Workbook

CRITICAL
THINKING AND
PROBLEM
SOLVING
Copyright 2015

 Australian Institute of Management Education and Training

All rights reserved
Version: 3.1
Date Modified: 17.05.2015
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Critical Thinking and Problem Solving: Workbook

CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................ 2
Learning Outcomes ...................................................................................................................... 2
BUSINESS PROBLEMS ................................................................................................................. 3
Problems Facing Business............................................................................................................ 3
BUSINESS THINKING ................................................................................................................... 5
Critical Thinking .......................................................................................................................... 7
CONCENTRATION –DIRECT YOUR THINKING ................................................................. 10
PROBLEM SOLVING AND CRITICAL THINKING .............................................................. 13
Problem Recognition.................................................................................................................. 14
Problem Definition ..................................................................................................................... 15
Evaluate the Problem ................................................................................................................. 17
Develop a Problem Statement .................................................................................................... 17
Problem Analysis ....................................................................................................................... 19
Quantifying the Causes and Effects ........................................................................................... 20
Questions .................................................................................................................................... 26
GENERATE SOLUTIONS ........................................................................................................... 40
Techniques to Generate Solutions .............................................................................................. 40
IDENTIFY THE BEST SOLUTION............................................................................................ 45
Evaluating Solutions .................................................................................................................. 46
Making a Decision ..................................................................................................................... 50
IMPLEMENT THE SOLUTION AND FOLLOW UP............................................................... 51
LEARNING JOURNAL ................................................................................................................ 52
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................... 53
 Critical Thinking and Problem Solving: Workbook

Introduction

The critical thinking and problem solving short course provides you with the skills you need to make
decisions that are aligned to business goals. The course considers a range of models and techniques
and provides practical guidance on how to implement them in your workplace.

Learning Outcomes
• Identify business problems within a problem solving framework
• Identify the five types of critical thinking needed in business environments and ways to
effectively apply the process of critical thinking and analysis within own work role
• Identify and apply a structured approach for tackling problems and issues in a business
environment
• Identify, correct and prevent errors in thinking and problem solving in business
• Explore options and solutions to help you get better results

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Business Problems

Problems Facing Business

There are many different types of issues that can directly or indirectly affect your organisation’s
ability to operate. People often make the mistake of overlooking things that don’t directly impact their
business and are therefore unprepared to deal with them when they happen.
So what are some of the big issues facing organisations today?
• Regulatory and compliance burdens – industrial relations – the world sets our prices and
Australia sets our costs. Is there a need to get the balance right with industrial relations?
• Having the appropriate mix of skills and experience necessary to navigate challenging
business conditions and take advantage of the opportunities for growth (industry knowledge
and business skills experience).
• The need for organisations to have a solid understanding of digital technology and the social
media environment. It is increasingly becoming a tool to engage with stakeholders and
customers and there are long-term structural opportunities and threats from technology
enabled business models.
• Some organisations are still primarily focused on domestic operations and therefore not taking
steps to prepare for new market opportunities. Many of the markets are very different to the
domestic environment, including business practices and culture. Consideration must be given
to negotiating, operating and communicating across geographies.
• Productivity remains a priority and the way of improving productivity is not just confined to
labour reform
• Impact of mandatory reporting for gender based quotas on organisational merit based
recruitment and selection procedures.
• Loss of ‘baby boomers’ and knowledge resulting in a need to encourage people to stay in the
workforce for longer. Implications for job design and incentives to invest more in super for
when they retire.
• Adjustment to changing economic circumstance e.g. by becoming more competitive, while at
the same time delivering the services that customers expect and demand.
• Evolving customer needs as technology creates new and more opportunities for them to
interact with business. There is a need to use different channels, from online and mobile, to
live chat and move between these channels more often and with ease.

Discussion: How common are these organisational problems?

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Activity: Potential problems

Consider the problems that could arise for your organisation if…
Your supplier requests a price increase of 5% and tells you they won’t be able to supply if they don’t
get it.

Your competitor releases a new customer service strategy ‘Get human” where a real person will be
there to take your call and guide you through the process from the moment you are connected.

The government suddenly withdraws funding for services which you provide to clients.

The risk of exposure to an ageing workforce is real.

You are asked to increase productivity and reduce costs while generating the same (or better)
outcomes.

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Business Thinking

Most of our daily activities involve thinking of some sort, for example, we decide what to wear in the
morning, which route to take to get to our workplace, our work activities for the day and so on. Of
course not all thinking is alike and is distinguished by any number of meaningful dimensions and
mental processes. In the course of your work you’ll be expected to think and solve problems, either
individually or as part of a work group.
The following types of thinking are needed in business environments:

Strategic thinking
Strategic thinkers ask a lot of ‘what if’ questions before they begin to develop solutions; they think,
reflect, plan and stew on things before they act; they take broad view then zoom in – gather
information – formulate ideas – plan action.

Tactical thinking
This involves making in the moment decisions without regard to the overall strategic plan. Tactical
thinkers jump right into answers. Factors that can drive tactical thinking include:
• Reactive, fire-fighting culture.
• Lack of strategic clarity. Tactical decisions are made when decision makers do not fully
comprehend the intended strategy and its implications and therefore are often thought of as
renegades.
It is appropriate for onetime events, small investments or idea testing.

Analytical thinking
This involves a methodical step-by-step approach to thinking that allows you to break down complex
problems into single and manageable components. It is about gathering relevant information and
identifying key issues related to the information; comparing sets of data from different sources;
identifying possible cause and effect patterns; and drawing appropriate conclusions from data sets in
order to arrive at appropriate solutions.

Innovative thinking
This is about generating new ideas or new ways of approaching things to create possibilities and
opportunities and developing and implementing ideas that can be translated into value-adding
activities for the business.

Implicative thinking
This involves thinking about implications and consequences. There are three types of implications;
possible, probable and necessary ones. Consequences are what actually happens in any given case.

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Activity: Thinking processes

Identify the different types of thinking that would have been/are being used:
Company XYZ announces to its shareholders that it is wants to ‘turn the industry upside down’.

Red Rooster steers brand to a healthier direction.

Smoothrunning Building Maintenance who have been under pressure by their customers to ‘do more
for less’ will conduct a 12 month trial on changing their maintenance service from ‘preventative
(planned) maintenance’ to ’breakdown maintenance’ effective immediately. A decision will be made
after the trial period as to whether it will continue on an on-going basis.

McDonalds announce that the restaurant chain is looking at going back-to-basics.

Centrelink drops everything to answer phones – executive band public servants man the phones after
media coverage of an embarrassing audit report that identified nearly a quarter of the 57 million
phone call made to Centrelink last year went unanswered.

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Critical Thinking
No matter what you are faced with at work, your circumstances, your goals, your problems, you are
better off if your thinking is skilled. Good thinking pays off. Critical thinking is a disciplined way of
thinking that ensures you use the best thinking you are capable of in any set of circumstances.
Critical thinking can be divided into the following three core skills:
• Curiosity - the desire to learn more information and seek evidence as well as being open to
new ideas.
• Scepticism - having a healthy questioning attitude about new information that you are
exposed to and not blindly believing everything everyone tells you.
• Humility - the ability to admit that your opinions and ideas are wrong when faced with new
convincing evidence that states otherwise.

From the cognitive scientist’s point of view, the mental activities that are typically called critical
thinking are actually a subset of three types of thinking:
• reasoning
• making judgments and decisions, and
• problem-solving.
A well cultivated critical thinker:
• raises vital questions and problems, formulating them clearly and precisely
• gathers and assesses relevant information, using abstract ideas to interpret it effectively
• comes to well-reasoned conclusions and solutions, testing them against relevant criteria and
standards
• thinks with an open mind using alternative systems of thought, recognising and assessing, as
need be, their assumptions, implications, and practical consequences, and
• communicates effectively with others in figuring out solutions to complex problems.

Characteristics of a critical thinker

• Inquisitiveness about a wide range of issues
• Desire to become and remain well-informed
• Alertness to opportunities to use critical thinking
• Trust in the processes of reasoned inquiry
• Self-confidence in own abilities to reason
• Open-mindedness towards divergent world views
• Flexibility in considering alternatives and opinions
• Understanding of the opinions of other people
• Fair-mindedness in appraising reasoning
• Honesty in facing own biases, prejudices, stereotypes, etc.
• Discretion in suspending, making or altering judgments

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• Willingness to reconsider and revise views where necessary.

Capability Framework for Critical Thinking and Problem Solving

• Research and analyse information, identify interrelationships and make recommendations
based on relevant evidence
• Anticipate, identify and address issues and potential problems and select the most effective
solutions from a range of options
• Participate in and contribute to team/unit initiatives to resolve common issues or barriers to
effectiveness
• Identify and share business process improvements to enhance effectiveness
• Undertake objective, critical analysis to draw accurate conclusions that recognise and manage
contextual issues
• Work through issues, weigh up alternatives and identify the most effective solutions
• Take account of the wider business context when considering options to resolve issues
• Explore a range of possibilities and creative alternatives to contribute to systems, process and
business improvements
• Implement systems and processes that underpin high quality research and analysis
• Engage in critical analysis of a wide range of complex information and formulate effective
responses to issues
• Identify and evaluate organisation-wide implications when considering proposed solutions to
issues
• Apply lateral thinking and develop innovative solutions that have long standing, organisation-
wide impact
• Ensure effective governance systems are in place to guarantee quality analysis, research and
problem solving

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Activity: Strengths and development needs

Review the above characteristics and the capability framework for ‘critical thinking and problem
solving’. Consider your own strengths and development needs and record them below.

My key strengths are:

And I will use them to:

My key development needs are:

And I will address them by:

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Concentration –Direct Your Thinking

Concentration is the ability to direct your thinking in whatever direction you intend it to go and to hold
it there for as long as you choose. All of us have the ability to concentrate. Think of times when you
may have been engrossed in a book, playing a musical instrument, watching a movie, working on
something at work – total concentration. But at other times your thoughts may be scattered, and your
mind races from one thing to another.

Avoiding Distractions
Attaining concentration and avoiding distractions takes conscious effort. It’s for those times that you
need to learn and practice concentration strategies.

Learning mental self-regulation (training your wandering mind)

Strategy Technique
Be here now When you notice your thoughts wandering astray, say to yourself ‘be here now’
and bring your attention back to the present.
Example
You are in a meeting and your attention strays from the meeting to thinking that
you hope the trains are on time tonight, to what you need to do on the way home
from work, to the fact that you’re hungry.

As you say to yourself ‘be here now’ your focus will go back to the meeting –
maintain your attention as long as possible. When it wanders again, repeat it and
refocus – don’t try and keep particular thoughts out of your mind – just let go of
that thought and with your ‘be here now’ return to the present

It’s normal that you might have to do this hundreds of times a week but you’ll
find that the period of time between your straying thoughts gets a little longer
every few days. Be patient and keep at it and you’ll see some improvement.
Strategy Technique
Attending Train yourself not to give in to distractions. When someone enters your office, or
when a door slams, or when a phone rings, do not allow yourself to participate.
Rather, keep your concentration on what's in front of you.
Use the ‘be here now’ technique to help you regain concentration when you do
become distracted momentarily.

Practice this in a variety of settings, such as:

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In a meeting practice letting people move or cough without having to look at

them - just let them be ‘out there’ while you form a tunnel between you and the
person talking.

When talking with someone keep your attention on that person, look at their face,
and note what is being said. Let the rest of the world just be ‘out there.’
Worry or Set aside a specific time each day to think about the things that keep entering
Think Time your mind and interfering with your concentration. For example, set 4:30 to 5:00
p.m. as your worry/think time. When your mind is side-tracked into worrying
during the day, remind yourself that you have a set time for worrying. Then, let
the thought go for the present, and return your focus to your immediate activity.

There's research on this, believe it or not! Persons who use a worry time find
themselves worrying 35 percent less of the time within four weeks. The
important steps are:
• set a specific time each day for your time.
• when you become aware of distracting thoughts, remind yourself that
you have a set time to think about them.
• let the thought go, perhaps with ‘be here now’.
• be sure to keep that appointment with yourself at that set time to think on
the distracting thoughts of the day.
Rest/Stretch Remember to take short breaks – 60 minutes is about the length of time most
Time people can direct their attention to one task – but that’s just an average – your
concentration time span might less (20-35 minutes) or longer (perhaps 90
minutes)

When you take a break, oxygenate (get more oxygen to your brain). Get up and
walk around the room for a couple of minutes. When we sit for long periods,
blood tends to pool in our lower body and legs (because of gravity). Our calves
serve as pumps for our blood when we walk, getting blood flowing more evenly
throughout the body. As a result, more oxygen is carried to the brain and you are
more alert.

Shift position in your seat every so often – don’t sit there frozen in one position.
The move will help keep the blood circulating, sending more oxygen to your
brain and helping you remain alert.

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Arranging factors that you can immediately control:

• Chart your energy levels
• Environment (lighting, chair, table)
• Posture
• Clearing away distractions
• Use signs to keep others away

Activity: Avoiding distractions

What distractions do you typically deal with in your workplace? How does this affect your
concentration and focus? What can you do to effectively ‘block’ these distractions?

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Problem Solving and Critical

Thinking

Real problem solving has been described as the process of arriving at a solution when you don’t
initially know what to do. This means that problem solving requires making decisions. Making
decisions involves the connection and application of different types of knowledge (e.g., concepts,
facts, and procedures) to construct a satisfactory solution.
There is no formula for true problem solving. Problem solving is a process similar to working your
way through an unfamiliar forest. You navigate your way step by step, making some false moves but
gradually moving closer toward the goal. Each step is more likely to succeed if the choice is guided by
some fundamental principle. But what are these “steps” and what guides your decisions?
We have known for a long time that humans generally follow the same steps to solve any problem.
Many psychologists and educators have described these steps in slightly different ways. One of the
most influential descriptions is by the mathematician George Polya (1945):
1. Understand the problem (i.e., define the problem)
2. Devise a plan
3. Carry out the plan
4. Look back (i.e., check your results)
Of course, these steps are a simplification of a complex process. A person solving a problem overlaps
steps. For example, you may begin to devise a plan while you are defining the problem. You also
backtrack to earlier steps.

Activity: Problem-solving paths

What guides your decisions through different possible paths in your problem-solving?

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Problem Recognition
The first step in solving a problem is to recognise that it does exist. Every company and business has
problems. How do you recognise that a problem exists?
Problems may start at a lower risk level, stay without being identified for some time and grow to be a
highly risky one. Problems may manifest over a period of time or may present all of a sudden without
any warning. Sometimes what we think is a problem may not be a problem at all.

Activity: Problem recognition

What process or information does your organisation use to help recognise business problems?

Adopt a problem solving orientation

Organisations who look for problems to solve have a decided advantage over others. These
organisations can often identify problems when the problems are small enough to be easily solved and
when enough time is available to allow the use of good problem solving strategies.
If you wait for problems to become unbearable or unavoidable before dealing with them you may
experience issues or challenges when circumstances finally force you to tackle them.

Choosing the right problems to solve

Often there are multiple problems an organisation could try to solve at any one time. In problem
solving it is wise to consider which problem has:
• the most important outcome
• the greatest chance for solution
• the nearest deadline
This involves really questioning and being able to explain why your organisation should attempt to
solve the problem. Does it fit with your organisation’s priorities? Just because there is a problem to
solve doesn’t mean that solving it will benefit your organisation. Problems keep mounting so fast that
we find ourselves taking short cut solutions to temporarily alleviate the tension points – sometimes so
we can move onto more important problems. In doing this we fail to solve the core of each problem
we are dealt.

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Problem Definition
If I were given one hour to save the planet, I would spend 59 minutes defining the problem and
one minute resolving it
Albert Einstein
It is easier to solve a specific problem than a vague one. So define the problem before you start
looking for a solution.
Many people want to skip the defining step and get straight into solving the problem. You’ve
identified what the problem is, isn’t that enough? But what exactly do you need to define?

Identify key elements of the problem

Problems come to us with varying amounts of important and useless information. Focusing on useless
information distracts us and wastes time. So identify the key elements of the problem first. If the
problem is that there is a noise in a car when you drive it, determine where the noise is coming from.

Visualise the problem or a relevant process or situation

If as a consultant you were asked to help solve a problem with a customer’s supply chain or
warehouse, you would start with a walk-through of the facility. As you travel through the customer’s
facility, you would gather notes on the problems, the things that are working, and any practices or
methodologies currently in place. This walk-through serves a couple purposes.
1. The first reason for the walk-through is to examine the problem more closely.
2. The second reason is to better understand what is contributing to the problem.
Very rarely are problems isolated to one area. There’s typically something upstream or downstream of
the issue that’s contributing.

Draw a picture or diagram of the problem or a relevant process or situation

Visualising a problem can aid understanding, however you can keep only so much visual information
in your mind at once. Therefore it is useful to draw a picture or diagram. For example if you want to
speed up delivery of goods to your customers, draw a diagram showing the steps in the current
process.

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Video - Got a wicked problem? First, tell me how you make toast

Tom Wujec loves asking people and teams to draw how they make toast, because the process reveals
unexpected truths about how we can solve our biggest, most complicated problems at work.
Note any ideas that resonate with you.

https://www.ted.com/talks/tom_wujec_got_a_wicked_problem_first_tell_me_how_you_make_toast?la
nguage=en

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Acquire knowledge of relevant domains

Great knowledge of relevant domains sometimes helps experts solve problems that others cannot. For
example if you want to understand and solve an electrical problem on a piece of machinery, it will be
necessary to have knowledge about electrical systems.

Change perspective
See the problem through a different lens and learn another point of view in order to promote a better
understanding of what causes concern for whom and why. Understand everyone’s interests by:
• creating a list of the people, groups and/or organisations impacted by the problem.
• considering how each of them is affected by the problem. (Note: Include anyone who is
affected by the situation directly or indirectly. It might be necessary to make some
assumptions for this step, stressing the importance of involving as many opinions and
perspectives as possible in this process).

Brainstorming the requirements and constraints

The next step is to brainstorm. In order to help with the brainstorming and make sure you don’t leave
anything out ensure you consider various business requirements and examples for each requirement.
Some of those business requirements are financial, functional, operational, and strategic. In each of
those areas drill down to the requirements, e.g. listing the return on investment (ROI) under the
financial area. Look at quantitative and qualitative items in order to determine the evaluation criteria.
If you don’t determine the evaluation criteria up front, you won’t be able to decide on the best solution
to your problem.
With the different people, groups and/or organisations in mind, consider the individual or
organisational challenges and constraints within which the problem must be solved (e.g. company
policy). How will these affect the problem solving process?

Evaluate the Problem

Matching organisational capability and capacity to the seriousness of the problem faced
Does your organisation have the capacity and capability to solve the problem? Spend time calculating
data and defining problems to avoid working to solve the wrong problem. Do not overspend resources
on small scale problems
• How big is the problem?
• Researching a problem – has someone tried to solve the kind of problem that you are dealing
with now?
• Redefine the problem – if the problem seems presently unsolvable, consider what value
underlies the desire to solve that problem, and redefine the problem into something solvable.
• Define business success – how important is it in relation to your organisation’s strategic goals
and objectives and business sustainability?

Develop a Problem Statement

You are now ready to describe the problem by writing a problem statement. Your problem statement
must answer three questions:

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1. What is the problem or need?

2. Who has the problem or need?
3. Why is it important to solve?

Activity: Problem Statement

Develop an initial problem statement for the following scenarios:
Senior management has decided to make a change that will affect all of your employees. You know
the employees will be upset because it will cause them hardship. One or two may even quit. The
change goes into effect in 30 days. Your employees are very capable.

You believe that productivity in your work group could be increased. You have thought of some ways to
increase productivity that may work, but you are not quite sure. Your employees are very experienced; almost all
of them have been in the work group longer than you have

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Problem Analysis
Analysis produces information. Done appropriately it will generate valuable knowledge about the
problem and suggest potential responses. Analysis is an in-depth probe into all the characteristics of a
problem and factors contributing to a problem. Problem solving is based on the belief that patterns and
trends can be discovered that reflect the causes of a problem. Analysis is the key to detecting these
patterns and planning an effective response.

Video: Data filled analysis

It sounds counterintuitive, but by 2030, many of the world's largest economies will have more jobs
than adult citizens to do those jobs. In this data-filled — and quite charming — talk, human resources
expert Rainer Strack suggests that countries ought to look across borders for mobile and willing job
seekers.
Note any ideas that resonate with you.

https://www.ted.com/talks/rainer_strack_the_surprising_workforce_crisis_of_2030_and_how_to_start
_solving_it_now?language=en

Discussion: Information gathering

How well does your organisation assemble relevant data, organise and categorise it for further
analysis? How is it used to dig deeper to identify other emerging issues?

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Quantifying the Causes and Effects

Identify all the potential causes of the problem, remembering that many causes will be hidden or
counter-intuitive. Use brainstorming, cause and effect or root cause analysis. Thoroughly test each
potential cause against the evidence to eliminate the many false ones and arrive at the real ‘root’ cause.

Root cause analysis

Root cause analysis is a systematic process for identifying the root or underlying causes of problems.
Root cause analysis helps you get past symptoms or surface reasons to the true source of the problem.
A quick and easy way involves asking ‘why’ multiple times until you reach the problem’s source.
Follow these steps:
1. Write down the problem.
2. Ask: ‘Why is this problem occurring?’
3. Generate a concise reason the problem exists. If there is more than one, write them all down.
4. For each reason, ask ‘Why is that occurring?’ and document the responses.
5. Keep asking ‘Why?’ until you reach the root or source cause.

Ask ‘Why’ Five Times

• Ask ‘Why’ a problem is occurring and then ask ‘Why’ four more times
• Aim is to ensure that a problem stays solved and never happens again.
Example:

Question Answer
Why has the machine stopped? A fuse blew because of an overload
Why was there an overload? There wasn't enough lubrication for the bearings
Why wasn't there enough lubrication? The pump wasn't pumping enough
The pump shaft was vibrating as a result of
Why wasn't lubricant being pumped?
abrasion
There was no filter, allowing chips of material
Why was there abrasion?
into the pump
SOLUTION: INSTALL A FILTER

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Activity: Root cause analysis

Using the handout provided explore the root cause for the following identified problem:
Almost a quarter of all calls made to Centrelink last year went unanswered
Australian National Audit Office 2015

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Fishbone Diagram Procedure

The fishbone diagram identifies many possible causes for an effect or problem. It sorts ideas into
useful categories.

Fishbone Diagram Procedure

1. Once you have agreed on a problem statement (effect), write it at the centre right of the
flipchart or whiteboard. Draw a box around it and draw a horizontal arrow running to it.
2. Brainstorm the major categories of causes of the problem. If this is difficult use generic
headings:
• Methods
• Machines (equipment)
• People (manpower)
• Materials
• Measurement
• Environment
• Technology
3. Write the categories of causes as branches from the main arrow.
4. Brainstorm all the possible causes of the problem. Ask: ‘Why does this happen?’ As each idea
is given, the facilitator writes it as a branch from the appropriate category. Causes can be
written in several places if they relate to several categories.
5. Again ask ‘why does this happen?’ about each cause. Write sub–causes branching off the
causes. Continue to ask ‘Why?’ and generate deeper levels of causes. Layers of branches
indicate causal relationships.
6. When the group runs out of ideas, focus attention to places on the chart where ideas are few.

Activity: Categories of cause

Identify the major categories of causes for the ‘Centrelink’ problem.

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Is there an easier way?

What happens when we are faced with short turn-around times and don’t have the time to spend using
robust problem solving techniques or the return on investment does not warrant the complexity and
robustness of the tool? Does the average front-line manager or employee need proficiency in complex
tools such as Fishbone Diagrams? Can we become better problem solvers without using any of these
tools? Let’s find out.

Activity: Becoming better problem solvers

Part 1
Use the case study handout to complete this activity:
1. Identify 2-3 problems.
2. Write down the ‘best’ solution(s) or the solution(s) you feel would adequately address each
problem in the ‘solution’ column.

Problem Solution

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Part 2
1. Now list the same 2-3 problems in the left column.
2. Now list possible root causes for each.
3. Finally list the potential countermeasures that would address the root causes you have
identified.

Problem Root Cause Countermeasure

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Part 3
Moving from Part 1 to Part 2, what changed your thinking and therefore the outcomes of your problem
solving exercise?

Would using this method make problem-solving more accessible to everyone in your organisation? Do
we make problem solving more difficult than it needs to be?

How could you build critical thinking and problem solving mindsets within your team?

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Questions
Developing questions for problem analysis can be particularly challenging. Questions involve
straightforward linear thinking applied to a problem. But the right questions assist with critical
thinking and can lead you to ‘ideal’ and lasting solutions.

The six universal questions

Idea generators should be aware of a simple universal truth. There are six questions that one human
can ask another:
You may draw a mind map of the problem with these six words as nodes on the map.

High value questions

High value questions invite people to analyse, evaluate, speculate or express their feelings. These are a
type of open question that needs thought and time to answer. You know you have used an open
question when your respondent replies, ‘That is a good question.’
Examples:
• What type of system would you want if time and money was no object?
• What if …
• How do you feel about the new reporting structure?
• What are the three most important customer expectations?

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Activity: Questions
Using the six universal questions, develop a set of questions to assist you with critical thinking for the
problem(s) presented in the following case study:
Rhonda Mitchell owns and runs a real estate construction business that has been central to her family
for almost twenty years. She has a team of twelve permanent staff, six of whom are family members
representing three generations of Mitchells.
Rhonda is conservative in her management of the business and glad of the fact because of a recent
slump in real estate demand.
In a recent project, Rhonda’s business successfully completed a neighbourhood extension of 60 new
homes of various designs.
The lots proved popular and those not already sold off-plan quickly sold once complete. Apart from
one. It’s valued at more than $700,000 and has sat unsold for six months – a significant financial
burden for a small business to carry.
Rhonda knows that the popularity of the location is unquestionable – what she needs to establish and
quickly is why this house won’t sell.

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 Critical Thinking and Problem Solving: Workbook

Open general questions

Open general questions (OGQ) are generally described as big, broad, generalised questions designed
to get a long ‘uninfluenced’ response. They are often used to get a conversation started, for example:
• How did you go with that training last week?

Known information questions

These relate to questions about what you know you know – the facts, the information you have already
received and verified. Generally they are asked to gain confirmation. When information is confirmed,
the answer is valuable and when the answer does not confirm what you already know (or think you
know) the information is equally as valuable if not more so.

Information Seeking Questions

Open questions
Open questions (OQ) elicit longer answers. They usually begin with what, why, how, tell me, describe
and are used to ask the respondent for their knowledge, opinion or feelings. Examples are:
• Describe the circumstances in more detail…
• What do you need?
• What do you want?

Open probing questions

Open probing questions (OPQ) are used to clarify or to drill deeper into the conversation. They often
elicit longer, more specific answers. Asking these questions is an effective strategy for:
• exploring problems more deeply and finding out more detail
• gaining clarification to ensure you have the whole story and that you understand it thoroughly
• drawing information out of people who are trying to avoid telling you something.
Examples of when to use open probing questions are when you may need to:
• clarify what a colleague is talking about. For example ‘When you say the project has been
disrupted, what do you mean?’
• gather additional information. For example ‘What are some examples of this behaviour?’
• investigate the basis of what is being said. For example ‘What are some examples of the speed
this network has been operating at?’
Examples are:
• What do you do first to get started?
• Then what do you do?
• Why do you do that?
• Do you always do that?
High stakes and/or strong emotions often cause people to ‘beat around the bush’. When people are
beating around the bush they’ll often use vague and contextual words.

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Vague words are broad or generalised responses that provide an answer to your question but may be
interpreted in a variety of ways. In other words, these are words that, unless explored and clarified, can
lead to misinterpretation and assumption.
Contextual words are more specific to the conversation in which you are engaged. As the name
suggests, they tend to be contextual. However, just like with vague words, unless picked up and
explored more deeply, assumptions may be made and miscommunication may occur.

Examples of vague words: Examples of contextual words:

• Generally • Challenges
• Typically • Issues
• Sometimes • Plans
• Maybe • Requirements

Drilling down
When a person is using vague or contextual words you can use the drilling down technique to gain
clarity on what is being said, or to help facilitate a more authentic dialogue. In the drilling process you:
• begin by asking open general questions, then
• if vague and/or contextual words are used, you use those words to form your next question (an
open probing question), for example ‘When you say...’ or ‘Tell me more about...’ and
• continue to repeat the process by hooking and forming your follow up questions, until
• you have completely explored and understood the other person’s perspective, then
• ask closed questions to confirm and pinpoint your understanding.
Here is an example of a conversation where vague and contextual words are being used along with the
drilling down technique.
Open General Question (OGQ): ‘So how are you finding the team dynamic at the moment?’
Answer (A): ‘Ok, we’ve had a few teething issues that have set us back a little”. We are also facing some
budgeting constraints that are causing some tensions in the team, however, if some of the work we are focusing
on right now comes off the way we are projecting these tensions will probably dissipate.”
OPQ: ‘When you say teething issues, what type of teething issues set you back a little?’
A: ‘Well, there are some strong personalities in the team, when we first got together as a group some of these
personalities seemed to clash.’
OPQ: ‘So how did these clashes leave you and others feeling?’
A: ‘I was feeling worried, I’ve seen these type of clashes build and build and meanwhile the work doesn’t get
done and each other’s behaviour becomes the focus.’
OPQ: ‘So how is the dynamic at the moment?’
A: ‘Well, to be honest, it’s a little tense but as I said if some of the work we are focusing on right now comes off
the way we are projecting I think this tension will naturally dissolve.”
OPQ: “So would you say this tension is distracting and having an impact?”
A: “Yes. I’m sure it is. Meetings seem to be going longer than necessary and the dialogue is being dominated by
two or three people in the team.’

Activity: Questions
Review the questions you developed for the case study. Will they will give you the information you
are looking for …are they information seeking questions? … open probing questions? … known
information questions? Makes changes if you need to.

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Information Gathering Plan

Even though you have been thinking about it, you now need to decide what information you require,
where you can find it and how you can gather it. You will already have some of the information
required that was gathered earlier in the problem solving process.
The information gathering plan can be created at the beginning of ‘questioning’ phase and should
address the following:
• What information do you need to understand the problem? Why?
• Where are you going to get that information? Where is it most likely located and/or who might
have it?
• How are you going to acquire the information, by what means? What form will it take? How
accurate or reliable are the sources
• In what order are you going to collect the information?
• What past experience of similar problems may be relevant.
• How will the relevant information be organised?
Your information must be relevant to the problem, accurate and preferably qualified.
Note that it is not a matter of defining the specific questions you are going to ask, and agonising over
which ones are right. It is more a matter of creating a frame within which you can conduct your
elicitation. You want to make it easier to ask the right question.
Example of an information gathering plan for an accounts payable system. As a result of negative
feedback a problem was identified with the speed of the overall process.

What information Source Method Sequence

The layout of the current Data dictionary Read
vendor tables
Database administrator Interview
What does the overall Accounts payable Read
accounts payable policies and
process look like procedures manual
Standard Operating
Read, review
Procedures
flowchart; Interview
Andy and/or member
Interview or meeting
of accounts payable
entry team
What is the process to Accounts payable Observation and
do accounts payable clerk interview
entry
Standard Operating Read, observation and
Procedures (flowchart) interview
What is the data that Accounts Payable Interview
goes into computing the Manager
payment terms
Purchasing Managing

Activity: Gathering the right information

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Develop an information plan for the case study and then respond to the following:
What would the sequence be in terms of gathering the information and why?

Who will you interview and what insights will interviewing them give you?

What insights will you get from reviewing historical information or industry statistics?

Is there anything else that should be included in the plan that will help you organise your information
gathering process and increase the chance that you will ask the right questions? If so what?

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Apply critical thinking to process the information

Critical examination enables the refinement of problems and issues into their component parts so that
their significance and inter-relationships can be examined before being synthesised back into a whole.
It is about using critical thinking to interpret information and use it to solve the problem. The ability to
make informed judgements/evaluations about the worth, validity and reliability of opinions, ideas and
knowledge is crucial in this step.

Be mindful to take both rational and emotional data into consideration when exploring solutions and
making decisions. Use this input to come up with solutions that consider the perspectives of the
organisation, the customer and each individual or group(s) of individuals impacted by the situation.
Prior to processing the facts and technical information you have gathered, identify and explore what
others are doing, their feelings and the information these contain by:
• Consulting – ask people how they feel about the issues and facts. Using a positive-negative
framework can be a valuable way of getting richer discussion going.
• Observing – the way people engage in discussion about the issues and facts (e.g. their energy,
body language, tone of voice and facial expressions).
• Appraising – in reflecting on others’ feelings, appraise whether they are biasing or
contributing to others’ interpretation.
Identify and explore the information in your own mind. To do this you can:
• Identify – stop and reflect on the specific information you have.
• Define – the thoughts and feelings you have about the information.
• Appraise – in reflecting on your thoughts and feelings appraise whether they are biasing or
contributing to your interpretation of the information and facts.

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Activity: How you think about and process information

Read each set of words and mark the two within each set that best describe you.

Imaginative Debating
A A Organised A

Investigative Getting to the

B B Adaptable B
point
1. 2. 3.
Realistic Creating
C C Critical C

Analytical Relating
D D Inquisitive D

A Personal A Precise A Sharing

B Practical B Flexible B Orderly

4. 5. 6.

C Academic C Systematic C Sensible

D Adventurous D Inventive D Independent

Competitive
A A Intellectual A Reader

Perfectionist
B B Sensitive B People person
7. 8. 9.
Cooperative
C C Hardworking C Problem solver

Logical
D D Risk-taking D Planner

Memorise
A A Changer A Communicating

Associate
B B Judger B Discovering
10. 11. 12.
Think-through
C C Spontaneous C Cautious

Originate
D D Wants direction D Reasoning

A Challenging A Completing work A Doing

B B Seeing B Feeling
Practicing
possibilities
13. 14. 15.

C Caring C Gaining ideas C Thinking

D Examining D Interpreting D Experimenting

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In the columns below, circle the letters of the words you chose for each number.

I II III IV
1. C D A B
2. A C B D
3. B A D C
4. B C A D
5. A C B D
6. B C A D
7. B D C A
8. C A B D
9. D A B C
10. A C B D
11. D B C A
12. C D A B
13. B D C A
14. A C D B
15. A C B D
Add your totals for columns I, II, III, and IV. Multiply the total of each column by 4. The box with the
highest number describes how you most often process information

I X4= Concrete Sequential

II X4= Abstract Sequential
III X4= Abstract Random
IV X4= Concrete Random

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Concrete Sequential (CS) Thinkers are based in reality. They process information in an ordered,
sequential, linear way. To them, reality consists of what they can detect through their physical senses
of sight, touch, sound, taste and smell. They notice and recall details easily and remember facts
specific information, formulas and rules with ease. 'Hands on' is a good way for these people to learn.
If you're a CS thinker:
• Build on your organisational strengths.
• Provide yourself with details. Break your projects down into specific steps.
• Set up quiet work environments.
Concrete Random (CR) Thinkers are experimenters. Like concrete sequentials, they're based in
reality, but are willing to take more of a trial and error approach. Because of this, they often make the
intuitive leaps necessary for true creative thought. They have a strong need to find alternatives and do
things in their own way.
If you're a CR thinker:
• Use your divergent thinking ability.
• Believe that it's good to see things from more than one viewpoint.
• Put yourself in a position to solve problems.
• But give yourself deadlines.
• Accept your need for change.
• Try and work with people who value divergent thinking.

Abstract Random (AR) Thinkers organise information through reflection, and thrive in
unstructured, people-oriented environments. The 'real' world for abstract random thinkers is the world
of feelings and emotions. The AR's mind absorbs ideas, information and impressions and organises
them through reflection. They remember best if information is personalised. They feel constricted
when they're subjected to a very structured environment.
If you're an AR thinker:
• Use your natural ability to work with others.
• Recognise how strongly emotions influence your concentration.
• Build on your strength of learning by association.
• Look at the big picture first.
• Be careful to allow enough time to finish the job.
• Remind yourself to do things through plenty of visual clues, such as coloured stickers pasted
up where you'll see them.

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Abstract Sequential Thinkers love the world of theory and abstract thought. They like to think in
concepts and analyse information. They make great philosophers and research scientists. It's easy for
them to zoom in on what's important, such as key points and significant details. Their thinking
processes are logical, rational and intellectual. A favourite activity for abstract sequentials is reading,
and when a project needs to be researched they are very thorough at it. Generally they prefer to work
alone rather than in groups.
If you're an AS thinker:
• Give yourself exercises in logic.
• Feed your intellect.
• Steer yourself toward highly structured situations.

Once you know your own style you can then analyse the others. This will help you understand other
people better. It will make you more flexible. And perhaps we can all pick up tips from each other on
how to be more effective.
Adapted from Personal Thinking Style, Professor Anthony Gregorc, University of Connecticut

Bias we bring to the process

Whenever any of us approach a problem we bring biases to the table, often unintentionally. Prior
experiences, cultural influences, assumptions about knowledge on the subject, or public opinion all
play into our thought process, whether we’re aware of it or not.
The challenge in critical thinking lies in first becoming aware of those biases, and then in stepping
outside of them to clearly reason your way through a problem. Successful critical thinkers make better
business decisions because the process allows them to gather more information, collaborate with
others and evaluate the process with objectivity.

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Activity: Bias
Review the following types of bias. How could you manage them so that you can make more informed
decisions when problem solving?

Type of Bias Manage by?:

Anchoring Bias
We make inferences based on some earlier
information we had – even if that information has
little or no relevance.
Representativeness Bias
We like patterns, and if we can see a way that
something can fit into a convenient category, or
conform to a story line we are likely to give that
interpretation more credit than the evidence merits.
Availability (recency) Bias
Recent events bias our perception, because they are
more available to our intuition than counter
examples.
Affect Bias
The emotional impact of a potential threat
contaminates our assessment of that threat, leading
us to fear it more than we should.
Sunk-Cost Bias
Once we have made an investment – time, money
or reputation – in an idea, we are loath to give it
up. The investment makes us feel it is important to
continue, long after its ultimate value has shown to
be diminished.
Precision Bias
We mistake the precision of our calculations and
the detail of our plans for accuracy and we place
too much faith in them. This blinds us to faulty
assumptions – can be linked to the seduction we
feel towards beautifully presented information,
which we receive less critically than equally good
or poor information that may be presented in a
rough and ready way.
Group Think Bias
Illusion of unanimity creates false consensus
resulting in direct pressure being place on
dissenters to conform – can lead to a group making
faulty decisions because group pressures lead to
deterioration of mental efficiency, reality testing
and moral judgement.

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Representing the results of analysis in graphical and written form

It will take more than just presenting data for people to believe in it and use it.
Complex, jargon-filled language makes information difficult to understand and apply. Strategies to
improve understanding and dissemination throughout the organisation are:
• Present and package research based information and analysis in a variety of alternate formats
to meet the needs of users.
• Use plain English and simple vocabulary.
• Ensure that computer based materials are accessible and available in other formats to allow
easy retrieval and review now and in the future.
• Aggregate and disaggregate the data in different ways and ask probing questions that reveal
information about the problem you are trying to solve.
• Reflection after the data interrogation, discussions and further questioning will reveal new
knowledge and understandings.

Activity: Understanding information in its raw form

How does your organisation present quantitative and qualitative data in such a way that a readily
understood picture emerges? Does it assist problem solving and decision making? What improvements
could be made?

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Generate Solutions

Once a problem has been defined and you have gathered all the relevant information and data relating
to the problem, the next step is to generate a number of possible solutions. Good alternative solutions
take into account both short and long-term issues. To effectively create solutions, postpone the process
of selecting any one solution to the problem. Define solution success in terms of how problem
reduction will be measured. Ensure alternatives are consistent with your objectives-what you want to
accomplish. Have alternatives build on each other—modify, combine with, and ‘hitchhike’ on other
alternatives.
At this stage you should concentrate on generating many solutions and not think about evaluating
them all. Very often an idea, which would have been discarded immediately, when evaluated properly,
can be developed into an optimal solution. No potential solutions should be prejudged and each
solution should be treated as a new solution in its own right and worthy of consideration.

Techniques to Generate Solutions

Brainstorming is an effective method when generating solutions to problems. It works by focusing on
a problem and having participants come up with as many deliberately different solutions as possible
and then pushing the ideas as far as possible. Results of the brainstorming session can be analysed and
the best solutions explored either using further brainstorming or more conventional solutions.

Procedure for Brainstorming

1. Review the rules of brainstorming with the entire group:
• No criticism, no evaluation, no discussion of ideas.
• There are no stupid ideas. The wilder the better.
• All ideas are recorded.
• Piggybacking is encouraged: combining, modifying, expanding others’ ideas.
2. Review the problem to be discussed. Often it is best phrased as a ‘why,’ ‘how,’ or ‘what’
question. Make sure everyone understands the subject of the brainstorm.
3. Allow a minute or two of silence for everyone to think about the question.
4. Invite people to call out their ideas. Record all ideas, in words as close as possible to those
used by the contributor. No discussion or evaluation of any kind is permitted.
5. Continue to generate and record ideas until several minutes’ silence produces no more.
6. Look for duplication and arrange ideas into related groups
7. Look for ways to combine and/or improve ideas

Activity: Brainstorming
Data and information collected during an earlier problem identification session showed the following:

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63% of your customers who are forced to wait on hold resent your organisation for not valuing their
time.
According to recent research, the number of calls to call centres is growing at a rate of 20% every
year. This is partly due to the growing number of tasks covered by call centres, both customer-facing
and internal to a company, such as customer ‘touch points’. The surge is also due to customers calling
on the move from mobile devices.
There has also been a sharp increase in customers giving up on their calls-from 5% in 2010 to just
over 14% in 2014. That number rises when customers have to pick their way through multiple options
and messages. The resolution rate for their calls is only about 50%-maybe as high as 70% if a more
senior level of help is involved in the call, but still well behind industry targets of 85%.
The following problems were identified:
Complicated menu
The menu comes with multiple layers and a selection of four or more choices per layer. This can be
made worse by a poorly performing voice recognition system. Time is wasted listening to your
options. Some customers either hear the options incorrectly or don’t hit the right numbers. Either way
customers often reach another level of button pushing.
Being kept on hold
Being kept on hold was given as the number one reason for resentment by customers – they either get
canned music or a time-wasting plug or ad. Average call wait times are currently 15 minutes. On
average, callers hang up after listening to just 65 seconds of canned music.
Being charged for the call
Your organisation quietly switched over from free to non-free numbers.
Putting your call abroad
Calls may be delegated to a third party – overseas – where operators often stick to a script – which
may not be ok if the operator is stumped by a question – in which case they often repeat the last line of
the script.
Insincerity
Customers believe that staff are not being sincere using ‘I’m sorry you feel that way’ as an example.
Training
Average amount of training for your staff taking calls has fallen to 3 days per year. Staff engagement
surveys reveal complaints about repetitive stressful work, rude customers and slow system response
times
Staff turnover
Customer call centres have one of the highest turnover rates of any industry (currently 43%) and yours
is not that much different (currently 30%).

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Brainstorm potential solutions

Look for duplication; arrange ideas into related groups; look for ways to combine and/or improve
ideas.

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Reverse Brainstorming
While it is great to build on each other’s ideas, everyone should be encouraged to ask different
questions and approach a problem from many directions. This is where ‘Reverse Brainstorming’ can
be used. It involves exploring multiple factors in reverse. Instead of stating what the problem is and
asking how to fix it, reverse brainstorming asks: ‘what achieves the exact opposite effect of what
we’re looking for?’ The initial question is not ‘how can I solve this?’ but rather, ‘how do I cause this
to be a problem?’

Procedure for Reverse Brainstorming

1. Identify the problem plainly and write it down.
2. Reverse the problem – instead of asking ‘how can I solve it?’ ask, ‘how can I make it worse?’
3. Brainstorm to figure out all the reverse solutions – how could you make it worse – reject
nothing, criticise nothing.
4. Flip the reverse solutions to create real fixes for the actual problem.
5. Evaluate these solutions and decide if a real solution can be formed.

Activity: Reverse Brainstorming

You are part of the Information Technology department of a large organisation. Several brainstorming
attempts have been made to work on the issue of your users not being happy with the server speed and
the level of service from your helpdesk.
The problem is these brainstorming sessions often result in either complaining about end-users
‘whinging’ or, best case scenario, a few well intentioned suggestions that never go anywhere.
Instead, today your Manager is going to try a reverse brainstorming session with your department.
Instead of wondering how to make your user community happy and increase performance, the
Manager asks ‘how can we make their computer experience so bad they want to quit being our
customers?’ In reality the Manager is asking you to think about how your department can completely
wreck the user experience.
Brainstorm to figure out all the reverse solutions – how could you make it worse?
Example
We could lose their work orders and never get around to helping them

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Analyse and reverse the negative solutions to create real fixes for the actual issue
Example
We never lose work orders – that’s ridiculous – true, but there are many times when our users must
feel that way……………………………………….

Reverse brainstorming encourages indirect thinking, innovative solutions and creative participation.
By considering what can be done to break something instead of focusing solely on narrow minded
fixes, groups are able to come up with ground-breaking solutions.
What do you think? Is this a technique you would consider using in your organisation? Why or why
not?

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Identify the Best Solution

This section of the problem solving process is where you investigate the various factors about each of
the potential solutions. You note down the good and bad points and other things which are relevant to
each solution. Even at this stage you are not evaluating the solution because if you do so then you
could decide not to write down the valid good points about it because overall you think it will not
work. However you might discover that by writing down its advantages that it has a totally unique
advantage. Only by discovering this might you choose to put the effort in to develop the idea so that it
will work.
To identify the best solution you should:
1. Review the problem
2. Review the desired outcomes
3. Decide what will constitute an effective or ‘ideal’ solution
4. Weigh up each piece of information (both facts and feeling information), looking at the pros
and cons of it
5. Identify different (alternative) solutions on the basis of the above and the best solution on that
basis.
Alternative solutions are evaluated until one is found that is either ‘satisfactory’ or until the optimal
solution is found.

Satisfactory Approach
Alternatives are evaluated until one is found that is satisfactory, then it is implemented. This means
there are likely to be alternatives that do not get evaluated, since the process is finished when one that
is ‘good enough’ is found. This process is usually faster however the risk is a lower quality solution
that is less effective.

Optimal Approach
To achieve the optimal solution alternatives are identified and evaluated against pre-determined
criteria. Critical data is analysed and the optimum solution is the one that best meets those criteria.
This process is slower as you are trading a longer amount of time in order to gain quality and
effectiveness. The risk is that sometimes a higher quality decision is too late.

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Evaluating Solutions

Think 360
When you are trying to make a decision or choose among many options, it helps to have a structured
method of looking at the entire system surrounding the decision. The first step is to consider which
factors affect and are affected by the decision. Every situation is different and will include unique
factors and you need to be mindful of the impact across the whole organisation.
The list below offers a few major factors with sample questions for each. Be certain to consider every
problem or opportunity separately and make sure you are looking at each important factor.
You may not have time to consider each factor in depth or to complete the worksheet provided here,
but at least scan the worksheet.

Major Factors and Pertinent Questions

• People: Who will it affect? Who needs to be involved or informed? Who has information that
might be critical? Who could sabotage the project? Whose availability is critical?
• Resources: What resources are critical to success? What might make critical resources
unavailable? What new resources will be needed?
• Timing: What deadlines are critical to success? What calendar events might affect the
schedule? Whose availability is critical? What potential delays might throw off the entire
project?
• Customers: What is critically important to customers? What are they emotionally attached to?
What features are they willing to live without?
• Trends: What new technologies, demographics, government regulations or economic changes
might affect this project?
• Competitors: What are the competitors doing? What new competitors are developing?
• Use: How will it be used? Are there any hazardous materials involved? Could someone be
injured in the use? Is it comfortable?
• Convenience: What would make it more user friendly? Will customers be able to obtain it
easily? How will it be serviced and supported?
• Environment: How will it affect the environment? How will it affect the local community?

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Activity: Think 360 worksheet

Instructions: Use this worksheet to identify the optimal solution generated from your brainstorming
the problem ‘‘63% of your customers who are forced to wait on hold resent your organisation for not
valuing their time’.
Consider the factors and questions carefully and address those that are appropriate for your solution.
Add your own questions as needed.

Factors and Questions Solution 1 Solution 2 Solution 3

People
Who will it affect?
(individuals, groups,
departments, and so
forth)
Who needs to be
involved or informed?

Who has information

that might be critical?

Who could sabotage the

solution?

Whose availability is
critical?

Who will make the

decision?

Resources
What resources are
critical to success?

What might make

critical resources
unavailable?
What new resources
might be needed?

Where can it be trialled

first?

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Factors and Questions Solution 1 Solution 2 Solution 3

Timing
What deadlines are
critical to success?

What calendar events

might affect the
schedule?
What potential delays
might throw off the
entire ‘initiative’?
What are the go/no go
points?

Customers
What is critically
important to
customers?
How will customers
know if as change is
made?
Who will communicate
with the customers
about how the change
affects them?
Trends
What demographics
might affect the
initiative?
What government
regulations might affect
the initiative?
What changes in the
economy might affect
the initiative?
WHS and Risk Management
What impact on WHS
will the initiative have?
What risk has been
identified and how is
this to be
eliminated/controlled?

Activity: Identifying the ideal solution

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Review the following checklist. Would it assist you in identifying ‘ideal solution’ if not how could
you improve on it?

Yes No
Factor
 
Does it provide an acceptable level of benefits in terms of objectives,
client needs and expectations?
Does it deal effectively with the problem presented?

Does it address any resourcing constraints?

Is it cost effective and affordable?

Would it be acceptable to:

those affected by the solution

those who have to agree to the solution

those who will provide the necessary resources

those who have to implement the solution

Does it involve an acceptable level of risk?

Does it comply with legislative and departmental requirements?

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Making a Decision
There are some options when it comes to deciding what will be the best solution for the problem. The
option chosen should match the situational and contextual factors affecting the problem. Options are:

Problem solver decides alone – I’ll decide

The problem solver makes the decision alone and announces it after the fact. An explanation of the
reason for the decision may be given. This option is also used when you have no choice or flexibility
regarding the problem to be solved—you may be following orders and have responsibility for
transmitting the orders to a work group.

Problem solver consults others and then decides alone – Let’s talk, then I’ll decide
The problem-solver consults others and then makes the decision. Consulting others could be done all
at once at a meeting, or one-on-one if necessary. Before implementing the decision, you would explain
the rationale behind it, and attempt to convince others of the benefits. You may invite questions and
have a discussion.

Participative decision by others and the problem solver – Let’s talk, then we’ll decide
The problem solver may present a possible solution to others and ask for input. If the decision needs
changing, it is changed based on group participation and input. This option does not require voting, yet
voting is one way to use the participative option. Another way could be that the group convinces the
problem-solver of something, and he/she makes changes based on that strong belief by the (capable)
group.

Problem solver lets someone else decide – Here are a range of solutions – you decide
The problem-solver presents the situation to the group and describes the criteria, resources, or
outcomes limiting it. The group does the problem solving and decision making. The problem-solver
may join the group in the process.

Activity: Integrity of the process

How does using a framework (complete with checklists) ensure integrity of the process you have
followed and that you have selected a lasting solution?

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Implement the Solution and Follow

Up

After you’ve picked a solution, you need to make a plan of action. Implementing a solution to a
problem introduces change into the workplace. Since almost any change creates some resistance,
implementing a solution requires sensitivity to possible resistance from those who will be affected by
the solution.
Follow-up not only sustains implementation, but also serves as a way to get feedback and gain
information that can be used to improve future problem solving. Below are some guidelines for
implementation:
• Implement solutions at the right time and in the right sequence.
• Provide opportunities for feedback on how well the solution is addressing the problem.
• Gain acceptance of the solution by those who are affected by the problem.
• Establish an ongoing monitoring system for the solution.
• Evaluate success based on how well the solution solved the
If your solution doesn’t seem to be working, ask yourself the following questions:
• Did I define my problem correctly?
• Were my goals unrealistic?
• Was there a better solution?
• Did I carry out the solution properly?

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Learning Journal

Take this opportunity to reflect on what you have learned in this workshop, and consider the changes
you can make to ensure that you apply the knowledge and skills you have gained.

What do you want to…

Start Stop

Change Continue

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References

Books
Brami, P.C., Bernard, R.M., Borokhovski, E., Wade, A., Surkes, M.A., Tamim, R., & Zhang, D.
(2008). Instructional interventions affecting critical thinking skills and dispositions: A stage 1 meta-
analysis. Review of Educational Research, 78(4), 1102-1134.
Dan, R. (2014). Back of the Napkin: Solving Problems and Selling Ideas with Pictures, Penguin Group
(Australia), Melbourne
Facione, P.A. (2000). The disposition toward critical thinking: Its character, measurement, and
relationship to critical thinking skill. Informal Logic, 20(1), 61-84.
Facione, P.A. (2010). Critical thinking: What is it and why it counts. Available from
http://www.insightassessment.com/
Fisher, A. (2001). Critical thinking: An introduction. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Forrester, J.C. (2008). Thinking creatively; thinking critically. Asian Social Science, 4(5), 100-105.
Garrison, D.R. (1991). Critical thinking and adult education: A conceptual model for developing
critical thinking in adult learners. International Journal of Lifelong Education, 10(4), 287-303.
Groebner, D.F., Shannon, P.W., Fry, P.C., and Smith, K.D. 2011, ‘Business Statistics: A decision
making approach’ (8th edition), Pearson Education, Prentice Hall, NJ.
Kepner, C.H., Tregoe, B.B. (2013). The New Rational Manager: An updated edition for the new
world, Princeton Research Press, NJ
Moon, J. (2008). Critical thinking: An exploration of theory and practice. London: Routledge.
Moore, T. (2004). The critical thinking debate: How general are general thinking skills? Higher
Education Research & Development, 23, 3-18.
Okes, D. (2009). Root Cause Analysis: The Core of Problem Solving and Corrective Action,
American Society for Quality, Quality Press, New York
Paul, R., & Elder, L. (2005). The thinker's guide to critical and creative thinking. CA, USA:
Foundation for Critical Thinking.
Pfeffer, J., & Sutton, R.I. 2006, ‘Evidence-based management’, Harvard Business Review, vol. 84, no.
1, pp. 62- 74.
Walker, S.E. (2003). Active learning strategies to promote critical thinking. Journal of Athletic
Training, 38(3), 263-267.
Watanabe, K. (2009). Problem Solving 101: A simple book for smart people. Random House Books,
Australia

Toolkit
Griffith University. (2004). Critical evaluation toolkit. Available at
https://www.griffith.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/290659/Critical-evaluation-skills.pdf

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Websites
The Critical Thinking Community http://www.criticalthinking.org/
Performance Audit Management of Smart Centres’ Centrelink Telephone Service
ANAO https://www.anao.gov.au/sites/g/files/net616/f/ANAO_Report_2014-2015_37.pdf
CEDA (2015) Australia’s future workforce? Available
from http://adminpanel.ceda.com.au/FOLDERS/Service/Files/Documents/26792~Futureworkforce_Ju
ne2015.pdf

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