CHAPTER -01 BASIC ELEMENTS OF COMPUTER SYSTEM

Prepared by : Sanjeev Sharma

INTRODUCTION Today, we are living in a digital age where wide variety of tasks are
performed using computers. Sharing of data and information is just a matter of one click.
Now, computers can be used anywhere and everywhere
DEFINITION OF COMPUTER Computer is an electronic device that takes raw data as
input from the user and processes these data under the control of set of instructions (called
program) and gives the result (output) and saves output for the future use. It can The word
“Compute” is derived from a Latin word “computare” (com+ putare process both numerical
and non-numerical (arithmetic and logical) calculations. It is an advance tool which has
made where com means “with” and putare means “to settle, clear, reckon”) means life
very easy and simple. It has the capability to complete “to calculate”, “to count”, “to sum
up”. Therefore, the word computer means more than one task simultaneously and quickly.
Computer a “device that performs computation is a programmable machine which can be
given some set “or “one that computes”. of instructions to perform a specific task and the
result is generated at a very high speed in a useful format.
AREAS OF APPLICATION Today, computers have made their presence noticed
everywhere. Some of the major fields are: Business Government Education Payroll
calculations Budgeting Stock market Insurance policies Advertising Online shopping, etc.
Aadhaar card PAN card Weather forecasting Space technology Military control systems,
etc. Online Exams Research work Virtual learning Projects and assignments Student data
Mark slips, etc. Home Banking Communication Home appliances like TV, AC ATMs News
Online accounting, etc. Video-conferencing E-mails, etc.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A COMPUTER
Computer is a powerful machine which has made our life easier and faster. There are
some characteristics of computers which make them potent and universally useful.
These are:
Computer is a very fast device. It is capable of processing large amount of data in a High
Speed few seconds.
Accuracy Computer performs all calculations and comparisons accurately. Whatever input
we give, it gives result with accuracy.
Storage Memory or the storage unit is a very important characteristic of computers. It can
store ample amount of data such as images, videos, texts and audios.
Computer can work for hours without any break and without errors. It can constantly
Diligence work with the same speed and accuracy.
Versatility A computer is a very versatile machine and can perform multiple tasks. It can
be used to solve the problems related to various fields like generating bills, payslips, report
card printing etc.
Reliability Computer can do its work very fast, without making mistakes and without rest
which makes it a very reliable or trustworthy machine. The output generated by a computer
is reliable only when the input data is correct and reliable.\
Automation Computer is an automatic machine. Automation means the ability to perform
the given task automatically. Once the computer is programmed, the program and the
instruction can be executed without human interaction.
COMPONENTS OF COMPUTER
A computer system consists of:
● Hardware: Hardware involves all peripheral devices or physical units of the computer. ●
Software: Set of programs is known as Software. A program is a collection of instructions
that are given to the computer to process data and give information.
● Humanware: People who use or operate computers are known as Humanware. They
can be Hardware Engineers, System Analysts, Programmers, simple users or operators.

The main functional components in a typical computer system are:

● Central Processing Unit (CPU)
● Storage devices, memory
● Input devices
● Output devices

CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT The central processing unit (CPU) is the computer
component that is responsible for controlling instructions and data flow to and from other
parts of the computer. A computer’s CPU handles all instructions it receives from hardware
and software running on the computer. The CPU is the most important element of a
computer system. This is why CPU is also called the brain of the computer.
Main features of CPU are:
● Performs all data processing tasks
● Stores data, results and instructions
● Controls the operation of all parts of computers CPU itself has three main components.
Control Unit ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit) Storage Unit

Control Unit This unit controls the operations of all parts of the computer but does not
carry out any actual data processing operations. Functions of this unit are:
● It is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and instructions among other units of
a computer.
● It manages and coordinates with all the units of the computer.
● It communicates with Input/Output devices for transfer of data or results from storage.
● It does not process or store data.
ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit) This unit consists of two subsections, namely,
● Arithmetic Section: This unit performs arithmetic operations. All complex operations are
done by making repetitive use of the above mentioned operations.
● Logic Section: Function of logic section is to perform logic operations such as
comparing, selecting, matching, and merging of data. Register A CPU contains a number
of registers to store all data temporarily during the execution of a program. Registers are
special temporary storage locations situated in CPU.
MEMORY UNIT OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM
This unit can store instructions, data, and intermediate results. This unit supplies
information to other units of the computer when needed.
Functions of the Memory Unit
The important functions of the memory unit are:
● It stores all the data and the instructions required for processing.
● It stores intermediate results of processing.
● It stores the final results of processing before these results are released to an output
device.
● All inputs and outputs are transmitted through the main memory.
Types of the Memory Unit
Memory Unit primarily is of two types –
● Primary Memory/Main Memory
● Secondary Memory Primary Memory (Main Memory) Primary memory retains only those
inputs on which the computer is currently working. It has a limited capacity. The data is
lost when power is switched off. Primary memory is also called as volatile memory
because it cannot store the data permanently.
Characteristics of Primary Memory
● It is known as the main memory.
● These are semiconductor memories.
● It is usually volatile.
● It loses data in case of power failure.
● It is the working memory of the computer.
● It is faster than the secondary memories.
● A computer cannot run without the primary memory.
Types of Primary Memory
Primary memory The Primary memory has two sub types:
a. RAM (Random Access Memory)
b. ROM (Read Only Memory)
RAM (Random Access Memory): RAM is a volatile memory. The primary storage is
referred to as random access memory (RAM) because it selects memory locations on
random basis. It performs both read and write operations on memory. If there is a power
failure during memory access then the data is lost permanently. RAM is small both in
terms of its physical size and the amount of data it can hold.
RAM is of two types –
Static RAM (SRAM)
Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
Static RAM (SRAM) Dynamic RAM (DRAM) As the word static indicates, the memory
retains its contents as long as power is being supplied. However, data is lost when the
power is switched off due to its volatile nature.
DRAM should be continually refreshed in order to maintain the data. This is done by
placing the memory on a refresh circuit that rewrites the data several

Differences between SRAM and DRAM

Characteristics of Static RAM Characteristics of Dynamic RAM
Long lifetime No need to refresh Faster Short data lifetime Need to be refreshed
as compared to DRAM Used as a cache continuously Slower as compared to
memory Large size Expensive High SRAM Used as RAM Smaller size Less
power consumption expensive Less power consumption

ROM (Read Only Memory):

ROM stands for Read Only Memory. It is the memory in which we can only read but
cannot write. This type of memory is non-volatile. The information is stored permanently
in such memories during manufacture. A ROM stores such instructions that are required
to start a computer.
Advantages of ROM
● Non-volatile in nature
● More reliable than RAMs
● Cannot be accidentally changed
● Static and does not require refreshing
● Cheaper than RAMs
● Contents are always known and can be verified
● Easy to test
Types of ROM
ROM memory has several models:
PROM: Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM) maintains large storage media but
does not offer the erase feature in ROM. This type of ROM can be re-programmed by
using a special device called a PROM programmer or PROM burner.
EPROM: Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory designed for recovering the
problems of PROM and ROM. Users can delete the data of EPROM by passing on
ultraviolet rays and reprogramming it.
EEPROM: Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory is similar to the
EPROM but uses electrical beam to erase the data.
Cache Memory: It is also a volatile memory. It is a very high speed semiconductor
memory which can speed up the CPU. All the Recent Instructions are stored in the Cache
Memory. The Cache Memory is attached for storing the input which is given by the user
and which is necessary for the CPU to Perform a Task. It is used to hold those parts of
data and program which are most frequently used by the CPU. Earlier cache memories
were available separately but nowadays the microprocessors contain the cache memory
on the chip itself
Advantages
It is faster than the main memory.
It takes less access time as compared to main memory.
It stores the program that can be executed within a short CACHE period of time.

Secondary Memory/Auxiliary Memory

Secondary memory is the external and permanent memory.
CPU directly does not access these memories; instead they are accessed via input-
output routines. The contents of secondary memories are first transferred to the main
memory, and then the CPU can access it.
Characteristics of Secondary Memory
● These are optical and magnetic memories.
● It is also known as the backup memory.
● It is a non-volatile memory.
● Data is permanently stored even in case of power switch off.
● It is used to store the large amount of data in a computer.
● It is not necessary for the computer to run. A computer can run even without
secondary memory.
● It is slower than the primary memory.
 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PRIMARY MEMORY AND SECONDARY MEMORY
PRIMARY MEMORY SECONDARY MEMORY
1. Primary memory is also known as the . 1. Secondary memory is also known as
Main memory or Internal memory. the External memory or auxiliary memory.
PROM, EPROM, Registers, etc.
2. In primary memory, data is directly 2. In secondary memory, data is first
accessed by the processing unit transferred to the processing unit. main
memory and then routed to the
processing unit.
3. Semi-conductor chips are used to store 3. Magnetic disk, optical disks are used to
information in primary memory. store information in secondary memory
4. Information stored is temporary and it 4. Information stored is permanent unless
can be lost when there is a sudden power one deletes it intentionally.
cut.
5. Data operated and stored in a uniform 5. Data stored is not uniform.
manner
6. Nature of primary memory types varies 6. It’s always non-volatile in nature.
as RAM is volatile in nature and ROM is
non-volatile.
7. Primary memory has relatively less 7. Secondary memory can store large
storage capacity amount of data.
8. Examples: RAM, ROM, cache memory, Examples: Magnetic tapes, optical disk,
floppy disks, flash memory/USB drives,
paper tape, punched cards, etc.

STORAGE DEVICES
Floppy Disk
Floppy disk is a type of storage media, capable of storing electronic data, like a computer
file. The floppy diskette was first created in 1967 by IBM. Early computers did not have
CD ROM drives or USB ports, and floppy disks were the only way to install a new program
onto a computer or backup the information. A floppy disk is a magnetic media which stores
and reads data using a read/write head. It is obsolete nowadays and not much in use.
Hard Disk
Hard disk is made up of a group of circular disks called platters. These disks are arranged
one on top of the other at the distance of about half inches between them around a spindle.
These platters are made of non-magnetic material usually aluminium alloy and coated with
10-20 nm of magnetic material. Standard diameter of these disks is 14 inches. They rotate
with speeds varying from 4200 rpm (rotations per minute) for PCs to 15000 rpm for larger
computers like servers. Data is stored by magnetizing or demagnetizing the magnetic
coating. A magnetic reader arm is used to read data from the disks and the same arm is
used to write data to the disks. The capacity of a typical modern HDD is measured in
terabytes (TB).
Advantages
● Large storage capacity
● Higher reliability
● Highly cost efficient
Disadvantages
● Hard disks can crash which stops the computer from working.
● The disk is fixed inside the computer and cannot easily be transferred to another
computer.

CDs (Compact Disk) These are circular disks that use optical rays, usually lasers, to
read and write data.
DVD ( DIGITAL VERSATILE DISC )

GENERATION OF COMPUTERS The development of electronic computers can be

divided into five generations depending upon the technologies used. Each generation
has its individual characteristics.
First Generation (1940 – 1956) The first generation of computers used vacuum tubes as
circuits and magnetic drums for memory. These tubes produced a lot of heat and were
prone to frequent fusing of the installations and therefore, were very expensive and could
be afforded only by large organisations. The input to the computer was through punched
cards and paper tapes. The output was displayed as printouts. These computers relied on
‘machine language’ (which is in the form of ‘0’ and ‘1’). These computers were limited to
solving one problem at a time Vacuum tube
Second Generation (1956 – 1963) Transistors replaced the vacuum tubes of the first
generation of computers. Transistors allowed computers to become smaller, faster,
cheaper, energy efficient and reliable. They were superior to the vacuum tubes. They still
relied on punched card for input/ outputs. In this generation, assembly language and high
level programming language like FORTRAN, COBOL were used.

Third Generation (1964 – 1971) The Third generation computers used the integrated
circuits (IC). In an IC chip, multiple transistors are placed on a silicon chip. Silicon is a type
of semiconductor. These were the first computers where users interacted using keyboards
and monitors which interfaced with an operating system. This development made
computers much more smaller in size, reliable and efficient. High level languages
(FORTRAN-IITO IV, COBOL, PASCAL PL/1, BASIC, ALGOL-68, etc.) were used during
this generation. Fig. 1.11 IC chip
Fourth Generation (1972 – 1990) FACTFILE The fourth generation of computers is
marked by the use of Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI) circuits. The IC was invented by
Jack Kilby. VLSI circuits having about 5000 transistors and other circuit elements and their
associated circuits on a single chip made it possible to have microcomputers of fourth
generation. The increased power of these small computers meant they could be linked,
creating networks which ultimately led to the development, birth and rapid evolution of the
Internet. Other major advances during this period have been the emergence of Graphical
user interface (GUI), the mouse—the latest advancement in hand-held devices.

Fifth Generation Computers (1990 onwards) Fifth generation computers are in

developmental stage which is based on the artificial intelligence (AI). The goal of the fifth
generation is to develop a device which could respond to natural language input and are
capable of learning and self-organization. The fifth generation computers will use super
large scale integrated chips. These computers aim to be able to solve highly complex
problems including decision making and logical reasoning. AI includes: Neural networks
Robotics Game playing Development of expert systems to make decisions in real-life
situations Natural language understanding and generation

TYPES OF COMPUTER
Types of computers can be categorized as: Purpose wise computers
Special Purpose Computers which are designed to be task specific and most of the
times their job is to solve one particular problem are called special purpose computers.
They are also known as dedicated computers, because they are dedicated to perform a
single task over and over again. Examples of special purpose computer is Automatic Teller
Machine (ATM).
General Purpose Computers that are designed to perform a wide variety of functions
and operations are called general purpose computers. A general purpose computer is
able to perform a wide variety of operations because it can store and execute different
programs in its internal storage. Most computers in use today are General-purpose
computers.

Operation-wise Computers

Analog Computer It is a computer which is used to process analog data. Analog

computers store data in a continuous form of physical quantities and perform calculations
with the help of measures. A thermometer is a simple analog computer. As the
temperature varies, the mercury moves correspondingly. Analog computers are excellent
for situations which require data to be measured directly without converting it into
numerals or codes.
Digital Computer It is a computer that performs calculations and logical operations with
quantities represented as digits, usually in the binary number system. It accepts and
processes data that has been converted into binary numbers. Digital computers can be
further categorised according to their sizes and functions. Following are the four different
types of computers. a. Microcomputer b. Minicomputer c. Mainframe Computer d.
Supercomputer a. Microcomputer: These are also known as personal computers (PCs).
They are small in sizes and relatively inexpensive. Now a days, they have become more
advanced and powerful in terms of technology. Smaller microcomputers are also called
mobile devices.
Mainframe Computer: Mainframe is a powerful multi-user computer. It is capable of
supporting hundreds and thousands of users at the same time. They can be linked to a
network with smaller computers, microcomputers and with each other. They are typically
used in large organizations, government departments, etc. Example: IBM4381, CDC
Supercomputer: Supercomputer is a broad term for one of the fastest computers
currently available. Supercomputers are very expensive and are employed for specialized
applications that require immense amount of mathematical calculations. For example,
weather forecasting requires supercomputers. Another important application of
supercomputer is oil exploration. A program can simulate areas where oil is likely to be
found and can predict costs and methods of findings and retrieving oil.
Some examples of supercomputers being used at different organisations:
SahasraT (Cray XC40 systems) Supercomputer Education and Research Centre (SERC)
at the Indian Institute of Science Complex weather climate modelling, molecular and
materials research and aerospace engineering
Aaditya (iDataPlexDX360M4) Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology, (IITM) Pune
Climate research and operational forecasting Advanced Computing (C-DAC)
Anupam Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) Molecular dynamical simulations,
reactor physics, theoretical physics, computational chemistry, computational fluid
dynamics, and finite element analysis
PARAM Yuva II Centre for Development of Research in space, bioinformatics, weather
forecasting, seismic data analysis, aeronautical engineering, scientific data processing
and pharmaceutical development

A Hybrid Computer A hybrid computer is a type of computer that offers the functionalities
of both digital and an analog computer. It is constructed in such a way that its components
make the device fast and accurate. Hybrid computers have been necessary for successful
system development and are generally used in scientific applications or in controlling
industrial processes. A hybrid computer has the speed of analog and accuracy of digital
computer. Example, computer to monitor multiple parameters of a patient in ICU, fuel
dispenser at petrol pumps contains a processor that controls fuel flow.