Circuits and Electronics

Circuits and Electronics

Hands-on Learning with Analog
­Discovery

John Okyere Attia

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 To my brothers and sisters (Augustine, Kwaku, Francisca, Esther,

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May the sacred bond amongst us grow stronger and stronger each day.

Contents

Examples�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ix
Preface����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������xi
Acknowledgments������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������xv
Author������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ xvii

1 Virtual Instruments of the Analog Discovery Board����������������������������� 1

1.1 The Analog Discovery Board............................................................... 1
1.2 The WaveForms Software..................................................................... 1
1.3 Power Supplies....................................................................................... 4
1.4 Voltmeters............................................................................................... 4
1.5 Arbitrary Waveform Generators..........................................................7
1.5.1 Basic Waveforms.......................................................................7
1.5.2 Sweep Waveforms..................................................................... 7
1.5.3 Advanced Waveforms.............................................................. 9
1.6 Scope...................................................................................................... 12
1.7 The Network Analyzer........................................................................ 14
1.8 Spectrum Analyzer.............................................................................. 17
Problems����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������20

2 Basic Circuit Laws and Theorems������������������������������������������������������������� 23

2.1 Ohm’s Law............................................................................................ 23
2.2 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law...................................................................... 24
2.3 Kirchhoff’s Current Law..................................................................... 27
2.4 Linearity Property............................................................................... 29
2.5 Thevenin’s and Norton’s Theorems................................................... 31
Problems����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������33

3 Transient Analysis���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 37
3.1 RC Circuits............................................................................................ 37
3.2 RL Circuit.............................................................................................. 41
3.3 RLC Circuits..........................................................................................44
Problems����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������51

4 Impedance, Power Calculation, and Frequency Response������������������ 53

4.1 Impedance Measurements.................................................................. 53
4.2 Rms Values............................................................................................ 58
4.3 Complex Power..................................................................................... 62
4.4 Frequency Response............................................................................ 68
Problems���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 72

vii
viii Contents

5 Operational Amplifiers�������������������������������������������������������������������������������77
5.1 Properties of the Op Amp..................................................................77
5.2 Inverting Amplifier.............................................................................. 79
5.3 Non-inverting Amplifier..................................................................... 82
5.4 Weighted Summer...............................................................................85
5.5 Integrator and Differentiator.............................................................. 88
5.6 Active Filter Circuits............................................................................ 92
5.6.1 Lowpass Filters....................................................................... 93
5.6.2 Highpass Filters...................................................................... 94
5.6.3 Bandpass Filters...................................................................... 95
5.6.4 Band-Reject Filters.................................................................. 96
Problems��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������100

6 Diodes����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 107
6.1 Diode Characteristics........................................................................ 107
6.1.1 Forward-Biased Region........................................................ 107
6.2 Half-Wave Rectification..................................................................... 110
6.3 Peak Detector...................................................................................... 116
6.4 Full-Wave Rectification..................................................................... 120
6.5 Full-Wave Rectifier with Smoothing Filter..................................... 122
Problems��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������125

7 Transistors���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 131
7.1 Bipolar Junction Transistors............................................................. 131
7.2 MOSFET Characteristics................................................................... 139
7.3 Biasing BJT Amplifiers...................................................................... 146
7.4 Biasing of MOSFET Amplifiers........................................................ 151
7.5 Frequency Response of BJT Amplifiers.......................................... 155
7.6 Frequency Response of MOSFET Amplifiers................................ 163
Problems��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������170
Bibliography�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 177
Index��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 181
Examples

1.1  Use of the Analog Discovery Power Supply and Voltmeter��������������������5

1.2  Resistor–LED Circuit����������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 10
1.3  Displays of an Arbitrary Waveform Generator Signal on a Scope������� 12
1.4  Magnitude and Phase Characteristics of an RLC Circuit���������������������� 15
1.5  Frequency Spectrum of a Square Wave���������������������������������������������������� 18
2.1  Ohm’s Law���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 23
2.2  Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 25
2.3  Kirchhoff’s Current Law����������������������������������������������������������������������������� 27
2.4  The Homogeneity Property of a Linear Circuit�������������������������������������� 29
2.5  Thevenin’s and Norton’s Equivalent Circuit............................................. 31
3.1  Charging and Discharging of a Capacitor����������������������������������������������� 38
3.2  Charging and Discharging of an Inductor����������������������������������������������42
3.3  Transient Response of RLC Circuit............................................................ 47
4.1  Determining the Impedance of a Circuit.................................................. 55
4.2  Rms Values of Two Periodic Signals.......................................................... 59
4.3  Determining the Complex Power of a Circuit..........................................63
4.4  Frequency Response of a RLC Resonant Circuit...................................... 69
5.1  Inverting Amplifier....................................................................................... 79
5.2  Non-inverting Amplifier.............................................................................. 82
5.3  Summer Amplifier........................................................................................ 86
5.4  Converting Square Wave to Triangular Waveform.................................90
5.5  Frequency Response of a Notch Filter....................................................... 98
6.1  Diode Characteristics................................................................................. 109
6.2  Half-Wave Rectification............................................................................. 111
6.3  Battery-Charging Circuit........................................................................... 112
6.4  Ripple Voltage of Half-Wave Rectifier...................................................... 117

ix
x Examples

6.5   Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier......................................................................... 120

6.6   Full-Wave Rectification with a Smoothing Filter.................................... 123
7.1  BJT Output Characteristics........................................................................ 133
7.2  BJT Input Characteristics........................................................................... 136
7.3  Output Characteristics of N-Channel MOSFET..................................... 141
7.4  Input Characteristics of N-Channel MOSFET........................................ 144
7.5  Bias Point of BJT Amplifier Circuit........................................................... 148
7.6  Bias Point of a MOSFET Amplifier Circuit.............................................. 153
7.7  Frequency Response of Common-Emitter Amplifier............................ 157
7.8  Characteristics of Emitter Follower Circuit............................................. 160
7.9  Frequency Response of Common Source Amplifier.............................. 165
7.10  Frequency Response of Common-Drain Amplifier............................... 167
Preface

Hands-on learning is a method whereby students actively perform some

activities in order to learn from them. Hands-on learning may involve stu-
dents in building, testing, observing, and reflecting on completed work.
Hands-on learning is said to be especially useful to students who learn
by doing. In addition, by reflecting on work that has been done, addi-
tional ideas might crop up in the learner’s brain that may be investigated
to achieve deeper learning. A saying attributed to Confucius sums up the
advantages of hands-on learning: “I hear and I forget. I see and I remem-
ber. I do and I understand.” One tool for hands-on learning is the Analog
Discovery board.
The Analog Discovery board was developed by Digilent in conjunction
with Analog Devices, Inc. The Analog Discovery board communicates to
a computer through a USB interface. The operating software, WaveForms,
provides virtual instrument functions. The virtual instruments include a
two-channel voltmeter, a two-channel oscilloscope, a two-channel wave-
form generator, a 16-channel logic analyzer, and two fixed dc power sup-
plies, Network Analyzer, and Spectrum Analyzer. The virtual instruments
are equivalent to more expensive desktop instruments when the board is
connected to a laptop computer through its USB port.
Traditionally, hands-on learning had taken place in laboratories with
well-equipped instruments. With the Analog Discovery board, experi-
ments can be done anywhere and anytime. The Analog Discovery board
enables students to quickly test real-world functional circuits with their
own personal computers. This book is not a laboratory manual for per-
forming experiments in circuit and electronics. On the contrary, the book
discusses concepts, theory, and laws in circuits and electronics with exam-
ples solved using the Analog Discovery board. Virtual Instruments of the
Analog Discovery, such as scope, the signal generator, Network Analyzer,
Spectrum Analyzer, and the voltmeter, are described and used throughout
the book.
The book provides instructions on building circuits on breadboards, con-
necting the Analog Discovery wires to the circuit under test, and making
electrical measurements. Various measurement techniques are described
and used in this book. They include impedance measurements, complex
power measurements, frequency response measurements, power spec-
trum measurements, current versus voltage characteristic measurements
of diodes, bipolar junction transistors, and MOSFETs. The end-of-chapter
problems have been provided to give the student additional exercises for
hands-on learning and experimentation, and to give comparisons between
measured results and those obtained from theoretical calculations.

xi
xii Preface

The goals of writing this book are (1) to provide the reader with an intro-
duction to the use of the virtual instruments of the Analog Discovery board;
(2) to provide the reader with simple, step-by-step instructions in the use of
the Analog Discovery board for solving problems in circuits and electron-
ics; (3) to assist the reader in connecting theory to practice in the fields of
circuits and electronics with the use of the Analog Discovery board; and
(4) to provide the student with problems that allow them to reflect upon the
discrepancies between the measured and the theoretically calculated results
in circuits and electronics.
This book is unique. It is the first time a book has been written that covers
an introduction to the virtual instruments of the Analog Discovery board
concisely with examples on the use of virtual instruments for solving prob-
lems in circuits and electronics. In addition, it is the first time a book has
been written that connects the theory and practice in circuits and electronics
through the use of the Analog Discovery board.

Audience
The book can be used by students, professional engineers, and technicians
who want a basic introduction to the use of the Analog Discovery board,
which can be found in Chapter 1 of the book. Chapters 2 to 4 discuss hands-
on learning in circuit analysis. Basic circuit laws, transient analysis, imped-
ances, power calculations and frequency response are discussed in the three
chapters. The chapters may be useful to students who want to do hands-on
learning in circuit analysis with the Analog Discovery board. Chapters 5,
6, and 7 are for electrical and electrical engineering students and profes-
sionals who want to use Analog Discovery to explore the characteristics of
operational amplifiers, diodes, bipolar junction transistors, and metal-oxide-
semiconductor field effect transistors.

Organization
Chapter 1 is a basic introduction to the flywire and virtual instruments of the
Analog Discovery board. Problems have been solved by performing basic
measurements on circuits through the use of the virtual instruments of the
Analog Discovery board.
Chapters 2, 3, and 4 cover hands-on learning in circuit analysis. Chapter
2 discusses basic circuit laws and theorems. Ohm’s Law, Kirchhoff’s Voltage
Law, Kirchhoff’s Current Law, homogeneity property, Thevenin’s and
Preface xiii

Norton’s Theorems are discussed with examples done with the Analog
Discovery board to allow comparisons between theoretically calculated
results and those obtained through measurements. The transient response
of RC, RL, and RLC circuits are discussed in Chapter 3. The examples in
Chapter 3 provide hands-on learning with the Analog Discovery board and
the measurement results are compared with those obtained from the the-
ory. Chapter 4 discusses topics in sinusoidal steady state analysis, including
impedance, power calculations, and frequency response. Some measure-
ment techniques discussed in the chapter include those for determining
impedance, complex power, and magnitude and phase characteristics of
circuits.
Chapters 5, 6, and 7 cover hands-on learning in analog electronics.
Amplifier configurations, integrators, differentiators, and active filters are
discussed in Chapter 5. The virtual instruments of the Analog Discovery
board are used to obtain voltage, add two signals, convert square waves to
triangular waveforms, and obtain the frequency responses of active filters.
Chapter 6 discusses various diode circuits. The Analog Discovery board is
used to obtain current versus voltage characteristics of diodes and to explore
the characteristics of half-wave and full-wave rectifier circuits. Bipolar junc-
tion and field effect transistors are discussed in Chapter 7. The Analog
Discovery board has been used to obtain current versus voltage characteris-
tics of transistors, operating points, and frequency responses of bipolar junc-
tion and field effect transistor amplifiers.
End-of-chapter problems are available to assist in the hands-on learning
by students, to compare the results obtained by measurements and those
obtained from theory.
A bibliography appears at the end of the book.

Analog Discovery Board and Analog Discovery 2

This book describes the features and instruments of the Analog Discovery
board. All the examples have been solved with the Analog Discovery board.
A newer version of the Analog Discovery board, Analog Discovery 2,
uses the same color-coded wire harness as that of the Analog Discovery
board. However, the Analog Discovery 2 uses the WaveForms 2015 soft-
ware, which has more virtual instruments than the WaveForms software
of the Analog Discovery board. The steps for building the circuits in this
book will not change whether one uses the Analog Discovery board or
the Analog Discovery 2. However, the procedures in activating the vir-
tual instruments of Analog Discovery provided in this book will not be
the same as those steps needed to activate the instruments of Analog
Discovery 2.
xiv Preface

MATLAB® is a registered trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. For product

information, please contact:

The MathWorks, Inc.

3 Apple Hill Drive
Natick, MA 01760-2098 USA
Tel: 508-647-7000
Fax: 508-647-7001
E-mail: [email protected]
Web: www.mathworks.com
Acknowledgments

I thank the individuals who introduced me to the Analog Discovery board:

Prof. Kenneth Connor of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Prof. Mohammed
Chouikha of Howard University, and Prof. Yacob Astake of Morgan
State University. In addition, I am grateful to the group members of the
“Experimental Centric Based Engineering Curriculum for HBCUs” for their
discussions on the practical applications of the Analog Discovery board.
Furthermore, I am grateful to Prof. Robert Bowman of Rochester Institute
of Technology for his advice on using the Analog Discovery board to obtain
current-voltage characteristics of transistors.

xv
Author

Dr. John Okyere Attia is professor of electrical and computer engineering at
Prairie View A&M University. He was the department head of the Electrical
and Computer Engineering Department from 1997 to 2013. Dr. Attia earned
a PhD in electrical engineering from the University of Houston, an M.S. from
the University of Toronto, and a BS from the Kwame Nkrumah University of
Science and Technology.
Dr. Attia teaches graduate and undergraduate courses in electrical and
computer engineering in the fields of electronics, circuit analysis, instru-
mentation systems, digital signal processing, and VLSI design. His research
interests include hands-on learning, power electronics for microgrid, inno-
vative electronic circuit designs for radiation environments, and radiation
testing methodologies of electronic devices and circuits.
Dr. Attia has worked on projects funded by the National Science
Foundation, NASA, Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board, and the
Texas Workforce Commission. Dr. Attia has more than 80 technical publica-
tions. He has published in refereed journal papers and refereed conference
papers. In addition, he is the author of four books published by the CRC
Press. His previous books are Electronics and Circuit Analysis Using MATLAB,
2nd Edition, and PSPICE and MATLAB for Electronics: An Integrated Approach,
2nd Edition.
Dr. Attia has received several honors. Amongst them are the Most
Outstanding Senior in the Graduating Class, the Outstanding Teacher Award,
Exemplary University Achiever, and the University Leader Award. Dr. Attia
is a member of the following honor societies: Sigma Xi, Tau Beta Pi, Kappa
Alpha Kappa, and Eta Kappa Nu. In addition, Dr. Attia is an ABET program
evaluator for electrical and computer engineering programs. Furthermore,
he is a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
and a registered Professional Engineer in the State of Texas.

xvii
1
Virtual Instruments of the Analog
Discovery Board

1.1 The Analog Discovery Board

The Analog Discovery (AD) platform consists of an Analog Discovery board,
shown in Figure 1.1, and virtual instrument software called WaveForms,
which is described in Section 1.3.
The Analog Discovery board has a wire harness with pins for connect-
ing to differential oscilloscopes, waveform generators, power supplies, and a
logic analyzer. The pin-out of the wire harness is shown in Figure 1.2.
The flywire (from www.digilentinc.com) has leads for connecting the
Analog Discovery board for signal generation and display. In addition, there
are leads for power supply outputs and digital I/O signals. Table 1.1 shows
the leads and their color representations.

1.2 The WaveForms Software

The Digilent WaveForms software is a suite of virtual instruments avail-
able to you on your personal computer. The software can be downloaded
from the Digilent website. The WaveForms software connects to the Analog
Discovery board and provides an easy-to-use graphical interface for vir-
tual instruments. The WaveForms software can be used to produce analog
and digital signals and can acquire, analyze, and store signals. When the
WaveForms software is launched, the opening window shown in Figure 1.3
appears.
The Analog Discovery virtual instruments consist of the following (for
analog instruments):

1. Oscilloscope (two-channel scope)

2. Arbitrary waveform generator (two generators)

1
2 Circuits and Electronics

(a) (b)

FIGURE 1.1
(a) Analog Discovery and (b) Analog Discovery 2.

3. Power supplies (5 and −5 V sources)

4. Voltmeter
5. Network analyzer
6. Spectrum analyzer.

Trigger in (gray)

Ground (black)
Waveform generator (yellow)
V+ power supply (red)
Digital I/O signals
Ground (black)
(pink, green,
Scope channel 2 positve (blue) purple, brown)

Scope channel 1 positve (orange)

1+ 2+ V+ W1 TI 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

1– 2– V–W2 TO 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Scope channel 1 negative (orange/white)

Scope channel 2 negative (blue/white) Digital I/O signals
Ground (black) (pink, green,
purple, brown, all
V-power supply (–5VDC) white) with white stripes)
Waveform generator 2 (yellow/white)
Ground (black)
Trigger in (gray/white)

FIGURE 1.2
Pin-Out of Fly-wire of Analog Discovery board (see Table 1.1 for color representations).
Virtual Instruments of the Analog Discovery Board 3

TABLE 1.1
Analog Discovery Board Wire Harness
Function Color
Scope channel 1 (positive) Orange
Scope channel 1 (negative) Orange-white
Scope channel 2 (positive) Blue
Scope channel 2 (negative) Blue-white
Ground Black
V+ power supply (5 V dc) Red
V− power supply (−5 V dc) White
Arbitrary waveform generator 1 Yellow
Arbitrary waveform generator 2 Yellow-white
16 Digital I/O signals Various colors

FIGURE 1.3
Main window of WaveForms software showing the virtual instruments.

The Analog Discovery virtual instruments consist of the following (for

­digital instruments):

1. Logic analyzer
2. Digital pattern generator
3. Static I/O.
4 Circuits and Electronics

This book only discusses the applications of the analog virtual instruments
of the Analog Discovery board. The virtual instruments are described in the
following sections.

1.3 Power Supplies
The Analog Discovery board has two fixed power supplies: (1) +5 V and (2) −5 V.
If one clicks on the voltage button in the Main WaveForms window, the power
supply window shown in Figure 1.4 appears. To turn on the power supply,
click the Power Is OFF button. Another click on the same button turns the
power supply off. One can click the V+ button to turn on the +5 V power sup-
ply. The −5 V source can be turned on by clicking the V− power supply button.

1.4 Voltmeters
There are two voltmeters, found under the More Instruments tab. The volt-
meters can measure dc voltage, True rms, and ac rms voltages. The voltmeter

FIGURE 1.4
Power supplies screen of Analog Discovery board.
Virtual Instruments of the Analog Discovery Board 5

FIGURE 1.5
Voltmeter screen of Analog Discovery board.

window appears by clicking the Voltmeter button in More Instruments. The

voltmeter screen is shown in Figure 1.5. Example 1.1 shows how to measure
voltages by using the Analog Discovery voltmeter.

Example 1.1  Use of the Analog Discovery Power

Supply and Voltmeter
For the circuit shown in Figure 1.6, use the Analog Discovery board to
find the voltage across the 100 kΩ resistor.
Solution:
Build the Circuit:
Use a breadboard to build the circuit shown in Figure 1.6. Connect a 5 V
voltage source (red wire) to node 1 of the circuit. Also, connect scope
channel 1 positive (orange wire) to node 1. In addition, connect the scope
channel 1 negative (orange-white wire) to node 0. Furthermore, connect
the ground (black wire) to node 0 of the circuit. Moreover, connect scope

R1
1 2

20 kΩ +
V1 R2
5V V2 100 kΩ

0 –

FIGURE 1.6
Resistive circuit.
6 Circuits and Electronics

channel 2 positive (blue) to node 2 and scope channel 2 negative (blue-

white) to node 0. The scope channel 1 measures the voltage of the source,
and the scope channel 2 measures the voltage across resistor R2. The
circuit built on a breadboard is shown in Figure 1.7.
Activation of the Power Supply:
Click Voltage in the main WaveForms screen → Click Power to turn on
the voltage sources → Click V+ to turn on the 5 V source → Upon comple-
tion of the measurements, click Power again to turn it off.
(Note: → indicates the sequence of action steps needed to use the vir-
tual instruments of the Analog Discovery board.)
Activation of Voltmeter:
Activate the voltmeter by clicking Voltmeter under the More Instruments
tab. Click Enable to start reading the voltage of the power supply source
and the voltage across resistor R2.
The scope channel 1 measures the voltage of the power supply
(nodes 1 and 0), and the scope scope channel 2 shows the voltage across
R2 (nodes 2 and 0). The voltmeter readings are shown in Figure 1.8.
Using the voltage divider rule, the voltage across the resistor R2 is
calculated as

V2 = ( 100 K ) * ( 5 ) /120 K = 4.16 V

The measured value is 4.088 V, which is about a 1.7% deviation from the
calculated value.
The deviation of the measured value from the calculated value can be
attributed to the fact that the resistors used for breadboarding have a
tolerance of 10%, and to the fact that the source voltage is not exactly 5 V,
as shown in channel 1 of the voltmeter reading.

FIGURE 1.7
Circuit of Figure 1.6  built on a breadboard.
Virtual Instruments of the Analog Discovery Board 7

FIGURE 1.8
Voltmeter readings of the voltage of the power supply (channel 1) and voltage across R2
­(channel 2).

1.5 Arbitrary Waveform Generators

The arbitrary waveform generator can be used to generate basic, advanced,
and user-defined waveforms.

1.5.1 Basic Waveforms
The arbitrary waveform generator showing the basic signals that can be gen-
erated is shown in Figure 1.9. The signals that can be generated consist of the
waveforms shown in Table 1.2.
If the dc source is selected, the voltage of the source can be varied from
−5 to +5 V. However, if one selects sinusoid, triangular, or other waveform
signals shown in Table 1.2, the frequency, amplitude, and offset can be
changed.

1.5.2 Sweep Waveforms
The available sweep signals are shown in Table 1.3. For the signals shown
in Table 1.3, the frequency may be swept from a starting value to an end-
ing value within a specified duration of time. A screenshot of the sweep
waveform is shown in Figure 1.10. The amplitude of the sweep waveform
may be set from values of –5 to +5 V. The duration of the sweep can be
specified.
8 Circuits and Electronics

FIGURE 1.9
Arbitrary waveform generator showing basic signals.

TABLE 1.2
Basic Signals Available from Arbitrary
Waveform Generator Window
DC
Sinusoid
Square
Triangular
Ramp-up
Ramp-down
Noise
Trapezium
Sine-Power

TABLE 1.3
Sweep Waveforms Available from Arbitrary
Waveform Generator Window
Sinusoid
Square
Triangular
Ramp-up
Ramp-down
Noise
Virtual Instruments of the Analog Discovery Board 9

FIGURE 1.10
Arbitrary waveform generator showing a sweep signal.

1.5.3 Advanced Waveforms
The available waveforms under the Advanced button are amplitude modu-
lated (AM) and frequency modulated (FM) waveforms. Figure 1.11 shows
an example of an amplitude modulated waveform. For the AM wave, the
amplitude and frequency of the carrier signal can be selected. In addition,
the frequency of the modulating signal and the modulation index can also be
selected. For the FM wave (not shown), the amplitude and frequency of the
carrier can be selected. In addition, modulating frequency plus the ­frequency
modulation index can be chosen.
There are two arbitrary waveform generators, AWG1 and AWG2. Figure 1.12
shows the two waveform generators, displaying a sine wave in AWG1 and

FIGURE 1.11
An amplitude modulated waveform.
10 Circuits and Electronics

FIGURE 1.12
Arbitrary waveform generators AWG1 and AWG2.

a triangular waveform in AWG2. Example 1.2 shows the use of AWG1 to

­generate a dc voltage source for a resistor–LED circuit.

Example 1.2  Resistor–LED Circuit

For the resistor–LED circuit shown in Figure 1.13, (1) determine the volt-
age drop across the LED, and (2) calculate the current flowing through
the LED. (Use a red LED.)
Build the Circuit:
Use a breadboard to build the circuit shown in Figure 1.13. Connect
AWG1 (yellow wire) to node 1 of the circuit. Also, connect scope chan-
nel 1 positive (orange wire) to node 1. Furthermore, connect the scope
channel 1 negative (orange-white wire) to node 2. The scope channel 1
measures the voltage across the resistor. In addition, connect the ground
(black wire) to node 0 of the circuit. Moreover, connect scope channel 2

1 R1 2
1 kΩ
V1
LED1
4V

FIGURE 1.13
Resistor–LED circuit.
Virtual Instruments of the Analog Discovery Board 11

positive (blue) to node 2 and scope channel 2 negative (blue-white) to

node 0. The scope channel 2 shows the voltage across the LED.
Signal Generation:
Click WaveGen in the main WaveForms screen. Go to Basic → dc →
Offset (set to 4 V) → Click Run AWG1.
Activation of Voltmeter:
Activate the Voltmeter by clicking Voltmeter under the More Instruments
tab. Click Enable to start reading the voltage across the resistor and the LED.
Figure 1.14 shows the resistor–LED circuit built on a breadboard.
Figure 1.15 shows the dc voltage generated from Analog Discovery

FIGURE 1.14
Resistor–LED circuit built on a breadboard.

FIGURE 1.15
DC signal generated from Analog Discovery AWG1.
12 Circuits and Electronics

FIGURE 1.16
Voltmeter readings of the voltage across resistor (channel 1) and voltage across LED (channel 2).

AWG1. In addition, Figure 1.16 shows the measured voltages across

the resistor and LED. From the voltmeter readings, the voltage across the
resistor is 2.355 V, and that across the LED is 1.6974 V. Using Ohm’s Law,
the current, I, flowing through the LED is given as

Current, I = 2.355 V/1 KΩ = 2.355 mA

1.6 Scope
The Analog Discovery board has two oscilloscopes (scopes) that can be
used to display voltages. The scopes have several trigger sources and can
have ac/dc coupling. In addition, the scopes can display FFT and XY data.
Furthermore, scope data can be exported in multiple formats to other appli-
cation software, such as Microsoft Excel. Example 1.3 shows how to use
the Analog Discovery scope to display a sinusoidal voltage generated by the
Analog Discovery arbitrary waveform generators (AWG1 and AWG2).

Example 1.3  Displays of an Arbitrary Waveform

Generator Signal on a Scope
Use the arbitrary waveform generator of the Analog Discovery board
to produce a sinusoidal signal with amplitude of 3 V and frequency of
2 kHz. Display the generated sinusoidal signal on the Analog Discovery
scope.
Virtual Instruments of the Analog Discovery Board 13

Solution:
Build the Circuit:
Use a breadboard to build the circuit shown in Figure 1.17. Connect
AWG1 (yellow wire) to node 1 of the circuit. Also, connect scope ­channel
1 positive (orange wire) to node 1. In addition, connect the scope chan-
nel  1 negative (orange-white wire) to node 0. Moreover, connect the
ground (black wire) to node 0 of the circuit. The picture of the connected
circuit is shown in Figure 1.18.
Generation of Sine Wave:
Click WaveGen in the main WaveForms screen. Go to Basic → sine →
Frequency (set to 1 kHz) → Amplitude (set to 3 V) → Offset (set to 0 V) →
Symmetry (set to 50%) → Click Run AWG1. Figure 1.19 shows the setup
of Digilent Analog Discovery WaveGen.
Activation of Scope:
Click the Scope in the main WaveForms screen. Go to Run → Autoset →
Measure → Add → Channel 1 Horizontal → Frequency → Add → Channel
1 Vertical → Peak to Peak → Add Selected Measurement → Close Add
Instrument. The waveform seen on the scope is shown in Figure 1.20. It can
be seen from the scope display that the frequency m
­ easured is 1.99 kHz.

1
CH1+ of Scope
V1

+ 3 Vpk
– 2 kHz
0°
0
CH1– of Scope

FIGURE 1.17
Signal generator connected to scope.

FIGURE 1.18
Picture of the connected wires.
14 Circuits and Electronics

FIGURE 1.19
The setup of arbitrary waveform generator.

FIGURE 1.20
Scope display of a signal generated by the arbitrary waveform generator.

1.7 The Network Analyzer

The Network Analyzer is used to display the Bode plot (which consists of
magnitude-versus-frequency and phase-versus-frequency plots). The Network
Analyzer has two main areas (1) the control and (2) the plot areas. The con-
trol area contains panels that allow one to adjust the settings for the Bode plot.
The plot area contains the Bode plot. The control area functions are given below:
Virtual Instruments of the Analog Discovery Board 15

• Single button: starts a single analysis.

• Run/Stop button: starts repeated analysis or stops.
• Start: lets you specify the start frequency.
• Stop: lets you specify the stop frequency.
• AWG Offset: lets you specify the offset for the generated signal.
• Amplitude: lets you specify the amplitude of the generated signal.
• Steps: lets you specify the number of steps for the analysis.
• Max-Gain: lets you specify the maximum gain of the filter. The gain
can be specified independently for each channel under the Scope
Channels drop-down menu.
• Bode Scale: opens a drop-down menu where the top and range of
magnitude and also phase plots can be adjusted.

To display the Bode plot, the AWG1 and the scope channel 1 input are both
connected to the input of the circuit under test. The scope channel 2 is con-
nected to the output of the circuit under test. Example 1.4 shows how to use
the Network Analyzer to obtain the Bode plot of a circuit.

Example 1.4  Magnitude and Phase Characteristics of an RLC Circuit

For the RLC circuit shown in Figure 1.21, use the Analog Discovery board
to determine the magnitude and phase characteristics of the circuit. Use
the following component values for the circuit: R1 = 1 kΩ, L1 = 40 mH,
and C1 = 0.01 μF.
Solution:
Build the Circuit:
Use a breadboard to build the circuit shown in Figure 1.21. Connect
AWG1 (yellow wire) to node 1 of the circuit. Also, connect scope chan-
nel 1 positive (orange wire) to node 1. In addition, connect the scope
­channel 1 negative (orange-white wire) to node 0. Moreover, connect the
ground (black wire) to node 0 of the circuit. Furthermore, connect scope

L1 C1
1 2 3
+

+ 1 Vpk R1 Vo(t)
V1(t) 5 kHz
–
0°
0 –

FIGURE 1.21
RLC circuit.
16 Circuits and Electronics

channel 2 positive (blue wire) to node 3, and the scope channel 2 negative
(blue-white wire) to node 0. The RLC circuit, built using a breadboard, is
shown in Figure 1.22.
Generation of Sine Wave:
Click WaveGen in the main WaveForms screen. Go to Basic → Sinusoid
→ Frequency (set to 5 kHz) → Amplitude (set to 1 V) → Offset (set to 0 V)
→ Symmetry (set to 50%) → Click Run AWG1.
Activation of Network Analyzer:
The Network Analyzer uses both oscilloscope channels as the input
and output channels. Channel 1 is used for measuring the input signal
and channel 2 for measuring the output signal. Open up the Network
Analyzer that can be found under the More Instruments tab. Use the
following values for setup of the Network Analyzer:

Start Frequency: 1 kHz

Stop Frequency: 50 kHz
Offset: 0 V
Input Signal Amplitude: 1 V
Max Filter Gain: 1X
Bode Scale: Magnitude—Top 5 dB, Range of 40 dB
Phase—Top 90°, Range of 180°
Scope Channel Gain: Channel 1: 1X; Channel 2: 1X

Obtain a single sweep in frequency by clicking Single. This provides a

Bode plot representation of the frequency response of the circuit. The
Bode plot is shown in Figure 1.23.

FIGURE 1.22
RLC circuit built on a breadboard.
Virtual Instruments of the Analog Discovery Board 17

FIGURE 1.23
Magnitude and phase response of the RLC circuit of Figure 1.21.

1.8 Spectrum Analyzer
The Spectrum Analyzer is primarily used to obtain the power spectrum
of signals. It measures the magnitude versus frequency and the phase ver-
sus frequency of a signal. It can be used to obtain the dominant frequency
and the harmonics of a periodic signal. The Spectrum Analyzer uses FFT
or Chirp-Z transform to obtain the spectrum of an input signal. It uses the
oscilloscope channels to acquire the input signal. Thus, when the Spectrum
Analyzer starts sampling, instruments that use the scope channels will stop
acquiring signals. The Spectrum Analyzer instrument is found under the
More Instruments tab in the Analog Discovery WaveForms software pack-
age. The following features are available:

1. Frequency:
Frequency ranges—select the operation range of the Spectrum
Analyzer.
Center/Span:
The Center frequency is the midpoint between the stop and start
frequencies. The Span parameter states the range between the
Start and Stop frequencies.
Start/Stop:
Instead of using the Center/Span frequencies, one can specify
the Start and Stop frequencies.
18 Circuits and Electronics

Tracking:
Enabling Tracking allows the Spectrum Analyzer to search for
the maximum signal level on the screen and makes that fre-
quency the center frequency of the signal. Tracking may be
disabled.
2. Level
The following parameters can be changed under Level:
Units:
Units select the amplitude units. They can be:
Vpeak—relative to 1 V amplitude sine wave.
Vrms—relative to 1 V (rms) sine wave.
Ref—the channel input range is configured according to this ref-
erence setting.
3. Trace
Up to 10 traces can be added. For each input channel, the window
functions can be changed.
4. Window functions
Window functions can be found under the Options drop-down
menu. Some window functions that can be selected are: rectangular,
triangular, Hamming, Hanning, cosine, and Blackman-Harris.
5. Control menu
The control menu has the following functions:
Single—starts a single acquisition of signal.
Run—starts repeated acquisition of a signal.
Stop—stops signal acquisition.

Example 1.5 shows how to use the Spectrum Analyzer to determine the fre-
quency content of a periodic signal.

Example 1.5  Frequency Spectrum of a Square Wave

Determine the frequency content of a square wave with peak value of
2 V, zero average value, and a periodic frequency of 1 kHz.
Solution:
Build the Circuit:
Use a breadboard to build the circuit shown in Figure 1.24. Connect
AWG1 (yellow wire) to node 1 of the circuit. Also, connect scope
­channel 1 positive (orange wire) to node 1. In addition, connect the scope
channel 1 negative (orange-white wire) to node 0. Moreover, connect the
ground (black wire) to node 0 of the circuit. A picture of the connected
circuit is similar to that shown in Figure 1.18.
Virtual Instruments of the Analog Discovery Board 19

1
CH1+ of Scope
V1
+ 2 Vpk
– 1 kHz
0° 0
CH1– of Scope

FIGURE 1.24
Connection for obtaining frequency content of a signal.

Generation of Square Wave:

Click WaveGen in the main WaveForms screen. Go to Basic → Square →
Frequency (set to 1 kHz) → Amplitude (set to 2 V) → Offset (set to 0 V) →
Symmetry (set to 50%) → Click Run AWG1.
Activation of Scope:
Click Scope in the main WaveForms screen. Go to Run → Autoset. The
waveform seen on the scope is shown in Figure 1.25.
Activation of Spectrum Analyzer:
The Spectrum Analyzer uses the scope channel as the input. Open
up the Spectrum Analyzer (found in the More Instruments tab in the
Analog Discovery Waveform software package). Use the following setup
values for the Spectrum Analyzer:

Frequency Range: 10 kHz to 24.42 Hz

Frequency
Center: 5 kHz
Span: 10 kHz
Track: Disabled

FIGURE 1.25
Square wave displayed on a scope.
20 Circuits and Electronics

FIGURE 1.26
Frequency spectra of a square wave.

Level
Units: Vpeak
Ref: 3 V
Trace 1: Channel 1

Run the Spectrum Analyzer. Measure the frequency of the spectral lines
and their magnitude (peak value) by using the cursor. Capture the ­spectra
lines. The spectral lines of the square wave are shown in Figure 1.26.
It can be seen from Figure 1.26 that the spectral lines occur around the
following frequencies: 1, 3, 5, 7, and 9 kHz.

PROBLEMS
Problem 1.1 For the circuit shown in Figure P1.1, (1) use the Analog Discovery
board to find the voltage across the 1 kΩ resistor. (2) As V1 increases from
1 to 5 V with 1 V increments, record the voltages across R2. (3) What is the
relationship between the output and the input voltages?

1 R1 2
3 kΩ

V1 R2
1V 1 kΩ

FIGURE P1.1
Resistive circuit.
Virtual Instruments of the Analog Discovery Board 21

Problem 1.2 For the resistor–LED circuit shown in Figure P1.2, (1) determine
the voltage drop across the LED. (2) Calculate the current flowing through
the LED. Use green LED. (3) Compare the voltage drop across the green LED
to that obtained for the red LED of Example 1.2.
Problem 1.3 For the circuit shown in Figure P1.3, (1) display the output volt-
age on a scope. (2) When the frequency of the source voltage is increased to
100 Hz, what is your observation with regard to the LED?
Problem 1.4 For the circuit shown in Figure P1.4, the input square wave sig-
nal has a frequency of 100 Hz, the peak-to-peak value of the square wave is

1 R1 2
1 kΩ

V1 LED1
4V

FIGURE P1.2
Resistor–LED circuit.

LED1
1 2
+
V1

+ 5 Vpk R1
10 Hz Vo(t)
– 1 kΩ
0°
0 –

FIGURE P1.3
Half-wave rectifier circuit with LED.

1 R1 2
4 kΩ +
V1 C1
0.1 µF Vo(t)
+ 4 V–0 V
100 Hz
0 –

FIGURE P1.4
RC circuit.
22 Circuits and Electronics

2 V with offset voltage of 2 V. (1) Use the Analog Discovery board to obtain
the output signal. (2) What happens to the output voltage when the source
frequency is changed to 1 kHz?
Problem 1.5 For the RLC circuit shown in Figure P1.5, use the Analog
Discovery board to determine the magnitude and phase characteristics at
nodes 2 and 0.
Problem 1.6 (1) Determine the frequency content of a triangular waveform
with peak value of 2 V, zero average value, and a periodic frequency of 1 kHz.
(2) Compare the results of part (1) with those obtained in Example 1.5.

1 R1 2
100 Ω +
L1
47 mH
1 Vpk 3 Vo(t)
+
V1 2 kHz
– 0° C1
0.01 µF –
0

FIGURE P1.5
RLC circuit.
2
Basic Circuit Laws and Theorems

INTRODUCTION  In this chapter, the basic circuit laws and theorems

will be explored by using the Analog Discovery board. The circuit laws and
theorems that will be explored include Ohm’s Law, Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law,
Kirchhoff’s Current Law, Thevenin’s and Norton’s Theorems. In addition, the
linearity principle will be discussed.

2.1 Ohm’s Law
Ohm’s Law states that the voltage, v (t ), across a resistor is directly propor-
tional to the current, i (t ), flowing through the resistor. Equation 2.1 shows
the Ohm’s Law relationship
v (t ) = Ri (t ) (2.1)
where R is the proportionality constant
Example 2.1 shows how the Analog Discovery board can be used to verify
Ohm’s Law.

Example 2.1  Ohm’s Law

For the circuit shown in Figure 2.1, use the Analog Discovery board to
show that the voltage across the resistor is proportional to the current
flowing through the resistor. Assume that R = 1.0 kΩ.
Solution:
Build the Circuit:
Use a breadboard to build the circuit shown in Figure 2.1. Connect AWG1
(yellow wire) to node 1 of the circuit. Also, connect scope c­ hannel  1
­positive (orange wire) to node 1. In addition, connect the scope channel 1
negative (orange-white wire) to node 0. Moreover, connect the ground
(black wire) to node 0 of the circuit.
Signal Generation:
Click WaveGen in the main WaveForms screen. Go to Basic → dc →
Offset (set to 1 V) → Click Run AWG1.
Activation of Scope:
Click the scope in the main WaveForms screen. Go to Run → Autoset
→ Measure → Add → Channel 1 Vertical → Maximum → Add Selected
Measurement → Close Add Instrument.

23
24 Circuits and Electronics

V1 R1
1V 1 kΩ

FIGURE 2.1
Resistive circuit.

TABLE 2.1
Voltage and Current of a Resistive Circuit
Voltage (V) Current (mA)
1.013 1.013
2.011 2.011
3.009 3.009
4.008 4.008
5.009 5.009

To add a Mathematic Channel to measure the current, use the follow-

ing steps: Go to Control → Add Mathematic Channel → Custom → Enter
function → C1/1000 → OK.
To get the value for the current, go to Measure → Add → Math 1 Vertical
→ Maximum → Add Selected Measurement → Close Add Instrument.
By default, the units in the math channel will be volts. To change the
units to amperes, click the Setting button → select Units → select A from
the drop-down menu.
Increase the dc voltage source from 1 to 5 V with increments of 1 V. Table 2.1
shows the values of the voltage across the resistor and the ­corresponding
current flowing through the resistor.
It can be seen from Table 2.1 that the voltage is proportional to current, thus
confirming Ohm’s Law.

2.2 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

The Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) states that the algebraic sum of all the
voltages around a closed loop is zero. Mathematically, KVL can be stated as
Basic Circuit Laws and Theorems 25

K
∑V
n =1
n =0 (2.2)

where K is the number of voltages in a loop, and Vn is the n-th voltage.

Example 2.2 shows how to use the Analog Discovery board to confirm KVL.

Example 2.2  Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

For the circuit shown in Figure 2.2, use the Analog Discovery board to
show that the sum of voltages across the resistors is the same as the volt-
age of the dc source.
Solution:
Build the Circuit:
Use a breadboard to build the circuit shown in Figure 2.3. Connect AWG1
(yellow wire) to node 1 of the circuit. Also, connect scope channel 1 posi-
tive (orange wire) to node 1. In addition, connect the scope channel 1
negative (orange-white wire) to node 0. Moreover, connect the ground
(black wire) to node 0 of the circuit. Scope channel 1 measures the volt-
age of the source. Furthermore, connect scope channel 2 positive (blue)
to node 1 and connect scope channel 2 negative (blue-white) to node 2.
This measures the voltage across resistor R1.

FIGURE 2.2
The source voltage and current of circuit shown in Figure 2.1.
26 Circuits and Electronics

1 R1 2 R2 3

1 kΩ 1 kΩ R3
V1
5V 2 kΩ

FIGURE 2.3
Voltage source plus three resistors circuit.

Signal Generation:
Click WaveGen in the main WaveForms screen. Go to Basic → dc →
Offset (set to 5 V) → Click Run AWG1.
Activation of Voltmeter:
Activate the voltmeter by clicking Voltmeter under the More Instruments
tab. Click Enable to start reading the voltage across R1 (nodes 1 and 2).
Use the scope channel 2 to measure the voltage across R2 (nodes 2
and 3). In addition, use the scope channel 2 to measure the voltage across
R3 (nodes 3 and 0). Record your measurements. Figure 2.4 shows the volt-
age across the dc source and the voltage across the resistor R1. Table 2.2
shows the voltages at various nodes of the circuit shown in Figure 2.3.
From Table 2.2, it can be seen that the voltage of the source is almost equal to
the sum of the voltages across the resistors, R1, R2, and R3, thus confirming
the KVL.

FIGURE 2.4
Voltages across the dc source V1 and resistor R1 measured by the voltmeter.

TABLE 2.2
DC Voltages Measured by Voltmeter of the Analog Discovery Board
Voltage across Voltage across Voltage across Sum of Voltages Voltage
R1 (V) R2 (V) R3 (V) across R1, R2, and R3 V1 (V)
1.256 1.255 2.512 5.027 5.047
Basic Circuit Laws and Theorems 27

FIGURE 2.5
Source voltage of 5 V measured by the voltmeter.

The dc voltages across the dc source were measured using channel 1

and channel 2 of the voltmeter. It was found that the voltages are not same,
although the source voltage was 5 V. This is shown in Figure 2.5.

2.3 Kirchhoff’s Current Law

The Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) states that the algebraic sum of all the
currents at a node is zero. Mathematically, KCL can be stated as

∑i
n =1
n = 0 (2.3)

where K is the number of branches connected to a node, and i n is the n-th

current entering or leaving a node.
Example 2.3 shows how to use the Analog Discovery board to confirm
KCL.

Example 2.3  Kirchhoff’s Current Law

For the circuit shown in Figure 2.6, use the Analog Discovery board to
show that the algebraic sum of all the currents at node B is zero.
Solution:
Build the Circuit:
Use a multimeter to measure the resistances of resistors R1, R2, R3, and
R4. Use a breadboard to build the circuit shown in Figure 2.6. Connect
AWG1 (yellow wire) to node A of the circuit. Also, connect the ground
(black wire) to node D of the circuit.
28 Circuits and Electronics

A I1 B I3 C

R1 1 kΩ R3 1 kΩ
I2
V1 R4

4V 1 kΩ
R2
1 kΩ

FIGURE 2.6
DC source and resistive circuit.

Signal Generation:
Click WaveGen in the main WaveForms screen. Go to Basic → dc →
Offset (set to 4 V) → Click Run AWG1. Figure 2.7 shows voltage gener-
ated by arbitrary waveform generator AWG1.
Voltage Measurements:
Use the multimeter to measure the voltage across resistors R1, R2, and
R3. Use Ohm’s Law to calculate the current flowing through the resistors
R1, R2, and R3.
Table 2.3 shows the voltages across the resistors R1, R2, and R3 and the cor-
responding currents I1, I2, and I3 are shown in Table 2.4. The currents were
calculated by using Ohm’s Law.

FIGURE 2.7
Signal generated by arbitrary waveform generator AWG1.
Basic Circuit Laws and Theorems 29

TABLE 2.3
Measured Resistances and Voltages
Measured Resistances (Ω) Measured Voltages (V)
R1 R2 R3 R4 VR1 VR2 VR3 VR4
984 986 986 991 2.391 1.599 0.797 0.801

TABLE 2.4
Currents in Figure 2.6 Calculated by Using Voltages and Resistances in Table 2.3
Current in mA
I2 (VR2/R2) I3 = (VR3/R3) I4 (VR4/R4) I1 (VR1/R1) I2 + I3
1.62 0.81 0.81 2.43 2.43

The current I4 is the current flowing through resistor R4, and it is in the
same direction as current I3 (The current I4 is not shown in Figure 2.6). It can
be seen from Table 2.4 that the current I1 = I2 + I3. In addition, current I3 = I4.
The results confirm KCL.

2.4 Linearity Property
Linearity property describes a linear relation between cause and effect. The
linearity property is the combination of the homogeneity (scaling) property
and the additive property. The homogeneity property requires that if an
input is multiplied by a constant K, the output will also be multiplied by the
same constant K. The additive property says that the response to a sum of
inputs is the sum of the responses to each input when applied separately. The
homogeneity property will be explored in Example 2.4.

Example 2.4  The Homogeneity Property of a Linear Circuit

For the circuit shown in Figure 2.8, show that the voltage across the 2 kΩ
resistor is linearly proportional to the source voltage.
Solution:
Build the Circuit:
Use a breadboard to build the circuit shown in Figure 2.8. Connect
AWG1 (yellow wire) to node 1 of the circuit. Also, connect scope chan-
nel 1 positive (orange wire) to node 1. In addition, connect the scope
channel  1 negative (orange-white wire) to node 0. Moreover, connect
the ground (black wire) to node 0 of the circuit. The scope channel 1
measures the voltage of the source. Furthermore, connect scope chan-
nel 2 positive (blue wire) to node 3 and connect scope channel 2 negative
30 Circuits and Electronics

R5 1 kΩ

1 R1 2 R3 3

1.0 kΩ 1 kΩ +
V1 R2 R4
1V 1 kΩ Vout
2 kΩ
0 –

FIGURE 2.8
Bridge-T circuit.

(blue-white wire) to node 0. The scope channel 2 measures the voltage

across resistor R4.
Signal Generation:
Click WaveGen in the main WaveForms screen. Go to Basic → dc →
Offset (set to 1 V) → Click Run AWG1.
Activation of Voltmeter:
Activate the voltmeter by clicking Voltmeter under the More Instruments
tab. Click Enable to start reading the voltages across the source voltage
and resistor R4. Figure 2.9 shows the WaveGen screen and the voltmeter
readings for input voltage of 1 V. Record your measurements.
Use the voltmeter to measure the input and output voltages. Increase
the source voltage from 1 to 5 V with increments of 1 V. Record your
measurements. Table 2.5 shows the source voltages and the corre-
sponding voltages at the output (nodes 3 and 0) measured with the
voltmeter.

FIGURE 2.9
Power supply and voltmeter readings.
Basic Circuit Laws and Theorems 31

TABLE 2.5
Input and Output Voltages
Ratio of Output Voltage
Source Voltage (V) Output Voltage (V) versus Input Voltage
1.004 0.624 0.622
2.000 1.243 0.622
2.995 1.863 0.622
3.989 2.482 0.622
4.980 3.100 0.622

It can be seen that ratio of the output voltage with respect to the input voltage
is a constant (0.622).

2.5 Thevenin’s and Norton’s Theorems

Thevenin’s Theorem states that “any linear two-terminal circuit containing
several voltages and resistances can be replaced by just one single voltage
source, V Th, connected in series with a single resistance, RTh.” Thevenin’s
voltage, V Th, is the open-circuit voltage at the terminals, and Thevenin’s resis-
tance, RTh, is the equivalent input resistance at the terminals when the inde-
pendent sources are turned off.
Norton’s Theorem states that “any linear two-terminal circuit containing
several voltages and resistances can be replaced by just one single current
source, IN, connected in parallel with a single resistance, R N.” Norton’s cur-
rent, IN, is the short-circuit current at the terminals, and Norton’s resistance,
R N, is the equivalent input resistance at the terminals when the independent
sources are turned off.
Thevenin’s and Norton’s Theorems are related through the following
expressions

RTh = RN (2.4)

VTh = I N * RN (2.5)

Example 2.5 shows how to use the Analog Discovery board to obtain the
Thevenin’s and Norton’s equivalent circuits.

Example 2.5  Thevenin’s and Norton’s Equivalent Circuit

Determine the Thevenin equivalent circuit at nodes 5 and 0 for the cir-
cuit shown in Figure 2.10.
32 Circuits and Electronics

1 R1 2 R3 3 R5 5

2.0 kΩ 3 kΩ 2 kΩ
R4
V1 R2 4 kΩ R6
3V 2 kΩ 4 1 kΩ
V2
2V
0

FIGURE 2.10
Circuit with two voltage sources.

1 R1 2 R3 3 R5
5
2.0 kΩ 3 kΩ 2 kΩ
R4 +
V1 R2
4 kΩ
2 kΩ Voc
3V 4
V2
2V –
0

FIGURE 2.11
Circuit for obtaining open-circuit voltage.

Solution:
To obtain the Thevenin’s voltage, the circuit is open-circuited at nodes 5
and 0. It is shown in Figure 2.11.
To obtain the open-circuit voltage, the following can be done:
Build the Circuit:
Use a breadboard to build the circuit shown in Figure 2.11. Connect
AWG1 (yellow wire) to node 1 of the circuit. Also, connect the ground
(black wire) to node 0 of the circuit. In addition, connect AWG2 (yellow-
white wire) to node 4 of the circuit.
Signal Generation:
Click WaveGen in the main WaveForms screen. Go to Basic → dc →
Offset (set to 3 V) → Click Run AWG1. In addition, in the WaveGen
screen, select Channel 2, go to Basic → dc → Offset (set to 2 V) → Click
Run AWG2. Figure 2.12 shows the waveforms generated by the arbitrary
waveform generators, AWG1 and AWG2.
Measure the voltage between nodes 5 and 0 by using a multimeter. The
measured voltage is 1.74 V.
To measure the Thevenin’s resistance, short-circuit the voltage sources.
The circuit shown in Figure 2.13 is obtained after short-circuiting the voltage
sources. The measured resistance value is 3.94 kΩ.
The Thevenin equivalent circuit is shown in Figure 2.14.
Basic Circuit Laws and Theorems 33

FIGURE 2.12
Signals generated arbitrary waveform generators AWG1 and AWG2.

R1 2 R3 3 R5 5
2.0 kΩ 3 kΩ 2 kΩ
R4
R2 4 kΩ
2 kΩ RTh

FIGURE 2.13
Circuit of Figure 2.10  without the voltage sources.

PROBLEMS
Problem 2.1 Build the circuit shown in Figure P2.1. (1) Use the Analog
Discovery voltmeter to measure the voltages across resistors, R1 and R2.
(2) Use the voltage divider rule to calculate the voltages across R1 and R2.
(3) Compare the results obtained in parts (1) and (2).
Problem 2.2 Build the circuit shown in Figure P2.2. (1) Use the Analog
Discovery board to measure the voltage across the resistor R3. (2) Use nodal
34 Circuits and Electronics

RTh = 3.94 kΩ

VTh = 1.74 V

FIGURE 2.14
Thevenin equivalent circuit of Figure 2.10.

1 R1 2

2 kΩ

VS R2
5V 3 kΩ

FIGURE P2.1
Circuit with two resistors and a voltage source.

1 R1 2 R2 3

30 kΩ 20 kΩ

R3 V S2
V S1
20 kΩ 2V
4V

FIGURE P2.2
Circuit with two voltage sources.

analysis to obtain the voltage across R3. (3) Compare the measured and the
calculated value of the voltage across R3.
Problem 2.3 Build the circuit of Figure P2.3. (1) Use the Analog Discovery
board to measure the voltage across resistors R1 and R2. (2) Based on the
Basic Circuit Laws and Theorems 35

1 R1 2

200 kΩ

VS R3
R2
4V
600 kΩ 300 kΩ
0

FIGURE P2.3
A resistive circuit.

measured values of the voltages in part (1), use Ohm’s Law to calculate the cur-
rents flowing through resistors R1, R2, and R3. (3) Use the currents obtained
in part (2) to validate the Kirchhoff’s Current Law at node 2 of the circuit.
Problem 2.4 Build the circuit shown in Figure P2.4, and obtain the voltage
across R6. (2) Decrease the voltage VS from 5 to 1 V with decrement of 1 V, and
obtain the voltage across R6. (3) From the results obtained in parts (1) and (2),
show that the voltage across the resistor R6 is linearly proportional to the
source voltage, VS.
Problem 2.5 (1) Build the circuit shown in Figure P2.5, and use the Analog
Discovery board to obtain the voltage across the resistor R6. (2) Set the volt-
age VS1 = 0 V, VS2 = 2 V, and determine the voltage across R6. (3) Set the voltage
VS1 = 3 V, VS2 = 0 V, and determine the voltage across R6. (4) Use the results of
parts (1), (2), and (3) to demonstrate the Superposition Theorem.

1 R1 2 R3 3 R5 4

100 kΩ 100 kΩ 100 kΩ

VS R6
5V R2 R4
200 kΩ 200 kΩ
200 kΩ

FIGURE P2.4
Ladder network.
36 Circuits and Electronics

1 R1 2 R3 3 R5 4

20 kΩ 20 kΩ 20 kΩ
R4
V S1 R2 10 kΩ
5 R6
3V 10 kΩ
V S2 10 kΩ
2V
0

FIGURE P2.5
Circuit for demonstrating superposition theorem.

1 R1 2 R3 3 R5 4 R7 6
A
20 kΩ 20 kΩ 20 kΩ 20 kΩ
R4
V S1 10 kΩ R8
R2
5 R6 10 kΩ
4V 10 kΩ
V S2 10 kΩ
3V
0
B

FIGURE P2.6
Circuit with two voltage sources.

R4

20 kΩ

1 R2 2 R3 3 R6
A
10 kΩ 10 kΩ 10 kΩ +
V S1
R1 4V R5
20 kΩ 20 kΩ
–
0
B

FIGURE P2.7
Bridge-T circuit with a voltage source.

Problem 2.6 For the circuit shown in Figure P2.6, find the Thevenin equiva-
lent circuit between nodes A and B.
Problem 2.7 Find the Norton equivalent circuit of Figure P2.7 at nodes A
and B.
3
Transient Analysis

INTRODUCTION  In this chapter, the transient responses of RC, RL, and

RLC circuits are explored by using the Analog Discovery board. The topics
to be explored include (1) charging and discharging capacitors in RC circuits,
(2) charging and discharging inductors in RL circuits, and (3) the transient
response of RLC circuits.

3.1 RC Circuits
For the RC circuit, shown in Figure 3.1, if the input is a square wave, the
capacitor will charge and discharge.
For an RC circuit like the one shown in Figure 3.1, if one uses the KCL and
assumes that the initial voltage across the capacitor is zero, one can obtain
the differential equation shown in Equation 3.1

dVC (t) VC − VS (3.1)

C + =0
dt R
The expression for charging the capacitor is given as
−t
 
VC (t) = VS  1 − e RC  (3.2)
 

and that for discharging of the capacitor is

−t

VC (t) = VC (0)e RC (3.3)

where
VC (0) = initial voltage across the capacitor
One can quickly charge and discharge a capacitor by using a function gen-
erator to generate the square wave. In addition, one can control the amplitude
and period T of the square wave. The period and the repetition frequency are
related by the expression

37
38 Circuits and Electronics

R
+ +

VS C VC

– –

FIGURE 3.1
RC circuit.

1
f = (3.4)
T

where f is the repetition frequency and T is the period of the square wave.
For the RC circuit, the time constant is given as τ = RC. The time constant
determines the rate of charge or discharge of a capacitor. After τ seconds,
the voltage will have decreased to e −1 (about 0.368) of its initial value. After
2τ seconds, it will have decreased to e −2 (0.135) its initial value, and after
5τ ­seconds, the voltage will have decreased to 0.0067 of the initial value. To
allow the capacitor to charge to its maximum voltage, it is recommended
that the period of the square wave should be far greater than five times the
time constant. Example 3.1 shows how to use the Analog Discovery board to
explore the behavior of an RC circuit.

Example 3.1  Charging and Discharging of a Capacitor

For the circuit shown in Figure 3.2, the input square wave has a frequency
of 1 kHz, the peak-to-peak value of the square wave is 0 to 4 V with an
offset voltage of 2 V. Use the Analog Discovery board to obtain the out-
put signal. (1) Measure the time constant of the circuit. (2) Compare the
measured time constant with the theoretically calculated value. (3) If
the frequency of square wave is increased to 10 kHz without changing
the element values, what will be the output voltage?
Solution:
Build the Circuit:
Use a breadboard to build the circuit shown in Figure 3.2. Connect AWG1
(yellow wire) to node 1 of the circuit. Also, connect the scope channel 1

1 R1 2
1 kΩ +
V1 C1
+ 4 V–0 V V (t)
0.022 µF C
1 kHz
–
0

FIGURE 3.2
RC circuit for Example 3.1.
Transient Analysis 39

positive (orange wire) to node 1. In addition, connect the scope channel 1

negative (orange-white wire) to node 0. Moreover, connect the ground
(black wire) to node 0 of the circuit. Furthermore, connect the scope
channel 2 positive (blue wire) to node 2, and the scope channel 2 nega-
tive (blue-white wire) to node 0. Scope channel 1 will display the input
square wave signal, and scope channel 2 will show the voltage across
the capacitor C1.
Generation of Square Wave:
Click on the WaveGen in the main WaveForms screen. Go to Basic →
Square → Frequency (set to 1 kHz) → Amplitude (set to 2 V) → Offset
(set to 2 V) → Symmetry (set to 50%) → Click on “Run AWG1.” Figure 3.3
shows the Analog Discovery WaveGen setup.
Activation of Scope:
Click on the Scope in the main WaveForms screen. Go to Run → Autoset.
Make sure the transient waveform of VC(t) is clearly displayed while the
capacitor is charging and discharging.

The input (scope channel 1) and output (scope channel 2) waveforms are
shown in Figure 3.4. The time constant is obtained by determining the time
it takes for the output voltage to reach 0.637 of the maximum output voltage
of 4 V (when the capacitor is charging.)

The measured time constant is 19 μs.

The calculated time constant = RC = 22 μs.

FIGURE 3.3
WaveGen setup for RC circuit.
40 Circuits and Electronics

FIGURE 3.4
The input (scope channel 1) and output (scope channel 2) waveforms.

FIGURE 3.5
Input (scope channel 1) and output (scope channel 2) waveforms of RC circuit when square
frequency is 10 kHz.

The differences between the calculated and measured time constant

might be due to tolerance of the element values.
If the frequency of the square wave generator is increased to 10 kHz,
while keeping the R = 1 kΩ and C = 0.022 μF, input (scope channel 1)
and output (scope channel 2) waveforms are shown in Figure 3.5.
Transient Analysis 41

3.2 RL Circuit
An RL circuit with source voltage v(t) = VS is shown in Figure 3.6.
Using KVL, we get

di(t)
L + Ri(t) = VS (3.5)
dt

If the initial current flowing through the series circuit is zero, the solution of
Equation 3.5 is

VS  −  
 Rt 

i(t) = 1− e
 L
 (3.6)
R  

The voltage across the resistor is

v R (t) = Ri(t)

  Rt 
−  
= VS  1 − e  L   (3.7)
 

The voltage across the inductor is

v L (t) = VS − v R (t)
 Rt 
− 
= VS e  L
(3.8)

It can be shown that the equation for discharging the inductor is given as
− Rt

iL (t) = iL (0)e L
(3.9)

L
+
+ i(t)
VS(t) – R VR(t)

FIGURE 3.6
RL circuit with a voltage source.
42 Circuits and Electronics

where
iL (0) = initial current flowing through the inductor.
One can quickly charge and discharge an inductor by using a square wave
generated by a function generator. The period T and the repetition frequency
f of the square wave are related by the expression

1
f = (3.10)
T

For an RL circuit, the time constant is given as τ = L/R. The time constant
determines the rate of charging or discharging of a capacitor. After τ sec-
onds, the current will have decreased to e −1 (about 0.368) of its initial value.
After 2τ seconds, it will have decreased to e −2 (0.135) of its initial value, and
after 5τ seconds, the current will have decreased to 0.0067 of the initial value.
Example 3.2 shows how to use the Analog Discovery board to explore the
behavior of an RL circuit.

Example 3.2  Charging and Discharging of an Inductor

For the RL circuit shown in Figure 3.7, the input square wave has a
­frequency of 10 kHz, the peak-to-peak value of the square wave is 0 to 4 V
with offset voltage of 2 V. Use the Analog Discovery board to obtain the
output signal. (1) Measure the time constant of the circuit. (2) Compare
the measured time constant with the theoretically calculated value.
(3)  If  the frequency of square wave is increased to 100 kHz without
changing the element values, what will be the output voltage?
Solution:
Build the Circuit:
Use a breadboard to build the circuit shown in Figure 3.7. Connect the
AWG1 (yellow wire) to node 1 of the circuit. Also, connect the scope
channel 1 positive (orange wire) to node 1. In addition, connect the
scope channel 1 negative (orange-white wire) to node 0. Moreover, con-
nect the ground (black wire) to node 0 of the circuit. Furthermore, con-
nect scope channel 2 positive (blue wire) to node 2, and the scope channel
2 negative (blue-white wire) to node 0. Scope channel 1 will display the

1 L1 2
1 mH +
V1 R1
+ 4 V–0 V 500 Ω VR(t)
10 kHz
–
0

FIGURE 3.7
RL circuit for Example 3.2.
Transient Analysis 43

input square wave signal, and scope channel 2 will show the voltage
across the resistor R1.
Generation of Square Wave:
Click on the WaveGen in the main WaveForms screen. Go to Basic →
Square → Frequency (set to 10 kHz) → Amplitude (set to 2 V) → Offset (set
to 2 V) → Symmetry (set to 50%) → Click Run AWG1. Figure 3.8 shows the
Analog Discovery WaveGen setup for generating the square wave.
Activation of Scope:
Click on the Scope in the main WaveForms screen. Go to Run → Autoset
→ Measure → Add → Channel 1 Horizontal → Frequency → Add →
Channel 1 Vertical → Maximum → Add → Channel 2 Vertical →
Maximum → Add → Channel 2 Vertical → Minimum → Add Selected
Measurement → Close Add Instrument.

The input (scope channel 1) and output (scope channel 2) waveforms are shown
in Figure 3.9. The time constant is obtained by determining the time it takes for
the output voltage to reach 0.637 of the maximum output voltage of 4 V.

The measured time constant is 1.9 μs.

The calculated time constant = L/R = 2.0 μs.
The differences between the calculated and measured time constant
might be due to tolerance of the element values.
If the frequency of the square wave generator is increased to 100 kHz,
while keeping R = 500 kΩ and L = 1.0 mH, input (scope channel 1) and
output (scope channel 2) waveforms are shown in Figure 3.10.

FIGURE 3.8
WaveGen setup generating a square wave.
44 Circuits and Electronics

FIGURE 3.9
The input and output waveforms of the RL circuit.

FIGURE 3.10
The input (scope channel 1) and output (scope channel 2) waveforms of the RL circuit for fre-
quency of 100 kHz.

3.3 RLC Circuits
For the series RLC circuit shown in Figure 3.11, one can use KVL to obtain
Equation 3.11.
t
di(t) 1

vS (t) = L
dt
+
C ∫ i(τ ) dτ + Ri(t)
−∞
(3.11)
Transient Analysis 45

L C
+
+ i(t)
VS(t) – R V0(t)
–

FIGURE 3.11
Series RLC circuit.

Differentiating the above expression, we get

dvS (t) d 2i(t) di(t) i(t)

=L +R +
dt dt 2 dt C

i.e.,

1 dvS (t) d 2i(t) R di(t) i(t) (3.12)

= + +
L dt dt 2 L dt LC

The homogeneous solution can be found by making vS (t) = constant, thus

d 2i(t) R di(t) i(t) (3.13)

0= + +
dt 2 L dt LC
The characteristic equation is

0 = S 2 + 2αS + w02 (3.14)

where

R
α= and (3.15)
2L

α is damping factor

1
w0 = (3.16)
LC

w0 is undamped frequency

The roots of the characteristic equation, S1 and S2, can be determined. If we

assume that the roots are

S1 = −α + α 2 − ω 02 (3.17)
46 Circuits and Electronics

S2 = −α − α 2 − ω 02 (3.18)

the solution to the homogeneous solution is

ih (t) = A1eS1t + A2 eS2 t (3.19)

where A1 and A2 are constants.

If vS (t) is a constant, then the forced solution will also be a constant and be
given as

i f (t) = A3 (3.20)

The total solution is given as

i(t) = A1eS1t + A2 eS2 t + A3 (3.21)

where A1, A2 , and A3 are obtained from initial conditions.

The roots of Equation 3.21 are given by Equations 3.17 and 3.18.
Three response can result from Equation 3.21. They are as follows:
Case 1: Overdamped response occurs when α  ω 0 . The roots are real and the
expression for i (t ) is given as

i(t) = B1eS1t + B2 eS2 t + B3 (3.22)

where B1 , B2 , B3 are obtained from initial conditions.

Case 2: Critically damped response occurs when α = ω 0 . There are two real
roots that are equal, and the expression for i (t ) is given as

i(t) = ( C1 + C2t ) e −αt + C3 (3.23)

where C1 , C2 , C3 are obtained from initial conditions.

Case 3: Underdamped response occurs when α ≺ ω 0. The roots are complex
and the expression for i (t ) is given as

i(t) = ( D1 cos(wdt) + D2 sin(wdt) ) e −αt + D3 (3.24)

where

ω d = ω 02 − α 2 (3.25)

ω d is damped frequency

and D1 , D2 , D3 are obtained from initial conditions.

Transient Analysis 47

In the laboratory, two points are obtained on the envelope of the damped
exponential sinusoid to calculate the damping factor and damping frequency.
If the first positive local maximum of the sinusoid is at the point (t1 , V1) and
the second positive local maximum of the sinusoid is at the point (t2 , V2 ),
where t1 , t2 are measurements of time corresponding to envelope voltages
V1 , V2. The damping factor can be calculated as

ln(V1) − ln(V2 )
α= (3.26)
t2 − t1

Also, if the period of the damped exponential sinusoid is given as

Td = t2 − t1 (3.27)

The damped frequency is given as

2π
ωd = (3.28)
Td
Due to the duality principle for electric circuits, the equations for the parallel
RLC are similar to the series RLC circuit. However, in the case of the parallel
RLC ciruit, the damping factor is given as

1 (3.29)
α=
2 RC
1
w0 = (3.30)
LC

Example 3.3 illustrates the use of the Analog Discovery board to obtain the
transient response of a RLC circuit.

Example 3.3  Transient Response of RLC Circuit

For the RLC circuit shown in Figure 3.12, the input square wave has
a frequency of 200 Hz, the peak-to-peak value of the square wave is 0
to 4 V with offset voltage of 2 V. (1) Use the Analog Discovery board to
obtain the voltage across the resistor. (2) Determine the damping fac-
tor and damped frequency. (3) Compare the measured damping factor
and damped frequency with the theoretically-calculated values, and (4)
when R = 2000 Ω, L = 40 mH, and C = 0.1 μF, determine the type of tran-
sient response of the output waveform.
Solution:
Build the Circuit:
Use a breadboard to build the circuit shown in Figure 3.12 with R1 = 200 Ω,
L1 = 40.0 mH, and C1 = 0.1 μF. Connect the AWG1 (yellow wire) to node 1
of the circuit. Also, connect the scope channel 1 positive (orange wire) to
48 Circuits and Electronics

1 L1 2 C1 3
40 mH +
0.1 µF
V1 R1
+ 4 V–0 V VR(t)
200 Ω
200 Hz
0 –

FIGURE 3.12
RLC circuit of Example 3.3.

node 1. In addition, connect the scope channel 1 negative (orange-white

wire) to node 0. Moreover, connect the ground (black wire) to node 0 of
the circuit. Furthermore, connect the scope channel 2 positive (blue wire)
to node 3, and the scope channel 2 negative (blue-white wire) to node 0.
Generation of Square Wave:
Click on the WaveGen in the main WaveForms screen. Go to Basic →
Square → Frequency (set to 200 Hz) → Amplitude (set to 2 V) → Offset
(set to 2 V) → Symmetry (set to 50%) → Click Run AWG1. The square
wave generated by AWG1 is shown in Figure 3.13.
Activation of Scope:
Click on the Scope in the main WaveForms screen. Go to Run → Autoset
→ Measure → Add → Channel 1 Vertical → Frequency → Add Selected
Measurement → Close Add Instrument.
Make sure the transient waveform of VR(t) is clearly displayed. Hint:
Click on the AutoSet button to automatically rescale the scope axes.
Figure 3.13 shows the Digilent Analog Discovery WaveGen setup.

FIGURE 3.13
WaveGen setup for generating a square wave.
Transient Analysis 49

FIGURE 3.14
The input (scope channel 1) and output (scope channel 2) waveforms for the underdamped
response.

The input and output waveforms are shown in Figure 3.14. Channel 1 (C1)
displays the input square wave signal, and scope channel 2 (C2) shows an
underdamped response.
Measure time t1 and the voltage V1 of the first positive local maximum of
the decaying sinusoid. In addition, measure the time t2 and the voltage V2 of
the second positive local maximum of the decaying sinusoid. Use Equations
3.26 and 3.28 to calculate the measured damping factor and the damped fre-
quency, respectively.
From Figure 3.14, one can get the following coordinates for the first and
second local maximum of the damped sinusoid:

(t1 , V1) = ( 86.0 µs, 0.9794 V )

(t2 , V2 ) = (48.6 µs, 0.244 V)

Using Equations 3.26 and 3.28, the damping factor and damped frequency
were calculated. Table 3.1 shows the calculated values and the measured
TABLE 3.1
Calculated and Measured Values of the Underdamped Response of Figure 3.12
Item Calculated Value Measured Value
Undamped frequency (rad/s) 1.58 × 104 1.61 × 104
Damped frequency (rad/s) 1.56 × 104 1.57 × 104
Damped frequency (Hz) 2.86 × 103 2.50 × 103
Period of damped frequency (s) 4.02 × 10−4 4.00 × 10−4
Damping factor 2500 3474
50 Circuits and Electronics

values of the undamped frequency, damped frequency, damping factor, and

period of the damped frequency.
When the 200 Ω resistor was replaced by 2.0 kΩ, while keeping the induc-
tor at 40.0 mH, a capacitor value of 0.1 μF, and 200 Hz square wave, the output
waveform obtained is shown in Figure 3.15.
When the frequency of the square wave was increased from 200 to 2000 Hz,
the waveforms obtained are shown in Figure 3.16.

FIGURE 3.15
The input (scope channel 1) and output (scope channel 2) waveforms for the overdamped
response.

FIGURE 3.16
The input (scope channel 1) and output (scope channel 2) waveforms for the 2000 Hz square
wave.
Transient Analysis 51

PROBLEMS
Problem 3.1 For the circuit shown in Figure P3.1, the input square wave has a
frequency of 100 Hz, and the peak-to-peak value of the square wave is 0 to 4 V
with offset voltage of 2 V. (1) Use the Analog Discovery board to obtain the
output waveform. (2) Measure the time constant of the circuit. (3) Compare
the measured time constant with the theoretically calculated value.
Problem 3.2 If Figure 3.2 has component values of R1 = 1 kΩ and C1 = 1.0 μF,
(1) estimate the period (and hence frequency) of the input square wave that
will make the output waveform almost a square-wave. (2) Give reasons for
your estimated frequency. (3) Build the circuit and use the Analog Discovery
board to confirm that the output voltage is almost a square wave when the
input frequency of the square wave is equal to your estimated frequency.
Problem 3.3 For the circuit shown in Figure P3.3, the input square wave has
a frequency of 200 Hz, and the peak-to-peak value of the square wave is 0 to
4 V with offset voltage of 2 V. (1) Use the Analog Discovery board to obtain
the output signal. (2) Measure the time constant of the circuit. (3) Compare
the measured time constant with the theoretically calculated value.
Problem 3.4 If Figure 3.6 has component values of R = 5000 Ω and L = 40 mH,
(1) estimate the period (and hence frequency) of the input square wave that
will make the output waveform almost a square-wave. (2) Give reasons for
your estimated frequency. (3) Build the circuit and use the Analog Discovery

1 R1 2
5 kΩ +
V1 C1
+ 4 V–0 V 0.1 µF VC(t)
1 kHz
–
0

FIGURE P3.1
RC circuit for Exercise 3.1.

1 L1 2
40 mH +
V1
+ R1
4 V–0 V 500 Ω VR
200 Hz
0 –

FIGURE P3.3
RL circuit for Exercise 3.3.
52 Circuits and Electronics

L1 C1
1 2 3
1 mH 0.01 µF +
V1 R1
+ 4 V–0 V 300 Ω VR(t)
200 Hz
0 –

FIGURE P3.5
RLC circuit for Exercise 3.5.

L C
+
VS(t) + i(t)
– R V0(t)
–

FIGURE P3.6
RLC circuit for Exercise 3.6.

board to confirm that the output voltage is almost a square wave when the
input frequency of the square wave is equal to your estimated frequency.
Problem 3.5 For the RLC circuit shown in Figure P3.5, the input square
wave has a frequency of 200 Hz and the peak-to-peak value of the square
wave is 0 to 4 V with offset voltage of 2 V. Use the Analog Discovery board to
obtain the voltage across the resistor. (1) Determine the damping factor and
damped frequency. (2) Compare the measured damping factor and damped
frequency with the theoretically-calculated values. (3) What might be the
causes of errors between the calculated and the measured values?
Problem 3.6 For the series RLC circuit shown in Figure P3.6, R = 5000 Ω,
L = 40.0 mH, and C = 0.01 μF. (1) Calculate the damping factor and the
undamped frequency. (2) Indicate the type of response of the circuit (under-
damped, critically damped and overdamped). (3) Build the circuit and use
the Analog Discovery board to the output voltage Vo (t ). You can use an
input square wave of peak-to-peak value of 4 V with dc offset of 2 V and a
­frequency of your choice.
Problem 3.7 For a series RLC circuit, such as the one shown in Figure P3.6, if
L = 4.0 mH, and C = 0.001 μF, (1) calculate the value of resistor R that will result
in critically damped response. (2) Build the circuit and use a resistor that
will give you an underdamped response. You can use an input square wave
of peak-to-peak value of 4 V with dc offset of 2 V and a frequency of your
choice. (3) Measure the damping factor and damped frequency. (4) Compare
the measured damping factor and damped frequency with the theoretically-
calculated values.
4
Impedance, Power Calculation,
and Frequency Response

INTRODUCTION  This chapter discusses the determination of imped-

ance of circuit, measurements involving complex power, and the way to
obtain the frequency response of networks. While determining impedances,
the phase difference between two sinusoids will be discussed. In addition,
the rms value of signals will be measured with the Analog Discovery board.
Furthermore, the Network Analyzer will be used to obtain the magnitude
response of a network.

4.1 Impedance Measurements
Figure 4.1 shows a voltage source v(t) connected to network with impedance
Z. The voltage v (t ) is a sinusoid given as

v(t) = Vm cos(wt + θV ) (4.1)

If we assume a linear circuit, the current i (t ) will have the same frequency as
the voltage, and it will be given as

i(t) = I m cos(wt + θ I ) (4.2)

The phasor voltage and current are given as

V = Vm e jθV = Vm ∠θV (4.3)

I = I m e jθI = I m ∠θ I (4.4)

The impedance is given as the ratio between the phasor voltage and the
­phasor current. It is given as

V Vm
Z= = ∠(θV − θ I ) (4.5)
I Im

53
54 Circuits and Electronics

i(t)

+ +
v(t) Z
– –

FIGURE 4.1
One-port network with impedance Z.

where

Z = Zm ∠θZ (4.6)

Vm
Zm = (4.7)
Im

θZ = (θV − θ I ) (4.8)

The magnitudes Vm and I m can be obtained from a scope, and the phase
­ ifference θZ = (θV − θ I ) can also be determined by measuring the phase dif-
d
ference between the voltage and current waveforms.
If td is the phase difference between the voltage and current waveforms,
and TP is the period of the voltage or current waveform, then the phase dif-
ference is given as
td
θZ = (θV − θ I ) = (360°) (4.9)
TP
The following steps can be used to obtain the phase difference between two
waveforms:

1. Display the two signals on scope channels 1 and 2 as a function of

time (see Figure 4.2).
2. Make the offset of channels 1 and 2 zero volt.
3. Use the zero crossings to measure the period, TP .
4. Measure the smallest time difference between the zero crossings of
the two signals, td.
5. The phase difference is calculated by using Equation 4.10

td
θV − θ I = (360°) (4.10)
TP
If the voltage signal v(t) attains its maximum value earlier than the
6.
current signal i(t), then the phase angle is positive; otherwise, it is
negative.
Impedance, Power Calculation, and Frequency Response 55

FIGURE 4.2
Display of two signals.

To measure the current, a known value resistor will be placed in series with
the circuit under test. Channel 1 of the scope will be connected across the
known resistor, and channel 2 will be connected across the circuit under test.
The Mathematic Channel can be used to monitor the current by dividing the
voltage across the known valued resistor by the resistance of the resistor.
Example 4.1 describes how to use the Analog Discovery board to obtain the
impedance of a circuit.

Example 4.1  Determining the Impedance of a Circuit

For the circuit shown in Figure 4.3, find the impedance of the circuit
from nodes 1 and 0 at the frequency of 5 kHz.
Solution:
A resistor of 100 Ω has been inserted in series with the circuit. The aug-
mented circuit is shown in Figure 4.4.

L1 C1
1 2 3
1 mH
0.022 µF
R1
+ 4 Vpk
V1 1000 Ω
– 5 kHz
0°
0

FIGURE 4.3
Impedance of RLC circuit.
56 Circuits and Electronics

Channel 1
+ –
4 1 L1 2 C1 3
+ 1 mH
R2 100 Ω 0.022 µF
R1
+ 4 Vpk Channel 2
V1 1000 Ω
– 5 kHz
0°
– 0

FIGURE 4.4
Augmented version of Figure 4.3  showing 100 Ω resistor to monitor current.

Build the Circuit:

Use a breadboard to build the circuit shown in Figure 4.4. Connect the
AWG1 (yellow wire) to node 4 of the circuit. Also, connect the scope
channel 1 positive (orange wire) to node 4. In addition, connect  the
scope  channel 1 negative (orange-white wire) to node 1. Moreover,
connect the ground (black wire) to node 0 of the circuit. Furthermore,
connect the scope channel 2 positive (blue wire) to node 1, and the scope
channel 2 negative (blue-white wire) to node 0. Channel 1 measures the
voltage across the 100 Ω resistor and channel 2 measures the voltage at
the input of the series RLC circuit.
Generation of Sine Wave:
Click on the WaveGen in the main WaveForms screen. Go to Basic →
Sinusoid → Frequency (set to 5 kHz) → Amplitude (set to 4 V) → Offset
(set to 0 V) → Symmetry (set to 50%) → Click Run AWG1. Figure 4.5
shows the Analog Discovery WaveGen setup.

FIGURE 4.5
Analog Discovery WaveGen setup for impedance measurement.
Impedance, Power Calculation, and Frequency Response 57

Activation of Scope:
Click on the Scope in the main WaveForms screen. Go to Run → Autoset
→ Measure → Add → Channel 1 Horizontal → Period → Add → Channel
1 Vertical → peak-to-peak voltage → Add → Channel 2 Vertical → peak-
to-peak voltage → Control → Add Mathematic Channel → Custom
→ C1/100 → Add → Channel M1 Vertical → peak-to-peak voltage →
Change Math Mode Units to A → Add Selected Measurement → Close
Add Instrument.
From Figure 4.6, we get the following measurements:

Peak-to-peak voltage between nodes 1 and 0 of Figure 4.4 is 7.84 V.

Peak value of the voltage between nodes 1 and 0 of Figure 4.4 is
3.92 V.
Peak-to-peak voltage across 100 Ω resistor of Figure 4.4 is 399.4 mV.
Peak-to-peak current flowing through 100 Ω resistor of Figure 4.4
is 3.994 mA.
Peak value of current flowing through 100 Ω resistor of Figure 4.4
is 1.997 mA.

The magnitude of the impedance is given by Equation 4.7 as

Vm 3.920 V
Zm = = = 1.963 KΩ (4.11)
I m 1.997 mA
Measurements made on the scope display show that the time difference
between the voltage and current is 34 μs. Using Equation 4.10, we have

FIGURE 4.6
Scope display of input of RLC circuit (C2) and current flowing through resistor R2.
58 Circuits and Electronics

td 34 µs
θV − θ I = (360°) = × 360° = 61.2° (4.12)
TP 200 us

From Figure 4.5, the current waveform (M1) attains its maximum value ear-
lier than that of the voltage waveform (C2). Therefore, the current leads the
voltage, and thus

θZ = (θV − θ I ) = − 61.2° (4.13)

Thus, the measured impedance is given as

Z = Zm ∠θZ = 1963 ∠ − 61.2° Ω (4.14)

For L = 1.0 mH , C = 0.022 µF, and ω = (2 π)(5000) Hz, the calculated imped-
ance is

j
Zcalculated = 1000 + jωL −
ωC
Zcalculated = 1758.9 ∠ − 55.35° (4.15)

It can be seen from Equations 4.14 and 4.15 that the measured and calculated
values of the impedance are close to one another.

4.2 
R ms Values
If v(t) and i(t) are periodic with period T, the rms, or effective values of the
voltage and current, are

T
1
Vrms =
T∫
0
v 2 (t) dt (4.16)

T
1 2
I rms =
∫
T
0
i (t) dt (4.17)

where
Vrms is the rms value of v(t)
I rms is the rms value of i(t)
For the special case where both the current i(t) and voltage v(t) are sinu-
soidal, that is

v(t) = Vm cos(wt + θV ) (4.18)

Impedance, Power Calculation, and Frequency Response 59

and
i(t) = I m cos(wt + θ I ) (4.19)

the rms value of the voltage v(t) is

Vm
Vrms = (4.20)
2
and that of the current is
Im
I rms = (4.21)
2
If a signal consists of both dc and ac components, as given by Equation 4.22

v 2 (t) = VDC + Vm1 cos(wt + θV ) (4.22)

Then, the rms value of v 2 (t) is given as

2
V 
V2 rms = VDC
2
+  m1  (4.23)
 2
For triangular waveform centered about zero, the rms value is given as
Vm
Vrms = (4.24)
3
In addition, for a square waveform centered about zero, the rms value is
given as
Vrms = Vm (4.25)
Example 4.2 shows how to use the Analog Discovery board to obtain the rms
or effective value of periodic signals.

Example 4.2 Rms Values of Two Periodic Signals

Find the rms value of (1) a signal given as v(t) = 1 + 2 cos(120 πt) and (2) a
triangular waveform with peak-to-peak value of 4 V and zero voltage
offset with frequency of 60 Hz. (3) Compare your measured rms values
with the calculated one.
Solution:
Build the Circuit:
Use a breadboard to build the circuit shown in Figure 4.7. Connect the AWG1
(yellow wire) to node 1 of the circuit. Also, connect scope c­ hannel 1 positive
(orange wire) to node 1. In addition, connect the scope channel 1 negative
(orange-white wire) to node 0. Moreover, connect the ground (black wire) to
node 0 of the circuit. Furthermore, connect the AWG2 (yellow-white wire)
to node 2 of the circuit, connect the scope channel 2 positive (blue wire) to
node 2, and the scope channel 2 negative (blue-white wire) to node 0.
60 Circuits and Electronics

1 2

V2 1V
R1 V3
3 + R2
1 kΩ 2 V 16.7 ms 1 kΩ
+ 2 Vpk
V1 _ 60 Hz
0°

FIGURE 4.7
Circuit for performing rms measurements.

Generation of Sine and Square Waves:

Click on the WaveGen in the main WaveForms screen. Go to Basic →
Sinusoid → Frequency (set to 60 Hz) → Amplitude (set to 2 V) → Offset
(set to 1 V for dc voltage V2, as shown in Figure 4.7) → Symmetry (set to
50%) → Click Run AWG1.
Select Channel → Click on Channel 2 (AWG2) → Go to Basic → Triangular
→ Frequency (set to 60 Hz, which has a period of 16.7 ms) → Amplitude (set
to 2 V) → Offset (set to 0 V) → Symmetry (set to 50%) → Click Run AWG2.
Figure 4.8 shows the Analog Discovery WaveGen setup.

FIGURE 4.8
Analog Discovery WaveGen setup for sine and triangular waveforms.
Impedance, Power Calculation, and Frequency Response 61

Activation of Scope:
Click on the Scope in the main WaveForms screen. Go to Run → Autoset
→ Measure → Add → Channel 1 Vertical → dc rms → Add → Channel
1 Vertical → ac rms → Add Channel 1 Horizontal → Frequency → Add
Selected Measurement → Close Add Instrument.
Measure → Add → Channel 2 Vertical → dc rms → Add → Channel 2
Vertical → ac rms → Add Selected Measurement → Close Add Instrument.
Figures 4.9 and 4.10 show the dc rms of (1) a sine wave with a dc com-
ponent and (2) a triangular waveform, respectively. Table 4.1 captures

FIGURE 4.9
Display of (a) sine wave with a dc component (scope channel 1), and (b) triangular waveform
(scope channel 2).

FIGURE 4.10
Voltmeter readings for (a) sine wave with dc voltage (Channel 1 of scope) and (b) triangular
waveform (Channel 2 of scope).
62 Circuits and Electronics

TABLE 4.1
Measured rms Values of the Sinusoid with dc and the Triangular Wave
rms Values True rms Values True rms Values
Calculated Measured Using Measured Using
Using Equations the Scope the Voltmeter
Signal 4.23 and 4.24 (Figure 4.9) (Figure 4.10)
Sine waveform with 1 V dc 1.732 V 1.758 V 1.758 V
Triangular waveform 1.1547 V 1.152 V 1.153 V

the information in Figures 4.9 and 4.10. It can be seen from the Table 4.1
that the measured values are very close to the theoretically calculated
ones.

4.3 Complex Power
For the one-port network shown in Figure 4.1, the voltage across the network
is given by v(t) and current flowing into the network is i(t). The instanta-
neous power p(t) is

p(t) = v(t)i(t) (4.26)

The average power dissipated by the one-port network is given as

T
1
P=
T ∫
v(t)i(t) dt (4.27)
0

The average power P is

P = Vrms I rms cos(θV − θ I ) (4.28)

The power factor, pf , is given as

P
pf = (4.29)
Vrms I rms

From Equations 4.28 and 4.29, we get

pf = cos(θV − θ I ) (4.30)

The reactive power Q is

Impedance, Power Calculation, and Frequency Response 63

Q = Vrms I rms sin(θV − θ I ) (4.31)

and the complex power, S, is

S = P + jQ (4.32)

S = Vrms I rms  cos(θV − θ I ) + j sin(θV − θ I )  (4.33)

The magnitudes Vm and I m can be obtained from the scope, and the phase
difference θZ = (θV − θ I ) can also be determined by measuring the phase dif-
ference between the voltage and current waveforms.
If td is the phase difference between the voltage and current waveforms,
and TP is the period of the voltage or current waveform, then the phase dif-
ference is given by Equation 4.9. The steps that can used to obtain the phase
difference between the voltage and current waveforms have been described
in Section 4.1.
To measure the current, a known value resistor will be placed in series
with the circuit under test. Channel 1 of the scope will be connected across
the known resistor, and channel 2 will be connected across the circuit under
test. The Mathematic Channel can be used to monitor the current by dividing
the voltage across the known valued resistor by the resistance of the resistor.
Example 4.3 describes how to use the Analog Discovery board to obtain the
complex power of a circuit.

Example 4.3  Determining the Complex Power of a Circuit

For the circuit shown in Figure 4.11, (1) find the complex power supplied
by the source. (2) If 1.0 μF capacitor is connected across the combined
200 Ω resistor and the 40 mH inductor, what is the complex power sup-
plied by the source? (3) Compare the power factor of part (1) to that of
part (2).

1 L1 2
40 mH
V1

+ 2 Vpk R1
_ 1 kHz 200 Ω
0°

FIGURE 4.11
Complex power for RL circuit.
64 Circuits and Electronics

+ Channel 1 _
3 R2 1 L1 2
10 Ω + 40 mH
V1

+ 2 Vpk R1
_ 1 kHz Channel 2 200 Ω
0°
_
0

FIGURE 4.12
Augmented version of Figure 4.11 showing 10 Ω resistor to monitor current.

Solution:
A 10 Ω resistor has been inserted in series with the circuit to measure
the current flowing into the RL circuit. The augmented circuit is shown
in Figure 4.12.
Build the Circuit:
Use a breadboard to build the circuit shown in Figure 4.12. Connect
the AWG1 (yellow wire) to node 3 of the circuit. Also, connect the
scope channel 1 positive (orange wire) to node 3. In addition, connect
the scope channel 1 negative (orange-white wire) to node 1. Moreover,
­connect the ground (black wire) to node 0 of the circuit. Furthermore,
connect the scope channel 2 positive (blue wire) to node 1, and the scope
channel 2 negative (blue-white wire) to node 0.
Channel 1 measures the voltage across the 10 Ω resistor, and channel 2
measures the voltage at the input of the series RL circuit.
Generation of Sine Wave:
Click on the WaveGen in the main WaveForms screen. Go to Basic →
Sinusoid → Frequency (set to 1 kHz) → Amplitude (set to 4 V) → Offset
(set to 0 V) → Symmetry (set to 50%) → Click Run AWG1. Figure 4.13
shows the Analog Discovery WaveGen setup.
Activation of Scope:
Click on the Scope in the main WaveForms screen. Go to Run → Autoset
→ Measure → Add → Channel 1 Horizontal → Period → Add → Channel
1 Vertical → rms voltage → Add → Channel 2 Vertical → rms voltage
→ Control → Add Mathematic Channel → Custom → C1/10 → Add →
Channel M1 Vertical → rms voltage → Change Math Mode Units to A →
Add Selected Measurement → Close Add Instrument.
From Figure 4.14, we get the following measurements:

Rms voltage at the input of the RL circuit at nodes 1 and 0 of Figure 4.12
is 1.386 V.
Rms value of the current flowing through the 10 Ω resistor of Figure 4.12
is 3.639 mA.
Impedance, Power Calculation, and Frequency Response 65

FIGURE 4.13
Analog Discovery WaveGen setup for complex power measurement.

FIGURE 4.14
Scope display showing the voltage (scope channel 2) and current (mathematic channel 1)
waveforms.
66 Circuits and Electronics

Measurements made on the scope display show that the time difference
between the voltage and current is 124 μs. Using Equation 4.10, we have
td 124 µs
θV − θ I = (360°) = × 360° = 44.64° (4.34)
TP 1 ms
From Figure 4.14, the voltage waveform (C2) attains its maximum value ear-
lier than that of the current waveform (M1). Therefore, the voltage leads the
current. Thus
θZ = (θV − θ I ) = 44.64° (4.35)

Using Equation 4.33, the complex power is given as

S = (1.386)(0.003639)  cos(44.64°) + j sin(44.64°)  VA

S = 3.5898 + j 3.544 mVA (4.36)

When the capacitor is connected, we have the circuit shown in Figure 4.15.
The display at channel 1 and channel 2 of the scope is shown in Figure 4.16.
From Figure 4.16, we get the following measurements:

Rms voltage at the input of RL circuit at nodes 1 and 0 of Figure 4.16 is

1.3796 V.
Rms value of the current flowing through the 10 Ω resistor of Figure 4.16
is 5.85 mA.

Measurements made on the scope display show that the time difference
between the voltage and current is 164 μs. Using Equation 4.10, we have

td 164 µs
θV − θ I = (360°) = × 360° = 59.04° (4.37)
TP 1 ms

+ Channel 1 _
3 R2 1 L1 2
10 Ω + 40 mH
V1
+ 2 Vpk C1
Channel 2 R1 1.0 µF
_ 1 kHz 200 Ω
0°
_
0

FIGURE 4.15
RL circuit with capacitor 1.0 μF connected across both RL elements.
Impedance, Power Calculation, and Frequency Response 67

FIGURE 4.16
Display of current (mathematic channel 1) and voltage (scope channel 2) waveforms with
capacitor connected across RL elements.

From Figure 4.16, the current waveform (M1) attains its maximum value ear-
lier than that of the voltage waveform (C2). Therefore, the voltage lags the
current. Thus

θZ = (θV − θ I ) = − 59.04° (4.38)

Using Equation 4.33, the complex power is given as

S = (1.3796)(0.00585)  cos(−59.04°) + j sin(−59.04°)  VA

S = 4.1498 − j6.9173 mVA (4.39)

From Equation 4.30, the power factor before the capacitor was connected is
given as

pf = cos(θV − θ I ) = cos(44.64°) = 0.7115 lagging (4.40)

Using Equation 4.30 again, the power factor after the capacitor was con-
nected across both the resistor and inductor is given as

pf = cos(θV − θ I ) = cos(−59.04°) = 0.5144 leading (4.41)

68 Circuits and Electronics

4.4 Frequency Response
Figure 4.17 shows a linear network with input x(t) and output y(t). Its com-
plex frequency representation is also shown. In general, the input x(t) and
output y(t) are related by the differential equation

d n y(t) d n − 1y(t) dy(t)

an + an − 1 +  + a1 + a 0 y(t)
dt n
dt n−1
dt

d m x(t) d m − 1x(t) dx(t)
= bm + bm − 1 +  + b1 + b0 x(t) (4.42)
dt m dt m − 1 dt

where an , an − 1 ,  , a 0 , bm , bm − 1 ,  , b0 are real constants.

If x(t) = X(s)e st , then the output must have the form y(t) = Y (s)e st, where X(s)
and Y (s) are phasor representations of x(t) and y(t). From Equation 4.42, we
have

(an sn + an − 1sn − 1 +  + a1s + a 0 )Y (s)e st

= (bm s m + bm − 1sm − 1 +  + b1s + b0 )X(s)e st (4.43)
and the network function

Y (s) bm sm + bm − 1sm − 1 +  b1s + b0

H(s) = = (4.44)
X(s) an sn + an − 1sn − 1 +  a1s + a0

More specifically, for a second-order analog filter, the following transfer

functions can be obtained:
1. Lowpass

k1
H LP (s) = (4.45)
s 2 + Bs + w02

(a)

Linear
x(t) network y(t)

(b)

Linear
X(s)est network Y(s)est

FIGURE 4.17
Linear network representation of (a) time domain and (b) s-domain.
Impedance, Power Calculation, and Frequency Response 69

2. Highpass

k2 s 2
H HP (s) = (4.46)
s + Bs + w02
2

3. Bandpass

k3 s
HBP (s) = (4.47)
s + Bs + w02
2

4. Band reject

k 4 s 2 + k5
HBR (s) = (4.48)
s 2 + Bs + w02
where k1 , k 2 , k3 , k 4 , B, and w0 are constants.
Frequency response is the response of a network to sinusoidal input sig-
nal. If we substitute s = jw in the general network function, H(s), we get

H(s) s = jw = M(w)∠θ(w) (4.49)

where

M(w) = H( jw) (4.50)

and

θ(w) = ∠H( jw) (4.51)

The plot of M(ω) versus ω is the magnitude characteristics or response.

Also, the plot of θ(w) versus ω is the phase response. The magnitude and
phase characteristics can be obtained by using the Analog Discovery board.
The Network Analyzer of the Analog Discovery board can be used to
plot the  magnitude and phase characteristics of a circuit (see Section 1.8).
Example 4.4 uses the Network Analyzer of the Analog Discovery board to
obtain the frequency response of a RLC resonant circuit.

Example 4.4  Frequency Response of a RLC Resonant Circuit

For the circuit shown in Figure 4.18, (1) use the Network Analyzer to plot
the magnitude and phase characteristics. (2) Determine the resonant fre-
quency and bandwidth of the circuit. (3) Calculate the theoretical values
of the resonant frequency and the bandwidth of the series RLC circuit.
(4) Compare the results obtained in parts (2) and (3).
Solution:
Build the Circuit:
Use a breadboard to build the circuit shown in Figure 4.18. Connect the
AWG1 (yellow wire) to node 1 of the circuit. Also, connect the scope
70 Circuits and Electronics

L1 C1
1 2 3

47 mH +
0.01 µF R1
+ 1 Vpk 1000 Ω V0(t)
V1(t) 5 kHz
_
0°
_
0

FIGURE 4.18
RLC resonant circuit.

channel 1 positive (orange wire) to node 1. In addition, connect the

scope channel 1 negative (orange-white wire) to node 0. Moreover, con-
nect the ground (black wire) to node 0 of the circuit. Furthermore, con-
nect the scope channel 2 positive (blue wire) to node 3, and the scope
channel 2 negative (blue-white wire) to node 0.
Generation of Sine Wave:
Click on the WaveGen in the main WaveForms screen. Go to Basic →
Sinusoid → Frequency (set to 5 kHz) → Amplitude (set to 1 V) → Offset
(set to 0 V) → Symmetry (set to 50%) → Click Run AWG1. Figure 4.19
shows the Analog Discovery WaveGen setup.

FIGURE 4.19
Analog Discovery WaveGen setup for obtaining frequency response.
Impedance, Power Calculation, and Frequency Response 71

Activation of Network Analyzer:

The Network Analyzer uses both oscilloscope channels as the input and
output channels. Channel 1 is for measuring the input signal, and channel 2
is for measuring the output signal. Open up the Network Analyzer that can
be found under the More Instruments tab. Use the following setup values:

Start Frequency: 1 kHz

Stop Frequency: 50 kHz
Offset: 0 V
Input Signal Amplitude: 1 V
Max Filter Gain: 1X
Bode Scale: Magnitude—Top 5 dB, Range of 40 dB
Phase—Top 90°, Range of 180°
Scope Channel Gain: Channel 1: 1X; Channel 2: 1X
Obtain a single sweep in frequency by clicking Single. This pro-
vides a Bode plot representation of the frequency response of
the circuit. The Bode plot obtained is shown in Figure 4.20.

From Figure 4.20, the following measurements were obtained:

Resonant frequency is 8.76 kHz.

Low cut-off frequency is 6.9 kHz.

FIGURE 4.20
Magnitude and phase response of the RLC circuit of Figure 4.18.
72 Circuits and Electronics

TABLE 4.2
Resonant Frequency, Quality Factor, and Bandwidth of RLC Circuit
Resonant
Values Frequency (kHz) Quality Factor Bandwidth (kHz)
Measured value 8.76 2.16 4.06
Calculated value 7.34 2.17 3.39

High cut-off frequency is 10.96 kHz.

The bandwidth = 8.76 − 6.9 kHz = 4.06 kHz.
8.76
The quality factor is = 2.16 .
4.06
For the series RLC circuit, the resonant frequency ω 0 is given as

1
ω0 = (4.52)
LC
The quality factor Q is

ω 0L
Q= (4.53)
R

Bandwidth BW is given as

ω0
BW = (4.54)
Q

Using Equations 4.52, 4.53, and 4.54, respectively, one can calculate the reso-
nant frequency, quality factor, and bandwidth. Table 4.2 shows the compari-
son between the measured and calculated values:

PROBLEMS
Problem 4.1 Use the Analog Discovery board to determine the input imped-
ance of the RL circuit shown in Figure P4.1 between the nodes 1 and 0.
Compare your measured impedance with the calculated value of the input
impedance.
Problem 4.2 Use the Analog Discovery board to find the input impedance
of the RC circuit shown in Figure P4.2 between the nodes 1 and 0. Compare
your measured impedance with the calculated value of the input impedance.
Problem 4.3 Use the Analog Discovery board to determine the input imped-
ance of the RC circuit shown in Figure P4.3 between the nodes 1 and 0. Compare
your measured impedance with the calculated value of the input impedance.
Impedance, Power Calculation, and Frequency Response 73

1 L1 2
40 mH
V1
R1
+ 2 Vpk 500 Ω
1 kHz
_
0°
0

FIGURE P4.1
RL circuit.

1 R1 2
V1 200 Ω
C1
+ 2 Vpk 0.1 µF
_ 100 Hz
0°
0

FIGURE P4.2
RC circuit.

L1 2 C1
1 3
2 mH 0.01 µF
R1
+ 4 Vpk
V1 1 kHz 500 Ω
_
0°
0

FIGURE P4.3
RLC circuit.

Problem 4.4 Use the Analog Discovery board to find the rms value of the
signal given as
Vp4 (t ) = 2 + 3 cos ( 377 t ) V

Compare the experimentally measured value of the rms with the calculated
value.
74 Circuits and Electronics

Problem 4.5 Use the Analog Discovery board to find the rms value of a square
wave with peak-to-peak value of 6 V and dc value of 2 V. Assume that the fre-
quency of the square wave is 2 kHz. The waveform is shown in Figure P4.5.
Problem 4.6 (1) Use the Analog Discovery board to find the rms value of the
triangular waveform of frequency 2 kHz, shown in Figure P4.6. (2) Compare

FIGURE P4.5
Square waveform with dc offset value.

FIGURE P4.6
Triangular waveform.
Impedance, Power Calculation, and Frequency Response 75

the rms value obtained experimentally with that obtained theoretically. (3) If
the waveform is assumed to be a voltage across 10 Ω resistor, what will be the
average power dissipated in the resistor?
Problem 4.7 (1) For circuit shown in Figure P4.7, find the complex power sup-
plied by the source with the use of the Analog Discovery board. (2) If a 1.0 μF
capacitor is disconnected across the combined 100 Ω resistor and the 2 mH
inductor, what is the complex power supplied by the source? (3) Compare the
power factor of part (1) to that of part (2).
Problem 4.8 (1) For the circuit shown in Figure P4.8, find the complex power
supplied by the source. (2) If a 1.0 μF capacitor is disconnected across the 100 Ω
resistor, what is the complex power supplied by the source? (3) Compare the
power factor of part (1) to that of part (2).
Problem 4.9 For the circuit shown in Figure P4.9, (1) use the Network
Analyzer to plot the magnitude and phase characteristics. (2) Determine the
resonant frequency and bandwidth of the circuit. (3) Compare the ­measured
values with the theoretically calculated values for the resonant frequency
and the bandwidth of the circuit.
Problem 4.10 For the circuit shown in Figure P4.10, (1) use the Network
Analyzer to plot the magnitude and phase characteristics. (2) Determine the
resonant frequency and bandwidth of the circuit.

1 L1 2
2 mH
V1
+ 2 Vpk R1 C1
_ 5 kHz 100 Ω 1.0 µF
0°

FIGURE P4.7
RLC circuit for complex power calculations.

1 L1 2
2 mH
V1

+ 2 Vpk C1
R1 1.0 µF
_ 5 kHz 100 Ω
0°

FIGURE P4.8
RLC circuit for power calculations.
76 Circuits and Electronics

L1 C1
1 2 3

47 mH +
0.001 µF R1
+ 1 Vpk 1000 Ω V0(t)
V1(t) 5 kHz
_
0°
0 _

FIGURE P4.9
Resonant circuit.

1 R1 2
500 Ω +
L1
47 mH

+ 1 Vpk 3 V0(t)
V1(t)
_ 2 kHz C1
0°
0.01 µF _
0

FIGURE P4.10
Notch filter circuit.
5
Operational Amplifiers

INTRODUCTION  The operational amplifier (op amp) is one of the most

versatile electronic circuits. It can be used to perform the basic mathemati-
cal operations: addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. It can also
be used to do integration and differentiation. Several electronic circuits use
an op amp as an integral element; some of these circuits are amplifiers, fil-
ters, and oscillators. In this chapter, the voltage gains of inverting amplifiers,
non-inverting amplifiers and weighted summers will be measured with the
Analog Discovery board. In addition, integrators, differentiators, and active
filters will be discussed with worked examples.

5.1 Properties of the Op Amp

The op amp, from a signal point of view, is a three-terminal device: two
inputs and one output. Its symbol is shown in Figure 5.1. The inverting input
is designated by the “−” sign and non-inverting input by the “+” sign.
An ideal op amp has the following properties:

• infinite input resistance

• zero output resistance
• zero offset voltage
• infinite frequency response
• infinite common-mode rejection ratio
• infinite open-loop gain, A.

A practical op amp will have a large but finite open-loop gain in the range
from 105 to 109. It also has a very large input resistance, 106 to 1010 Ω. The output
resistance might be in the range of 50 to 125 Ω. The offset voltage is small but
finite, and the frequency response will deviate considerably from the infinite
frequency response. The common-mode rejection ratio is not infinite but finite.
Table 5.1 shows the properties of two general purpose operational amplifiers.
The pin diagrams for LM741 (from www.ti.com) and OP484 (from www.
analog.com) operational amplifiers are shown in Figures 5.2 and 5.3,
respectively.

77
78 Circuits and Electronics

FIGURE 5.1
Op amp circuit symbol.

TABLE 5.1
Properties of LM741 and OP484 Op Amps
Typical Value for LM741 Typical Value for OP484
Property Op Amp Op Amp
Open-loop gain 2.0 × 105 1.5 × 105
Offset voltage 1 mV 60 μV
Input bias current 30 nA 80 nA
Unity-gain bandwidth 1 MHz 4.25 MHz
Common-mode rejection ratio 95 dB 90 dB
Slew rate 0.7 V/μV 4.0 V/μV

Offset null 1 741 Op. Amp. 8 NC

Inverting (–) 2 7 v+
–
+
Non-Inverting (+) 3 6 Output

v– 4 5 Offset null

FIGURE 5.2
Pin diagram of operational amplifier 741.

OUT A 1 14 OUT D

–IN A 2 –+ +– 13 –IN D

+IN A 3 12 +IN D
OP484
V+ 4 TOP VIEW 11 V–
(Not to scale)
+IN B 5 10 +IN C

–IN B 6 –+ +– 9 –IN C

OUT B 7 8 OUT C

FIGURE 5.3
Pin diagram of operational amplifier OP484.
Operational Amplifiers 79

5.2 Inverting Amplifier
An op amp circuit connected in an inverted closed-loop configuration is
shown in Figure 5.4.
It can be shown that the closed-loop gain of the amplifier is
VO R
= − 2 (5.1)
VIN R1

and the input resistance is R1. Normally, R2 > R1 such that V0 > Vin . Example
5.1 shows how to use the Analog Discovery board to obtain the voltage gain
of a closed-loop inverting amplifier.

Example 5.1  Inverting Amplifier

For the op amp circuit shown in Figure 5.5, (1) use the Analog Discovery
board to obtain the gain of the amplifier. (2) Compare the measured gain
with the theoretically calculated gain.
Solution:
Build the Circuit:
Use a breadboard to build the circuit shown in Figure 5.5. Connect the
AWG1 (yellow wire) to node 1 of the circuit. Also, connect the scope

R2

R1
Vin –
Vo
+

FIGURE 5.4
Inverting amplifier.

4 U1A
0 2
+ 1 3
2 –
OP484EP
11
1 R1 2 R2
100 kΩ 300 kΩ +
+ 1 Vpk V0(t)
Vin(t) 1 kHz
– 0°
–
0

FIGURE 5.5
Inverting amplifier built using OP484EP Op amp.
80 Circuits and Electronics

channel 1 positive (orange wire) to node 1. In addition, connect the

scope channel 1 negative (orange-white wire) to node 0. Moreover, con-
nect the ground (black wire) to node 0 of the circuit. Furthermore, con-
nect the scope channel 2 positive (blue wire) to node 3, and the scope
channel 2 negative (blue-white wire) to node 0.
For the op amp OP484, connect the inverting input (pin 2) to node 2 of
the circuit. In addition, connect the non-inverting input (pin #3) to node 0.
Moreover, connect the op amp output (pin #1) to node 3. Furthermore,
connect op amp pin #4 to the 5 V voltage source (red wire of the Analog
Discovery). Furthermore, connect the op amp pin #11 to the −5 V voltage
source (white wire of the Analog Discovery).
Generation of Sine Wave:
Click on the WaveGen in the main WaveForms screen. Go to Basic →
Sine → Frequency (set to 1000 Hz) → Amplitude (set to 1 V) → Offset (set
to 0 V) → Symmetry (set to 50%) → Click Run AWG1. Figure 5.6 shows
the Analog Discovery WaveGen setup.
Activation of the Power Supply:
Click Voltage in the main WaveForms screen → Click Power to turn on
the voltage sources → Click V+ to turn on the 5 V source → Click V– to
turn on the −5 V voltage source → Upon completion of the measure-
ments, click Power again to turn it off. Figure 5.7 shows the +5 V and –5 V
voltage sources used for powering the op amp.

FIGURE 5.6
Sinusoidal waveform produced by WaveGen.
Operational Amplifiers 81

FIGURE 5.7
5 V and −5 V analog discovery power supplied to the inverting amplifier.

Activation of Scope:
Click on the Scope in the main WaveForms screen. Go to Run → Autoset
→ Measure → Add → Channel 1 → Horizontal → Frequency → Add
Selected Measurement → Add → Channel 1 → Vertical → Peak to Peak
→ Add Selected Instrument → Add → Channel 2 → Vertical → Peak to
Peak → Add Selected Measurement → Close Add Instrument.

Figure 5.8 shows the input and output waveforms displayed on the scope.
From Figure 5.8, it can be seen that the input and output waveforms are out of
phase by 180°. In addition, from Figure 5.8, one can obtain the following voltages:

FIGURE 5.8
Display of input (scope channel 1) and output (scope channel 2) sinusoidal waveforms of an
inverting amplifier.
82 Circuits and Electronics

Peak-to-peak voltage of the input signal = 2.026 V.

Peak-to-peak voltage of the output signal = 5.982 V.

The voltage gain obtained from scope measurements is given as

VO 5.982
=− = −2.95 (5.2)
Vin 2.026

From Equation 5.1, the theoretical gain of the inverting amplifier is given as

VO R 300 K
=− 2 =− = −3 (5.3)
Vin R1 100 K

From Equations 5.2 and 5.3, it can be seen that the measured gain is very
close to the theoretically calculated gain.

5.3 Non-inverting Amplifier
An op amp circuit connected in a non-inverting closed-loop configuration is
shown in Figure 5.9. It can be shown that the voltage gain is

VO  R 
= 1 + 2  (5.4)
Vin  R1 

The gain of the non-inverting amplifier is positive, meaning that the wave-
forms at the input and output of the circuit are in phase. The input imped-
ance of the amplifier approaches infinity, since the current that flows into the
positive input of the op amp is almost zero. Example 5.2 shows how to use the
Analog Discovery board to obtain the voltage gain of a non-inverting amplifier.

Example 5.2  Non-inverting Amplifier

For the op amp circuit shown in Figure 5.10, (1) use the Analog Discovery
board to obtain the gain of the amplifier. (2) Compare the measured volt-
age gain with the theoretically calculated gain.

R2

R1
–
Vo
Vin +

FIGURE 5.9
Non-inverting amplifier.
Operational Amplifiers 83

U1A
1 3 4 OP484EP
+ 1
+ 1 Vpk 2 –
Vin(t) 500 Hz 3
– 11
0º R1 R2
2
100 kΩ 400 kΩ +
Vo(t)
–
0

FIGURE 5.10
Non-inverting amplifier built using OP484EP op amp.

Solution:
Build the Circuit:
Use a breadboard to build the circuit shown in Figure 5.10. Connect the
AWG1 (yellow wire) to node 1 of the circuit. Also, connect the scope
channel 1 positive (orange wire) to node 1. In addition, connect the scope
channel 1 negative (orange-white wire) to node 0. Furthermore, connect
the ground (black wire) to node 0 of the circuit. Moreover, connect the
scope channel 2 positive (blue wire) to node 3, and the scope channel 2
negative (blue-white wire) to node 0.
For the op amp, connect the inverting input (pin #2) to node 2 of the
circuit. In addition, connect the non-inverting input (pin #3) to node 1.
Moreover, connect the op amp output (pin #1) to node 3. Furthermore,
connect the op amp pin #4 to the 5 V voltage source (red wire of the
Analog Discovery). Furthermore, connect the op amp pin #11 to the −5 V
voltage source (white wire of the Analog Discovery).
Generation of Sine Wave:
Click on the WaveGen in the main WaveForms screen. Go to Basic →
Sine → Frequency (set to 1000 Hz) → Amplitude (set to 1 V) → Offset
(set to 0 V) → Symmetry (set to 50%) → Click Run AWG1. Figure 5.11
shows the Analog Discovery WaveGen setup for generating a sinusoidal
waveform.
Activation of the Power Supply:
Click Voltage in the main WaveForms screen → Click Power to turn on
the voltage sources → Click V+ to turn on the 5 V source → Click V− to
turn on the −5 V voltage source. Upon completion of the measurements,
click Power again to turn it off. Figure 5.12 shows the +V and −V voltage
sources for supplying power to the op amp.
Activation of Scope:
Click on the Scope in the main WaveForms screen. Go to Run → Autoset
→ Measure → Add → Channel 1 → Horizontal → Frequency → Add
Selected Measurement → Add → Channel → Vertical → Peak to Peak
→ Add Selected Instrument → Add → Channel 2 → Vertical → Peak to
Peak → Add Selected Measurement → Close Add Instrument. Figure
5.13 shows the input and output waveforms displayed on the scope.
84 Circuits and Electronics

FIGURE 5.11
Sinusoidal waveform produced by WaveGen AWG1.

FIGURE 5.12
5 V and −5 V voltage sources supplied to the non-inverting amplifier.

From Figure 5.13, it can be seen that the input and output waveforms are in
phase. In addition, from Figure 5.13, we obtain the following voltages:

Peak-to-peak voltage of the input signal is 2.02 V.

Peak-to-peak voltage of the output signal is 9.954 V.
Operational Amplifiers 85

FIGURE 5.13
Display of input (scope channel 1) and output (scope channel 2) sinusoidal waveforms of the
non-inverting amplifier.

The voltage gain obtained from the scope measurements is given as

VO 9.954
= = 4.93 (5.5)
VIN 2.02

From Equation (5.4), the theoretical gain is given as

VO R 400 K
= 1+ 2 = 1+ = 5 (5.6)
VIN R1 100 K

From Equations 5.5 and 5.6, it can be seen that the measured gain is very
close to the theoretically calculated gain.

5.4 Weighted Summer
A circuit for the weighted summer is shown in Figure 5.14. Using Ohm’s Law,
we get

V1 V V
I1 = , I 2 = 2 ,  , I n = n (5.7)
R1 R2 Rn
86 Circuits and Electronics

RF
IF
R1
V1 –
I1 VO
V2 +
I2 R
2

Vn
In R
n

FIGURE 5.14
Weighted summer circuit.

Using Kirchhoff’s Current Law, we get

I F = I1 + I 2 +  I N (5.8)
VO = − I F RF (5.9)

Substituting Equations 5.7 and 5.8 into Equation 5.9, we have

R R R 
VO = −  F V1 + F V2 +  F VN  (5.10)
 R1 R2 RN 

The weighted summer has the following applications. It is used to add dc

offset to an alternating current signal, as in a LED modulation circuit, where
the dc component is needed to keep the LED in its linear operating range. It
is also used to sum several signals in audio mixers. In the Example 5.3, the
weighted summer is used to add direct current to an alternating current
signal.

Example 5.3  Summer Amplifier

Use the Analog Discovery board to realize the expression

VO (t) = − (200 + 50sin(400 πt)) mV (5.11)

Solution:
Figure 5.15 shows a circuit that can be used to realize Equation 5.11. Note
that R1 = R2 = R3. From Equation 5.10, we get

(
Vo (t ) = − V1 (t ) + V2 (t ) )
where
V1 (t ) = 50sin ( 400 πt ) mV

V2 (t ) = 200 mV
Operational Amplifiers 87

4 U1A
0 3 +
1
2 –
OP484EP 3
R1 R2
1

100 kΩ 2 100 kΩ +

+ 50 mVpk
VAC 200 Hz 4 R3
– 0°
100 kΩ V0(t)
VDC
200 mV
–
0

FIGURE 5.15
Op amp summer circuit for Equation 5.11.

Build the Circuit:

Use a breadboard to build the circuit shown in Figure 5.15. Connect the
AWG1 (yellow wire) to node 1 of the circuit. Also, connect the scope
channel 1 positive (orange wire) to node 1. In addition, connect the scope
channel 1 negative (orange-white wire) to node 0. Furthermore, connect
the ground (black wire) to node 0 of the circuit. Moreover, connect the
scope channel 2 positive (blue wire) to node 3, and the scope channel 2
negative (blue-white wire) to node 0.
For the op amp, connect the inverting input (pin #2) to node 2 of the
circuit. In addition, connect the non-inverting input (pin #3) to node 0.
Moreover, connect the op amp output (pin #1) to node 3. Furthermore,
connect the op amp pin #4 to the 5 V voltage source (red wire of the
Analog Discovery). Moreover, connect the op amp pin #11 to the −5 V
voltage source (white wire of the Analog Discovery).
Generation of AC Sine Wave:
Click on the WaveGen in the main WaveForms screen. Go to Basic →
Sine → Frequency (set to 200 Hz) → Amplitude (set to 50 mV) → Offset
(set to 0 V) → Symmetry (set to 50%) → Click Run AWG1.
Generation of the DC Input Voltage:
Select Channels → Channel 2 (AWG2) → Go to Basic → dc → offset (set
to 200 mV) → Click Run AWG2. Figure 5.16 shows the Analog Discovery
WaveGen setup for AWG1 and AWG2.
Activation of the Power Supply:
Click Voltage in the main WaveForms screen → Click Power to turn on
the voltage sources → Click V+ to turn on the 5 V source → Click V−
to turn on the −5 V voltage source → Upon completion of the measure-
ments, click Power again to turn it off.
88 Circuits and Electronics

FIGURE 5.16
Sinusoidal waveform and dc signal produced by AWG1 and AWG2, respectively.

Activation of Scope:
Click on the Scope in the main WaveForms screen. Go to Run → Autoset
→ Measure → Add → Channel 1 → Horizontal → Frequency → Add
Selected Measurement → Add → Channel 1 → Vertical → Peak to Peak
→ Add Selected Instrument → Add → Channel 2 → Vertical → Peak
to Peak → Add → Channel 2 → Vertical → Average → Add Selected
Measurement → Close Add Instrument. Figure 5.17 shows the input and
output waveforms displayed on the scope.
From Figure 5.17, it can be seen that the input and output waveforms
are out of phase by 180°. In addition, the output voltage has a dc compo-
nent of about 212.l4 mV.

5.5 Integrator and Differentiator

A basic integrator circuit is shown in Figure 5.18. In the time domain
Vin dV
= I R and I C = −C O (5.12)
R1 dt
Operational Amplifiers 89

FIGURE 5.17
Display of input sinusoid (scope channel 1) and output (scope channel 2) waveforms of the
summer amplifier.

IC
R1
Vin –
IR Vo
+

FIGURE 5.18
Op amp inverting integrator.

Since I R = I C
1 t
VO (t ) = −
R1C ∫ V (t ) d τ + V ( 0 )
0
in O (5.13)

The above circuit is termed the Miller integrator. The integrating time con-
stant is CR1. It behaves as a lowpass filter, which passes low frequencies and
attenuates high frequencies. However, at dc the capacitor becomes open cir-
cuited, and there is no longer a negative feedback from the output to the input.
The output voltage then saturates. To provide finite closed-loop gain at dc, a
resistance R2 is connected in parallel with the capacitor. The circuit is shown
in Figure 5.19. The resistance R2 is chosen such that R2 is far greater than R1.
90 Circuits and Electronics

R2

R1
Vin –
Vo
+

FIGURE 5.19
Miller integrator with finite closed-loop gain at dc.

R1

C IR
Vin –
IC VO
+

FIGURE 5.20
Op amp differentiator circuit.

Figure 5.20 is an op amp differentiator circuit. In the time domain

dVin
IC = C , and VO (t ) = − I R R1 (5.14)
dt
Since

I C (t ) = I R (t )

we have

dVin (t )
VO (t ) = −CR1 (5.15)
dt
Differentiator circuits differentiate input signals. This implies that if an
input signal is rapidly changing with respect to time, the output of the dif-
ferentiator circuit will appear “spike-like.” Example 5.4 shows how to use the
integrator to convert a square wave to a triangular wave.

Example 5.4  Converting Square Wave to Triangular Waveform

For Figure 5.21, use the Analog Discovery board to display the output
voltage if the input is a square wave with the following parameters: fre-
quency is 1 kHz, and amplitude is 2 V peak-to-peak with zero dc offset
voltage.
Operational Amplifiers 91

0 4 U1A
3
+
1
2 –
OP484EP
11
R1 2 R2
3
1

100 kΩ 1 MΩ
C1

V1 +
+ 0.01 µF
1 kHz
4V
Vo(t)

–
0

FIGURE 5.21
Op amp integrator circuit for converting square wave to triangular waveform.

Solution:
Build the Circuit:
Use a breadboard to build the circuit shown in Figure 5.21. Connect the
AWG1 (yellow wire) to node 1 of the circuit. Also, connect the scope
channel 1 positive (orange wire) to node 1. In addition, connect the scope
channel 1 negative (orange-white wire) to node 0. Furthermore, connect
the ground (black wire) to node 0 of the circuit. Moreover, connect the
scope channel 2 positive (blue wire) to node 3, and the scope channel 2
negative (blue-white wire) to node 0.
For the op amp, connect the inverting input (pin #2) to node 2 of the
circuit. In addition, connect the non-inverting input (pin #3) to node 0.
Moreover, connect the op amp output (pin #1) to node 3 of the circuit.
Furthermore, connect the op amp pin #4 to the 5 V voltage source (red
wire of the Analog Discovery). Furthermore, connect the op amp pin #11
to the −5 V voltage source (white wire of the Analog Discovery).
Generation of Square Wave:
Click on the WaveGen in the main WaveForms screen. Go to Basic → Square
Wave → Frequency (set to 1000 Hz) → Amplitude (set to 2 V) → Offset (set
to 0 V) → Symmetry (set to 50%) → Click Run AWG1. Figure 5.22 shows the
Analog Discovery WaveGen setup for generating the square wave.
Activation of the Power Supply:
Click Voltage in the main WaveForms screen → Click Power to turn on
the voltage sources → Click V+ to turn on the 5 V source → Click V− to
92 Circuits and Electronics

FIGURE 5.22
Square waveform produced by AWG1.

turn on the −5 V voltage source → Upon completion of the measure-

ments, click Power again to turn it off.
Activation of Scope:
Click on the Scope in the main WaveForms screen. Go to Run → Autoset
→ Measure → Add → Channel 1 → Horizontal → Frequency → Add
Selected Measurement → Add → Channel 1 → Vertical → Peak to Peak
→ Add Selected Instrument → Add → Channel 2 → Vertical → Peak to
Peak → Add Selected Measurement → Close Add Instrument. Figure 5.23
shows the input and output waveforms displayed on the scope.
It can be seen from Figure 5.23, that whereas the input signal is a square
wave, the output is a triangular waveform. The circuit integrates the input
square wave to obtain an output signal that is a triangular waveform.

5.6 Active Filter Circuits

Electronic filter circuits are circuits that can be used to attenuate particular
band(s) of frequency and also pass other band(s) of frequency. The following
types of filters are discussed in this section: lowpass, bandpass, highpass, and
band-reject. The filters have passband, stopband, and transition band. The
order of the filter determines the transition from the passband to stopband.
Operational Amplifiers 93

FIGURE 5.23
Display of input square (scope channel 1) and output triangular (scope channel 2) waveforms
of the integrator circuit.

5.6.1 Lowpass Filters
Lowpass filters pass low frequencies and attenuate high frequencies. The
transfer function of a first order lowpass filter has the general form
k
H(s) = (5.16)
s + ω0
A circuit that can be used to implement a first-order lowpass filter is shown
in Figure 5.24.
The voltage transfer function for Figure 5.24 is
V0 (s) k
H(s) = = (5.17)
Vin (s) 1 + sR1C1
RF

R2
–
Vo
Vin +
R1
C1

FIGURE 5.24
First-order lowpass filter.
94 Circuits and Electronics

with dc gain, k, given as

RF
k = 1+ (5.18)
R2
and the cut-off frequency, f0, is
1
f0 = (5.19)
2 πR1C1

The first-order filter exhibits –20 dB/decade roll-off in the stopband.

5.6.2 Highpass Filters
Highpass filters pass high frequencies and attenuate low frequencies. The
transfer function of the first-order highpass filter has the general form
ks
H(s) = (5.20)
s + ω0

The circuit, shown in Figure 5.25, can be used to implement the first-order
highpass filter. It is basically the same as Figure 5.24, except that the positions
of R1 and C1 in Figure 5.24 have been interchanged.
For Figure 5.25, the voltage transfer function is

VO s  R 
H(s) = (s) = 1 + F  (5.21)
Vin 1  R2 
s+
where R1C1

 R 
k =  1 + F  (5.22)
 R2 
k = gain at very high frequency

RF

R2
–
Vo
Vin +
C1
R1

FIGURE 5.25
First-order highpass filter.
Operational Amplifiers 95

and the cut-off frequency at 3dB gain is

1
f0 = (5.23)
2 πR1C1

Although the filter, shown in Figure 5.25, passes all signal frequencies higher
than f0, the high-frequency characteristic is limited by the bandwidth of the
op amp.

5.6.3 Bandpass Filters
Bandpass filters pass a band of frequencies and attenuate other bands. The
filter has two cut-off frequencies f L and f H . We assume that f H > f L. All signal
frequencies lower than f L or greater than f H are attenuated. The general form
of the transfer function of a bandpass filter is

ω 
k c  s
Q
H(s) = (5.24)
 ω 
s 2 +  c  s + ω c2
Q

where
k is the passband gain.
ωc is the center frequency in rad/s.
The quality factor Q is related to the 3-dB bandwidth and the center fre-
quency by the expression

ωc fc
Q= = (5.25)
BW f H − fL

Bandpass filters with Q < 10 are classified as wide bandpass. On the other
hand, bandpass filters with Q > 10 are considered narrow bandpass.
Wideband pass filters may be implemented by cascading lowpass and high-
pass filters. The order of the bandpass filters is the sum of the highpass and
lowpass sections. The advantages of this arrangement are that the fall-off,
bandwidth and midband gain can be set independently.
Figure 5.26 shows the wideband pass filter, built using first-order highpass
and first-order lowpass filters. The magnitude of the voltage gain is the prod-
uct of the voltage gains of both the highpass and lowpass filters.
A narrowband pass filter normally has a high Q-value. A circuit that can
be used to implement a narrowband filter is a multiple feedback filter, as
shown in Figure 5.27.
96 Circuits and Electronics

RF1 RF2

RG1 RG2
– –
X1 X2
+ +

+ R2 +
Vin C1 Vo
R1 C2
– –

FIGURE 5.26
Second-order wideband pass filter.

C1

R2

–
+ R1 C2
+ +
Vin
Vo
– –

FIGURE 5.27
Multiple-feedback bandpass filter.

5.6.4 Band-Reject Filters
A band-reject is used to eliminate a specific band of frequencies. It is nor-
mally used in communication and biomedical instruments to eliminate
unwanted frequencies. The general form of the transfer function of the band-
reject filter is

HBR =
(
k PB s 2 + ω C2 ) (5.26)
ω 
s +  C  s + ω C2
2
 Q
where
k PB is the passband gain.
ω C is the center frequency of the band-reject filter.
Band-reject filters are classified as wideband reject (Q < 10) and narrow-
band reject filters (Q > 10). Narrowband reject filters are commonly called
notch filters. The wideband reject filter can be implemented by summing the
responses of the highpass section and the lowpass section through a sum-
ming amplifier. The block diagram arrangement is shown in Figure 5.28.
Operational Amplifiers 97

Lowpass section

1
0.707
Summer

fH f 1
0.707
V1 Vo

1 fH fL f
0.707

fL f
Highpass section

FIGURE 5.28
Block diagram of wideband reject filter.

The order of the band-reject filter is dependent on the order of lowpass and
highpass sections. There are two important requirements for implementing
the wideband reject filter using the scheme shown in Figure 5.28:

1. The cut-off frequency, f L , of the highpass filter section must be

greater than the cut-off frequency, f H , of the lowpass filter section.
2. The passband gains of the lowpass and highpass sections must be
equal.

Narrowband reject filters or notch filters can be implemented by using a

Twin-T network. This circuit consists of two parallel T-shaped networks, as
shown in Figure 5.29.
Normally, R1 = R2 = R, R3 = R/2, C1 = C2 = C and C3 = 2C. The R1–C3–R2 sec-
tion is a lowpass filter with corner frequency fC = ( 4 πRC ) . The C1–R3–C2 is
−1

a highpass filter with corner frequency fC = ( πRC ) .

−1

R1 R2

C1 C2 –
+ +
+
Vin R3 Vo
C3
– –

FIGURE 5.29
Narrowband reject Twin-T network.
98 Circuits and Electronics

The center frequency or the notch frequency is

1
fC = (5.27)
2 πRC
At the notch frequency given by Equation 5.27, the phases of the two fil-
ters cancel out. Example 5.5 explores the characteristics of the notch filter
through the use of the Analog Discovery board.

Example 5.5  Frequency Response of a Notch Filter

Figure 5.30 shows a notched filter built using an op amp. Determine the
center frequency and the bandwidth of the filter.
Solution:
Build the Circuit:
Use a breadboard to build the circuit shown in Figure 5.30. Connect
the AWG1 (yellow wire) to node 2 of the circuit. Also, connect the
scope  channel 1 positive (orange wire) to node 2. In addition, connect
the scope channel 1 negative (orange-white wire) to node 0. Moreover,
connect the ground (black wire) to node 0 of the circuit. Furthermore,
connect the scope channel 2 positive (blue wire) to node 4, and the scope
channel 2 negative (blue-white wire) to node 0.
For the op amp, connect the inverting input (pin 2) to node 4 of the circuit.
In addition, connect the non-inverting input (pin #3) to node 5. Moreover,
connect the op amp output (pin #1) to node 3. Furthermore, connect the op
amp pin #4 to the 5 V voltage source (red wire of the ADM). Furthermore,
connect the op amp pin #11 to −5 V voltage source (white wire of the ADM).
Generation of AC Sine Wave:
Click on the WaveGen in the main WaveForms screen. Go to Basic → Sine
→ Frequency (set to 1000 Hz) → Amplitude (set to 1.0 V) → Offset (set to 0 V)

R1 R2 U1A OP484EP
3 5 3 4
+ 1
100 kΩ 100 kΩ 2 –
C3
440 pF 11
0

C1 C2 4
2 1
220 pF +
220 pF
+
Vs VO
– 1 Vpk R3
1 kHz 50 kΩ
0° –
0

FIGURE 5.30
Band-reject filter.
Operational Amplifiers 99

FIGURE 5.31
Analog Discovery WaveGen setup for obtaining frequency response.

→ Symmetry (set to 50%) → Click Run AWG1. Figure 5.31 shows the Analog
Discovery WaveGen setup for generating a sinusoidal waveform.
Activation of the Power Supply:
Click Voltage in the main WaveForms screen → Click Power to turn on
the voltage sources → Click V+ to turn on the 5 V source → Click V– to
turn on the −5 V voltage source → Upon completion of the measure-
ments, click Power again to turn it off.
Activation of Network Analyzer:
The Network Analyzer uses both oscilloscope channels as the input
and output channels. Channel 1 is for measuring the input signal and
Channel 2 is for measuring the output signal.
Open up the Network Analyzer that can be found under the More
Instruments tab. Use the following values for setting up the Network
Analyzer:

Start Frequency: 100 Hz

Stop Frequency: 100 kHz
Offset: 0 V
Input Signal Amplitude: 1 V
Max Filter Gain: 1X
Bode Scale: Magnitude—Top 5 dB, Range of 40 dB
Phase—Top 90°, Range of 180°
Scope Channel Gain: Channel 1: 1X; Channel 2: 1X
Obtain a single sweep in frequency by clicking Single. This pro-
vides a Bode plot representation of the frequency response of
the circuit. The Bode plot obtained is shown in Figure 5.32.
100 Circuits and Electronics

FIGURE 5.32
Magnitude and phase response of the RLC circuit of Figure 5.30.

From Figure 5.32, the following measurements were obtained:

Center frequency is 7.57 kHz.

Low cut-off frequency is 1.78 kHz.
High cut-off frequency is 36.66 kHz.
Bandwidth = 36.66 – 1.78 kHz = 34.88 kHz.

The theoretical value of the center frequency of Figure 5.30, given by Equation
(5.27), is
1 1
fC = = = 7.23 KHz (5.28)
2 πRC 2 π(10 )(220)(10−12 )
5

The calculated value of the center frequency (i.e. 7.23 kHz) is close to the mea-
sured value of 7.57 kHz.

PROBLEMS
Problem 5.1 For the circuit shown in Figure P5.1, (1) build the circuit and use
the Analog Discovery board to find the gain. (2) Compare the gain obtained
in part (1) to the gain calculated using Equation 5.1.
Operational Amplifiers 101

0 3 4 U1A
+ 1 3
2
– OP484EP
11
R1 2 R2
1
100 kΩ 600 kΩ +
+ 1 Vpk Vo
VS 2 kHz
–
0° –
0

FIGURE P5.1
Inverting amplifier.

Problem 5.2 For the circuit shown in Figure P5.2, (1) build the circuit and use
the Analog Discovery board to find the gain. (2) Compare the gain obtained
in part (1) to the gain calculated using Equation 5.1.
Problem 5.3 The circuit shown in Figure P5.3 can be used to add the first
two terms of the Fourier series expansion of a square wave. Build the circuit
and use the Analog Discovery board to display the output waveform. How
close is the output waveform compared to a square wave of a fundamental
frequency of 2 kHz?
Problem 5.4 For Figure P5.4, (1) what will be the output waveform if the
frequency of the input square waveform is 2 kHz? (2) Determine the peak-
to-peak value of the output waveform when the frequency of the input
waveform is (i) 4 kHz, (ii) 6 kHz, and (iii) 8 kHz. (3) Why does the peak-to-
peak voltage of the output waveform decrease with increase in the input
frequency?

U1A
1 3 4 OP484EP
+ 1
+ 1 Vpk 2 –
VS 1 kHz 3
– 11
0° R1 R2
2

100 kΩ 800 kΩ +
Vo
–
0

FIGURE P5.2
Non-inverting amplifier.
102 Circuits and Electronics

0 3 4 U1A
+ 1
2 –
OP484EP
11

1 R1
3
100 kΩ 2

+ 300 mVpk R2
VS1 4 R3
2 kHz
–
0° 100 kΩ 100 kΩ +

+ 100 mVpk
VS2 Vo
6 kHz
–
0°
–
0

FIGURE P5.3
Summer amplifier for summing two terms of Fourier series terms.

0 3 4 U1A
+ 1
2
–
OP484EP
11

1 R1 2 R2 3
50 kΩ 1 MΩ
C1

+ 0.01 µF +
VS 2 kHz
4V Vo

–
0

FIGURE P5.4
Integrator circuit.

Problem 5.5 For the circuit shown in Figure 5.21, if the frequency of the
square wave is decreased to (1) 500 Hz, and (2) 50 Hz, determine the output
voltage. Why is the output voltage of the integrator no longer a triangular
waveform at a frequency of 50 Hz?
Problem 5.6 Build the circuit shown in Figure P5.6. If the input is a triangu-
lar waveform with frequency of 1 kHz, capture the output voltage by the use
Operational Amplifiers 103

4 U1A
0 3
+
1
2 –
OP484EP 2
11
C1 R1
1 3

0.01 µF 100 kΩ +

+
VS 1 V 1 ms Vo

0 –

FIGURE P5.6
Differentiator circuit.

of the Analog Discovery board. Does the output indicate differentiation of

the input signal?
Problem 5.7 Build the circuit shown in Figure P5.7. Use the Network
Analyzer of the Analog Discovery board to: (1) Obtain the Bode plot of the
filter. (2) Measure the cut-off frequency. (3) Obtain the low-frequency gain of
the circuit. Compare the measured values, obtained in parts (2) and (3), with
those calculated by using Equations 5.18 and 5.19.
Problem 5.8 Build the circuit shown in Figure P5.8. Use the Network
Analyzer of the Analog Discovery board to: (1) Obtain the Bode plot of the
filter. (2) Measure the cut-off frequency. (3) Obtain the low-frequency gain of
the circuit.

U1A OP484EP
3 4
+ 1
2 –
4 R3 3
11
100 kΩ 1 R1 2 R2

1 Vpk C1 100 kΩ 300 kΩ +

VS +
1 kHz 100 pF Vo
–
0°
0 –

FIGURE P5.7
Op amp lowpass filter.
104 Circuits and Electronics

U1A OP484EP
3 4
+ 1
2
–
4 R3 R4 11 3
100 kΩ 1 100 kΩ 6 R1 R2
2
+ 1 Vpk C1 C2 100 kΩ 300 kΩ +
VS
– 1 kHz 100 pF 100 pF Vo
0°
0 –

FIGURE P5.8
Op amp two-stage lowpass filter.

Problem 5.9 Build the circuit shown in Figure P5.9. Use the Network
Analyzer of the Analog Discovery board to: (1) Obtain the Bode plot of the
filter. (2) Measure the cut-off frequency. (3) Obtain the high-frequency gain of
the circuit. Compare the measured values, obtained in parts (2) and (3), with
those calculated by using Equations 5.22 and 5.23.
Problem 5.10 Build the circuit shown in Figure P5.10. Use the Network
Analyzer of the Analog Discovery board to: (1) Obtain the Bode plot of the
filter. (2) Measure the cut-off frequency. (3) Obtain the high-frequency gain
of the circuit.
Problem 5.11 Build the circuit shown in Figure P5.11. Use the Analog
Discovery board to: (1) Measure the center frequency and (2) measure the
low cut-off and high cut-off frequencies. (3) Calculate the bandwidth of the

U1A OP484EP
4
3
+
1
2 –
C1
4 11 3

1 0.022 µF R1 R2
2
R3 100 kΩ 400 kΩ +
+ 1 Vpk
VS 1 kHz 1 kΩ
– Vo
0°
–
0

FIGURE P5.9
Op amp highpass filter.
Operational Amplifiers 105

U1A OP484EP
4
3
+
1
2
–
C1 C2
4 11 3

1 5 R2
0.022 µF 0.022 µF R1 2
R4 100 kΩ +
1 Vpk R3 300 kΩ
+ 1 kΩ
VS 1 kHz 1 kΩ
– Vo
0°
0
–

FIGURE P5.10
Op amp two-stage highpass filter.

U1A OP484EP
R1 3 R2 5
4
3
+
1
10 kΩ 10 kΩ
2
C3 –
0.044 µF 11
0

C1 C2
2 1 4
+
0.022 µF 0.022 µF
+
VS Vo
– 1 Vpk R3
1 kHz 5 kΩ
0° –
0

FIGURE P5.11
Op amp notched filter.

filter. (4) Compare your measured center frequency with that calculated from
Equation 5.27.
Problem 5.12 For Figure P5.12, build the circuit. Use the Analog Discovery
board to measure: (1) The low cut-off frequency. (2) The high cut-off frequency,
and (3) the maximum gain.
106 Circuits and Electronics

0 3
4 U1A
+
1
2 –
OP484EP
11

C2 R1 R2
4 1 3

500 pF 1 MΩ 200 kΩ
2
C1
+ 1 Vpk
VS 1 kHz
– 100 pF +
0°
Vo

0 –

FIGURE P5.12
Op amp bandpass filter.
6
Diodes

INTRODUCTION  In this chapter, the characteristics of diodes are pre-

sented. In addition, the operation of diode circuits is discussed. The Analog
Discovery board is used to obtain diode I–V characteristics, and to study the
characteristics of half- and full-wave rectifier circuits.

6.1 Diode Characteristics
A diode is a two-terminal device. The electronic symbol of a diode is shown
in Figure 6.1a. Ideally, the diode conducts current in one direction. The cur-
rent versus voltage characteristics of an ideal diode are shown in Figure 6.1b.
The I–V characteristic of a semiconductor junction diode is shown in
Figure 6.2. The characteristic is divided into three regions: forward-biased,
reversed-biased, and the breakdown regions.
In the forward-biased and reversed-biased regions, the current, i, and the
voltage, v, of a semiconductor diode are related by the diode equation

i = IS [e( v/nVT ) − 1] (6.1)

where
IS is the reverse saturation current or leakage current,
n is an empirical constant between 1 and 2,
VT is thermal voltage, given by
kT
VT = (6.2)
q
and
k is Boltzmann’s constant = 1.38 × 10−23 J/°K,
q is the electronic charge = 1.6 × 10−19 Coulombs,
T is the absolute temperature in °K.
At room temperature (25°C), the thermal voltage is about 25.7 mV.

6.1.1 Forward-Biased Region
In the forward-biased region, the voltage across the diode is positive. If we
assume that at room temperature the voltage across the diode is greater than
0.1 V, then Equation 6.1 simplifies to

107
108 Circuits and Electronics

(a)
Anode Cathode

i + –

(b)
i

FIGURE 6.1
Ideal diode (a) electronic symbol, (b) I–V characteristics.

Reversed-
biased Forward-
Breakdown
biased

FIGURE 6.2
I–V characteristics of a semiconductor junction diode.

i = IS e( v/nVT ) (6.3)

For a particular operating point of the diode (i = I D and v = VD), we have

iD = IS e( vD/nVT ) (6.4)
To obtain the dynamic resistance of the diode at a specified operating point,
we differentiate Equation 6.3 with respect to v, and we have

di I s e( v/nVT )
=
dv nVT

di I s e( vD/nVT ) I
v =VD = = D
dv nVT nVT
Diodes 109

and the dynamic resistance of the diode, rd, is

dv nVT
rd = v =VD = (6.5)
di ID
From Equation 6.3, we have
i
= e( v/nVT )
IS
thus
v
ln(i) = + ln( IS ) (6.6)
nVT

Equation 6.6 can be used to obtain the diode constants n and IS, given the
data that consists of the corresponding values of voltage and current. From
Equation 6.6, a curve of v versus ln(i) will have a slope given by 1/ nVT and a
y-intercept of ln( IS ). Example 6.1 shows how the Analog Discovery board can
be used to obtain the I–V characteristics of a diode.

Example 6.1  Diode Characteristics

Use the Analog Discovery board to obtain the I–V characteristics of
diode 1N4001.
Solution:
Build the Circuit:
Use a breadboard to build the circuit shown in Figure 6.3. Connect
the AWG1 (yellow wire) to node 1 of the circuit. Also, connect the
scope  ­channel 1 positive (orange wire) to node 2. In addition, connect
the scope channel 1 negative (orange-white wire) to node 0. Moreover,
connect the ground (black wire) to node 0 of the circuit. Furthermore,
connect the scope channel 2 positive (blue wire) to node 1, and the scope
channel 2 negative (blue-white wire) to node 2.

1
+
R1
CH #2
1 kΩ
+ 5 Vpk 2 –
V1 10 Hz
– 0° D1 +

1N4001GP CH #1

0 –

FIGURE 6.3
Diode 1N4001 circuit.
110 Circuits and Electronics

FIGURE 6.4
Analog Discovery WaveGen setup for I–V characteristic measurement.

Generation of Sine Wave:

Click on the WaveGen in the main WaveForms screen. Go to Basic →
Sine → Frequency (set to 10 Hz) → Amplitude (set to 5 V) → Offset (set to
0 V) → Symmetry (set to 50%) → Click Run AWG1. Figure 6.4 shows the
setup of the Analog Discovery WaveGen AWG1.
Activation of Scope:
Click on the Scope in the main WaveForms screen. Go to Run → Autoset
→ Measure → Add → Channel 1 → Horizontal → Frequency → Add
Selected Measurement → Add → Channel 1 → Vertical → Peak to Peak
→ Add Selected Instrument → Add → Channel 2 → Vertical → Peak
to Peak → Control → Add Mathematic Channel → Custom → Type
C2/1000 (this current is calculated as the voltage across the 1000 Ω resis-
tor divided by the resistance of 1000 Ω) → control → Add XY (this initi-
ates the XY plot) → set X (Channel 1) and set Y (Math1) → Change Math
Mode Units to A → Change the M1 range to 1 mA/V. Figure 6.5 shows
the I–V characteristics of the diode.

6.2 Half-Wave Rectification
A half-wave rectifier circuit is shown in Figure 6.6. It consists of an alternat-
ing current (ac) source, a diode, and a resistor.
Assuming that the diode is ideal, the diode conducts when source voltage
is positive, making

v 0 = vS when vS ≥ 0 (6.7)
Diodes 111

FIGURE 6.5
I–V characteristics of diode 1N4001.

+
+

R
VS VO

–
–

FIGURE 6.6
Half-wave rectifier circuit.

When the source voltage is negative, the diode is cut off, and the output
­voltage is
v 0 = 0 when vS < 0 (6.8)
Example 6.2 shows how to use the Analog Discovery board to obtain the
input and output waveforms of a half-wave rectifier.

Example 6.2  Half-Wave Rectification

Determine the voltage at the output of a half-wave rectifier circuit built
using the diode 1N4001, shown in Figure 6.7.
112 Circuits and Electronics

D1
1N4001GP
+ 5 Vpk
Vs 60 Hz
– 2
0° +
R1
1 kΩ Vo
–
0

FIGURE 6.7
Half-wave rectifier circuit built using diode 1N4001.

Solution:
Build the Circuit:
Use a breadboard to build the circuit shown in Figure 6.7. Connect
the AWG1 (yellow wire) to node 1 of the circuit. Also, connect the
scope  ­channel 1 positive (orange wire) to node 1. In addition, connect
the scope channel 1 negative (orange-white wire) to node 0. Moreover,
connect the ground (black wire) to node 0 of the circuit. Furthermore,
connect the scope channel 2 positive (blue wire) to node 2, and the scope
channel 2 negative (blue-white wire) to node 0.
Generation of Sine Wave:
Click on the WaveGen in the main WaveForms screen. Go to Basic →
Sine → Frequency (set to 60 Hz) → Amplitude (set to 5 V) → Offset (set to
0 V) → Symmetry (set to 50%) → Click Run AWG1. Figure 6.8 shows the
setup of Analog Discovery WaveGen AWG1.
Activation of Scope:
Click on the Scope in the main WaveForms screen. Go to Run → Autoset
→ Measure → Add → Channel 1 → Horizontal → Frequency → Add
Selected Measurement → Add → Channel 1 → Vertical → Peak to Peak
→ Add Selected Instrument → Add → Channel 2 → Vertical → Peak to
Peak → Close Add Instrument.
Figure 6.9 shows the oscilloscope display of half-wave rectification. The
battery-charging circuit, which consists of a voltage source connected to a
battery through a resistor and a diode, is explored in Example 6.3.

Example 6.3 Battery-Charging Circuit

A battery-charging circuit is shown in Figure 6.10. The battery voltage is
2 V. The source voltage is vS (t) = 5sin (120 πt) V, and the load resistance is
1000 Ω. Use the Analog Discovery board to (1) display the input voltage,
(2) display the current flowing through the diode, (3) measure the con-
duction angle of the diode, and (4) determine the peak current.
Diodes 113

FIGURE 6.8
Analog Discovery WaveGen setup for half-wave rectification circuit.

FIGURE 6.9
Half-wave rectification waveform (scope channel 2).
114 Circuits and Electronics

D1
1N4001GP
+ 5 Vpk
Vs 60 Hz 2
– 0°
R1 +

1 kΩ Vo
–
3
V2
2V
0

FIGURE 6.10
Battery-charging circuit.

Solution:
Build the Circuit:
Use a breadboard to build the circuit shown in Figure 6.10. Connect
the AWG1 (yellow wire) to node 1 of the circuit. Also, connect the
scope  channel 1 positive (orange wire) to node 1. In addition, connect
the ground (black wire) to node 0 of the circuit. Moreover, connect the
scope channel 1 negative (orange-white wire) to node 0. Furthermore,
connect the scope channel 2 positive (blue wire) to node 2, and the scope
channel 2 negative (blue-white wire) to node 3.
Generation of Sine Wave:
Click on the WaveGen in the main WaveForms screen. Go to Basic →
Sine → Frequency (set to 60 Hz) → Amplitude (set to 5 V) → Offset (set to
0 V) → Symmetry (set to 50%) → Click Run AWG1.
Generation of the DC Input Voltage
Select Channels → Channel 2 (AWG2) → Go to Basic → dc → 2 V → Click
Run AWG2.
Activation of Scope:
Click on the Scope in the main WaveForms screen. Go to Run → Autoset
→ Measure → Add → Channel 1 → Horizontal → Frequency → Add
Selected Measurement → Add → Channel 1 → Vertical → Peak to Peak
→ Add Selected Instrument → Add → Channel 2 → Vertical → Peak
to Peak → Control → Add Mathematic Channel → Custom → Type
C2/1000 (this current is calculated as the voltage across the resistor
1000 Ω divided by resistance 1000 Ω) → control → Change Math Mode
Units to A → Change the M1 range to 2 mA/V.
Figure 6.11 shows the Digilent Analog Discovery WaveGen setup, and
Figure 6.12 shows the oscilloscope display of the input and output waveforms.
Diodes 115

FIGURE 6.11
Analog Discovery WaveGen setup for battery-charging circuit.

FIGURE 6.12
The current flowing through the diode (scope channel M1).
116 Circuits and Electronics

FIGURE 6.13
Conduction angle of a battery-charging circuit.

From Figure 6.13, the following times were measured:

t1 = 0.1 ms,
t2 = 1.5 ms,
t3 = 7.0 ms, and
t4 = 8.4 ms

The conduction angle is that part of the cycle during which the diode is
conducting.
t −t
Conduction angle = 3 2 * 360 (6.9)
2 (t4 − t1 )
Using Equation 6.9 and the values of t1 , t2 , t3 , and t4 obtained from Figure
6.13, the conduction angle is
Conduction angle = 119.28°
From Figure 6.13, the peak current flowing through the diode is 2.387 mA.

6.3 Peak Detector
A peak detector is a circuit that can be used to detect the peak value of an
input signal. Peak detectors can also be used as demodulators to detect the
Diodes 117

D1

+
+

VS C VO
R
– –

FIGURE 6.14
Peak detector circuit.

audio signal in amplitude modulated (AM) waves. A simple peak detector

circuit is shown in Figure 6.14.
The peak detector circuit is simply a half-wave rectifier circuit with a
capacitor connected across the load resistor. The operation of the circuit will
be described with the assumption that the source voltage is a sinusoidal
voltage, Vm sin(2 πfot), with amplitude greater than 0.6 volts. During the first
quarter-cycle, the input voltage increases and the capacitor is charged to the
input voltage. At time t = 1/ 4 fo , where fo is the frequency of the sinusoidal
input, the input voltage reaches its maximum value of Vm and the capacitor
will be charged to that maximum of Vm .
When time t > 1/ 4 fo , the input starts to decrease; the diode D1 will dis-
charge through the resistance R. If we define t1 = 1/ 4 fo, the time when the
capacitor is charged to the maximum value of the input voltage, the dis-
charge of the capacitor is given as

−(t −t1 )
v 0 (t) = Vme RC (6.10)

If RC >> T, where T is the period of the input signal, it can be shown that the
ripple voltage can be given as

Vm
Vr( peak −to− peak ) = (6.11)
f 0CR

where fo is the frequency of the input ac source voltage.

Example 6.4 demonstrates the effects of the time constant on the character-
istics of a peak detector circuit.

Example 6.4  Ripple Voltage of Half-Wave Rectifier

Figure 6.15 shows a peak detector. (1) Display the input and output
­voltages. (2) Measure the ripple voltage for load resistors of 10, 50, and
118 Circuits and Electronics

D1
1N4001GP
+ 5 Vpk
VS 60 Hz 2
– 0°
R1 C1 +
10 kΩ 10 µF VO
0 –

FIGURE 6.15
Peak detector circuit for measuring ripple voltage.

100 kΩ. (3) Use Equation 6.11 to calculate the ripple voltages for load
resistances of 10, 50, and 100 kΩ and compare the calculated values with
the measured ones.
Solution:
Build the Circuit:
Use a breadboard to build the circuit shown in Figure 6.15. Connect
the AWG1 (yellow wire) to node 1 of the circuit. Also, connect the
scope  channel 1 positive (orange wire) to node 1. In addition, connect
the scope channel 1 negative (orange-white wire) to node 0. Moreover,
connect the ground (black wire) to node 0 of the circuit. Furthermore,
connect the scope channel 2 positive (blue wire) to node 2, and the scope
channel 2 negative (blue-white wire) to node 0.
Generation of Sine Wave:
Click on the WaveGen in the main WaveForms screen. Go to Basic →
Sine → Frequency (set to 60 Hz) → Amplitude (set to 5 V) → Offset (set to
0 V) → Symmetry (set to 50%) → Click Run AWG1. Figure 6.16 shows the
setup for Analog Discovery WaveGen AWG1.
Activation of Scope:
Click on the Scope in the main WaveForms screen. Go to Run →
Autoset → Measure → Add → Channel 1 → Horizontal → Frequency
→ Add Selected Measurement → Add → Channel 1 → Vertical → Peak
to Peak → Add Selected Instrument → Add → Channel 2 → Vertical →
Peak to Peak → Add Selected Measurement → Close Add Instrument.
Figure  6.17 shows the oscilloscope display of the input and output
waveforms.
For each of the load resistors of 10, 50, and 100 kΩ, the ripple voltage was
measured. In addition, Equation 6.11 was used to calculate the ripple volt-
age. Table 6.1 shows the calculated and measured ripple voltages. It can be
seen from Table 6.1 that there are agreements between the calculated and
measured ripple voltages, especially for the 50 kΩ resistor.
Diodes 119

FIGURE 6.16
Analog Discovery WaveGen setup for peak detector circuit.

FIGURE 6.17
Display of input (scope channel 1) and output (scope channel 2) waveforms of a peak detector
with 10 kΩ resistor.
120 Circuits and Electronics

TABLE 6.1
Measured and Calculated Ripple Voltages for Peak Detector Circuit
Peak Voltage
(V) (5 Calculated Measured
Resistance Capacitance Frequency V-Diode Ripple Ripple
(Ω) (F) (Hz) Drop) Voltage (V) Voltage (V)
1.00E+04 1.00E−05 60 4.3 7.17E−01 6.34E−01
5.00E+04 1.00E−05 60 4.3 1.43E−01 1.54E−01
1.00E+05 1.00E−05 60 4.3 7.17E−02 8.40E−02

6.4 Full-Wave Rectification
A full-wave rectifier that does not require a center-tapped transformer is the
bridge rectifier of Figure 6.18. When vS (t) is positive, diodes D1 and D3 con-
duct, but diodes D2 and D4 do not conduct. The current enters the load resis-
tor R through node A. In addition, when vS (t) is negative, the diodes D2 and
D4 conduct, but diodes D1 and D3 do not conduct. The current entering the
load resistor R enters through node A. The output voltage is

v(t) = vS (t) − 2VD (6.12)

Example 6.5 explores full-wave rectification with real diodes.

Example 6.5  Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier

For the bridge rectifier shown in Figure 6.19, use the Analog Discovery
board to display the input and output waveforms. What is the peak-to-
peak voltage at the output of the bridge rectifier?
Solution:
Build the Circuit:
Use a breadboard to build the circuit shown in Figure 6.19. Connect
the AWG1 (yellow wire) to node 1 of the circuit. Also, connect the
scope  channel 1 positive (orange wire) to node 1. In addition, connect

D4 D1
VS(t) A
D3 +

D2
R VO(t)

FIGURE 6.18
Bridge rectifier.
Diodes 121

1 D1 2
+
1N4001GP
D2
D4 1N4001GP
1N4001GP
+ 5 Vpk R1 VO
VS 100 Hz
– 0° D3 100 kΩ

1N4001GP –

0
4

FIGURE 6.19
Full-wave bridge rectifier circuit built using diodes 1N4001.

the scope channel 1 negative (orange-white wire) to node 0. Moreover,

connect the ground (black wire) to node 0 of the circuit. Furthermore,
connect the scope channel 2 positive (blue wire) to node 2, and the scope
channel 2 negative (blue-white wire) to node 0.
Generation of Sine Wave:
Click on the WaveGen in the main WaveForms screen. Go to Basic →
Sine → Frequency (set to 100 Hz) → Amplitude (set to 5 V) → Offset (set
to 0 V) → Symmetry (set to 50%) → Click Run AWG1. Figure 6.20 shows
the setup of the Analog Discovery WaveGen AWG1.

FIGURE 6.20
Analog Discovery WaveGen setup for full-wave rectifier circuit.
122 Circuits and Electronics

FIGURE 6.21
Input (scope channel 1) and output (scope channel 2) waveforms of a full-wave rectifier.

Activation of Scope:
Click on the Scope in the main WaveForms screen. Go to Run →
Autoset → Measure → Add → Channel 1 → Horizontal → Frequency
→ Add Selected Measurement → Add → Channel 1 → Vertical →
Peak to Peak  → Add Selected Instrument → Add → Channel 2 →
Vertical → Peak to Peak → Add Selected Instrument → Close Add
Instrument. Figure 6.21 shows the oscilloscope display of the full-
wave rectification.

6.5 Full-Wave Rectifier with Smoothing Filter

A bridge rectifier with RC smoothing filter is shown in Figure 6.22. Connecting
a capacitor across the load of a bridge rectifier can smooth the output voltage

+ D4 D1
A
Vs
+
– D3 D2
R C VO
–

FIGURE 6.22
Bridge rectifier with RC smoothing filter.
Diodes 123

of a full-wave rectifier circuit by filtering out the high-frequency components

of the output signal.
For full-wave rectification, the frequency of the ripple voltage is twice that
of the input voltage. The capacitor in Figure 6.22 has only half the time to
discharge. Therefore, for a given time constant, CR, the ripple voltage will be
reduced, and it is given by

Vm
Vr( peak −to− peak ) = (6.13)
2 f oCR
where
Vm is peak value of the input sinusoidal waveform
fo is the frequency of the input sinusoidal waveform
and the average dc voltage at the output is approximately

Vr Vm
Vdc = Vm − = Vm − (6.14)
2 4 f oCR

Example 6.6 demonstrates the effects of the RC smoothing filter on the out-
put of Figure 6.22.

Example 6.6  Full-Wave Rectification with a Smoothing Filter

Figure 6.23 shows a bridge rectifier circuit with a smoothing filter.
(1)  Display the input and output voltages. (2) Measure the ripple volt-
age for load capacitors of 0.22, 0.44, and 0.66 μF. (3) Calculate the ripple
voltages for load capacitances of 0.22, 0.44, and 0.66 μF and compare the
calculated values with the measured ones.

1 D1 2

1N4001GP +
D2
D4 1N4001GP C1
1N4001GP
0.22 µF
+ 5 Vpk R1 VO
Vs 100 Hz
– 0° 100 kΩ
D3

1N4001GP –

0 4

FIGURE 6.23
Bridge rectifier with RC smoothing filter.
124 Circuits and Electronics

Solution:
Build the Circuit:
Use a breadboard to build the circuit shown in Figure 6.23. Connect
the AWG1 (yellow wire) to node 1 of the circuit. Also, connect the
scope  channel 1 positive (orange wire) to node 1. In addition, connect
the scope channel 1 negative (orange-white wire) to node 0. Moreover,
connect the ground (black wire) to node 0 of the circuit. Furthermore,
connect the scope channel 2 positive (blue wire) to node 2, and the scope
channel 2 negative (blue-white wire) to node 0.
Generation of Sine Wave:
Click on the WaveGen in the main WaveForms screen. Go to Basic →
Sine → Frequency (set to 100 Hz) → Amplitude (set to 5 V) → Offset (set
to 0 V) → Symmetry (set to 50%) → Click Run AWG1. Figure 6.24 shows
the setup of the Analog Discovery WaveGen AWG1.
Activation of Scope:
Click on the Scope in the main WaveForms screen. Go to Run → Autoset
→ Measure → Add → Channel 1 → Horizontal → Frequency → Add
Selected Measurement → Add → Channel 1 → Vertical → Peak to Peak
→ Add Selected Instrument → Add → Channel 2 → Vertical → Peak to
Peak → Add Selected Instrument → Close Add Instrument. Figure 6.25
shows the oscilloscope display of the input and output waveforms.

FIGURE 6.24
Analog Discovery WaveGen setup for bridge rectifier with RC filter.
Diodes 125

FIGURE 6.25
Input (scope channel 1) and output (scope channel 2) waveforms of bridge rectifier with RC
smoothing filter.

TABLE 6.2
Measured and Calculated Ripple Voltages for Bridge Rectifier with RC Smoothing
Filter
Peak Voltage (V) Calculated Measured
Resistance Capacitance Frequency (5 V-2 Diode Ripple Voltage Ripple Voltage
(Ω) (F) (Hz) Drops) (V) (V)
1.00E+05 2.20E−07 100 3.6 8.18E−01 6.90E−01
1.00E+05 4.40E−07 100 3.6 4.09E−01 4.02E−01
1.00E+05 6.60E−07 100 3.6 2.73E−01 2.86E−01

For each of the load capacitors of 0.22, 0.44, and 0.66 μF, the ripple voltage
was measured. In addition, Equation 6.13 was used to calculate the ripple
voltage. Table 6.2 shows the calculated and measured ripple voltages. It can
be seen from Table 6.2 that there are agreements between the calculated and
measured ripple voltages, especially for the 0.44 μF capacitor.

PROBLEMS
Problem 6.1 Determine the I–V characteristics of a green LED in the circuit
shown in Figure P6.1.
Problem 6.2 Obtain the I–V characteristics of a red LED in the circuit shown
in Figure P6.2.
126 Circuits and Electronics

1
+
R1
CH #2
1 kΩ
+ 5 Vpk –
V1 2
10 Hz
– 0° +
LED2
CH #1
–
0

FIGURE P6.1
Resistive circuit with green LED.

1
+
R1
1 kΩ CH #2
+ 5 Vpk 2 –
V1 10 Hz
– +
0°
LED1 CH #1

–
0

FIGURE P6.2
Resistive circuit with red LED.

Problem P6.3 A battery-charging circuit is shown in Figure P6.3. The bat-

tery voltage is 3 V. The source voltage is vS (t) = 5sin(120 πt) V, and the load
resistance is 1000 Ω. Use the Analog Discovery board to (1) display the input
voltage, (2) plot the current flowing through the diode, (3) measure the
conduction angle of the diode, and (4) determine the peak current flowing
through the diode.
Problem P6.4 A battery-charging circuit is shown in Figure P6.4. The bat-
tery voltage is 1 V. The source voltage is vS (t) = 5sin(120 πt) V, and the load
resistance is 500 Ω. Use the Analog Discovery board to (1) display the input
voltage, (2) plot the current flowing through the diode, (3) measure the
conduction angle of the diode, and (4) determine the peak current flowing
through the diode.
Problem P6.5 A half-wave rectifier, built using red LED, is shown in
Figure P6.5. (1) Use the Analog Discovery board to display the input and out-
put voltages. (2) Calculate the maximum current flowing through the LED.
Diodes 127

D1
1N4001GP
+ 5 Vpk
VS 60 Hz 2
– 0°
R1 +

1 kΩ VO
–
3
V2
3V
0

FIGURE P6.3
Battery-charging circuit with battery voltage of 3 V.

D1
1N4001GP
+ 5 Vpk
60 Hz 2
– 0°
R1 +
VO
500 Ω
–
3
V2
1V
0

FIGURE P6.4
Battery-charging circuit with battery voltage of 1 V.

(3) If the frequency of the source is increased to 100 Hz, why is the switching
on and off of the LED not visible to the eye?
Problem P6.6 Figure P6.6 shows a peak detector. (1) Display the input and
output voltages. (2) Measure the ripple voltage for load resistors of source fre-
quencies of 60, 600, and 6000 Hz. (3) Calculate the ripple voltages for source
frequencies of 60, 600, and 6000 Hz and compare the calculated values with
the measured ones.
Problem P6.7 A full-wave rectifier, built using LEDs and diodes, is shown in
Figure P6.7. LED1 is a green LED, and LED2 is a red LED. (1) Use the Analog
128 Circuits and Electronics

+
R1
VO
1 kΩ
+ 5 Vpk –
VS 10 Hz 2
– 0°
LED1

FIGURE P6.5
Half-wave rectifier with LED.

D1
1N4001GP
+ 5 Vpk
VS 60 Hz 2
– 0°
R1 C1 +
10 kΩ 4.7 µF VO
0 –

FIGURE P6.6
Peak detector for measuring the ripple voltage at various frequencies.

D1 2

1N4001GP +
D2
1N4001GP
LED2
+ 5 Vpk 0 R1 VO
VS 1 Hz LED1
– 0° 1 kΩ
3
–

FIGURE P6.7
Bridge rectifier with LEDs and diodes.
Diodes 129

Discovery board to display the input and output voltages. (2) What is the
peak-to-peak voltage across the resistor R1? (3) Why do the two LEDs alter-
nately turn on and off? (4) If the frequency of the source is increased to 100 Hz,
why would the switching on and off of the LEDs not be visible to the eye?
Problem P6.8 A full-wave rectifier, built using LEDs, diodes, and an RC fil-
ter, is shown in Figure P6.8. LED1 is a green LED, and LED2 is a red LED.
(1) Use the Analog Discovery board to display the input and output voltages.
(2) What is the peak-to-peak voltage across the resistor R1?
Problem 6.9 Figure P6.9 shows a bridge rectifier circuit with a smoothing
filter. (1) Display the input and output voltages. (2) Measure the ripple voltage
for source frequencies of 60, 120, and 180 Hz. (3) Calculate the ripple voltages
for source frequencies of 60, 120, and 180 Hz and compare the calculated val-
ues with the measured ones.

1 D1 2

1N4001GP +
D2
1N4001GP
LED2 C1
+ 5 Vpk 0 VO
VS 100 Hz LED1 R1
– 0° 4.7 µF
1k Ω
–

FIGURE P6.8
LED and diode bridge rectifier with RC smoothing filter.

1 D1 2

1N4001GP +
D4 D2
1N4001GP C1
1N4001GP
5 Vpk 0.22 µF
+ R1 VO
VS 60 Hz
– 0° D3 100 kΩ

1N4001GP –

0
4

FIGURE P6.9
Bridge rectifier with RC smoothing filter.
7
Transistors

INTRODUCTION  In this chapter, Analog Discovery board will be used

to solve problems involving metal-oxide semiconductor field effect and bipo-
lar junction transistors. The general topics to be discussed in this chapter
are dc model of BJT and MOSFET, biasing of discrete circuits, and frequency
response of amplifiers.

7.1 Bipolar Junction Transistors

Bipolar junction transistor (BJT) consists of two pn junctions connected back
to back. There are two types of BJT: NPN and PNP transistors. The electronic
symbols of the two types of transistors are shown in Figure 7.1.
The dc behavior of the BJT can be described by the Ebers-Moll model. The
voltages of the base-emitter and base-collector junctions define the region
of operation of the BJT. The regions of normal operation are forward-active,
reverse-active, saturation, and cut-off. Table 7.1 shows the regions of opera-
tion based on the polarities of the base-emitter and base-collector junctions.
The regions of operation are described below.

1. Forward-Active Region
The forward-active region corresponds to forward biasing the
­emitter-base junction and reverse biasing the base-collector junc-
tion. It is the normal operation region of bipolar junction transistors
when employed for amplifications. In the forward-active region, the
first-order representations of collector current I C and base current I B
are given as
V   VCE 
I C = IS exp  BE   1 + V  (7.1)
 VT  AF

and
IS V 
IB = exp  BE  (7.2)
βF  VT 

where
β F is large signal forward current gain of common-emitter
configuration,

131
132 Circuits and Electronics

(a) (b)
C IC IE

B B
IB
IB
IC
E C
IE

FIGURE 7.1
(a) NPN transistor and (b) PNP transistor.

TABLE 7.1
Regions of Operation of BJT
Base-Emitter Junction Base-Collector Junction Region of Operation
Forward-biased Reverse-biased Forward-active
Forward-biased Forward-biased Saturation
Reverse-biased Reverse-biased Cut-off
Reverse-biased Forward-biased Reverse-active

VAF is forward early voltage,

IS is the BJT transport saturation current.

VT is the thermal voltage and is given as

kT
VT = (7.3)
q

where
k is the Boltzmann’s Constant (k = 1.381 × 10−23 V C/°K),
T is the absolute temperature in degrees Kelvin,
q is the charge of an electron (q = 1.602 × 10−19 C).
If VAF >> VCE, then from Equations 7.1 and 7.2, we have

I C = β F I B (7.4)

2. Reverse-Active Region
The reverse-active region corresponds to reverse biasing the emitter-
base junction and forward biasing the base-collector junction. The
Ebers-Moll model in the reverse-active region (VBC > 0.5 V and VBE <
0.3 V) simplifies to

V 
I E = IS  BC  (7.5)
 VT 
Transistors 133

IS V 
IB = exp  BC  (7.6)
βR  VT 

Thus

I E = β R I B

The reverse-active region is seldom used.

3. Saturation Region
The saturation region corresponds to forward biasing both base-
emitter and base-collector junctions. A switching transistor will
be in the saturation region when the device is in the conducting or
“ON” state. Equation 7.4 is not valid when the transistor is operating
in the saturation region. In the saturation region and other regions
of operation, one can use Kirchhoff’s Current Law to obtain the
expression

I E = I C + I B (7.7)

4. Cut-off Region
The cut-off region corresponds to reverse biasing the base-emitter
and base-collector junctions. The collector and base currents are very
small compared to the currents that flow into the collector or base
when transistors are in the active-forward and saturation regions.
In most applications, it is adequate to assume that I C = I B = I E = 0
when a BJT is in the cut-off region. A switching transistor will be
in the ­cut-off region when the device is not conducting or in the
“OFF” state.

From Equation 7.2, the input characteristic of a forward biased base-emitter

junction is similar to diode characteristics. In Example 7.1 and Example 7.2,
we explore the input and output characteristics of a BJT transistor.

Example 7.1  BJT Output Characteristics

Use the Analog Discovery board to determine the current vs. voltage
(IC vs. VCE) curve of the NPN transistor 2N3904.
Solution:
Build the Circuit:
Use a breadboard to build the circuit shown in Figure 7.2. Connect the
AWG1 (yellow wire) to node 3 of the circuit and the AWG2 (yellow-white
wire) to node 1 of the circuit. Also, connect the scope channel 1 positive
(orange wire) to node 1. In addition, connect the scope channel 1 nega-
tive (orange-white wire) to node 0. Moreover, connect the ground (black
wire) to node 0 of the circuit. Furthermore, connect the scope channel 2
134 Circuits and Electronics

+
V1_AWG1

3 scope_2+

R2
100 Ω
scope_2–
4
scope_1+
R1 Q1
1 2
2N3904
+ 40 kΩ
V2_AWG2 scope_1–

FIGURE 7.2
Circuit for determining current vs. voltage characteristics of 2N3904.

positive (blue wire) to node 3, and the scope channel 2 negative (blue-
white wire) to node 4.
The pin configuration of transistor 2N3904 is shown in Figure 7.3. For
the transistor 2N3904, connect the base of the transistor to node 2, collec-
tor to node 4, and the emitter to node 0.

Generation of the Triangular Waveform of AWG1:

AWG1 generates collector voltage, VCC. The triangular waveform is made
to range from 0 to 5 V. Each ramp generates an I–V curve for a specific
value of the base current, I B . The triangular waveform is generated

2N3904
TO-92
C
B
E

C
C B
B
E E

FIGURE 7.3
Pin configuration of 2N3904 transistor. (From Fairchild Datasheets, www.fairchildsemi.com/.)
Transistors 135

through the following commands: Click on the WaveGen in the main

WaveForms screen. Go to Basic → Triangular → Frequency (set to 50 Hz)
→ Amplitude (set to 2.5 V) → Offset (set to 2.5 V) → Symmetry (set to
50%) → Click Run AWG1.

Generation of the Step Function of AWG2:

AWG2 generates uniformly distributed steps (stairs waveform). To gen-
erate the stairs waveform, open up an Excel file and insert the numbers
1, 2, 3, 4, …, 10 in ten rows. The Excel file should be saved with either .csv
or .txt extensions.
Open the Arbitrary Waveform Generator, AWG2, Go to Custom → File
→ Select source file → Import data in source file with the file extension
.csv or .txt → Frequency (set to 5 Hz, frequency is the buffer iteration fre-
quency, and 5 Hz means the whole stair sequence takes 200 ms, or 20 ms,
per step) → Amplitude (set to 2.5 V) Offset (set to 2.5 V) → Symmetry (set
to 50%) → Click Run AWG2. Figure 7.4 shows the waveforms generated
by AWG1 and AWG2.

Activation of Scope:
Scope channel 1 measures the collector and emitter voltage (VCE). Scope
channel 2 measures the voltage across the resistor R2 (100 Ω). To obtain
the collector current, we calculate C2/R2. The Mathematics Channel
is used to obtain the collector current. Follow these steps to obtain the

FIGURE 7.4
Arbitrary waveform generator 1 and 2 (AWG1 and AWG2) settings.
136 Circuits and Electronics

FIGURE 7.5
Output current vs. voltage characteristics of 2N3904 transistor.

I–V curves: Add Mathematic Channel → Custom → Type C2/100 (this

current is calculated as the voltage across the 100 Ω resistor divided
by resistance of 100 Ω) → control → Add XY (this initiates the XY plot)
→ set X to C1 (Channel 1) and set Y to M1 (Mathematic Channel 1) →
Change Math Mode Units to A → Change the M1 range to 1 mA/V.
Figure 7.5 shows the output characteristics (IC vs. VCE) of the transistor
2N3904.
With regard to the output I–V curve of the BJT, the maximum voltage
at the base is 5 V. The base resistor has a value of 40 K, and assuming a
0.7 V drop across the base-emitter junction, the maximum base current
is (5 − 0.7)/40 K = 0.1075 mA. Since 10 steps were used in generation of
the base current, the step current at the base is a (0.1075/9) mA, which is
approximately equal to 0.012 mA. It should be noted that the diode drop
is assumed to be 0.7 V, so the base currents shown on the I–V curve are
approximate values.

Example 7.2  BJT Input Characteristics

Use the Analog Discovery board to determine the input current vs. volt-
age (IB vs. VBE) curve of the NPN transistor 2N3904.

Solution:
Use a breadboard to build the circuit shown in Figure 7.6. Connect the
AWG1 (yellow wire) to node 3 of the circuit and the AWG2 (yellow-
white wire) to node 1 of the circuit. Also, connect the scope channel 1
Transistors 137

V1_AWG1 4V

0
R2
100 Ω

CH_2+ CH_2– Q1
2N3904
V2_AWG2 1 R1 200 Ω 2 CH_1+

5 Vpk +
100 Hz –
0° CH_1–
0

FIGURE 7.6
Circuit for determining input current vs. voltage characteristics of 2N3904.

positive (orange wire) to node 2. In addition, connect the scope chan-

nel 1 negative (orange-white wire) to node 0. Furthermore, connect the
ground (black wire) to node 0 of the circuit. Moreover, connect the scope
channel 2 positive (blue wire) to node 1, and the scope channel 2 negative
(blue-white wire) to node 2.
For the transistor 2N3904, connect the base of the transistor to node 2,
the collector to node 4, and the emitter to node 0 of Figure 7.6.

Generation of DC Voltage:
Click on the WaveGen 1 (AWG1) in the main WaveForms screen. Go to
Basic → dc → Offset (set to 4 V) → Click Run AWG1.
Generation of Sine Wave:
Click on the WaveGen 2 (AWG2) in the main WaveForms screen. Go to
Basic → Sine → Frequency (set to 100 Hz) → Amplitude (set to 5 V) →
Offset (set to 0 V) → Symmetry (set to 50%) → Click Run AWG2. Figure 7.7
shows the setup of the Analog Discovery WaveGen AWG1 and AWG2.

Activation of Scope:
Click on the Scope in the main WaveForms screen. Go to Run → Autoset
→ Measure → Add → Channel 1 → Horizontal → Frequency → Add
Selected Measurement → Add → Channel 1 → Vertical → Peak to Peak
→ Add Selected Instrument → Add → Channel 2 → Vertical → Peak to
Peak → Control → Add Mathematic Channel → Custom → Type C2/200
(This current is calculated as the voltage across the resistor 200 Ω divided
by resistance 200 Ω) → control → Add XY (this initiates the XY plot) →
set X (Channel 1) and set Y (Math1) → Change Math Mode Units to A →
Change the M1 range to 1 mA/V. Figure 7.8 shows the input I–V charac-
teristics of the transistor 2N3904.
138 Circuits and Electronics

FIGURE 7.7
The analog discovery WaveGen setup.

FIGURE 7.8
The input I–V (IB vs. VBE) characteristics of NPN transistor 2N3904.
Transistors 139

7.2 MOSFET Characteristics
Metal-oxide semiconductor field effect transistors (MOSFET) normally
have high input resistance because of the oxide insulation between the gate
and the channel. There are two types of MOSFETs: the enhancement type
and the depletion type. In the enhancement type, the channel between the
source and drain has to be induced by applying a voltage at the gate. In
the depletion type MOSFET, the structure of the device is such that there
exists a channel between the source and drain. Because the enhancement
type MOSFET is widely used, the presentation of this section will be done
using ­enhancement-type MOSFETs. The voltage needed to create the chan-
nel between the source and drain is called the threshold voltage, VT . For
n-channel enhancement MOSFETs, VT is positive and for p-channel devices,
it is negative. The electronic symbol of a MOSFET is shown in Figure 7.9.
MOSFETs can operate in three modes: cut-off, triode, and saturation
regions. The following is a short description of the three regions of operation.

1. Cut-off Region
For an n-channel MOSFET, if the gate-source voltage VGS satisfies the
condition

VGS < VT (7.8)

then the device is cut off. This implies that the drain current is zero
for all values of the drain-to-source voltage.
2. Triode Region
When VGS > V T and VDS is small, the MOSFET will be in the tri-
ode region. In the latter region, the device behaves as a nonlinear
­voltage-controlled resistance. The drain current ID is related to drain
source voltage VDS by the expression

I D = kn [2 (VGS − VT )VDS − VDS

2
](1 + λVDS ) (7.9)

(a) D (b) S

G G

S D

FIGURE 7.9
Circuit symbol of (a) n-channel and (b) p-channel MOSFETs.
140 Circuits and Electronics

provided

VDS ≤ VGS − VT (7.10)

where

µ n ε εOX W µ nCOX  W 
kn = = (7.11)
2tOX L 2  L 

and

µ n is the surface mobility of electrons,

ε is the permittivity of free space (8.85 × 10−12 F/cm),
εOX is the dielectric constant of SiO2,
tOX is oxide thickness,
L is length of the channel,
W is width of the channel,
λ is channel width modulation factor.

3. Saturation Region
If VGS > VT , a MOSFET will operate in the saturation region provided,

VDS ≥ VGS − VT (7.12)

In the saturation region, the current-voltage characteristics are given
as

I D = kn (VGS − VT ) (1 + λVDS ) (7.13)

2

The transconductance is given as

∆I D
gm = (7.14)
∆VGS

and the incremented drain-to-source resistance, rCE , is given as

∆VDS
rCE = (7.15)
∆I DS

In the following example, we shall obtain the I D versus VDS charac-

teristics of a MOSFET.
Transistors 141

Example 7.3  Output Characteristics of N-Channel MOSFET

Use the Analog Discovery board to determine the output current
vs. ­voltage (ID vs. VDS) curve of one of the n-channel MOSFETs of the
MOSFET array CD4007UB.
Solution:
Build the Circuit:
Use a breadboard to build the circuit shown in Figure 7.10. Connect the
AWG1 (yellow wire) to node 3 of the circuit and the AWG2 (yellow-white
wire) to node 1 of the circuit. Also, connect the scope channel 1 positive
(orange wire) to node 2. In addition, connect the scope channel 1 nega-
tive (orange-white wire) to node 0. Moreover, connect the ground (black
wire) to node 0 of the circuit. Furthermore, connect the scope channel 2
positive (blue wire) to node 3, and the scope channel 2 negative (blue-
white wire) to node 2.
For the MOSFET array CD4007UB with pin configuration shown in
Figure 7.11, connect the gate (pin #6) to node 1, drain (pin #8) to node 2,
and the source (pin #7) to node 0 (ground).

Generation of the Triangular Waveform of AWG1:

AWG1 generates drain voltage, VDD. The triangular waveform is made
to range from 0 to 5 V. Each ramp generates an I–V curve for a spe-
cific value of the gate voltage. The triangular waveform is generated
through the following commands: Click on the WaveGen in the main
WaveForms screen. Go to Basic → Triangular → Frequency (set to 50 Hz)
→ Amplitude (set to 2.5 V) → Offset (set to 2.5 V) → Symmetry (set to
50%) → Click Run AWG1.

+
V1_AWG1

3 Scope_2+
R1
1 kΩ
Scope_2–
2
Scope_1+

1 Q1

+
V2_AWG2
Scope_1–
0

FIGURE 7.10
Circuit for determining current vs. voltage characteristics of n-channel MOSFETs.
142 Circuits and Electronics

SCHEMATIC
14 13 2 1 11

6 12

7 8 3 4 5 10 9
VDD = PIN 14
VSS = PIN 7

FIGURE 7.11
Pin configuration of CD4007UB MOSFET array [For the CD4007UB MOSFET array, Pin 7 is
connected to the substrate of the nMOS and should be connected to the most negative voltage of the
circuit; pin 14 is the bulk of the PMOS and should be connected to the most positive voltage in
the circuit.] (From Texas Instruments, www.ti.com, CD4007UBE datasheet.)

Generation of the Step Function of AWG2:

AWG2 generates uniformly distributed steps (stairs waveform). To gen-
erate the stairs waveform, open up an Excel file and insert the numbers
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 in six rows. The Excel file should be saved with file
extension .csv or .txt.
Open the Arbitrary Waveform Generator, AWG2. Go to Custom →
File → Select source file → Import data in source file with the extension
.csv or .txt → Frequency (set to 10 Hz, frequency is the buffer iteration
frequency, and 10 Hz means the whole stair sequence takes 100 ms) →
Amplitude (set to 1.5 V) Offset (set to 2.5 V) → Symmetry (set to 50%) →
Click Run AWG2. Figure 7.12 shows the waveforms generated by AWG1
and AWG2.

Activation of Scope:
Scope channel 1 measures the voltage between the drain and source (VDS).
Scope channel 2 measures the voltage across the resistor R2 (1000 Ω). To
obtain the drain current, we calculate C2/R2. The Mathematics Channel
is used to obtain the drain current. Follow the following steps to obtain
the I–V curves: Add Mathematic Channel → Custom → Type C2/1000
(this current is calculated as the voltage across the 1000 Ω resistor
divided by resistance 1000 Ω) → control → Add XY (this initiates the XY
plot) → set X to C1 (Channel 1) and set Y to M1 (Mathematic Channel 1)
→ Change Math Mode Units to A → Change the M1 range to 500 μA/div.
Figure 7.13 shows the ID vs. VDS characteristics of the one of the nMOS
transistors of CD4007.
With regard to the output I–V curve of the MOSFET, the maximum
gate voltage is 4 V. Since six steps were used in generation of the gate-
source voltage, the step gate-source voltage is 0.8 V (which is 4 V divided
by 5).
Transistors 143

FIGURE 7.12
Arbitrary Waveform Generator 1 and 2 (AWG1 and AWG2) settings.

FIGURE 7.13
Output characteristics of n-channel MOSFETs.
144 Circuits and Electronics

Example 7.4  Input Characteristics of N-Channel MOSFET

Use the Analog Discovery board to determine the current (ID) vs. volt-
age (VGS) curve of one of the n-channel MOSFETs of the MOSFET array
CD4007UB. Determine the threshold voltage of the nMOS transistor.

Solution:
When the MOSFET is in saturation region, and neglecting the channel
length modulation, the MOSFET current can be given as

2
I D = k n (VGS −VT ) (7.16)

Equation (7.16) can be rewritten as:

I D = k n (VGS −VT ) (7.17)

For a plot of I D versus VGS , the intersection with the horizontal axis
gives the threshold voltage VT , and the slope is k n . To force the tran-
sistor into the saturation region, the gate and the drain are connected
together.

Build the Circuit:

Use a breadboard to build the circuit shown in Figure 7.14. Connect
the AWG1 (yellow wire) to node 2 of the circuit. Also, connect the
scope  channel 1 positive (orange wire) to node 1. In addition, connect
the scope channel 1 negative (orange-white wire) to node 0. Moreover,
connect the ground (black wire) to node 0 of the circuit. Furthermore,
connect the scope channel 2 positive (blue wire) to node 2, and the scope
channel 2 negative (blue-white wire) to node 1.
For the MOSFET array CD4007UB, connect the gate (pin #6) to node 1,
drain (pin #8) to node 1, and the source (pin #7) to node 0.

Generation of the Triangular Waveform of AWG1:

AWG1 generates drain voltage, which is a triangular signal. The trian-
gular waveform is made to range from 0 to 5 V. Each ramp generates an
I–V curve for a specific value drain voltage. The triangular waveform is
generated through the following commands: Click on the WaveGen in
the main WaveForms screen. Go to Basic → Triangular → Frequency (set
to 50 Hz) → Amplitude (set to 2.5 V) → Offset (set to 2.5 V) → Symmetry
(set to 50%) → Click Run AWG1. Figure 7.15 shows the setup for gen-
erating the triangular waveform from the Analog Discovery WaveGen
AWG1.

Activation of Scope:
Scope channel 1 measures the voltage between the drain and source (VDS).
Scope channel 2 measures the voltage across the resistor R2 (1000 Ω). To
obtain the drain current, we calculate C2/R2. The Mathematic Channel
is used to obtain the drain current. Follow these steps to obtain the
Transistors 145

+ V1_AWG1

2 Scope_2+

R1
1 kΩ
Scope_2–
1 Scope_1+
Q1

0 Scope_1–

FIGURE 7.14
Circuit for determining input characteristics of n-channel MOSFETs.

FIGURE 7.15
Arbitrary Waveform Generator 1 and 2 (AWG1) settings.
146 Circuits and Electronics

FIGURE 7.16
I D versus VGS characteristics of MOSFET array CD4007UB.

I–V curves: Add Mathematic Channel → Custom → Type sqrt(C2/1000)

(this is the square root of the current which is calculated as the voltage
across the 1000 Ω resistor divided by the resistance of 1000 Ω) → control
→ Add XY (this initiates the XY plot) → set X to C1 (Channel 1) and
set Y to M1 (Mathematic Channel 1) → Change Math Mode Units to A →
Change the M1 range to 1 mA/V. Figure 7.16 shows the input character-
istics of one of the nMOS transistors CD4007.

From Equation 7.17, one can find VT and kn . From Figure 7.16, the slope of
the curve is kn and the intersection of the curve with the horizontal axis
gives the threshold voltage VT . From Figure 7.16, the estimate of the threshold
voltage is 1.2 V.

7.3  B
 iasing BJT Amplifiers
Biasing networks are used to establish an appropriate dc operating point for
the transistor in a circuit. For stable and consistent operation, the dc operat-
ing point should be held relatively constant under varying conditions. There
are several biasing circuits available in the literature. Some are for biasing
discrete circuits and others for integrated circuits. Figures 7.17 and 7.18 show
some biasing networks for discrete circuits.
The dc equivalent circuit for Figure 7.17 is shown in Figure 7.19. The circuit
can be used to obtain the bias point of the transistor circuit.
Transistors 147

VCC
4

IC RC
RB1
3
1 Q1
2

RB2 RE

FIGURE 7.17
Biasing circuit for BJT discrete circuits with two base resistors.

VCC
3
RB

1
2

RE

FIGURE 7.18
Biasing BJT discrete network with one base resistor.

VCC
IC

IB +
VCE

RBB –

+ IE
VBB RE
–

FIGURE 7.19
DC equivalent circuit of Figure 7.17.
148 Circuits and Electronics

The emitter resistor, RE, provides stabilization of the bias point. If VBB and
RB are the Thevenin equivalent parameters for the base bias circuit, then

VCC RB 2
VBB = (7.18)
RB1 + RB 2

RB = RB1 RB 2 (7.19)

Using Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law for the base circuit, we have

VBB = I B RB + VBE + I E RE (7.20)

Using Equation 7.4 and Figure 7.19, we have

I E = I B + I C = I B + β F I B = (β F + 1) I B (7.21)

Substituting Equation 7.21 into 7.20, we have

VBB − VBE
IB = (7.22)
RB + (β F + 1) RE
or

VBB − VBE
IC = (7.23)
RB (β F + 1)
+ RE
βF βF

Applying Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law at the output loop of Figure 7.19 gives

VCE = VCC − I C RC − I E RE (7.24)

 R 
= VCC − I C  RC + E  (7.25)
 αF 

Equations 7.23 and 7.24 can be used to obtain the bias point of Figure 7.17.
Example 7.5 shows how to obtain the bias point of a BJT amplifier.

Example 7.5  Bias Point of BJT Amplifier Circuit

Use the Analog Discovery board to determine the current (IC) and volt-
age (VCE) of the amplifier circuit shown in Figure 7.20. Change the collec-
tor voltage to 4.0 and 4.5 V. Determine the bias points for the previously
mentioned values of collector voltage, VCC.
Transistors 149

VCC
4
RC 5V
RB1 0
2 kΩ
20 kΩ 3

Q1
1

2N2222A
RB2 2
10 kΩ
RE
1 kΩ
0

FIGURE 7.20
BJT biasing circuit.

Solution:
Build the Circuit:
Use a breadboard to build the circuit shown in Figure 7.20. Connect
the AWG1 (yellow wire) to node 4 of the circuit. Also, connect the
scope  ­channel 1 positive (orange wire) to node 4. In addition, connect
the scope channel 1 negative (orange-white wire) to node 3. Moreover,
connect the ground (black wire) to node 0 of the circuit. Furthermore,
connect the scope channel 2 positive (blue wire) to node 3, and the
scope channel 2 negative (blue-white wire) to node 2.
For the transistor 2N3904, connect the base of the transistor to node 1,
collector to node 3, and the emitter to node 2 of the circuit shown in
Figure 7.20.
Signal Generation:
Click on the WaveGen in the main WaveForms screen. Go to Basic → dc
→ Offset (set to 5 V) → Click Run AWG1.
Activation of Voltmeter:
Activate the Voltmeter by clicking on Voltmeter under the More
Instruments tab. Click Enable to start reading the voltage. Channel 1
measures the voltage across the collector resistor of 2.0 K. Scope chan-
nel 2 measures the voltage between the collector and the emitter (VCE).
To obtain the collector current, the voltage across the collector voltage is
divided by a resistance of 2.0 kΩ.

Figure 7.21 shows one of the waveform generated settings when VCC = 5 V.
Figure 7.22 shows the voltmeter readings when the dc supply voltage was
5 V. Table 7.2 shows the readings of Channels 1 and 2 of the voltmeter for VCC
values of 4.0, 4.5, and 5.0 V.
150 Circuits and Electronics

FIGURE 7.21
Arbitrary Waveform Generator for supply voltage of 5 V.

FIGURE 7.22
Voltmeter readings for VCC of 5 V.

TABLE 7.2
Bias Point Measurements with Various Values of VCC of Figure 7.20
Collector
Voltage (VCC), V CH 1 Voltage, V CH 2 Voltage, V VCE , V IC , mA
4 1.385 2.0049 2.0049 0.6925
4.5 1.698 2.0355 2.0355 0.849
5 2.001 2.074 2.074 1.0005
Transistors 151

It can be seen from Table 7.2 that the voltage, VCE, is fairly constant with
respect to the changes in supply voltage VCC. However, the collector current
changes considerably with changes in VCC.

7.4 Biasing of MOSFET Amplifiers

A popular circuit for biasing discrete MOSFET amplifiers is shown in
Figure  7.23. The resistances RG1 and RG2 define the gate voltage. The resis-
tance RS improves operating point stability.
Because of the insulated gate, the current that passes through the gate of
the MOSFET is negligible. The gate voltage is given as

RG1
VG = VDD (7.26)
RG1 + RG 2

The gate-source voltage VGS is

VGS = VG − IS RS (7.27)

For conduction of the MOSFET, the gate-source voltage VGS should be greater
than the threshold voltage of the MOSFET, VT . Since I D = IS, Equation 7.27
becomes

VGS = VG − I D RS (7.28)

VDD
4

RG1 IDD RD

3
1 M1
VG
2
RG2
RS

FIGURE 7.23
Biasing circuit for MOSFET using fixed gate voltage and self-bias resistors, RS.
152 Circuits and Electronics

The drain-source voltage is obtained by using KVL at the output of the circuit

VDS = VDD − I D RD − IS RS
(7.29)
= VDD − I D (RD + RS )

For proper operation of the bias circuit,

VGS > VT (7.30)

The circuit shown in Figure 7.24 is a MOSFET transistor with the drain con-
nected to the gate. The circuit is normally referred to as a diode-connected
enhancement transistor.
From Equation 7.12, the MOSFET is in saturation provided

VDS > VGS − VT

That is

VDS − VGS > −VT or VDS + VSG > −VT

or

VDG > −VT (7.31)

Since VDG = 0 and VT is positive for an n-channel MOSFET, the device of

Figure 7.24 is in saturation. From Equation 7.16

iD = kn (VGS − VT )
2

But if VGS = VDS , Equation 7.16 becomes

iD = kn (VDS − VT ) (7.32)
2

ID

+
G VDS
–

FIGURE 7.24
Diode-connected enhancement type MOSFET.
Transistors 153

The diode-connected enhancement MOSFET can also be used to generate dc

currents for nMOS and CMOS analog integrated circuits. Example 7.6 shows
how to obtain the bias point of a MOSFET amplifier.

Example 7.6  Bias Point of a MOSFET Amplifier Circuit

Use the Analog Discovery board to determine the current (ID) and volt-
age (VDS) of the amplifier circuit shown in Figure 7.25. Change the drain
supply voltage to 4.0 and 4.5 V. Determine the bias points for the previ-
ously mentioned values of supply voltage, VDD.

Solution:
Build the Circuit:
Use a breadboard to build the circuit shown in Figure 7.25. Connect
the AWG1 (yellow wire) to node 4 of the circuit. Also, connect the
scope  channel 1 positive (orange wire) to node 4. In addition, connect
the scope channel 1 negative (orange-white wire) to node 3. Moreover,
connect the scope channel 2 positive (blue wire) to node 3, and the scope
channel 2 negative (blue-white wire) to node 2. Furthermore, connect the
ground (black wire) to node 0 of the circuit.
For the transistor BS170, connect the gate of the transistor to node 1, the
drain to node 3, and the source to node 2 of the circuit.

Signal Generation:
Click on the WaveGen in the main WaveForms screen. Go to Basic → dc
→ Offset (set to 5 V) → Click Run AWG1. Figure 7.26 shows the setup of
Arbitrary Waveform Generator, AWG1, when VDD = 5 V.

4 VDD
5V
RD
RG1 0
20 kΩ
300 kΩ 3

1 Q1

BS170
RG2 2
300 kΩ
RS
5.1 kΩ
0

FIGURE 7.25
MOSFET biasing circuit.
154 Circuits and Electronics

FIGURE 7.26
Arbitrary Waveform Generator for supply voltage of 5 V.

FIGURE 7.27
Voltmeter readings for VDD of 5 V.

Activation of Voltmeter:
Activate the Voltmeter by clicking Voltmeter under the More Instruments
tab. Click Enable to start reading the voltage. Channel  1 measures
the voltage across the drain resistor, 20 kΩ resistor. Scope channel 2
­measures the voltage between the drain and the source (VDS). To obtain
the drain current, the voltage across the collector voltage is divided by
20 kΩ. Figure 7.27 shows the voltmeter readings when the dc supply volt-
age was 5 V.
Transistors 155

TABLE 7.3
Bias Point Measurements with Various Values of VDD of Figure 7.25
Drain Voltage
(V DD), V CH 1 Voltage, V CH 2 Voltage, V V DS, V I D, mA
4 0.187 3.872 3.872 0.00935
4.5 0.206 4.354 4.354 0.0103
5 0.223 4.835 4.835 0.01115

Table 7.3 shows the readings of Channels 1 and 2 of the voltmeter for VDD
values of 4.0, 4.5, and 5.0 V. Channel 1 measured the voltage across the drain
resistance, RD, of Figure 7.25. The drain current is obtained by dividing the
Channel 1 voltage by the drain resistance of 20 kΩ. Channel 2 measured the
voltage between the drain and source of transistor BS170 of Figure 7.25. It
can be seen from Table 7.3 that the voltage, VDS, decreases with respect to the
changes in supply voltage VDD. In addition, the drain current also decreases
with changes in VDD.

7.5  F
 requency Response of BJT Amplifiers
Amplifiers are normally used for voltage amplification, current ampli-
fication, impedance matching or to provide isolation between amplifier
stages. Transistor amplifiers can be built using bipolar junction transis-
tors. Amplifiers built using BJT can be common-emitter, common-collector
(emitter follower), or common-base amplifiers. Common-emitter amplifiers
have relatively high voltage gain. A common-emitter amplifier is shown in
Figure 7.28. The amplifier is capable of generating a relatively high current

VCC
7

RB1 RC
CC2
6
5
RS CC1 +
Q1
1 2 3 RL
+ 4 VO
VS RB2
– RE CE
–
0

FIGURE 7.28
Common-emitter amplifier.
156 Circuits and Electronics

and high voltage gains. The input resistance is medium and is essentially
independent of the load resistance, RL.
For the common-emitter amplifier, shown in Figure 7.28, the coupling
capacitor, CC1, couples the voltage source, VS, to the bias network. Coupling
capacitor, CC2, connects the collector resistance, RC, to the load RL. The
bypass capacitance, CE, is used to increase the midband gain, since it effec-
tively short circuits the emitter resistance RE at midband frequencies. The
resistance RE is needed for bias stability. The external capacitors CC1, CC2, CE
influence the low frequency response of the common-emitter amplifier. The
internal capacitances of the transistor control the high frequency cut-off. The
overall gain of the common-emitter amplifier can be written as

Am s 2 ( s + wz )
A ( s) = (7.33)
( s + wL1 )( s + wL 2 )( s + wL3 )(1 + s wH )
where
AM is the midband gain,
wH is the frequency of the dominant high frequency pole,
wL1 , wL 2 , wL 3 are low frequency poles introduced by the coupling and
bypass capacitors,
wZ is the zero introduced by the bypass capacitor.
The midband gain is obtained by short-circuiting all the external capacitors
and open-circuiting the internal capacitors. Figure 7.29 shows the equivalent
for calculating the midband gain.
From Figure 7.29, the midband gain, Am , is

VO  RB   1 
Am = = −β  rCE RC RL      (7.34)
VS  RB + rπ   RS +  RB rπ  

It can be shown that the low frequency poles, wL1 , wL 2 , wL 3 , can be obtained
by the following equations

1
τ1 = = CC1RIN (7.35)
wL 1

RS
Beta* Ib
IS +
+ Ib
VS RB rpi rce RC RL VO
–
–

FIGURE 7.29
Equivalent circuit for calculating midband gain.
Transistors 157

where

RIN = RS +  RB rπ  (7.36)

1
τ2 =
wL 2
( )
= CC 2  RL + RC rce  (7.37)

and

1
τ3 = = CE RE′ (7.38)
wL 3

where

 r  RB RS  
RE' = RE  π +    (7.39)
 β F + 1  β F + 1  

and the zero

1
wZ = (7.40)
RECE

Normally, wZ < wL3 and the low frequency cut-off wL is larger than the largest
pole frequency. The low frequency cut-off can be approximated as

( wL 1 ) + ( wL 2 ) + ( wL 3 )
2 2 2
wL ≅ (7.41)

Example 7.7 and Example 7.8 explore the characteristics BJT amplifiers.

Example 7.7  Frequency Response of Common-Emitter Amplifier

Use the Analog Discovery board to determine (1) the magnitude
response of the circuit shown in Figure 7.30, (2) midband gain, (3) low
cut-off frequency, (4) high cut-off frequency, and (5) bandwidth of the
amplifier.
Solution:
Build the Circuit:
Use a breadboard to build the circuit shown in Figure 7.30. Connect the
AWG1 (yellow wire) to node 7 of the circuit. Also, connect the scope
channel 1 positive (orange wire) to node 7 and connect the scope chan-
nel 1 negative (orange-white wire) to node 0. In addition, connect the
scope channel 2 positive (blue wire) to node 6, and the scope channel 2
negative (blue-white wire) to node 0. Furthermore, connect the ground
158 Circuits and Electronics

VCC
4
RC 5V
RB1 0
200 kΩ 3 2 kΩ CC2 6
+
RS CC1 Q1 0.1 µF
7 5 1
Vs(t) 100 Ω 0.1 µF 2N3904
+ 2
10 m Vpk RB2 RL Vo(t)
– 5 kHz 100 kΩ CE 2 kΩ
0° RE 220 µF
0 0.5 kΩ
–

FIGURE 7.30
Common-emitter amplifier circuit.

(black wire) to node 0 of the circuit. For the transistor 2N3904, connect
the base of the transistor to node 1, the collector to node 3, and the emit-
ter to node 2 of Figure 7.30. Moreover, connect +5 V dc power supply (red
wire) to node 4.

Generation of AC Sine Wave:

Click on the WaveGen in the main WaveForms screen. Go to Basic →
Sine → Frequency (set to 5000 Hz) → Amplitude (set to 10.0 mV) → Offset
(set to 0 V) → Symmetry (set to 50%) → Click Run AWG1. The setup of
the Arbitrary Waveform Generator AWG1 is shown in Figure 7.31.

FIGURE 7.31
Arbitrary Waveform Generator for sinusoidal signal.
Transistors 159

Activation of the Power Supply:

Click Voltage in the main WaveForms screen → Click Power to turn on
the voltage sources → Click V+ to turn on the 5 V source → Upon com-
pletion of the measurements, click Power again to turn it off.

Activation of Network Analyzer:

The Network Analyzer uses both oscilloscope channels as the input and
output channels. Channel 1 is for measuring the input signal and chan-
nel 2 is for measuring the output signal. Open up the Network Analyzer.
Use the following setup values:

Start Frequency: 50 Hz
Stop Frequency: 10 MHz
Offset: 0 V
Input Signal Amplitude: 10 mV
Max Filter Gain: 1X
Bode Scale: Magnitude—Top 40 dB, Range of 50 dB
Phase—Top 45°, Range of 360°
Scope Channel Gain: Channel 1: 1X; Channel 2:1X
Obtain a single sweep in frequency by clicking Single. This pro-
vides a Bode plot representation of the frequency response of
the circuit. The Bode plot obtained is shown in Figure 7.32.

FIGURE 7.32
Magnitude and phase response of the amplifier of Figure 7.30.
160 Circuits and Electronics

From Figure 7.32, the following measurements were obtained:

Low cut-off frequency = 674.82 Hz
High cut-off frequency = 2.63 MHz
Bandwidth = 2.63 MHz − 674.82 Hz = 2.629 MHz
Midband Gain = 32.5 dB

Example 7.8  Characteristics of Emitter Follower Circuit

Use the Analog Discovery board (1) to determine gain at 5 kHz and (2) to
measure the voltage across the 100 Ω resistor and calculate the input
resistance.
Solution:
Build the Circuit:
Use a breadboard to build the circuit shown in Figure 7.33. Connect
the AWG1 (yellow wire) to node 5 of the circuit. Also, connect the
scope  ­channel 1 positive (orange wire) to node 5. In addition, connect
the scope ­channel 1 negative (orange-white wire) to node 0. Furthermore,
connect the scope channel 2 positive (blue wire) to node 3, and the scope
channel 2 negative (blue-white wire) to node 0. Moreover, connect the
ground (black wire) to node 0 of the circuit. For the transistor 2N3904,
connect the base of the transistor to node 1, the collector to node 2, and
the emitter to node 3 of Figure 7.33. In addition, connect +5 V dc power
supply (red wire) to node 2.

Generation of AC Sine Wave:

Click on the WaveGen in the main WaveForms screen. Go to Basic →
Sine → Frequency (set to 1000 Hz) → Amplitude (set to 20.0 mV) → Offset
(set to 0 V) → Symmetry (set to 50%) → Click Run AWG1. The setup of
the Arbitrary Waveform Generator AWG1 is shown in Figure 7.34.

VCC
2 5V
RB
200 kΩ 0

C1 Q1
5 RS 4 1
100 Ω 2N3904
0.3 µF
3
+ 200 m Vpk
Vs(t) +
– 1 kHz RE
0° 1 kΩ Vo(t)
0 –

FIGURE 7.33
Emitter follower circuit.
Transistors 161

FIGURE 7.34
Arbitrary Waveform Generator for sinusoidal signal.

Activation of the Power Supply

Click Voltage in the main WaveForms screen → Click Power to turn on
the voltage sources → Click V+ to turn on the 5 V source → Upon com-
pletion of the measurements, click Power again to turn it off.
Activation of Scope:
Click on the Scope in the main WaveForms screen. Go to Run → Autoset
→ Measure → Add → Channel 1 → Horizontal → Frequency → Add
Selected Measurement → Add → Channel 1 → Vertical → Peak to Peak
→ Add Selected Instrument → Add → Channel 2 → Vertical → Peak to
Peak → Add Selected Measurement → Close Add Instrument. Figure 7.35
shows the input and output waveforms displayed on the scope.
From Figure 7.35, the gain of the amplifier is

Gain = 396.8 mV/403.2 mV = 0.984

With the input changed to 2 V peak, the input voltage and the voltage across
the resistor RS are shown in Figure 7.36.
162 Circuits and Electronics

Input Voltage = VS = 4.05 V peak-to-peak

Voltage across Resistor RS = 10 mV peak-to-peak
Value of Resistor RS = 100 Ω
Current flowing through RS = I = 10 mV/100 = 0.1 mA
Input Resistance = VS/I = (4.05 V/0.1 mA) = 40.5 kΩ

FIGURE 7.35
Display of input and output sinusoidal waveforms of the emitter follower.

FIGURE 7.36
Waveforms for obtaining the input resistance of the emitter follower.
Transistors 163

7.6  F
 requency Response of MOSFET Amplifiers
MOSFET amplifiers can be common-source, common-drain, or common-
drain common-gate amplifiers. A common-drain amplifier has relatively
high input resistance, low output resistance with voltage gain that is almost
equal to unity. The common-source amplifier, shown in Figure 7.37, has
characteristics similar to those of the common-emitter amplifier. However,
the common-source amplifier has a higher input resistance than that of the
common-emitter amplifier.
The external capacitors CC1, CC2, and CS, will influence the low frequency
response. The internal capacitances of the FET will affect the high frequency
response. The midband gain, Am, is obtained from the midband equivalent
circuit of the common-source amplifier, shown in Figure 7.38. The equiva-
lent  circuit is obtained by short-circuiting all the external capacitors and
open-circuiting all the internal capacitances of the FET.
Using voltage division,

RG
v gs = vS (7.42)
RI + RG

VDD
7

RG1 RD
CC2 6
5
R1 CC1 3 +
1 M1
2 RL
+ 4 VO
VS RG2
RS CS
– –

FIGURE 7.37
Common-source amplifier.

R1
+ +
+
VS RG Vgs rds RD RL VO
– – gmVgs
–

FIGURE 7.38
Midband equivalent circuit of common-source amplifier.
164 Circuits and Electronics

From Ohm’s Law,

(
v 0 = − gm v gs rds RD RL (7.43) )
Substituting Equation 7.42 into 7.43, we obtain the midband gain as

v0  RG 
Am =
vs
= −g m  (
 rds RD RL (7.44)
 RG + RI 
)

At low frequencies, the small signal equivalent circuit of the common-source

amplifier is shown in Figure 7.39.
It can be shown that the low frequency poles due to CC1 and CC2 can be
written as

1
τ1 = ≅ CC1(Rg + RI ) (7.45)
wL 1

1
τ2 = ≅ CC 2 (RL + RD rds ) (7.46)
wL 2

Assuming rd is very large, the pole due to the bypass capacitance CS can be
shown to be

1  RS 
τ3 = ≅ CS  (7.47)
wL 3  1 + gm RS 

and the zero of CS is

1
wZ = (7.48)
RSCS

The 3-dB frequency at the low frequency can be approximated as

( wL 1 ) + ( wL 2 ) + ( wL 3 )
2 2 2
wL ≅ (7.49)

R1 CC1 CC2
+ +
+ Vgs gmVgs rds
RG –
VS VO
– RS CS RD RL
–

FIGURE 7.39
Equivalent circuit for obtaining the poles at low frequencies of common-source amplifier.
Transistors 165

For a single-stage common-source amplifier, the source bypass capacitor is

usually the determining factor in establishing the low 3-dB frequency. In
Example 7.9 and Example 7.10, the characteristics of MOSFET amplifiers are
explored.

Example 7.9  Frequency Response of Common Source Amplifier

Use the Analog Discovery board to determine (1) the magnitude
response of the circuit shown in Figure 7.40, (2) midband gain, (3) low
cut-off ­frequency, (4) high cut-off frequency, and (5) bandwidth of the
amplifier.
Solution:
Build the Circuit:
Use a breadboard to build the circuit shown in Figure 7.40. Connect
the AWG1 (yellow wire) to node 7 of the circuit. Also, connect the
scope channel 1 positive (orange wire) to node 7. In addition, connect
the scope channel 1 negative (orange-white wire) to node 0. Furthermore,
connect the scope channel 2 positive (blue wire) to node 6, and the scope
channel 2 negative (blue-white wire) to node 0. Moreover, connect the
ground (black wire) to node 0 of the circuit. For the transistor BS170,
connect the gate of the transistor to node 1, the drain to node 3, and the
source to node 2. In addition, connect +5 V dc power supply (red wire)
to node 4.

Generation of AC Sine Wave:

Click on the WaveGen in the main WaveForms screen. Go to Basic
→ Sine → Frequency (set to 5000 Hz) → Amplitude (set to 50.0 mV)
→ Offset (set  to 0 V) → Symmetry (set to 50%) → Click Run AWG1.
The setup of the Arbitrary Waveform Generator AWG1 is shown in
Figure 7.41.

4 VDD
RD 5V
RG1 0
4 kΩ CC2
1 MΩ 3 6

Q1 0.1 µF +
7 R2 5 CC1 1
RL
100 Ω 0.1 µF BS170
Vs(t) + RG2 4 kΩ Vo(t)
50 m Vpk 2
– 5 kHz 1 MΩ CS
RD
0° 0 2 kΩ 33 µF –

FIGURE 7.40
Common-source amplifier circuit.
166 Circuits and Electronics

FIGURE 7.41
The setup of Arbitrary Waveform Generator AWG1.

Activation of the Power Supply:

Click Voltage in the main WaveForms screen → Click Power to turn
on the voltage sources → Click V+ to turn on the 5 V source → Upon
­completion of the measurements, click Power again to turn it off.

Activation of Network Analyzer:

The Network Analyzer uses both oscilloscope channels as the input
and output channels. Channel 1 is for measuring the input signal and
Channel 2 is for measuring the output signal.
Open up the Network Analyzer. Use the following setup values:
Start Frequency: 20 Hz
Stop Frequency: 10 MHz
Offset: 0 V
Input Signal Amplitude: 50 mV
Max Filter Gain: 1X
Bode Scale: Magnitude—Top 10 dB, Range of 40 dB
Phase—Top 0°, Range of 360°
Scope Channel Gain: Channel 1: 1X; Channel 2:1X
Obtain a single sweep in frequency by clicking Single. This pro-
vides a Bode plot representation of the frequency response of
the circuit. The Bode plot obtained is shown in Figure 7.42.
Transistors 167

FIGURE 7.42
Magnitude and phase characteristics of the amplifier shown in Figure 7.40.

From Figure 7.42, the following measurements were obtained:

Low Cut-off Frequency = 328.17 Hz

High Cut-off Frequency = 1.77 MHz
Bandwidth = 1.77 MHz – 328.17 Hz = 1.7698 MHz
Midband Gain = 8.72 dB

Example 7.10  Frequency Response of Common-Drain Amplifier

Use the Analog Discovery board to determine (1) the magnitude response
of the circuit shown in Figure 7.43, (2) midband gain, and (3) low cut-off
frequency.
Solution:
Build the Circuit:
Use a breadboard to build the circuit shown in Figure 7.43. Connect the
AWG1 (yellow wire) to node 7 of the circuit. Also, connect the scope chan-
nel 1 positive (orange wire) to node 7. In addition, connect the scope
channel 1 negative (orange-white wire) to node 0. Furthermore, con-
nect the scope channel 2 positive (blue wire) to node 6, and the scope
­channel  2 negative (blue-white wire) to node 0. Moreover, connect the
ground (black wire) to node 0 of the circuit. For the transistor 2N7000,
connect the gate of the transistor to node 1, drain to node 4, and the
168 Circuits and Electronics

VDD
4
5V
RG1 0
RSS CC1 100 kΩ Q1
7 5 1
2N7000
100 Ω 0.1 µF CC2 3
RG2 2 +
500 m Vpk RS0.3 µF
Vs(t) + 200 kΩ RL
– 4 kHz 5.1 kΩ 5.1 kΩ Vo(t)
0° 0 –

FIGURE 7.43
MOSFET amplifier.

source to node 2 of Figure 7.43. In addition, connect the +5 V dc power

supply (red wire) to node 4.
Generation of AC Sine Wave:
Click on the WaveGen in the main WaveForms screen. Go to Basic → Sine
→ Frequency (set to 4000 Hz) → Amplitude (set to 500.0 mV) → Offset
(set to 0 V) → Symmetry (set to 50%) → Click Run AWG1. The setup of the
Arbitrary Waveform Generator AWG1 is shown in Figure 7.44.
Activation of the Power Supply:
Click Voltage in the main WaveForms screen → Click Power to turn
on the voltage sources → Click V+ to turn on the 5 V source → Upon
­completion of the measurements, click Power again to turn it off.

FIGURE 7.44
The setup of the Arbitrary Waveform Generator AWG1.
Transistors 169

Activation of Network Analyzer:

The Network Analyzer uses both oscilloscope channels as the input
and output channels. Channel 1 is for measuring the input signal and
Channel 2 is for measuring the output signal.
Open up the Network Analyzer. Use the following setup values:
Start Frequency: 50 Hz
Stop Frequency: 10 MHz
Offset: 0 V
Input Signal Amplitude: 50 mV
Max Filter Gain: 1X
Bode Scale: Magnitude—Top 0 dB, Range of 40 dB
Phase—Top −165°, Range of 360°
Scope Channel Gain: Channel 1: 1X; Channel 2:1X
Obtain a single sweep in frequency by clicking Single. This pro-
vides a Bode plot representation of the frequency response of
the circuit. The Bode plot obtained is shown in Figure 7.45.
From Figure 7.45, the following measurements were obtained:
Low Cut-off Frequency = 133.75 Hz
Midband Gain = −0.76 dB

FIGURE 7.45
Bode plot of Example 7.10.
170 Circuits and Electronics

PROBLEMS
Problem 7.1 Find the output characteristics (IC versus VCE) of the NPN tran-
sistor 2N2222. You can use the circuit shown in Figure P7.1 to obtain the I–V
curve.
Problem 7.2 Find the input characteristics (IB versus VBE) of the NPN tran-
sistor 2N2222. You can use the circuit similar to that shown in Figure 7.6 to
obtain the I–V curve.
Problem 7.3 Find the output characteristics (ID versus VDS) of the n-channel
MOSFET BS170. You can use the circuit similar to Figure 7.10 to obtain the
I–V curve.
Problem 7.4 Use the Analog Discovery board to determine the current (ID) vs.
voltage (VGS) curve of the n-channel MOSFET BS170. Determine the thresh-
old voltage of the nMOS transistor.
Problem 7.5 Use the Analog Discovery board to determine the current (IC)
and voltage (VCE) of the amplifier circuit shown in Figure P7.5. Change the
collector voltage to 3.5, 4.0 and 4.5 V and determine the bias points for the
values of collector voltage, VCC.
Problem 7.6 Use the Analog Discovery board to determine the current (IC)
and voltage (VEC) of the amplifier circuit shown in Figure P7.6.
Problem 7.7 Use the Analog Discovery board to determine the drain current
(ID) and voltage (VDS) of the amplifier circuit shown in Figure P7.7. What will
be the value of the drain current and voltage, VDS, if the source resistance RS
is reduced to 500 Ω?

+ V1_AWG1

3
R2
100 Ω
4
Q1
1 R1 2

+ 10 kΩ
2N2222A
V2_AWG2

FIGURE P7.1
Circuit for output characteristic of an NPN transistor.
Transistors 171

4 VCC
5V
RC
RB1 0
2 kΩ
20 kΩ 3
Q1
1

2N2222A
RB2 2
10 kΩ
RE
1 kΩ
0

FIGURE P7.5
Circuit for determining the bias point of transistor 2N2222A.

4 VEE
5V
RE
RB1 0
500 Ω
20 kΩ
3
1
Q1

2N3906
RB2
2
50 kΩ
RC
2 kΩ
0

FIGURE P7.6
Circuit for obtaining the bias point of transistor 2N3906.

Problem 7.8 Use the Analog Discovery board to determine (1) the magnitude
response of the circuit shown in Figure P7.8, (2) midband gain, (3) low cut-off
frequency, (4) high cut-off frequency, and (5) bandwidth of the amplifier.
Problem 7.9 Use the Analog Discovery board to determine (1) the magnitude
response of the circuit shown in Figure P7.9, (2) midband gain, (3) low cut-off
frequency, (4) high cut-off frequency, and (5) bandwidth of the amplifier.
172 Circuits and Electronics

4 VDD
5V
RD
RG1 0
3 5.1 kΩ
400 kΩ
Q1

1 BS170

2
RG2 RS
300 kΩ
1 kΩ

FIGURE P7.7
Circuit for obtaining the bias point of MOSFET BS170.

4 VCC
5V
RC
RB1 0
3 1.5 kΩ CC2
300 kΩ 6

RS CC1 0.1 µF +
7 5 1 Q1
Vs(t) 100 Ω 0.1 µF 2N3904
+ 10 m Vpk 2
RB2 RL Vo(t)
– 5 kHz CE
200 kΩ 2 kΩ
0° RE 47 µF
0.5 kΩ
0 –

FIGURE P7.8
Common-emitter amplifier with transistor 2N3904.

Problem 7.10 For the circuit shown in Figure P7.10, use the Analog Discovery
board (1) to determine gain at 4 kHz and (2) measure the voltage across the
100 Ω resistor and calculate the input resistance.
Problem 7.11 For the circuit shown in Figure P7.11, use the Analog Discovery
board (1) to determine gain at 4 kHz and (2) measure the voltage across the
100 Ω resistor and calculate the input resistance.
Transistors 173

VCC
4
5V
RC
RB1 2 kΩ 0
3 CC2
100 kΩ 6
+
RS CC1 Q1 0.2 µF
7 5 1
100 Ω 0.1 µF 2N2222A
+ 10 m Vpk RB2 RL Vo(t)
Vs(t) – 5 kHz 2 CE
47 kΩ 2 kΩ
0° RE 33 µF
1 kΩ
0 –

FIGURE P7.9
Common-emitter amplifier with transistor 2N2222A.

VCC
RB 2 5V
0
100 Ω

C1 Q1
5 RS 4 1
2N3904
100 Ω 0.2 µF

500 m Vpk 3
+ +
Vs(t) 4 kHz
– RE
0° 1.5 kΩ Vo(t)
0 –

FIGURE P7.10
Common-collector amplifier with transistor 2N3904.

Problem 7.12 Use the Analog Discovery board to determine (1) the mag-
nitude response of the circuit shown in Figure P7.12, (2) midband gain,
(3) low ­cut-off frequency, (4) high cut-off frequency, and (v) bandwidth of the
amplifier.
Problem 7.13 For the circuit shown in Figure P7.13, use the Analog Discovery
board to find the voltage gain at 5 kHz. Determine (1) the magnitude
response of the circuit, (2) low cut-off frequency, (3) high cut-off frequency,
and (4) bandwidth of the amplifier.
174 Circuits and Electronics

2
VCC
5V
RB
0
300 Ω

RS C1 Q1
5 4 1
100 Ω 0.2 µF 2N2222A

500 m Vpk 3
+ +
Vs(t) 4 kHz
– RE
0° 1 kΩ Vo(t)
0 –

FIGURE P7.11
Common-collector amplifier with transistor 2N2222A.

4 VDD
5V
RD 0
RG1 4 kΩ
CC2
100 kΩ 3 6
+
Q1 0.1 µF
RSS CC1
7 5 1
BS170
100 Ω 0.1 µF RL
2
Vs(t) 10 kΩ Vo(t)
+ 50 m Vpk RG2 CS
RS
5 kHz 100 kΩ
– 1 kΩ 220 µF
0°

0 –

FIGURE P7.12
Common-source amplifier with transistor BS170.

4
VDD
5V
0
RG1
Q1
RSS CC1 100 kΩ
5 1
BS170
100 Ω 2
0.1 µF CC2
7 3
+
RG2 0.2 µF
+ 500 m Vpk RS
Vs(t) 300 kΩ RL
– 5 kHz 10 kΩ Vo(t)
10 kΩ
0°
0 –

FIGURE P7.13
Common-drain amplifier with transistor BS170.
Transistors 175

Problem 7.14 Use the Analog Discovery board to determine (1) the mag-
nitude response of the circuit shown in Figure P7.14, (2) midband gain,
(3) low ­cut-off frequency, (4) high cut-off frequency, and (5) bandwidth of the
amplifier.

VDD
4
RD 5V
RG1 0
2 kΩ
CC2
3 6
200 Ω
Q1 +
CC1 0.1 µF
7 RSS 5 1
2N7000
100 Ω 0.1 µF RL Vo(t)
2 10 kΩ
+ 20 m Vpk RG2 CS
Vs(t) RS
– 5 kHz 200 Ω
1 kΩ 33 µF
0°
0 –

FIGURE P7.14
Common-source amplifier with transistor 2N7000.
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Index

A power supplies, 4
scopes, 12–14
Additive property, 29
Spectrum Analyzer
AD (Analog Discovery) platform, 1
features, 17–18
Alternating current, adding direct
periodic signal frequency content,
current, 86–88
18–20
Amplifiers
virtual instruments, 1–3
BJTs
voltmeters, 4–5
biasing, 146–151
WaveForms software, 1–3
common emitter circuits, 157–160
wire harness leads and color
emitter follower circuits, 160–162
representations, 3
frequency response, 155–162
Analog Discovery (AD) platform, 1
common emitter, 153–155
Arbitrary waveform generators, 7–12
coupling capacitor, 156
AM/FM waveforms, 9–12
frequency response, 157–160
basic waveforms, 7–8
midband gain, 156
Bode plot, displaying, 15–17
MOSFETs
dc voltage source for resistor-LED
biasing, 151–155
circuit, 10–12
common drain, 167–169
sinusoidal voltage generated,
common source, 165–167
displaying, 12–14
frequency response, 163–169
sweep waveforms, 7–9
op
Average power, 62
differentiator, 90
AWG1
integrator, 88–92
Bode plot, displaying, 15–17
inverting, 79–82
dc voltage source for resistor-LED
non-inverting, 82–85
circuit, 10–12
notch filter frequency response,
sine wave, 10
98–100
sinusoidal voltage generated,
properties, 77
displaying, 12–14
symbol, 78
AWG2
weighted summer, 85–88
sinusoidal voltage generated,
AM (amplitude modulated) waveforms,
displaying, 12–14
9–12
triangular waveform, 10
Analog Discovery 2, xiii
Analog Discovery board
B
arbitrary waveform generators, 7–12
AM/FM waveforms, 9–12 Bandpass filters, 69, 95–96
basic waveforms, 7–8 Bandreject filters, 69, 96–98
displaying sinusoidal voltage Bandwidth (BW) of RLC circuits, 72
generated, 12–14 Basic waveforms, 7–8
sweep waveforms, 7–9 Battery charging circuits, 112–116
components, 1 Biasing amplifiers
flywire, 1–2 BJTs, 146–151
Network Analyzer, 14–17 MOSFETs, 151–155

181
182 Index

BJTs (bipolar junction transistors), 131 Colors of Analog Discovery board wire
amplifiers harness leads, 3
biasing, 146–151 Common drain amplifiers
common emitter circuits, 157–160 definition, 161
emitter follower circuits, 160–162 frequency response, 167–169
frequency response, 155–162 Common emitter amplifiers, 153–155
input characteristics, 136–138 coupling capacitor, 156
output characteristics, 133–136 frequency response, 157–160
regions of operation midband gain, 156
cut-off, 133 Common source amplifiers, 165–167
forward-active, 131–132 Complex power, 62–67
reverse-active, 132–133 equations, 62–63
saturation, 133 RL circuit, 63–67
types, 131–132 Components of Analog Discovery
Bode plot, 14–17 board, 1
Bridge rectifiers Conduction angles of battery charging
full-wave, 120–122 circuits, 115–116
smoothing filter, 122–125 Control area (Network Analyzer), 14–15
BW (bandwidth) of RLC circuits, 72 Control menu (Spectrum Analyzer),
17–18
Converting square waveforms to
C
triangular, 90–92
Capacitors, charging/discharging, Coupling capacitor (CC1), 156
37–39 Critically damped responses (RLC
Cause and effect linear relation, 29–30 circuits), 46
CC1 (coupling capacitor), 156 Currents
Characteristic equations (RLC circuits), Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL),
45–46 27–29
Characteristics phasor impedance, 53
BJT amplifiers rms values, 58–59
common emitter amplifiers vs voltage input characteristics
frequency response, 157–160 BJTs, 136–138
emitter follower circuits, 160–162 n-channel MOSFETs, 144–146
diodes, 107 vs voltage output characteristics
forward-biased region, 107–109 BJTs, 133–136
measurement, 109–111 n-channel MOSFETs, 141–143
input Cut-off region
BJTs, 136–138 BJTs, 133
n-channel MOSFETs, 144–146 MOSFETs, 139
MOSFET amplifiers, 163–165
output
D
BJTs, 133–136
n-channel MOSFETs, 141–143 Damping factors/frequency (RLC
Charging circuits), 47
capacitors, 37–39 Dc voltage source for resistor-LED
inductors, 41–43 circuit, 10–12
Closed loop Depletion MOSFETs, 139
inverting amplifier, 79–82 Differentiators (op amps), 90
non-inverting amplifier, 82–85 Digilent website, 1
Index 183

Diodes Frequency
dynamic resistance, 108 modulated (FM) waveforms, 9–12
forward-biased region, 107–109 periodic signals, determining, 18–20
full-wave rectification, 120 Spectrum Analyzer, 17–18
bridge rectifier, 120–122 Frequency responses, 68–72
smoothing filter, 122–125 BJT amplifiers, 155–162
half-wave rectification, 110–116 linear network representation, 67–68
battery charging circuits, MOSFET amplifiers, 163–169
112–116 common drain, 167–169
input/output waveforms, 111–112 common source, 165–167
oscilloscope, 113 notch filters, 98–100
ripple voltage, 117–120 RLC resonant circuit, 69–72
I-V characteristic, 107 transfer functions, 68–69
I-V characteristic measurement, Full-wave rectification, 120
109–111 bridge rectifier, 120–122
peak detectors, 116–120 smoothing filter, 122–125
Direct currents, adding to alternating
current signal, 86–88 G–H
Discharging
capacitors, 37–39 Gate voltage, 151
inductors, 41–43 Half-wave rectification, 110–116
Discrete circuits, biasing, 147 battery charging circuits, 112–116
Drain source voltage, 152 input/output waveforms, 111–112
Dynamic resistance (diodes), 108 oscilloscope, 113
ripple voltage, 117–120
E Highpass filters, 69, 94–95
Homogeneity property (linear circuits),
Emitter follower circuits, 158–160 29–30
Enhancement MOSFETs, 139
I
F
Impedance measurements, 53–58
Filters, 92 determining, 55–58
bandpass, 95–96 phasor voltage/current, 53
bandreject, 96–98 voltage source, 53
highpass, 94–95 waveforms phase difference, 54
lowpass, 93–95 Inductors, charging/discharging, 41–43
notch, implementing, 97–100 Input characteristics
smoothing, 121–124 BJTs, 136–138
First-order highpass filter, 94 n-channel MOSFETs, 144–146
First-order lowpass filter, 93 Input waveforms
f H, 95 bridge rectifier with smoothing filter,
f L, 95 125
Flywire, 1–2 emitter follower circuits, 160
FM (frequency modulated) waveforms, full-wave rectifiers, 121
9–12 half-wave rectification, 111–112
Forward-active region (BJTs), 131–132 inverting amplifier, 81
Forward-biased region of diodes, non-inverting amplifier, 85
107–109 peak detectors, 119
184 Index

Input waveforms (cont.) Main window (WaveForms software), 3

RC circuits, 40 Measured gain
RLC circuits inverting amplifier, 82
overdamped responses, 50 non-inverting amplifier, 85
underdamped responses, 49 Measuring
RL circuits, 44 complex power, 63–67
square waves, 93 impedance, 53–58
summer amplifier, 89 determining, 55–58
Integrators phasor voltage/current, 53
converting square waves into voltage source, 53
triangular, 90–92 waveforms phase difference, 54
op amps, 88–92 I-V characteristic of diodes, 109–111
Inverting op amps, 79–82 ripple voltage, 117–119
I-V characteristic of diodes, 107 rms values of periodic signals, 59–62
forward-based region, 107–109 Thevenin’s resistance, 33
measurement, 109–111 voltages, 5–6
Metal-oxide semiconductor field effect
transistors, see MOSFETs
K
midband gain (common emitter
Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL), 27–29, 86 amplifiers), 156
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL), 24–27, 148 Miller integrator, 89
MOSFETs (metal-oxide semiconductor
field effect transistors), 139
L
amplifiers
Laws biasing, 151–155
Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL), common drain, 167–169
27–29, 86 common source, 165–167
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL), frequency response, 163–169
24–27, 148 input characteristics, 144–146
Ohm’s, 23–24 output characteristics, 141–143
Leads (Analog Discovery board wire regions of operation, 139–140
harness), 3 types, 139
Linear circuits
homogeneity property, 29–30
N
Norton’s Theorem, 31–33
Thevenin’s Theorem, 31–33 Narrowband pass filters, 95–96
Linearity property, 29–30 Narrowband reject filters, 97–100
Linear networks frequency response n-channel MOSFETs
representation, 67–68 input characteristics, 144–146
LM741 op amp properties/pin diagram, 78 output characteristics, 141–143
Lowpass filters, 68, 93–95 Network Analyzer, 14–17
Non-inverting op amps, 82–85
Norton’s Theorem, 31–33
M
Notch filters, 97–100
Magnitude NPN transistors, 132
common emitter amplifier, 159
common source MOSFET amplifier,
O
167
RLC circuit, 71 Ohm’s Law, 23–24, 85
Index 185

OP484 op amp properties/pin diagram, 78 Phasor current impedance, 53

Op (operational) amplifiers Phasor voltage impedance, 53
differentiator, 90 Pin-out of flywire (Analog Discovery
integrator, 88–92 board), 2
inverting, 79–82 Plot areas (Network Analyzer), 14–15
non-inverting, 82–85 PNP transistors, 132
notch filter frequency response, 98–100 Power
properties, 77 complex, 62–67
symbol, 78 factor (pf), 62
weighted summer, 85–88 reactive, 62–63
Oscilloscopes, see also scopes supplies
battery charging circuit, 115 activating, 6
half-wave rectification, 113 Analog Discovery board, 4
Output characteristics Properties
BJTs, 133–136 additive, 29
n-channel MOSFETs, 141–143 homogeneity, 29–30
Output waveforms linearity, 29–30
bridge rectifier with smoothing filter, op amps, 77
125
emitter follower circuits, 160
Q
full-wave rectifiers, 121
half-wave rectification, 111–112 Q (reactive power), 62–63
inverting amplifier, 81 Quality factor (Q), 72
non-inverting amplifier, 85
peak detectors, 119
R
RC circuits, 40
RLC circuits RC circuits, 37–40
overdamped responses, 50 charging/discharging capacitors,
underdamped responses, 49 37–39
RL circuits, 44 input/output waveforms, 40
summer amplifier, 89 time constant, 38–40
triangular, 93 Reactive power (Q), 62–63
Overdamped responses (RLC circuits), Rectification
46, 50 full-wave, 120
bridge rectifier, 120–122
smoothing filter, 122–125
P
half-wave, 110–116
Peak detectors, 116–120 battery charging circuits, 112–116
Periodic signals input/output waveforms, 111–112
frequency content, determining, oscilloscope, 113
18–20 ripple voltage, 117–120
rms values, 59–62 Regions of operation
pf (power factor), 62 BJTs
Phase difference between waveforms, 54 cut-off, 133
Phase response forward-active, 131–132
common emitter amplifier, 159 reverse-active region, 132–133
common source MOSFET amplifier, saturation, 133
167 MOSFETs, 139–140
RLC circuit, 71 Repetition frequency, 37
186 Index

Resistor-LED circuits, 10–12 Summer amplifier, 85–88

Reverse-active region (BJTs), 132–133 Sweep waveforms, generating, 7–9
Ripple voltages
bridge rectifier with smoothing filter,
T
125
half-wave rectification, 117–120 Theorems, 31–33
RLC circuits, 44–50 Theoretical gain
bandwidth (BW), 72 inverting amplifier, 82
characteristic equation, 45–46 non-inverting amplifier, 85
critically damped responses, 46 Thevenin’s resistance, 33
damping factors/frequency, 47 Thevenin’s Theorem, 31–33
homogeneous solution, 45–46 Time constants
input/output waveforms RC circuits, 38–40
overdamped responses, 50 RL circuits, 43
underdamped responses, 49 Trace (Spectrum Analyzer), 17–18
overdamped responses, 46, 50 Transient responses (RLC circuits),
quality factor, 72 47–50
resonant frequency response, 69–72 Transistors
transient responses, 47–50 BJT amplifiers
underdamped responses, 46, 49 biasing, 146–151
RL circuits, 41–44 common emitter circuits,
charging/discharging inductors, 157–160
41–43 emitter follower circuits, 160–162
complex power, 63–67 frequency response, 155–162
input/output waveforms, 44 BJTs, 131
time constant, 43 cut-off region, 131
voltage source, 41 forward-active region, 131–132
rms values, 58–62 input characteristics, 134–136
RTh=R N, 31 output characteristics, 131–134
reverse-active region, 132–131
S saturation region, 131
types, 131–132
S (complex power), 63 MOSFET amplifiers
Saturation region biasing, 151–155
BJTs, 133 common drain, 167–169
MOSFETs, 140 common source, 165–167
Scopes, 12–14 frequency response, 163–169
Sine waves MOSFETs, 139
AWG1, 10 input characteristics, 144–146
with dc component, 61 output characteristics, 141–143
Smoothing filters, 121–124 regions of operation, 139–140
Spectrum Analyzer types, 139
features, 17–18 Triangular waveforms
periodic signal frequency content, AWG2, 10
18–20 converting square waves into,
Square waveforms 90–92
converting to triangular, 90–92 rms value, 61
period/repetition frequency, 37 voltmeter reading, 61
RL circuits, 43 Triode region (MOSFETs), 139–140
Index 187

U–V basic waveforms, 7–8

sinusoidal voltage generated,
Underdamped responses, 46, 49
displaying, 12–14
Virtual instruments, 1–3 sweep waveforms, 7–9
Voltage basic, 7–8
drain-source, 152 input/output
gain bridge rectifier with smoothing
inverting amplifier, 82 filter, 125
non-inverting amplifier, 85 emitter follower circuits, 160
gate, 151 full-wave rectifier, 121
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL), half-wave rectification, 111–112
24–27, 148 inverting amplifier, 81
measuring, 5–6 non-inverting amplifier, 85
phasor impedance, 53 peak detectors, 119
ripple RC circuits, 40
bridge rectifier with smoothing RLC circuits overdamped
filter, 125 responses, 50
half-wave rectification, 117–120 RLC circuit underdamped
rms values, 58–59 response, 49
sources RL circuits, 44
impedance, 53 square to triangular, 93
RL circuits, 41 summer amplifier, 89
versus current input characteristics phase difference, 54
BJTs, 136–138 sine, 10
n-channel MOSFETs, 144–146 sine with dc component, 61
versus current output characteristics square
BJTs, 133–136 converting to triangular, 90–92
n-channel MOSFETs, 141–143 period/repetition frequency, 37
Voltmeters RL circuits, 43
activating, 6 sweep, 7–9
Analog Discovery board, 4–5 triangular, 10
measuring voltages, 5–6 converting square waves into,
sine wave with dc voltage, 61 90–92
triangular waveforms, 61 rms value, 61
V Th=IN*R N, 31 voltmeter reading, 61
v(t)=Ri(t), 23 WaveForms software, 1–3
Weighted summer amplifier, 85–88
Wideband pass filter, 95–96
W
Wideband reject filter, 97
Waveforms Window functions (Spectrum
arbitrary waveform generators, 7–12 Analyzer), 17–18
AM/FM waveforms, 9–12 Wire harness (Analog Discovery board), 3