University of Al_Qadisiyah.

College of Engineering.
Mechanical Engineering Dept. Manufacturing Processes (2)

ME 124

Manufacturing Processes: Processing Operations.

4: Shaping Processes.
4.2: Material Removal Processes (Drilling, Turning, Milling and Abrasive
Machining).
They are a family of shaping operations in which excess material is removed from a
starting work part so that what remains is the desired final geometry. The ‘‘family
tree’’ is shown in Figure (1). The most important branch of the family is
conventional machining, in which a sharp cutting tool is used to mechanically cut
the material to achieve the desired geometry Figure (2).
Advantages:
1. Variety of work materials: all solid metals can be machined. Plastics and
plastic composites. Ceramics is difficult to machine because of high hardness
and brittleness; but it can be cut by the abrasive machining processes.
2. Variety of part shapes and geometric features. Machining can be used to create
any regular geometries, such as flat planes, round holes, and cylinders.
3. Dimensional accuracy. Machining can produce dimensions to very close
tolerances.
4. Good surface finishes. Machining is capable of creating very smooth surface
finishes.

Disadvantages:
1. Wasteful of material. Machining is inherently wasteful of material. The chips
generated in a machining operation are wasted material. Although these chips
can usually be recycled.
2. Time consuming. A machining operation generally takes more time to shape
a given part than alternative shaping processes such as casting or forging.

Mr. Layth Fadhil

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University of Al_Qadisiyah.
College of Engineering.
Mechanical Engineering Dept. Manufacturing Processes (2)

ME 124

Figure (1)

Figure (2)

Mr. Layth Fadhil

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 University of Al_Qadisiyah.
College of Engineering.
Mechanical Engineering Dept. Manufacturing Processes (2)

ME 124

4.2.1: Turning:
Turning is a machining process in which a single-point tool removes material from
the surface of a rotating workpiece. The tool is fed linearly in a direction parallel to
the axis of rotation to generate a cylindrical geometry, as illustrated in Figure (3).

Figure (3)

Turning is traditionally carried out on a machine tool called a lathe, which provides
power to turn the part at a given rotational speed and to feed the tool at a specified
rate and depth of cut.
❖ Parts of Lathe Machine:
1- Bed: The bed of a lathe machine is the base on which all other parts of lathe
are mounted. It is massive and rigid single piece casting (usually cast iron)
made to support other active parts of lathe. The carriage of the machine rests
over the bed and slides on it. See Figure (4).
2- Head Stock: The main function of headstock is to transmit power to the
different parts of a lathe. It comprises of the casting to accommodate all the
parts within it including gear train arrangement. The main spindle is adjusted
in it, which possesses live center to which the work can be attached.
3- Tail Stock: it is commonly used to support the circular job being turned on
centers. Tail stock can be easily set or adjusted for alignment or non-alignment
with respect to the spindle center and carries a dead center for supporting one
end of the work.
4- Carriage: Carriage is mounted on the outer guide ways of lathe bed and it
can move in a direction parallel to the spindle axis.

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 University of Al_Qadisiyah.
College of Engineering.
Mechanical Engineering Dept. Manufacturing Processes (2)

ME 124

Figure (4)

❖ Operations Related to Turning:

A variety of other machining operations can be performed on a lathe in addition to
turning; these include the following, illustrated in Figure (5).
(a) Facing. The tool is fed radially into the rotating work on one end to create a flat
surface on the end.
(b) Taper turning. Instead of feeding the tool parallel to the axis of rotation of the
work, the tool is fed at an angle, thus creating a tapered cylinder or conical shape.
(c) Contour turning. Instead of feeding the tool along a straight line parallel to the
axis of rotation as in turning, the tool follows a contour that is other than straight,
thus creating a contoured form in the turned part.
(d) Form turning. In this operation, sometimes called forming, the tool has a shape
that is imparted to the work by plunging the tool radially into the work.
(e) Chamfering. The cutting edge of the tool is used to cut an angle on the corner
of the cylinder, forming what is called a ‘‘chamfer.’’
(f) Cutoff. The tool is fed radially into the rotating work at some location along its
length to cut off the end of the part. This operation is sometimes referred to as
parting.
(g) Threading. A pointed tool is fed linearly across the outside surface of the
rotating workpart in a direction parallel to the axis of rotation at a large effective
feed rate, thus creating threads in the cylinder.

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 University of Al_Qadisiyah.
College of Engineering.
Mechanical Engineering Dept. Manufacturing Processes (2)

ME 124

(h) Boring. Asingle-point tool is fed linearly, parallel to the axis of rotation, on the
inside diameter of an existing hole in the part.
(i) Drilling. Drilling can be performed on a lathe by feeding the drill into the rotating
work along its axis. Reaming can be performed in a similar way.
(j) Knurling. This is not a machining operation because it does not involve cutting
of material. Instead, it is a metal forming operation used to produce a regular
crosshatched pattern in the work surface.

Figure (5)

❖ Cutting Conditions:
speed, feed, and depth of cut are called the cutting conditions. They form the three
dimensions of the machining process.
1- Surface Speed V and Rotational Speed N.
Speed (v) is the primary cutting motion, which relates the velocity of the rotating
work piece with respect to stationary cutting tool; it is unit (m/s).
πD1 × Ns
𝑽=
1000
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 University of Al_Qadisiyah.
College of Engineering.
Mechanical Engineering Dept. Manufacturing Processes (2)

ME 124

Where:
D1 = initial daimeter (mm)
Ns = the revolution per minute (r. p. m. )of the workpiece
2- Feed Rate (fr)
Is the amount of material removed per revolution or per pass of tool over the
workpiece, its unit (m/rev), (m/cycle), (m/minute) and (m/tooth) depending on the
process. In turning it can be estimated by:
fr = Nf
where: fr = feed rate (mm/min), N= rotational speed (rev/min), f= feed (mm/rev).
3- Depth of Cut (d)
Represent the third dimension in turning, it is the distance of the tool is plunged into
the surface .it is half the difference in the diameters D1 ,the initial diameter and D2
,the final diameter.
𝑫𝟏 − 𝑫𝟐
𝒅=
𝟐

4- Machining Time.
Tm = L / fr
Where Tm= machining time (min), L= workpiece length (mm), fr= feed rate
(mm/min)
There is more direct computation of the machining time is provided by the following
equation:
Tm = ᴫ.D.L / f.v
Where f= feed per rev (mm/rev), Do= workpiece diameter (mm), v= cutting speed
(mm/min), L= workpiece length (mm).
5- Material Removal Rate:
MRR= v.f.d
MRR= material removal rate (mm^3/min), but f units her expressed simply in
(mm).

Mr. Layth Fadhil

64
 University of Al_Qadisiyah.
College of Engineering.
Mechanical Engineering Dept. Manufacturing Processes (2)

ME 124

Example 4.2.1: A cylindrical workpart 200 mm in diameter and 700 mm long is to

be turned in an engine lathe. Cutting speed = 2.30 m/s, feed = 0.32 mm/rev, and
depth of cut = 1.80 mm. Determine (a) cutting time, and (b) metal removal rate.
Example 4.2.2: In a production turning operation, the foreman has decreed that a
single pass must be completed on the cylindrical workpiece in 5.0 min. The piece is
400 mm long and 150 mm in diameter. Using a feed = 0.30 mm/rev and a depth of
cut = 4.0 mm, what cutting speed must be used to meet this machining time
requirement?
Example 4.2.3: The part shown below will be turned in two machining steps. In the
first step a length of (50 + 50) = 100 mm will be reduced from Ø100 mm to Ø80
mm and in the second step a length of 50 mm will be reduced from Ø80 mm to Ø60
mm. Calculate the required total machining time T with the following cutting
conditions: V=80 m/min, f=0.8 mm/rev, D.O.C = 3 mm per pass.

❖ Cutting Tool Materials in Turning:

These materials generally need to withstand high temperatures, high forces, resist
corrosion, etc.
• The List below shows some commercial tool materials
CBN - Cubic Boron Nitride, ceramic, HSS - High Speed Steel, WC - Tungsten
Carbide
PCD - Polycrystalline Diamond, coated WC - Tools coated with Tungsten Carbide.

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65
 University of Al_Qadisiyah.
College of Engineering.
Mechanical Engineering Dept. Manufacturing Processes (2)

ME 124

❖ Cutting Tool Geometry in Turning:

Rake Angle
Is an angle between the upper surface or the face of the tool along which chip flow
and the plane perpendicular to the machined surface of the workpiece, it is necessary
for shoveling the chips formed during machining operation. Figure (6).

Figure (6)

Clearances Angles. Is essential for elimination of friction between flank and newly
machined surface, approximately 5° and it may be 20° or greater for cutting tools
designed for cutting certain soft workpieces materials. Softer workpiece materials
may require greater clearance angles than harder workpiece materials making the
same cut.
Lead Angle (Side Cutting Edge Angle, Bevel Angle). It is defined as the angle
formed between the cutting edge and the workpiece Figure (7). Lead angles control
the chip thickness. As the lead angle increases the chip tends to become thinner and
longer. As the lead angle decreases the chip tends to become thicker and shorter.

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 University of Al_Qadisiyah.
College of Engineering.
Mechanical Engineering Dept. Manufacturing Processes (2)

ME 124

Figure (7)

❖ Chip Formation:
• There are three types of chips that are commonly produced in cutting,
1- discontinuous chips, 2- continuous chips, 3- continuous with built-up edge.
• A discontinuous chip comes off as small chunks or particles and when we get this
chip it may indicate (brittle work material, small rake angles, high feeds and low
speeds
• A continuous chip looks like a long ribbon with a smooth shining surface. This
chip type may indicate (ductile work materials, large rake angles, fine feeds and high
speeds, use of coolant and good chip flow)
• Continuous chips with a built-up edge still look like a long ribbon, but the surface
is no longer smooth and shining. This type of chip tends to indicate (high friction
between work and tool causes high temperatures that will occasionally weld the chip
to the tool. This will break free, but the effect is a rough cutting action).
• Continuous chips, and subsequently continuous cutting action is generally desired.

❖ Tool Life:
Ideal conditions for cutting are short cutting time, long tool life, and high cutting
accuracy. In order to obtain these conditions, selection of efficient cutting conditions
and tool, based on work material, hardness, shape and machine capability is
necessary.
Cutting speed effects tool life greatly. Increasing cutting speed increases cutting
temperature and results in shortening tool life. Cutting speed varies depending on
the type and hardness of the work material. Selecting a tool grade suitable for the
cutting speed is necessary.

Mr. Layth Fadhil

67
 University of Al_Qadisiyah.
College of Engineering.
Mechanical Engineering Dept. Manufacturing Processes (2)

ME 124

To find tool life Taylor’s equation is used:

𝑽 × 𝑻𝒏 = 𝑪

Where:
V= cutting velocity, T= tool life, n= a constant based on the tool material,
C= a constant based on the tool and work
• An important relationship to be considered is the relationship between cutting
speed and tool life shown in Figure (8).

Figure (8)

Example 4.2.4: In testing operation for two cutting tools from the same material,
found that first tool life was (65 min) at cutting speed (63 m/min). The second tool
life was (2 min) at cutting speed (470 m/min) find the (n & C) values.

Example 4.2.5: Turning tool made of HSS used in the long process of turning shaft
of aluminum alloy with the length of 300 mm, diameter of 70mm, the speed of
rotation is 364 rpm. Feed of 0.01 mm/rev, angle of curved cutting edge 21°. age of
cutting edge contrast 114min for cutting speed of 50mm/min.
Calculate the age of the cutting edge and how many times the tool need to be
sharpened.

Mr. Layth Fadhil

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