Chapter five

Composite Structures
(Concrete and steel)
5.1 Introduction
A composite member is defined as consisting of a rolled or a built-up structural steel shape that
is either filled with concrete, encased by reinforced concrete or structurally connected to a
reinforced concrete slab. Composite members are constructed such that the structural steel shape
and the concrete act together to resist axial compression and /or bending.

The most important and most frequently encountered combination of construction materials is
that of steel and concrete, with applications in multi-storey commercial buildings and factories,
as well as in bridges. These materials can be used in mixed structural systems, for example
concrete cores encircled by steel tubes, as well as in composite structures where members
consisting of steel and concrete act together compositely.

These essentially different materials are completely compatible and complementary to each
other; they have almost the same thermal expansion; they have an ideal combination of strengths
with the concrete efficient in compression and the steel in tension; concrete also gives corrosion
protection and thermal insulation to the steel at elevated temperatures and additionally can
restrain slender steel sections from local or lateral torsional buckling.
In multi-storey buildings, structural steelwork is typically used together with concrete; for
example, steel beams with concrete floor slabs. The same applies to road bridges, where concrete
decks are normally preferred. The extent to which the components or parts of a building structure
should embody all steel construction, be constructed entirely in reinforced concrete, or be of
composite construction depends on the circumstances. It is a fact, however, that engineers are
increasingly designing composite and mixed building systems of structural steel and reinforced
concrete to produce more efficient structures when compared to designs using either material
alone. It should be added that the combination of concrete cores, steel frame and composite floor
construction has become the standard construction method for multi-storey commercial buildings
in several countries. Much progress has been made, for example in Japan, where the structural
steel/reinforced concrete frame is the standard system for tall buildings. The main reason for this
preference is that the sections and members are best suited to resist repeated earthquake loadings,
which require a high amount of resistance and ductility.

Single composite elements, such as isolated beams, columns and slabs (Figure 1), whilst
they are of high quality and resistance, they are also, in many cases, expensive. This is the case
particularly for buildings with small column spacings, floor beam spans well below 9 m and low
loadings. On the other hand, composite floor construction is highly competitive if spans are
increased to 12, 15 or even 20 m. There is, of course, a demand for larger column-free spans in
buildings to facilitate open planning or greater flexibility in office layout, as shown in Figure 2.

Figure 1 – Composite Structural Elements in Buildings

A further important consideration is that the use of rolled steel sections, profiled metal decking
and/or prefabricated composite members speeds up execution. For maximum efficiency and
economy the joints should be cheap to fabricate and straightforward to erect on site.
.
Figure 2 shows three examples of the use of composite floor construction comprising steel beams
and concrete slabs, in buildings: Figure 2a shows a typical office building with offices on both
sides of the corridor, the walls of which are defined by the positions of the internal columns;
Figure 2b shows a large span, column-free structure, which allows a high amount of flexibility;
the structure in Figure 2c has a reduced number of columns, with main and secondary beams.

(a) (b)

(c)

Figure 2 – Composite Construction in

Buildings

Advantages:
Advantageous properties of both steel and concrete are effectively utilized in a composite
structure. For a typical three (3) to ten (10) storied structure, time of construction of the complete
structure reduces by about 25 percent. The advantages can be fully utilized as summarized
below:

A. Faster construction for maximum utilization of rolled and/or fabricated components

(structural steel members) and hence quick return of the invested capital.
B. Advantages based on life-cycle-cost analysis instead of initial cost only.
C. Quality assurance of the steel material along with availability of proper paint system
suiting to different corrosive environment.
D. Ability to cover large column free area in buildings and longer span for
bridges/flyovers. This leads to more usable space.
E. Reinforced cement concrete (RCC) slab is in compression and steel joist is in tension.
Hence, most effective utilization of the materials can be achieved.
F. Better seismic resistance i.e. best suited to resist repeated earthquake loadings, which
require a high amount of ductility and hysteretic energy of the material/structural frame.
G. Composite sections have higher stiffness than the corresponding steel sections (in a
steel structure) and thus bending stress as well as deflection are lesser.
H. Keeping span and loading unaltered, a lower structural steel section (having lesser
depth and weight) can be provided in composite construction, compared to the section
required for non-composite construction.
I. Reduced beam depth reduces the story height and consequently the cost of cladding in
a building and lowers the cost of embankment in a flyover (due to lower height of
embankment).
J. Reduced depth allows provision of lower cost for fire proofing of beam’s exposed
faces.
K. Cost of formwork is lower compared to RCC construction.
L. Cost of handling and transportation is minimized for using major part of the structure
fabricated in the workshop.
M. Easy structural repair/modification/maintenance.
N. Structural steel component has considerable scrap value at the end of useful life.
O. Reductions in overall weight of structure and thereby reduction in foundation costs
P. More use of a material i.e. steel, which is durable, fully recyclable on replacement and
environment friendly.

Disadvantages:
 The additional subcontractor needed for shear connector installation will increase field
costs
 Installation of shear connectors is another operation to be included in the schedule
 A concrete flatwork contractor who has experience with elevated composite slabs should
be secured for the job

5.2 Composite Beams:

Slab and beam type constructions are commonly used in bridges and buildings. Slab-beam
interaction is possible through the use of shear connector welded at the top of the flanges. This
behaves like a T-beam with the slab or part of it acting as a flange in compression. Further, bond
between the shear connector and slab is assumed to be perfect, i.e., no slippage between the top
flange of the steel beam and slab is permitted. For determining section properties, it is
convenient to transform the concrete slab into an equivalent steel section by dividing concrete
area by modular ratio. The rest of the analysis is carried out as if the section were made of a
homogeneous material.

In conventional composite construction, concrete slabs rest over steel beams and are supported
by them. Under load these two components act independently and a relative slip occurs at the
interface if there is no connection between them. With the help of a deliberate and appropriate
connection provided between the beam and the concrete slab, the slip between them can be
eliminated. In this case the steel beam and the slab act as a “composite beam” and their action is
similar to that of a monolithic Tee beam. Composite beams, subject mainly to bending, consist of
a steel section acting compositely with one (or two) flanges of reinforced concrete. The two
materials are interconnected by means of mechanical shear connectors. Though steel and
concrete are the most commonly used materials for composite beams, other materials such as
pre-stressed concrete and timber can also be used. Concrete is stronger in compression than in
tension, and steel is susceptible to buckling in compression. By the composite actio n between the
two, we can utilize their respective advantages to the fullest extent. Generally in steel-concrete
composite beams, steel beams are integrally connected to prefabricated or cast in situ reinforced
concrete slabs. There are many advantages associated with steel concrete composite
construction.

In composite structures continuous beams in comparison with simple beams they have the
following advantages:
 Greater load resistance due to the redistribution of bending moments
 Greater stiffness
 Smaller steel section to withstand the same loading.
Advantages
 The most effective utilization of steel and concrete is achieved.
 Keeping the span and loading unaltered; a more economical steel section (in terms
of depth and weight) is adequate in composite construction compared with
conventional non-composite construction.
 As the depth of beam reduces, the construction depth reduces, resulting in
enhanced headroom.
 Because of its larger stiffness, composite beams have less deflection than steel
beams.
 Composite construction provides efficient arrangement to cover large column free
space.
 Composite construction is amenable to “fast-track” construction because of using
rolled steel and pre-fabricated components, rather than cast-in-situ concrete.
 Encased steel beam sections have improved fire resistance and corrosion.

Disadvantages:
  Additional costs for shear connectors and their installation. For lightly loaded short
beams, this extra cost may exceed the cost-reduction on all accounts.

Figure 3 shows several composite beam cross-sections in which the wet concrete has been cast in
situ on timber shuttering. For single span beams, sagging bending moments, due to applied
vertical loads, cause tensile forces in the steel section and compression in the concrete deck
thereby making optimum use of each material. Therefore, composite beams, even with small
steel sections, have high stiffness and can carry heavy loads on long spans. If slip is free to occur
at the interface between the steel section and the concrete slab, each component will act
independently, as shown in Figure 4. If slip at the interface is eliminated, or at least reduced, the
slab and the steel member will act together as a composite unit. The resulting increase in
resistance will depend on the extent to which slip is prevented.

Figure 3 – Typical Beam Cross Sections

It should be noted that Figure 4 refers to the use of headed stud shear connectors. The degree of
interaction depends mainly on the degree of shear connection used.
Figure 4 – Composite Steel Beam-Concrete Slab Interaction

5.2.1 Elastic behavior of composite beams

The behavior of composite beams under transverse loading is best illustrated by using two identical
beams, each having a cross section of b×h and spanning a distance of L, one placed at the top of the
other. The beams support a uniformly distributed load of w/unit length as shown in Fig 5. For
theoretical explanation, two extreme cases of no interaction and 100% (full) interaction are analyzed
below:
Figure 5. Effect of shear connection on bending and shear stresses

Composite beams are designed using plastic design methods and partial interaction theory,
combining steel and concrete to great effect. To obtain maximum advantage from this form of
construction, planning and design should be integrated from the start. The involvement of
experienced site managers at an early stage will help avoid problems later on. With this carefully
planned approach, different operations such as steel erection, metal decking and stud welding,
concreting, fire protection, cladding, facade work, services and finishing can be carried out at
different floor levels simultaneously

5.3 Composite slabs

In floor construction, the use of the solid reinforced concrete slab is being replaced more
and more by metal decking, see Figure 7. Modern profiled steel sheeting with additional
indentations or embossments acts as both permanent formwork during concreting and tension
reinforcement after the concrete has hardened. At this final stage the composite slab consists of a
profiled steel sheet and an upper concrete topping which are interconnected in such a manner
that horizontal shear forces can be resisted at the steel concrete interface. Slip (relative
displacements) at the interface must be prevented completely or partly, as should vertical
separation of the steel decking from the concrete topping.
Figure 7 - The Use of Metal Decking in Composite Construction

Common types of composite floor systems

 Concrete slabs supported by open-web joists
 One-way and two-way reinforced concrete slabs supported on steel beams
 Concrete slab and steel beam composite floors
 Composite profiled decking floors
 Precast concrete floors on steel beams

Figure 6. Concrete slabs

supported by open-web
joists

Figure 9. One-way and two-way reinforced concrete slabs supported on steel beams
Figure 10. Concrete slab and steel beam composite floors

Profiled decking floors

 Popular for lighter loads
Advantages:
 Do not need form work
 Lightweight concrete is used resulting in reduced dead weight
 Decking distributes shrinkage strains, thus prevents serious cracking
 Decking stabilizes the beam against lateral buckling, until the concrete hardens
 Cells in decking are convenient for locating services

Figure 9. Profiled decking

floors
 Figure 10. Precast concrete slab floors

In summary, composite floor construction used for commercial and other multi-storey
buildings, offers the following main advantages to the designer and client:
 speed and simplicity of construction (metal decking, simple steel connections).
 lighter construction than a traditional concrete building (structural steel and lightweight
concrete, slender structural elements of small dimensions).
 less on site construction (steelwork, prefabricated structural elements).
 small (strict) tolerances achieved by using steel members manufactured under controlled
factory conditions to established quality procedures.

5.4 Composite Columns

A steel-concrete composite column is a compression member, comprising either a concrete
encased hot-rolled steel section or a concrete filled hollow section of hot-rolled steel. It is
generally used as a load-bearing member in a composite framed structure.
Three different types of composite columns are principally in use, see Figure 11:
 Concrete encased steel columns (a)
 Concrete filled steel tubes and (c and d)
 Rolled section columns partly encased in concrete (b).
 Figure 11 – Typical Cross Sections of Composite Columns

In calculating the strength of such columns, full composite interaction without any slip at
the steel-concrete-interface is assumed. Strictly speaking all geometrical and physical non-
linearities of the different materials should be observed. It is only possible, however, to meet
these requirements by using comprehensive numerical methods of analysis and computer
software. The assumed complete interaction enables definition of section properties, and stiffness
and slenderness ratios, for the whole inhomogeneous cross-section. This information is necessary
to determine the load carrying resistance, including slenderness or P-∆-effects. The complete
interaction must be ensured by means of mechanical connections. The connections have to be
provided at least at the column ends and where loads or forces are acting. They should be
distributed over the whole cross-section. Such connectors can be headed studs, top and bottom
plates, suitable brackets, vertical gusset plates, shear heads or other structural means.

Concrete encased columns have the advantage that they meet fire resistance requirements
without any other protection. In addition, they can be easily strengthened by reinforcing bars in
the concrete cover. They do not, however, present an accessible structural steel surface for later
fastenings and attractive surface treatment. In the case of prefabricated encased columns, the
structural steel sections are fabricated in a workshop and include all welds, connection plates and
other necessary attachments. These steel columns (the longest have been up to 30 m long) can
then be transported to another workshop, where concreting takes place. After the concrete
encasement has cured the completed columns can be brought to the construction site.

Concrete filled steel tubes are also in use. The tubes are generally filled with high strength
concrete, with a minimum cube strength of 45 to 55N/mm2. If the bearing forces from the floor
beams are transferred by means of vertical connection plates, these plates run through the tube
and are welded on both sides. This welding ensures both parts, the steel tube as well as the
concrete core, are loaded directly without excessive slip at the steel-concrete interface. In order
to meet the required fire resistance rating, the concrete core must be longitudinally reinforced. It
is impossible, however, to take advantage of the full column resistance in many cases.

Mechanism of Load Resistance:

In a composite column both the steel and the concrete sections would resist the external
loading by interacting together by bond and friction. Supplementary reinforcement in the
concrete encasement prevents excessive spalling of concrete both under normal load and
fire conditions.
Advantages of composite columns:
 Increased strength for a given cross sectional dimensions.
 Increased stiffness, leading to reduced slenderness and increased buckling resistance.
 Good fire resistance
 Corrosion protection in encased columns.
 Significant economic advantages over either structural steel or reinforced concrete
alternatives.
 Identical cross sections with different load and moment resistances can be produced by
varying steel thickness, the concrete strength or reinforcement. This allows the outer
dimensions of a column to be held constant over a number of floors in a building, thus
simplifying the construction and architectural detailing.
 Erection of high rise building in an extremely efficient manner.
 Formwork is not required for concrete filled tubular sections

5.5 Shear Connector

Composite construction consists of providing monolithic action between prefabricated units like
steel beams or pre-cast reinforced concrete or pre-stressed concrete beams and cast-in-situ
concrete, so that the two will act as one unit. Although there is bound to be a certain amount of
natural bond between concrete and steel at least at the initial stages, this bond cannot be relied
upon as the same is likely to be deteriorate due to use and over load. Mechanical shear
connectors are therefore provided to help the steel and concrete element to act in a composite
manner ignoring the contribution made by the inherent natural bond towards this effect.
Primarily shear connectors are intended to resist the horizontal movement between the concrete
slab and the steel beam and to transmit the horizontal shear between the two. Shear Connectors
are also called upon to prevent vertical separation of the slab from the steel girder at the contact
surface.
Therefore, shear connectors are to be designed to cater for integral action of the composite
structure at all load conditions on the following basis:
a. Transmission of longitudinal shear along the contact surface without slip.
b. Prevention of vertical separation of the in-situ RC slab from the pre-
fabricated structural beam.
Types of Shear Connectors
Shear connectors are generally classified into three categories, viz.
a.Rigid type
b. Flexible type
c.Bond type
(a) Rigid Type Connectors:
These connectors as the name implies, are designed to be bent proof with little inherent power of
deformation. These types of shear connectors could be of various shapes, but the most common
types are short length of bars, angles or tees welded on to the steel girder in manners shown in
Figure 1. These connectors derive their resistance from bearing pressure of the concrete,
distributed evenly over the surface because of the stiffness of the connectors. Failures in these
types of connectors are generally associated with the crushing of concrete. It is customary to
provide suitable anchorage device to these connectors to prevent in-situ concrete from being
separated from the structural unit in the direction normal to the contact surface. The common
method for this is to introduce longitudinal round bars through holes provided in the rigid
connectors (Figure 13).
(b) Flexible Type Connectors:
Flexible type connectors such as studs, channels welded to the structural beams derive their
resistance essentially through the bending of the connectors and normally failure occurs when
the yield stress in the connector is exceeded resulting in slip between the structural beam and the
concrete slab. Typical types of flexible connectors are illustrated in Figure 14.
c) Bond or Anchorage Type Connectors:
These connectors derive their resistance through bond and/or anchorage action. Typical bond
type connectors have been illustrated in Figure 15. These normally consist of the following:
Inclined bars with one end welded to the flange of the steel unit and the other suitably bent.
M.S. bar welded to the flange of the steel unit in the form of helical stirrups.

Figure 13. Typical rigid connectors with anchorage device to hold down the concrete
slab against uplift
 Figure 14. typical flexible connectors

I. Inclined mild steel bars welded to the top flange of steel unit

II. helical connector

Figure 15. typical bond or anchorage connectors