EXPERIMENT NO.

: 2

COMPRESSION TEST OF TIMBER BLOCK

 Experiment No.: 2
Compression test of Timber Block
1. OBJECTIVE
• To perform compression test of timber block on UTM.
• To observe the effect of slenderness ratio.
• To study the effects of parallel and perpendicular loading.
• To evaluate the failure patterns based on slenderness ratio and loading direction.

2. ASTM REFERENCE
ASTM D 143 Standard Test Methods for Small Clear Specimens of Timber

3. SIGNIFICANCE

This experiment provides fundamental knowledge on compression behavior of materials specially

wood/timber, test procedure, universal testing machine and its working principal, compression specimens, failure
pattern etc.

4. APPARATUS AND MACHINE

Digital Universal testing machine (UTM), digital slide calipers, steel tape, stop watch and computer.

5. SPECIMEN
4”x4”x8” (perpendicular loading) wooden blocks.

(a) (b)
Figure 1: (a) Universal Testing Machine (UTM) (b) Schematic diagram of UTM
 (a) (b)
Figure 2: (a) Compression-Parallel-to-Grain Test Assembly,
(b) Compression-Perpendicular- to-Grain Test Assembly (image from
ASTM D 143)

6. THEORY

Stress – strain relationship for timber is exceedingly complex, resulting from the facts that,
(a) Timber does not behave in a truly elastic mode; rather is behavior is time dependent.
(b) The magnitude of strain is influenced by a wide range of factors; some of those are property
dependent, such as density of the timber, angle of grain relative to direction of load application,
angle of the micro-fibrils within the cell wall; others are environmentally dependent, such as
temperature and relative humidity.

There are several limitations to the compression test to which attention should be directed:

(1) The difficulty of applying a truly concentric or axial load.

(2) The relatively unstable character of this type of loading as contrasted to the tensile loading. There
is always a tendency for bending stresses to be set up and for the effect of accidental irregularities
in alignment with the specimen to be accentuated as loading proceeds.
(3) Friction between the heads of the testing machine or bearing plates and the end surface of the
specimen due to lateral expansion of the specimen. This may alter considerably the results that
would be obtained if such a condition of test were not present.
(4) The relatively larger cross – sectional areas of the compression test specimen, in order to obtain a
proper degree of stability of the piece. This results in the necessity for a relatively large –capacity
testing machine or a specimen so small and therefore so short
 that is difficult to obtain from them strain measurements of suitable precision . It is presumed
that the simple compression characteristics of materials are desired and not the column action of
structural members, so that attention here confined to the short compression block.

Wood is commonly used engineering material showing different mechanical behavior under
tension and compression loading. However, contrary to gray cast Iron or concrete, it does not show
brittle characteristics under tensile loading and surprisingly, it is considerably stronger in tension
than compression. The fact that the cell structures in the material are stronger in the longitudinal than
transverse direction is the major factor leading to this unusual mechanical behavior of wood.

Wood exhibits, under compressive loading, a behavior peculiar to itself. it is anything but an
isotropic material, being composed of cell formed by organic growth which align themselves to from
a series of tubes or columns in the direction to the grain. As a result of this structure, the elastic limit
is relatively low, there is no definite yield point, and considerable set takes place before failure.
These properties vary with the orientation of the load with respect to the direction of the grain. For
loads normal to grain, the load that causes lateral collapse of the tubes or fibers is the significant
load. For load parallel to grain, not only the elastic strength important but also the strength at rupture.
Rupture often occurs because of collapse of the tubular fibers as column.

Compression load parallel to grain can be carried by the strongest fibers, whereas compression
loads perpendicular to the grain are carried by both weak and strong fibers. Wood in compression
parallel to the grain can carry three to four times the load that wood in compression perpendicular to
the grain can carry.

Compression failure of wood perpendicular to the grain involves the complete crushing of the
wood fiber (the cell with the thinnest walls collapse first, and the action proceeds gradually).
Compression failure of wood parallel to the grain involves the bending or buckling of the wood
fibers.

Several materials, which are good in tension, are poor in compression. Contrary to this, many
materials poor which are in tension but very strong in compression. Several machine and structure
components such as columns and struts are subjected to compressive load in applications. These
components are made of high compressive strength materials. Not all the materials are strong in
compression. That is why determination of ultimate compressive strength is essential before using a
material.

Compression test is just opposite in nature to tensile test. Nature of deformation and fracture is
quite different from that in tensile test. Compressive load tends to squeeze the specimen. Brittle
materials are generally weak in tension but strong in compression. Hence this test is normally
performed on cast iron, cement concrete, wood etc. But ductile materials like aluminum and mild
steel which are strong in tension are also tested in compression.
 A compression test can be performed on UTM by keeping the test-piece on base block and
moving down the central grip to apply load. It can also be performed on a compression testing
machine. A compression testing machine has two compression plates/heads. The upper head
moveable while the lower head is stationary. One of the two heads is equipped with a hemispherical
bearing to obtain uniform distribution of load over the test- piece ends. A load gauge is fitted for
recording the applied load.

In cylindrical specimen, it is essential to keep h/d < 2 to avoid lateral instability due to bucking
action. In cubic specimen, d is the minimum width.

2. PROCEDURE

i) Measure the size of the specimen with a slide calipers.

ii) Place the block on the proper position of the testing machine.

iii) Apply load continuously on the specimen until failure.

iv) Record the maximum load at failure.

v) Note the characteristics of the fractured surfaces and show the failure plane.

3. SAMPLE CALCULATIONS

Initial length or height of specimen, hi =

Final length or height of specimen,hf =

Initial minimum width of specimen, di=

Final minimum width of specimen,df=

Initial cross-sectional area, Ai =

Final cross-sectional area, Af=

 4. FAILURE PATTERNS

Figure 2: Schematic diagram of failure pattern of wooden specimens.

Parallel Loading:
a = crushing,
b = wedge split, c = shearing,
d = splitting,
e = compression and shearing parallel to plane,
f = brooming or end rolling,
g = bending or buckling,

Perpendicular Loading
h = barreling or bulging
5. SAMPLE CALCULATIONS

1. Draw stress-strain curve in compression.

2. Determine Modulus of Elasticity in compression,

ΔStress
E=
ΔStrain
3. Determine proportional limit, PL, ultimate (max.) compressive strength, ult, and strain at
PL, ultimate strain ult from graph.
4. Determine percentage reduction in length (or height) to the specimen
hi - hf
% Reduction of length = ×100%
hi
5. Determine Poisson’s ratio,

6. Observe failure patterns and failure location w.r.t. loading direction.

11. GRAPH

1. Compressive stress vs. Strain for parallel loading.

2. Compressive stress vs. Strain for perpendicular loading.
3. Combined Compressive stress vs. Strain for all specimens.

12. RESULT

(Students will fill up this section with their individual outcome/result about the test.)
Case 1 Case 2
(Parallel loading) (Perpendicular loading)
P (N)
E (MPa)
ult (MPa)
% Reduction in length
Poisson’s ratio, ν
ult
G=0.5 PLPL (MPa)
Failure pattern
Failure location

13. DISCUSSION

(Discuss on the results found, graphs, and failure patterns and also compare the results
found, graphs and failure patterns.)

Point out the discussion

1.
2.
3. ….
14. ASSIGNMENT

1. Compression tests are generally performed on brittles materials, why? Justify your answer.
2. Which will have a higher strength: a small specimen or a full-size member made of the same
material?
3. What is column action? How does the h/d ratio of specimen affect the test result?
4. How do ductile and brittle materials differ in their behavior in compression test?