determine the position of impulse/change application.

Planetary Encounter:
As the craft approaches the planet, we stop considering the Sun’s gravitational influence and the
planet takes over. The velocity vector at this point is used as the initial conditions for the (reverse)
hyperbolic passage.

Continuing the steps:

6. Determine the required planet hyperbolic excess velocity from the difference between the
planet’s velocity and the transfer orbit velocity.
7. Determine the hyperbolic perigee velocity required to achieve the hyperbolic excess velocity
8. Determine the eccentricity of the pass by from the distance of closest approach and
hyperbolic excess velocity.
9. Determine the angular deflection caused by the planetary flyby.
10. Repeat steps for return heliocentric trajectory or Earth orbit if required.
SECTION B2:
3D Dynamics
 Week 8 Monday Lecture (2) – Introduction
3D Dynamics of Rigid Bodies:
This is when the dynamic motion and forces are occurring in 3 dimensions. Some examples, we’ll
study include; gyroscopes, spinning tops, oscillating fan, frisbee, football, coin toss, etc. Also, a vital
part of space engineering.

In 2D we only have the forces in the X and Y directions and a moment around the Z axis. However, in
3D dynamics we have forces in all 3 directions as well as a moment about each axis. This means we
also have angular velocity, acceleration, and momentum about each axis.

The fundamentals of the methods of analysis for 2D systems remains the same in 3D systems.

∑ F=ma∧∑ M = Ḣ

Week 8 Tuesday Lecture – Angular Momentum and KE in 3D

Angular momentum and energy can be used to determine the equations of motion, the
forces/moments, and simplify problems using the conservation laws.

The conservation laws state that ∑ F=0 → mv=constant ; ∑ M =0 → H =constant ;

d
¿ conservation of energy : ( T +V ) =0 →T + V =constant
dt
Moving Reference Frames:
Most systems contain a body or bodies that
move or rotate relative to each other, so this
requires moving reference frames for
analysis. For example, there is a Body fixed
reference frame which is as if you were on
the moving body; and there is an inertial reference frame which is as if you were watching from the
ground.

Angular Momentum:
The net moment of linear momentum for all body particles. For 2D, H=Iω ⃗k . For 3D there is 3
components (H is a 3x1 vector):
I x −I xy −I xz ωx

inertia are:
−I zx −I zy [
Iz ωz ] ()
H=∑ ( r i × v i Δm i )=Iω where I = −I yx I y −I yz ; ω= ω y Where the mass moments of

I x = ∫ ( y 2+ z 2 ) . dm∧so on …And the mass products of inertia are:

I xy =I yx =∫ ( xy ) dm∧so on …

For angular momentum about a point other than the centre of mass of a system use:
H 0=H G + r O /G × M v O /G If fixed axes xyz are in line with the principal axes of inertia of the body
(meaning it’s balanced), the mass products of inertia become 0, and we are left with
H=I x ω x i⃗ + I y ω y ⃗j+ I z ω z ⃗k .

Kinetic Energy:
1 1
Rotational kinetic energy: T rot = ω . Iω= ω . H
2 2
1
¿ ( I x ω2x + I y ω2y + I z ω 2z −2 I xy ωx ω y −2 I yz ω y ω z−2 I zx ω z ω x ¿
2
If fixed axes xyz are in line with the principal axes of inertia:
1
T rot = ( I x ω 2x + I y ω 2y + I z ω2z ¿
2
1 2
Translational kinetic energy: T t= m v
2
Note, energy is always a scalar, not a vector.
 Week 10 Monday Lecture (1) – 3D Motion Equations
General Equations using rotating reference frame xyz:

Angular Momentum = H=Iω=hx ⃗i + h y ⃗j+ h z ⃗k

Moment = Rate of change of angular momentum
dH
M = Ḣ = = ḣx ⃗i + h˙y ⃗j+ ḣ z ⃗k +Ω × ( h x i⃗ +h y ⃗j+ hz k⃗ )
dt
Then we get:
M x = ḣx + Ω y h z−Ωz h y and so on for y and z.

Special Case: Euler’s Equations:

If fixed axes xyz are chosen to be in line with the principal axes of inertia XYZ, then we get:
M x = ḣx +ω y hz −ω z h y and so on for y and z.
Then we get, h x =I x ω xand so on for y and z.
Thus we get Euler’s Equations
M x =I x ω̇ x −( I y −I z ) ω y ω z M y =I y ω̇ y −( I z−I x ) ω z ω x M z =I z ω̇ z−( I x −I y ) ω x ω y
Special Case: Planar Motion:
Rotational motion is only about one axis – e.g. z axis:
Then ω x =ω y =0.
We get h x =−I xz ω z ; h y =−I yz ω z ; h z=I z ω z
Thus, the planar motion equations are:
M x =−I xz ω̇ z + I yz ω2z M y =−I yz ω̇ z −I xz ω 2z M z =I z ω̇ z

Week 10 Monday Lecture (2) – Forced Precession

Steady Precession of an axisymmetric body:
Steady rotation about an axes of symmetry (e.g. projectiles, spinning top, football, etc.) can easily
give rise to steady precession (wobble or coning).

Steady precession occurs when the angular momentum vector doesn’t coincide with the spin vector.

In order to visualise the 3D motion in the fixed (inertial) axes frame of reference we need to use
eulerian angles as opposed to fixed body ones.
Then the 3D motion equations for angular momentum become:
H x =I x ω x =I 0 θ̇ H y =I y ω y =I 0 ψ̇ sinθH z=I z ω z =I ( ψ̇ cosθ+ p ) ; where p=ϕ̇

Then, the moment equations become:

M x =I 0 ( θ̈−ψ̇ 2 sinθcosθ )+ I ψ̇ ( ψ̇ cosθ + p ) sinθ M y =I 0 ( ψ̈ sinθ+ 2 ψ̇ θ̇ cosθ ) −I θ̇ ( ψ̇ cosθ+ p )

d
M z =I ( ψ̇ cosθ+ p )
dt

Special Case: Forced Steady Precession:

For steady precession: ψ̇=const → ψ̈=0θ=const → θ̇=θ̈=0 p=const → ṗ=0

So, the steady precession equations become:

M x =ψ̇ sinθ [ I ( ψ̇ cosθ + p )−I 0 ( ψ̇ cosθ ) ] M y =M z=0

Note Mx is perpendicular to the precession axis (Z) and the spin axis (z).

For steady precession at θ=90o , we get the gyroscopic moment equation:

M x =Ip ψ̇

Week 10 Tuesday Lecture – Free Precession

Special Case: Unforced Steady Precession:
For unforced steady precession, there is no external torque, so M = Ḣ =0. Therefore, the steady
precession equations become:

M x =ψ̇ sinθ [ I ( ψ̇ cosθ + p )−I 0 ( ψ̇ cosθ ) ]=0∧M y =M z =0

Rearranging the first equation gives the Unforced Precession equation:

Ip
ψ̇=
( I o−I ) cosθ
The direction (sign) of the precession depends on the relative magnitudes of the two moments of
inertia ( I o∧I ) .

I is the spin axis, and I0 is the transverse axis.

If I o > I the precession rate ( ψ̇ ) is in same direction as spin rate (p) – direct precession.
If I o < I the precession rate ( ψ̇ ) is in opposite direction as spin rate (p) – retrograde precession.
If I o=I the precession rate ( ψ̇ ) or θ must be 0, therefore, the body does not precess.

How to predict spin axis alignment θ ?

Conservation of angular momentum tells us H=const.
The fixed axis Z to be aligned with the angular momentum vector (fixed).

H Gy I 0 ω y I 0
H Gx =I 0 ω x =0 tanθ= = = tan ( β ) where β is the angle between z∧H Gz vector .
H Gz I ω z I

Week 11 Monday Lecture 1 – Precession Examples

Week 11 Monday Lecture 2 – Torque-Free Motion and Stability in

3D
To determine if system is stable, if there is a small perturbation it will return to equilibrium point but
if unstable it will move away. For example, a pendulum is stable at lowest point.

Use Euler’s Equations: (fixed axes xyz chosen to be in line with the principal axes XYZ)
M x =I x ω̇ x −( I y −I z ) ω y ω z M y =I y ω̇ y −( I z−I x ) ω z ω x M z =I z ω̇ z−( I x −I y ) ω x ω y

If the motion is torque-free, then M=0:

I x ω̇ x =( I y −I z ) ω y ω z I y ω̇ y =( I z−I x ) ω z ω x I z ω̇ z =( I x −I y ) ω x ω y

Let’s apply steady spin about axis x: (ω x =const=ω c ; ω y =ω z=0 ¿. And if we have a small
perturbation (ϵ , ϵ̇ ¿ so we have ω x =const+ ϵ=ωc +ϵ . Then the above equations simplify to:

I z−I
˙ x I −I
˙
ω˙ y = ωc ω z ; ω̇ z = x y ωc ω y
Iy Iz

Differentiating and substituting gives:

( I x −I y ) ( I x −I z ) 2 ( I x −I y ) ( I x −I z ) 2
ω¨ y + ω c ω y =0ω̈ z + ω c ω z=0
I y Iz I y Iz

This represents simple harmonic oscillators of the form ẍ + λ2 x=0if λ 2> 0 stable ; λ 2< 0 unstable

So thus, the stability criterion for torque-free motion of a rigid body without damping:

Stable if I x > I y , I z ∨I x < I y , I z

(i.e. spin about largest or smallest principal moment of inertia)

Unstable if I y > I x > I z∨I z > I x > I y

(i.e. spin about the intermediate principal moment of inertia)
A 3D semi-rigid body will spin stably only about its major (largest) principal axis, due to
dissipation.