COVID-19 and mental health: A review of the existing literature
Ravi Philip Rajkumar
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Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic is a major health crisis affecting several nations, with over 720,000 cases and
33,000 confirmed deaths reported to date. Such widespread outbreaks are associated with adverse
mental health consequences. Keeping this in mind, existing literature on the COVID-19 outbreak
pertinent to mental health was retrieved via a literature search of the PubMed database. Published
articles were classified according to their overall themes and summarized. Preliminary evidence suggests
that symptoms of anxiety and depression (16–28%) and self-reported stress (8%) are common
psychological reactions to the COVID-19 pandemic, and may be associated with disturbed sleep. A
number of individual and structural variables moderate this risk. In planning services for such
populations, both the needs of the concerned people and the necessary preventive guidelines must be
taken into account. The available literature has emerged from only a few of the affected countries, and
may not reflect the experience of persons living in other parts of the world. In conclusion, subsyndromal
mental health problems are a common response to the COVID-19 pandemic. There is a need for more
representative research from other affected countries, particularly in vulnerable populations.
Keywords: COVID-19, Anxiety, Depression, Stress, Public health
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1. Introduction
Originating as a cluster of unexplained cases of pneumonia in Wuhan, China, novel coronavirus disease –
officially designated as COVID-19 by the World Health Organization – has reached the level of a
pandemic, affecting countries all across the world. To date (March 30th, 2020), over 720,000 confirmed
cases and 33,000 deaths attributable to this disease have been reported. In the wake of this global
health crisis, stringent public health measures have been implemented to curtail the spread of COVID-19
(Adhikari et al., 2020).
Widespread outbreaks of infectious disease, such as COVID-19, are associated with psychological
distress and symptoms of mental illness (Bao et al., 2020). Psychiatrists across the world should be
aware of these manifestations, their correlates, and strategies to manage them that encompass both
the needs of specific populations (Yang et al., 2020) and the precautionary measures necessary to
contain the spread of COVID-19 (Liu et al., 2020a). They should also be aware of lacunae in the existing
literature, which may need to be filled in over time through more widespread clinical experience and
research.
With the above objectives in mind, the current review was designed to summarize the existing literature
addressing mental health concerns related to the COVID-19 pandemic.
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2. Methodology
2.1. Search methodology and article selection
The current article is a narrative review of the existing literature on mental health symptoms and
interventions relevant to the COVID-19 pandemic. A search of the PubMed electronic database was
undertaken using the search terms “novel coronavirus”, “COVID-19”, “nCoV”, “mental health”,
“psychiatry”, “psychology”, “anxiety”, “depression” and “stress” in various permutations and
combinations. A total of 47 citations were retrieved using this method. On reviewing the above citations,
19 articles were excluded: 3 because they were available only in the Chinese language, and 16 because
they dealt with other aspects of the COVID-19 outbreak, such as drug therapy, animal models, public
health and preventive measures, and organization of health care systems. A careful review of these 16
articles revealed no material relevant to mental health.
2.2. Methodological and thematic analysis of selected articles
The remaining 28 articles were included in this review. Of these 28 articles, only a minority (n = 4) could
be genuinely labelled as “original research”. All these four studies were cross-sectional and
observational in design. The remaining 24 articles consisted of letters to the editor (n = 16) and editorials
or commentary related to mental health and COVID-19 (n = 8).
As it was not possible to conduct a formal systematic review or meta-analysis given the nature of the
above publications, it was instead decided to conduct a narrative review, giving priority to the few
observational studies available and briefly summarizing the salient themes from the other publication
types. Five broad themes were identified across the 26 publications, and were used to organize the
review: (a) observational studies reporting on mental health symptoms in particular populations, (b)
commentary and correspondence broadly addressing the psychological impact of COVID-19 on the
population, (c) commentary and correspondence addressing the impact of COVID-19 on healthcare
workers, (d) commentary and correspondence specifically related to high-risk or vulnerable populations,
and (e) commentary and correspondence related to methods of delivering mental health care during the
COVID-19 outbreak.
The majority of published articles (18/28 of all articles; 64.3%) and all the observational studies (4/4;
100%) were from Chinese centres. There were two publications each from Iran and Canada; one each
from Brazil, Singapore, India and Japan; and two publications with no specified country of origin.
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3. Results
3.1. Observational studies on mental health problems related to COVID-19
Four studies, all from Chinese centres, examined the frequency of specific mental health-related
variables in persons affected by the COVID-19 outbreak (Wang et al., 2020; Xiao et al., 2020a; Li et al.,
2020; Xiao et al., 2020b). Their results are summarized in the Table below (Table 1 ).
Table 1
Observational studies of mental health concerns related to COVID-19.
Author Country Population(s) Methodology Study instruments Results
of origin studied
Wang China General Online survey Depression, Anxiety 16.5% moderate to
et al., population (n = and Stress Scale severe depressive
2020 1210) (DASS-21); Impact of symptoms; 28.8%
Event Scale-Revised moderate to severe
(IES-R) anxiety symptoms;
8.1% moderate to
severe stress
Xiao et China Medical staff Cross- Self-Rating Anxiety Mean anxiety scores
al., treating sectional, self- Scale (SAS); General 55.3 ± 14.2; anxiety
2020a patients with rated Self-Efficiency Scale positively correlated
COVID-19 questionnaire (SES); Stanford Acute with stress and
(n = 180) Stress Reaction negatively with sleep
Questionnaire (SASR); quality, social support
Pittsburgh Sleep and self-efficiency (p <
Quality Index (PSQI); .05, all correlations)
Social Support Rate
Scale (SSRS)
Li et China General public Cross- Chinese version of Traumatization
al., (n = 214); front- sectional, self- the Vicarious related to COVID-19
2020 line nurses (n = rated survey Traumatization Scale higher among non-
234); non-front using a mobile front line than front-
line nurse (n = app line nurses (p < .001);
292) traumatization among
the general public
higher than for front-
line nurses (p < .005)
but not non-front-line
nurses
Xiao et China Individuals in Cross- Self-Rating Anxiety Mean anxiety score
al., self-isolation sectional, self- Scale (SAS); Stanford 55.4 ± 14.3; Anxiety
2020b for 14 days (n = rated Acute Stress Reaction positively correlated
170) questionnaire Questionnaire (SASR); with stress and
Pittsburgh Sleep negatively with sleep
Quality Index (PSQI); quality and social
Personal Social capital; social capital
Capital Scale (PSCI- positively correlated
16) with sleep quality. (p <
Author Country Population(s) Methodology Study instruments Results
of origin studied
.05, all correlations)
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As seen in the above results, only one study has provided rough estimates of the frequencies of
individual mental health symptoms, with anxiety being the commonest. Anxiety was associated with
impaired sleep in both studies examining this link (Xiao et al., 2020a, b). In the population-based study,
female gender, being a student, having symptoms suggestive of COVID-19, and poor perceived health
were associated with higher rates of anxiety and depression; on the other hand, the availability of
accurate information and the use of specific preventive measures, such as hand-washing, seemed to
mitigate these effects (Wang et al., 2020). No descriptive studies of this sort could be retrieved from
other countries.
3.2. Literature addressing the mental health impact of COVID-19 on the general population
Eight publications, including commentaries (n = 4) and correspondence (n = 5) addressed the potential
mental health impact of COVID-19 on the general population, based on literature from previous disease
outbreaks or specified theoretical models. There was greater geographical diversity in this group of
publications, with papers originating from China, Canada, Iran, Japan, Singapore and Brazil.
Two of these papers examined the likely impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in specific countries. One of
these, from Iran (Zandifar and Badrfam, 2020) highlighted the role of unpredictability, uncertainty,
seriousness of the disease, misinformation and social isolation in contributing to stress and mental
morbidity. The authors highlighted the need for both mental health services, particularly for vulnerable
populations, and the strengthening of social capital to reduce the adverse psychological impact of the
outbreak. Another, from Japan (Shigemura et al., 2020), emphasised the economic impact of COVID-19
and its effects on well-being, as well as the likely high levels of fear and panic behaviour, such as
hoarding and stockpiling of resources, in the general population. This paper also identified populations
at higher risk of adverse mental health outcomes, including patients with COVID-19 and their families,
individuals with existing physical or psychiatric morbidity, and healthcare workers.
Of the remaining papers, one pointed out that the wide scope and spread of COVID-19 could lead to a
true mental health crisis, especially in countries with high case loads (Dong and Bouey, 2020) which
would require both large-scale psychosocial crisis interventions, and the incorporation of mental health
care in disaster management plans in the future. In a related report (Duan and Zhu, 2020) it was pointed
out that while Western countries have incorporated psychological interventions into their protocols for
disease outbreaks, this has not yet happened in countries such as China, leading to the emergence and
persistence of stress-related disorders in affected persons. This paper also offered suggestions for the
development of intervention strategies, which will be summarized in section 3.5 below. In contrast, Bao
et al. (2020) highlighted the services that were already being provided in China, and also provided a list
of strategies for the general public to minimize outbreak-related stress: (1) assessment of the accuracy
of information, (2) enhancing social support, (3) reducing the stigma associated with the disease, (4)
maintaining as normal a life as feasible while adhering to safety measures, (5) use of available
psychosocial services, particularly online services, when needed. Such methods, in their opinion, would
empower society to handle the COVID-19 outbreak in an adaptive manner. Similar strategies were
reiterated in a paper from Singapore (Ho et al., 2020) which also discussed the role of improved
screening for mental disorders, improving links between community and hospital services, and providing
accurate information to the general public in order to minimize maladaptive responses such as “panic”
and paranoia regarding the disease and its transmission. Finally, a brief review paper (Lima et al., 2020)
highlighted the role of anxiety as the dominant emotional response to an outbreak, and the need for
adequate training of healthcare personnel and the optimal use of technological advances to deliver
mental health care.
In contrast to the above literature on practical considerations, two papers from Canada (Asmundson and
Taylor, 2020a, b) have discussed the mental health impact of COVID-19 from the point of view of health
anxiety. Health anxiety, which arises from the misinterpretation of perceived bodily sensations and
changes, can be protective in everyday life. However, during an outbreak of infectious disease,
particularly in the presence of inaccurate or exaggerated information from the media, health anxiety can
become excessive. At an individual level, this can manifest as maladaptive behaviours (repeated medical
consultations, avoiding health care even if genuinely ill, hoarding particular items); at a broader societal
level, it can lead to mistrust of public authorities and scapegoating of particular populations or groups.
The authors underline the need for evidence-based research into health anxiety and its determinants, so
that valid individual- and population-level strategies can be developed to minimize it in the face of the
COVID-19 pandemic and future outbreaks of a similar nature.
3.3. Literature addressing the mental health impact of COVID-19 on healthcare workers
As discussed briefly in section 3.1, healthcare workers are at a significant risk of adverse mental health
outcomes during the COVID-19 outbreak. Reasons for this include long working hours, risk of infection,
shortages of protective equipment, loneliness, physical fatigue, and separation from families (Kang et
al., 2020).
Excluding observational studies, three papers, all from Chinese centres, have addressed this topic. One
of these vividly illustrates the gap between planned services at a given hospital and the actual needs of
healthcare workers (Chen et al., 2020). This centre had developed a three-pronged approach to address
the mental health of their staff: development of an intervention team which would design online
materials, implementation of a psychological assistance hotline, and group activities for stress reduction.
However, this programme met with reluctance from the healthcare workers themselves. After direct
interaction with the workers, this programme was redesigned to include the provision of a rest area,
care for basic physical needs such as food, training on the care of COVID-19 patients, information on
protective measures, leisure activities, and periodic visits to the rest area by a counsellor. This resulted
in greater satisfaction among healthcare workers, and highlights the need for ongoing feedback and
modification of such programmes if they are not acceptable to the workers themselves. Liu et al.
(2020b) pointed out that mental health professionals may need to work especially closely with those
working in critical care units, to minimize stress levels and reduce the risk of depression, while Kang et
al. (2020) noted the positive impact of telephone helplines for healthcare workers to specifically address
mental health problems. To date, no literature pertaining to healthcare workers from other countries
has been published.
3.4. Literature related to the mental health risks of COVID-19 in vulnerable populations
Seven publications (correspondence, n = 6; commentary, n = 1) have identified particular populations
that may be more vulnerable to the mental health impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, and some of these
have provided suggestions regarding interventions and service provision. The vulnerable groups
identified by these authors include older adults (Yang et al., 2020), the homeless (Tsai and Wilson,
2020), migrant workers (Liem et al., 2020), the mentally ill (Yao et al., 2020a; Zhu et al., 2020), pregnant
women (Rashidi Fakari and Simbar, 2020) and Chinese students studying overseas (Zhai and Du, 2020).
Of particular interest to practicing psychiatrists are the two reports from China (Yao et al., 2020, Zhu et
al., 2020) regarding COVID-19 and patients with pre-existing psychiatric illness. To date, a single
outbreak of COVID-19, affecting around 50 patients and 30 staff, has been reported in a psychiatric
hospital, and this was contained by strict quarantine. Reasons for this may have included overcrowding,
lack of general medical facilities in psychiatric hospitals, lack of knowledge among mental health
professionals, and difficulty in obtaining the cooperation of patients for preventive measures, especially
those suffering from psychotic disorders (Zhu et al., 2020). Conversely, patients with pre-existing mental
disorders may be at higher risk of relapse or new episodes of their disorder due to the stress associted
with the COVID-19 outbreak (Yao et al., 2020a). During this period, it is crucial that psychiatrists
familiarize themselves with screening and triage procedures, and work closely with physicians and public
health specialists to minimize the risks that their patients face (Zhu et al., 2020).
With regards to the other populations listed above, specific issues raised include the high rates of pre-
existing depressive symptoms in the elderly and their lack of access to mental health services (Yang et
al., 2020); the fears of involuntary admission or imprisonment among the homeless which may act as a
barrier to mental health care (Tsai and Wilson, 2020); the need for outreach and social support among
migrant worker populations to reduce the risk of common mental disorders (Liem et al., 2020); the
relationship between COVID-19 – related stress and anxiety and adverse maternal and neonatal
outcomes (Rashidi Fakari and Simbar, 2020); and the potential discrimination and stigmatization faced
by Chinese students overseas during the pandemic, leading to anxiety and stress-related disorders (Zhai
and Du, 2020). In all these cases, close collaboration between psychiatrists and specialities from other
branch of medicine, as well as with local authorities and health workers in the community, is essential.
3.5. Therapeutic interventions and strategies
Five papers (correspondence, n = 2; commentary, n = 3) have directly addressed the use of specific
strategies to deliver mental health care to persons affected by the COVID-19 epidemic (Duan and Zhu,
2020; Liu et al., 2020a; Xiao, 2020; Zhou et al., 2020; Yao et al., 2020b). In addition, a paper from India
has discussed the importance of psychiatrists during the COVID-19 pandemic in general terms. This
paper identified six important roles for the psychiatrist: a) education of the public about the common
psychological effects of a pandemic, b) motivating the public to adopt strategies for disease prevention
and health promotion, c) integrating their services with available health care, d) teaching problem-
solving strategies to cope with the current crisis, e) empowering patients with COVID-19 and their
caregivers, and f) provision of mental health care to healthcare workers (Banerjee, 2020).
With reference to more specific therapeutic strategies, proposals include the development of teams of
specialists qualified to address emotional distress (Duan and Zhu, 2020); the training of community
health personnel in basic aspects of mental health care (Duan and Zhu, 2020); the use of online surveys
to assess the scope of mental health problems (Liu et al., 2020b); the development of online materials
for mental health education (Liu et al., 2020a); the provision of online counselling and self-help services
(Liu et al., 2020b); the use of structured letters as a form of asynchronous telepsychiatry consultation
(Xiao, 2020); the development of synchronous telemedicine services for diagnostic purposes as well as
counselling (Zhou et al., 2020); and the need to make online mental health services accessible to
individuals from lower socioeconomic strata (Yao et al., 2020b). Such strategies offer the hope of
providing mental health services in an easily accessible manner without any increase in infection risk.
However, they depend crucially on the availability of trained manpower and infrastructure, and it is not
known to what extent these approaches will be accepted by the general public. Moreover, they have
not yet been tested or validated in the respective target populations.
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4. Conclusions and further directions
Though there are few large-scale observational studies available in this field to date, it is clear that the
COVID-19 pandemic has led to a vigorous and multifaceted response from psychiatrists and allied
professionals, and that mental health is clearly being taken into consideration at multiple levels – in the
general population, among healthcare workers, and in vulnerable populations. Though the quality of
evidence in the available literature is relatively low, it still contains numerous valuable observations and
suggestions for all professionals working in this field, whether they are associated with psychiatric or
general hospitals or working in the community. As the number of patients affected by this pandemic
continues to increase, the psychiatric profession – particularly in Asian countries – faces both a
challenge and an opportunity; the challenge of addressing the numerous barriers and limitations
identified in the above literature, but also the opportunity to implement those suggestions or
recommendations which are feasible at a local or regional level. The long-term mental health impact of
COVID-19 may take weeks or months to become fully apparent, and managing this impact requires
concerted effort not just from psychiatrists but from the health care system at large (Maunder, 2009).
There is a need for further research, even in the form of preliminary or pilot studies, to assess the scope
of this pandemic in other countries, particularly in those where mental health infrastructure is less
developed and the impact is likely to be more severe (Duan and Zhu, 2020). Researchers should also
attempt to assess the impact of COVID-19 on other vulnerable populations, such as children and
adolescents, those in remote or rural areas who face barriers in accessing health care, and those
belonging to lower socio-economic strate. Further, there is a need to develop mental health
interventions which are time-limited, culturally sensitive, and can be taught to healthcare workers and
volunteers. Once developed, such interventions should be tested, so that information regarding
effective therapeutic strategies can be widely disseminated among those working in this field.
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Disclosure of funding sources
Not applicable.
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Financial disclosure
The author has no sources of funding or other financial disclosures concerning the above article.
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Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest.
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Acknowledgement
None.
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