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Lesson 7

The document discusses Von Neumann architecture, which is the design that many general purpose computers are based on. Key elements include storing both data and instructions as binary digits in primary memory and fetching instructions serially from memory. It also describes the fetch-decode-execute cycle that a processor uses to process instructions using registers like the program counter. Additional factors that can affect CPU performance are discussed like clock speed, cache size, and number of cores. Finally, the document defines embedded systems as small computers that are part of larger devices, and provides examples like fitness trackers and vehicle engine management systems.

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Carlville Jae Edaño
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41 views3 pages

Lesson 7

The document discusses Von Neumann architecture, which is the design that many general purpose computers are based on. Key elements include storing both data and instructions as binary digits in primary memory and fetching instructions serially from memory. It also describes the fetch-decode-execute cycle that a processor uses to process instructions using registers like the program counter. Additional factors that can affect CPU performance are discussed like clock speed, cache size, and number of cores. Finally, the document defines embedded systems as small computers that are part of larger devices, and provides examples like fitness trackers and vehicle engine management systems.

Uploaded by

Carlville Jae Edaño
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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System Integration and Architecture 1 Page |1

Lesson 7 System Architecture

Von Neumann architecture


Von Neumann architecture is the design upon which many general purpose
computers are based. The key elements of Von Neumann architecture are:
 data and instructions are both stored as binary digits
 data and instructions are both stored in primary memory
 instructions are fetched from memory one at a time and in order (serially)
 the processor decodes and executes an instruction, before cycling around to fetch
the next instruction
 the cycle continues until no more instructions are available

A processor based on Von Neumann architecture has five special registers which
it uses for processing:
 program counter - holds the memory address of the next instruction to be fetched
from primary memory
 memory address register (MAR) - holds the address of the current instruction that is
to be fetched from memory, or the address in memory to which data is to be
transferred
 memory data register (MDR) - holds the contents found at the address held in the
MAR, or data which is to be transferred to primary memory
 current instruction register (CIR) - holds the instruction that is currently being
decoded and executed
 accumulator (ACC) – holds the data being processed and the results of processing
Using the registers and the key elements of the Von Neumann architecture, we can now
look at how an instruction is processed in the fetch-decode-execute cycle.

The fetch-decode-execute cycle


The fetch-decode-execute cycle is followed by a processor to process an instruction.
The cycle consists of several stages.
1. The memory address held in the program counter is copied into the MAR.
2. The address in the program counter is then incremented (increased) by one. The
program counter now holds the address of the next instruction to be fetched.
3. The processor sends a signal along the address bus to the memory address held in
the MAR.
4. The instruction/data held in that memory address is sent along the data bus to the
MDR.
5. The instruction/data held in the MDR is copied into the CIR.
6. The instruction/data held in the CIR is decoded and then executed. Results of
processing are stored in the ACC.
7. The cycle then returns to step one.
System Integration and Architecture 1 Page |2

Depending on the type of instruction, additional steps may be taken:


 If the instruction is to transfer data held in the ACC back to primary memory, the
intended memory address is copied into the MAR. The data to be transferred is
copied into the MDR and then transferred to the specified address using the address
bus and data bus.
 The executed instruction may require the program to jump to a different place in the
program. In this case, the memory address of the new next instruction to be fetched is
copied into the program counter. The process then restarts at step one.

Factors affecting CPU performance


Even though today's processors are tremendously fast, their performance can be
affected by a number of factors:
 clock speed
 cache size
 number of cores

Clock speed
Clock speed is the number of pulses the central processing unit's

(CPU) clock generates per second. It is measured in hertz.


CPU clocks can sometimes be sped up slightly by the user. This process is known as
overclocking. The more pulses per second, the more fetch-decode-execute cycles that
can be performed and the more instructions that are processed in a given space of time.
Overclocking can cause long term damage to the CPU as it is working harder and
producing more heat.

Cache size
Cache is a small amount of high-speed random access memory (RAM) built directly
within the processor. It is used to temporarily hold data and instructions that the
processor is likely to reuse.
The bigger its cache, the less time a processor has to wait for instructions to be fetched.

Number of cores
A processing unit within a CPU is known as a core. Each core is capable of fetching,
decoding and executing its own instructions.
The more cores a CPU has, the greater the number of instructions it can process in a
given space of time. Many modern CPUs are dual (two) or quad (four) core processors.
This provides vastly superior processing power.

Embedded systems
As well as general purpose computers, there are other types of computer system. The
most common of these are known as embedded systems.
An embedded system is a small computer that forms part of a larger system, device or
machine. Its purpose is to control the device and to allow a user to interact with it. They
tend to have one, or a limited number of tasks that they can perform.
System Integration and Architecture 1 Page |3

Examples of embedded systems include:


 central heating systems
 engine management systems in vehicles
 domestic appliances, such as dishwashers, TVs and digital phones
 digital watches
 electronic calculators
 GPS systems
 fitness trackers

Embedded devices are not usually programmable by a user – the programming is


usually done beforehand by the manufacturer. However, it is often possible to upgrade
the software on an embedded device. For example, fitness trackers are embedded
systems, but the software can often be upgraded by connecting the device to a PC and
installing the new software.

Embedded systems can have advantages over general purpose computers in


that:
 Their limited number of functions means they are cheaper to design and build.
 They tend to require less power. Some devices run from batteries.
 They do not need much processing power. They can be built using cheaper, less
powerful processors.

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