Energy Conversion and Management 43 (2002) 1027–1042

www.elsevier.com/locate/enconman

Using exhaust gas recirculation in internal combustion

engines: a review
G.H. Abd-Alla *
Al-Ain Technical School, P.O. Box 17835, Al-Ain, United Arab Emirates
Received 17 January 2001; accepted 25 April 2001

Abstract
The aim of this work is to review the potential of exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) to reduce the exhaust
emissions, particularly NOX emissions, and to delimit the application range of this technique. A detailed
analysis of previous and current results of EGR effects on the emissions and performance of Diesel engines,
spark ignition engines and duel fuel engines is introduced. From the deep analysis, it was found that adding
EGR to the air flow rate to the Diesel engine, rather than displacing some of the inlet air, appears to be a
more beneficial way of utilizing EGR in Diesel engines. This way may allow exhaust NOX emissions to be
reduced substantially. In spark ignition engines, substantial reductions in NO concentrations are achieved
with 10% to 25% EGR. However, EGR also reduces the combustion rate, which makes stable combustion
more difficult to achieve. At constant burn duration and brake mean effective pressure, the brake specific
fuel consumption decreases with increasing EGR. The improvement in fuel consumption with increasing
EGR is due to three factors: firstly, reduced pumping work; secondly, reduced heat loss to the cylinder
walls; and thirdly, a reduction in the degree of dissociation in the high temperature burned gases. In dual
fuel engines, with hot EGR, the thermal efficiency is improved due to increased intake charge temperatures
and reburning of the unburned fuel in the recirculated gas. Simultaneously, NOX is reduced and smoke is
reduced to almost zero at high natural gas fractions. Cooled EGR gives lower thermal efficiency than hot
EGR but makes possible lower NOX emissions. The use of EGR is, therefore, believed to be most effective
in improving exhaust emissions. Ó 2002 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd.

Keywords: Exhaust gas recirculation; Diesel engine; Spark ignition engine; Dual fuel engine; NOX emission; HC
emission; Hot EGR; Cooled EGR

*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +971-3-784-4096; fax: +971-3-784-6110.
E-mail address: [email protected] (G.H. Abd-Alla).

0196-8904/02/$ - see front matter Ó 2002 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd.

PII: S 0 1 9 6 - 8 9 0 4 ( 0 1 ) 0 0 0 9 1 - 7
1028 G.H. Abd-Alla / Energy Conversion and Management 43 (2002) 1027–1042

1. Introduction

The development of power units with low environmental impact has become one of the most
interesting challenges in automotive technology. In fact, partial recirculation of exhaust gas,
which is not a new technique, has recently become essential, in combination with other tech-
niques, for attaining lower emission levels [1].
Several reasons can be used to explain this sudden interest. Firstly, the proposal of the future
European directive establishes separate, and even more stringent, limits for NOX emissions.
Secondly, further reductions in NOX emissions have probably become the most difficult target
to attain, owing to the associated reverse effect of other recently used techniques, such as high
supercharging, an improved mixing process by more efficient injection systems etc. Thirdly, the
development of a new generation of exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) valves and improvements in
electronic controls allow a better EGR accuracy and shorter response time in transient conditions.
Fourthly, the most common operating conditions, mainly in passenger cars, have moved to lower
engine loads, owing to the increase in urban traffic density, and it must be considered that it is
mainly at partial loads where EGR is indicated because of its higher oxygen content. Finally, the
inclusion in the early 1990s of particulate emission regulations, which are more stringent than
those of smoke opacity, has redirected efforts to reduce emissions in terms of mass rather than in
terms of concentration, which can be favoured by reducing the total exhaust mass flow rate.

2. Example of exhaust gas recirculation system

To study the effects of EGR on the performance and emissions of automotive engines, the
system shown in Fig. 1 gives an example of the EGR system. This system was designed, manu-
factured and installed on the Ricardo E-6 engine, which was used as an indirect injection dual fuel

Fig. 1. EGR system [2].

 G.H. Abd-Alla / Energy Conversion and Management 43 (2002) 1027–1042 1029

engine [2]. To remove the smoke, a particulate trap filter size of 15
15
30 cm3 is used. The
temperature of the recirculated exhaust gases if measured by a thermocouple fitted in the EGR
pipe near the intake air manifold. The filter material is made from steel wool. Part of the EGR
pipe is made from flexible stainless steel to avoid transfer of engine vibration to the exhaust system
and then to the measuring instruments. Glass wool is used to insulate the EGR pipe to minimize
the reduction gas temperature.

3. Definition of exhaust gas recirculation percent

The percent of exhaust gas recirculation (EGR(%)) is defined as the percent of the total intake
mixture which is recycled exhaust,
EGRð%Þ ¼ ðmEGR =mi Þ
100 ð1Þ
where [mi ¼ ma þ mf þ mEGR ] and mEGR is the mass of EGR. Up to about 30% of the exhaust can
be recirculated.
An alternative definition of percent EGR is also used, based on the ratio of EGR to fresh
mixture (fuel and air):
EGR ð%Þ ¼ ðmEGR =ðma þ mf Þ
100 ð2Þ
The EGR ratio also, in some cases is defined as the volumetric ratio of the recirculated gas to
the total charge induced into the cylinder. In such cases, the EGR ratio can reach 50% [3].
EGRð%Þ ¼ ½VEGR =ðVair þ Vf þ VEGR Þ
100 ð3Þ

4. Exhaust gas recirculation in diesel engines

EGR is one of the most effective techniques currently available for reducing NOX emissions in
internal combustion engines. However, the application of EGR also incurs penalties. In the case
of Diesel engines, they include worsening specific fuel consumption and particulate emissions
[4,5]. In particular, EGR aggravates the trade-off between NOX and particulate emissions, espe-
cially at high loads. The application of EGR can also effect adversely the lubricating oil quality
and engine durability. Also, EGR has not been applied practically to heavy duty Diesel engines
because wear of piston rings and cylinder liner is increased by EGR. It is widely considered that
sulfur oxide in the exhaust gas strongly relates to the wear. The results showed that the sulfur
oxide concentration in the oil layer is related strongly to the EGR rate, inversely with engine speed
and decreases under light load conditions. It was also found that as the carbon dioxide levels are
increased due to EGR, the combustion noise levels also increase, but the effect is more noticeable
at certain frequencies. Furthermore, whatever the carbon dioxide content of the intake mixture,
it has been observed that as the engine load is increased, the noise levels decrease [6]. By in-
creasing the EGR ratios, the heat release rates during premixed combustion, which is charac-
terized by rapid burning and which significantly governs NOX formation, can be suppressed more
efficiently. Furthermore, the combined effects of EGR and supercharging achieved a considerable
1030 G.H. Abd-Alla / Energy Conversion and Management 43 (2002) 1027–1042

improvement in combustion along with a reduction in NOX . The results show that NOX can be
reduced almost in proportion to the EGR ratio and that an approximately 50% NOX reduction at
a 20% EGR ratio can be achieved without deteriorating smoke and unburned HC emissions [7].
Diesel engines operate with no deliberate inlet air throttling (i.e. without a throttle). Thus,
Diesel engines admit into the cylinders as much air as it is practicable to trap at a given engine
running condition (say, 0.5 g as shown in Fig. 2). Thus, the application of EGR (say, 0.1 g as
shown in Fig. 2) involves displacement of some of the inlet air by EGR. A consequence of this air

Fig. 2. Comparison of different ways in which EGR is used in internal combustion engines [4].
 G.H. Abd-Alla / Energy Conversion and Management 43 (2002) 1027–1042 1031

Fig. 3. The effect on engine inlet charge of replacing 25% of the inlet air with hot (700 K) EGR (Diesel engine at 32:1
air–fuel ratio) [4].

displacement (say, 0.1 g, see Fig. 2) is a reduction in the air available for combustion. Since for a
given torque and power output, the amount of fuel supplied to the engine must stay constant, the
reduced air available for combustion lowers the air–fuel ratio at which the engine operates. This
reduction in air–fuel ratio can affect exhaust emissions substantially.
Fig. 3 summarizes the effects of EGR on the inlet charge composition of a Diesel engine. In the
example of Fig. 2, 25% of the inlet air flow rate is removed and replaced by an equal volume flow
rate of hot EGR. It can be seen that the effect on the inlet charge is, firstly, a 14% reduction in the
charge mass flow rate. This is due to the reduction in the engine volumetric efficiency as a result of
the rise in inlet charge temperature. Secondly, some of the inlet air is displaced by carbon dioxide
(CO2 ) and water vapour (H2 O), which are the principal constituents of EGR. Thus, the appli-
cation of hot EGR reduces the nitrogen (N2 ) flow rate to the engine by about 15% and the oxygen
(O2 ) flow rate by 19%. About one-fifth of the reduction in the O2 flow rate is due to its dis-
placement by CO2 and H2 O present in the EGR, and the remainder is due to the reduction
in volumetric efficiency. When EGR is mixed with the inlet air supplied to a Diesel engine, the
temperature of the inlet charge to the engine increases, which can significantly affect the com-
pressed charge temperature and the combustion process [4].
EGR, at part load, can be used to reduce Diesel engine NOX emissions. Note that since Diesel
engines operate with the airflow unthrottled, at part load, the CO2 and H2 O concentrations in the
exhaust gas are low, being essentially proportional to the fuel/air ratio. Because of this, high EGR
levels are required for significant reductions in NOX emissions. Fig. 4 shows how NOX concen-
trations decrease as a DI Diesel engine inlet air flow is diluted at a constant fueling rate. The
dilution is expressed in terms of oxygen concentration in the mixture after dilution. Fig. 5 shows
how the EGR affects specific NOX and HC, fuel consumption and smoke for a small high swril DI
Diesel engine at typical automobile engine part load conditions. Effective reduction of brake
specific NOX is achieved and modest reductions in brake specific HC, with only a slight increase in
bsfc. However, smoke is increased as the EGR rate is increased [8].
NOX emissions are mainly affected by two factors: (1) the presence of oxygen in the charge and
(2) the reaction temperature, which promotes chemical activity during both the formation and
1032 G.H. Abd-Alla / Energy Conversion and Management 43 (2002) 1027–1042

Fig. 4. Effect of reduction in oxygen concentration by different diluents (EGR, CO2 , N2 ) on NOX emissions in DI
Diesel [8].

destruction stages. During the formation stage, the reaction temperature is close to the adiabatic
flame temperature, which is a consequence of the oxygen concentration in the charge, the initial
temperature and pressure and the local fuel–air ratio. EGR reduces the oxygen concentration in
the charge and, consequently, the combustion pressure and temperature, as shown in Fig. 6 [1].
The engine tests have demonstrated that NOX is greatly suppressed when the O2 concentration
in the combustion chamber is reduced (dilution effect). The question arises, therefore, as to why
the reduction in O2 concentration in the cylinder suppresses NOX emission. A possible explana-
tion for this effect is discussed below with the aid of Fig. 7, which shows the combustion occurring
in two Diesel fuel sprays, one with and the other without EGR being present. Firstly, the as-
sumption is made that combustion takes place in regions where the air–fuel ratio is at stoichio-
metric proportions, as shown in the left diagram of Fig. 7. On using EGR, some of the O2 in the
cylinder contents is replaced by CO2 , and the local O2 concentration in the cylinder becomes
lower. With the local O2 concentration reduced, a given amount of fuel will have to diffuse over a
wider area before sufficient O2 is encountered for a stoichiometric mixture to be formed (right
diagram of Fig. 7). Now, for a given amount of fuel, this larger region of stoichiometric mixture
contains not only the stoichiometric mixture but also an additional quantity of CO2 , H2 O and N2 .
The additional amount of these gases absorbs energy released by combustion, leading to lower
flame temperature and lower NOX generation [4].

5. Exhaust gas recirculation in spark ignition engines

EGR is the principal technique used for control of SI engine NOX emissions. A fraction of the
exhaust gases is recirculated through a control valve from the exhaust to the engine intake system.
 G.H. Abd-Alla / Energy Conversion and Management 43 (2002) 1027–1042 1033

Fig. 5. Brake specific HC, NOX , fuel consumption and smoke emissions as a function of EGR percent for 2.4 dm3 four
cylinder high swirl DI Diesel engine at 1250 rpm and 255 kPa bmep [8].

The recirculated exhaust gas is usually mixed with the fresh fuel–air mixture just below the
throttle valve. EGR acts, at part load, as an additional diluent in the unburned gas mixture,
thereby reducing the peak burned gas temperatures and NO formation rates [8].
1034 G.H. Abd-Alla / Energy Conversion and Management 43 (2002) 1027–1042

Fig. 6. Pressure signals for different EGR in the DI Diesel engine [1].

Fig. 7. Increase in volume occupied by spray flame with use of EGR [4].

It was found that EGR lowers the NOX concentration in the exhaust gas. It also lowered the
specific fuel consumption and decreased the heat transfer from the cylinder contents to the sur-
rounding surface. Practically, the quantity of EGR is limited to a point beyond which the com-
bustion temperature and the flame speed are low enough to prevent a successful engine operation.
EGR increases the HC emissions but has little effect on CO emissions. The increase of HC
emissions may reach over 60% at higher rates of EGR [9].
Modern gasoline engines operate with a stoichiometric air–fuel mixture. When no EGR is used,
the amount of air–fuel mixture mass admitted to the engine cylinders (say, 0.3 g as shown in Fig.
2) controls the torque and power developed by the engine. If the torque and power output are to
stay constant when EGR is introduced, then the mixture mass trapped in the cylinders must also
stay constant (at 0.3 g). For this reason, as Fig. 2 shows, the EGR mass admitted into the engine
cylinders (say, 0.1 g as shown in Fig. 2) must be additional to the trapped air–fuel mixture mass.
Thus, the total trapped charge mass (air–fuel mixture plus EGR) must increase (to 0.4 kg) for the
torque and power output to say constant. Since the engine cylinder volume is fixed, this increase
 G.H. Abd-Alla / Energy Conversion and Management 43 (2002) 1027–1042 1035

Fig. 8. Variation of exhaust NO concentration with EGR (%). Spark ignition engine, 1600 rpm, gv ¼ 50% MBT
timing [8].

in trapped mass can only be achieved by raising the trapped charge density, which necessitates
further opening of the engine throttle (see Fig. 2). An incidental benefit of this increase in throttle
opening is a reduction in engine pumping work and some increase in fuel economy [4].
Fig. 8 shows the effect of EGR on NO emissions. Substantial reductions in NO concentrations are
achieved with 10–25% EGR. However, EGR also reduces the combustion rate, which makes stable
combustion more difficult to achieve. EGR percentages in the 15–30% range are about the maxi-
mum amount of EGR a spark ignition engine will tolerate under normal part throttle conditions [8].
The effect of EGR on engine performance and efficiency, for mixtures with / 6 1:0, is similar to
the addition of excess air. Both EGR and excess air dilute the unburned mixture. In practice, since
EGR is only used at part throttle conditions, / 6 1:0 is the region of interest. Fig. 9 shows the
effect of increasing EGR on bsfc at constant bmep, predicted using a thermodynamic based
computer simulation of the engine’s operating cycle. Predictions made for different burn duration
are shown, at MBT timing of a stoichiometric mixture. At constant burn duration, bsfc decreases
with increasing EGR. The improvement in fuel consumption with increasing EGR is due to three
factors: (1) reduced pumping work as EGR is increased at constant brake load (fuel and air flows
remain almost constant, hence, intake pressure increases), (2) reduced heat loss to the cylinder
walls because the burned gas temperature is decreased significantly and (3) a reduction in the
degree of dissociation in the high temperature burned gases, which allows more of the fuel’s
chemical energy to be converted to sensible energy near TDC. The first two of these are com-
parable in magnitude, and each is about twice as important as the third [8].

6. Exhaust gas recirculation in dual fuel engines

The dual fuel is a conventional Diesel engine of the compression ignition type in which some of
the energy release by combustion comes about from the combustion of a gaseous fuel, while the
1036 G.H. Abd-Alla / Energy Conversion and Management 43 (2002) 1027–1042

Fig. 9. Effect of EGR on brake specific fuel consumption at constant bmep and speed, stiochiometric mixture and
various burn durations. Predictions from thermodynamics based cycle simulation [8].

Diesel liquid fuel continues to provide throughout, through timed cylinder injection, the re-
maining part of the energy release (about 10% of total energy release). The term ‘‘dual fuel’’
should not be confused with bi-fuel applications of spark ignition engines, where the liquid fuel is
not combusted simultaneously with the gaseous fuel. The dual fuel engine is an ideal multi-fuel
engine that can operate effectively on a wide range of different fuels, while maintaining the ca-
pacity for operation as a conventional Diesel engine. Normally, the change over from dual fuel to
Diesel operation, and vice versa, can be made automatically, even under load. Over the years, the
dual fuel engine has been employed in a very wide range of applications. Numerous stationary
installations were and are being used for power production, CO generation, compression of gases
and pumping duties. In transport, the problem of the portability of the gaseous fuel and the
provision of a compact storage facility in mobile applications remain a field of urgent long term
research that can have the potential for opening widely the market for the dual fuel engine and the
increased exploitation of gaseous fuel resources [10]. The dual fuel engine can be either the four
stroke or the two stroke type. The latter is a little more demanding in its conversion to the dual
fuel principle, mainly so as to avoid the unnecessary passage of the mixture of fuel and air
needlessly to the exhaust during the scavenging process. Thus, relatively fewer two stroke engines
have been modified to run on gaseous fuels in comparison to those of the four stroke type.
Moreover, both normally aspirated and turbocharged Diesel engines have been run on gaseous
fuels over an extremely wide range of engine power that can extend to very large marine engine
applications involving thousands of kilowatts per engine [11]. The gaseous fuel is normally in-
troduced and mixed with air in a simple carburetor system. Occasionally, timed injection into the
manifold can be utilized, while for some turbocharged two stroke applications, timed injection
directly into the engine cylinder is employed [12]. Nevertheless, the control of such multi-fuel
operation does represent, in principle, increased complexity of operation, contributing towards
higher capital and operational costs. There is much room for developing reliable, inexpensive and
simple control systems for dual fuel engines. the dual fuel combustion system in compression
ignition engines features essentially the rapid compression of the gas–air mixture to below its
 G.H. Abd-Alla / Energy Conversion and Management 43 (2002) 1027–1042 1037

autoignition conditions. The charge is then ignited during the compression stroke at some point
near the top dead center position by ignition of Diesel liquid fuel in the usual way. The engine
retains the ability to run on either Diesel liquid fuel only or in association with a gaseous fuel–air
mixture over a wide range of concentration. The Diesel liquid fuel is injected through the con-
ventional Diesel fuel system, and the quantity of the pilot charge per injection can be either fixed,
regardless of engine output, or made to vary in relation to the gaseous fuel supplied in a pre-
scribed fashion [10].
The use of EGR has become a popular way of reducing NOX levels in dual fuel engines.
By using EGR, the intake mixture composition and thermodynamic state are changed, and the
resulting charge contains significant quantities of radicals and diluents, such as CO2 , N2 and
H2 O. The presence of radicals activates the preignition reactions, which leads to changes in the
combustion characteristics of the engine. The primary effect of the diluent in the intake mixture
on the NOX formation process is that it reduces the flame temperature by increasing the
heat capacity of the cylinder charge per unit mass of fuel [7]. On the other hand, many investi-
gators recommend to using EGR to improve the light load performance of dual fuel engines
[13].
It is suggested that the disadvantages of using EGR in both spark ignition and compression
ignition engines (e.g. noise levels and wear of piston rings due to relatively higher concentrations
of SO2 ) can be avoided in dual fuel engines.
Dual fuel engines are a combination of both spark ignition and Diesel engines. They operate
without throttling. Thus, dual fuel engines admit into the cylinders as much air as it is practicable
to trap at a given engine running condition. The gaseous fuel is normally introduced and mixed
with the air in the manifold. Thus, the application of EGR (say, 0.1 g as shown in Fig. 2) involves
displacement of some of the inlet gaseous fuel–air mixture by EGR. A consequence of this gaseous
fuel–air mixture displacement (say,0.1 g, see Fig. 2) is a reduction in the gaseous fuel–air mixture
available for combustion. For a given torque and power output, the amount of gaseous fuel
supplied to the engine must be increased, and this will reduce the air–fuel ratio at which the engine
operates. This reduction in air–fuel ratio can affect exhaust emissions substantially. As discussed
earlier, NOX emissions are mainly affected by two factors: (1) the presence of oxygen in the charge
and (2) the reaction temperature. EGR reduces the oxygen concentration in the charge, and this
can lead to substantial reduction in NOX emissions.
Fig. 10 shows the effects of hot EGR. Higher EGR ratios significantly decreased the HC
emissions. One reason for this is that a portion of the unburned gas in the exhaust from the
previous cycle is recirculated to and burned in the succeeding cycle. The recirculated exhaust gas,
although raising the intake charge temperature, caused lower combustion temperatures due to the
following: the local air–fuel ratio is lowered, and the ignition delay is reduced, thereby decreasing
the early part of combustion. This possibly reduced the NOX in the exhaust [3]. The thermal
efficiency improved with more EGR, especially at higher natural gas fractions. This could be the
result of better combustion of natural gas due to the increase in intake air temperature and the
relative reduction in the amount of natural gas used with increased EGR. Some smoke is emitted
when using EGR because of the reduction in the amount of air in the intake charge. However, it is
found that when the natural gas fraction is raised to 40% at 1/4 load and 70% at 1/2 load, the
smoke level decreased to almost zero. Dual fuel operation with hot EGR at high natural gas
fractions is, thus, effective in reducing Diesel smoke.
1038 G.H. Abd-Alla / Energy Conversion and Management 43 (2002) 1027–1042

Fig. 10. Effect of hot EGR in dual fuel engine (2000 rpm, 1/4 load) [3].
G.H. Abd-Alla / Energy Conversion and Management 43 (2002) 1027–1042 1039

Fig. 11. Effect of hot EGR in dual fuel engine (2000 rpm, 2/4 load) [3].
1040 G.H. Abd-Alla / Energy Conversion and Management 43 (2002) 1027–1042

Fig. 12. Comparison between hot EGR and cold EGR (2000 rpm, 1/4 load) [3].
 G.H. Abd-Alla / Energy Conversion and Management 43 (2002) 1027–1042 1041

Fig. 11 shows the data for 1/2 load. HC emissions are lower, NOX levels about the same, and
the thermal efficiency is higher compared to those at 1/4 load. The smoke levels are higher than
that at low load at higher EGR ratios and lower gas fractions.
Fig. 12 presents a comparison between hot EGR and cooled EGR. HC emissions are lower
with hot EGR compared to cooled EGR. NOX , however, is lower with cooled EGR on account
of lower combustion temperatures with the latter. The brake thermal efficiency with hot EGR is
slightly better than that with cooled EGR. This could be due to a lower combustion velocity,
arising from a lower intake charge temperature with cooled EGR.
In practice, the choice between cooled EGR to reduce NOX and hot EGR to improve thermal
efficiency will have to be made properly to suit specific demands.

7. Conclusion

1. Adding EGR to the air flow rate to the Diesel engine, rather than displacing some of the inlet
air, appears to be a more beneficial way of utilizing EGR in Diesel engines. This way may allow
exhaust NOX emissions to be reduced substantially.
2. In spark ignition engines, substantial reductions in NO concentrations are achieved with 10–
25% EGR. However, EGR also reduces the combustion rate, which makes stable combustion
more difficult to achieve. At constant burn duration and brake mean affective pressure, the
brake specific fuel consumption decreases with increasing EGR. The improvement in fuel con-
sumption with increasing EGR is due to three factors: firstly, reduced pumping work; secondly
heat loss to the cylinder walls; and thirdly, a reduction in the degree of dissociation in the high
temperature burned gases.
3. In dual fuel engines, with hot EGR, thermal efficiency is improved due to increased intake
charge temperatures and reburning of the unburned fuel in the recirculated gas. Simulta-
neously, NOX is reduced, and smoke is reduced to almost zero at high natural gas fractions.
Cooled EGR gives lower thermal efficiency than hot EGR but makes possible lower NOX emis-
sions. The use of EGR is, therefore, believed to be most effective in improving exhaust emis-
sions.

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