U.S.

Department of Justice
Office of Community Oriented Policing Services

Problem-Oriented Guides for Police Series

No. 11

Shoplifting
by
Ronald V. Clarke

www.cops.usdoj.gov
Problem-Oriented Guides for Police Series
Guide No. 11

Shoplifting

Ronald V. Clarke

This project was supported by cooperative agreement #99-

CK-WX-K004 by the Office of Community Oriented
Policing Services, U.S. Department of Justice. The opinions
contained herein are those of the author(s) and do not
necessarily represent the official position of the U.S.
Department of Justice.

www.cops.usdoj.gov
 About the Guide Series i

About the Guide Series

The Problem-Oriented Guides for Police summarize knowledge

about how police can reduce the harm caused by specific
crime and disorder problems. They are guides to prevention
and to improving the overall response to incidents, not to
investigating offenses or handling specific incidents. The
guides are written for police–of whatever rank or
assignment–who must address the specific problem the guides
cover. The guides will be most useful to officers who

• Understand basic problem-oriented policing principles and

methods. The guides are not primers in problem-oriented
policing. They deal only briefly with the initial decision to
focus on a particular problem, methods to analyze the
problem, and means to assess the results of a problem-
oriented policing project. They are designed to help police
decide how best to analyze and address a problem they have
already identified. (An assessment guide has been produced
as a companion to this series and the COPS Office has also
published an introductory guide to problem analysis. For
those who want to learn more about the principles and
methods of problem-oriented policing, the assessment and
analysis guides, along with other recommended readings, are
listed at the back of this guide.)

• Can look at a problem in depth. Depending on the

complexity of the problem, you should be prepared to
spend perhaps weeks, or even months, analyzing and
responding to it. Carefully studying a problem before
responding helps you design the right strategy, one that is
most likely to work in your community. You should not
blindly adopt the responses others have used; you must
decide whether they are appropriate to your local situation.
What is true in one place may not be true elsewhere; what
works in one place may not work everywhere.
ii Shoplifting

• Are willing to consider new ways of doing police business.

The guides describe responses that other police
departments have used or that researchers have tested.
While not all of these responses will be appropriate to your
particular problem, they should help give a broader view of
the kinds of things you could do. You may think you
cannot implement some of these responses in your
jurisdiction, but perhaps you can. In many places, when
police have discovered a more effective response, they have
succeeded in having laws and policies changed, improving
the response to the problem.

• Understand the value and the limits of research knowledge.

For some types of problems, a lot of useful research is
available to the police; for other problems, little is available.
Accordingly, some guides in this series summarize existing
research whereas other guides illustrate the need for more
research on that particular problem. Regardless, research
has not provided definitive answers to all the questions you
might have about the problem. The research may help get
you started in designing your own responses, but it cannot
tell you exactly what to do. This will depend greatly on the
particular nature of your local problem. In the interest of
keeping the guides readable, not every piece of relevant
research has been cited, nor has every point been attributed
to its sources. To have done so would have overwhelmed
and distracted the reader. The references listed at the end of
each guide are those drawn on most heavily; they are not a
complete bibliography of research on the subject.

• Are willing to work with other community agencies to find

effective solutions to the problem. The police alone cannot
implement many of the responses discussed in the guides.
They must frequently implement them in partnership with
other responsible private and public entities. An effective
problem-solver must know how to forge genuine
 About the Guide Series iii

partnerships with others and be prepared to invest

considerable effort in making these partnerships work.

These guides have drawn on research findings and police

practices in the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada,
Australia, New Zealand, the Netherlands, and Scandinavia.
Even though laws, customs and police practices vary from
country to country, it is apparent that the police everywhere
experience common problems. In a world that is becoming
increasingly interconnected, it is important that police be
aware of research and successful practices beyond the borders
of their own countries.

The COPS Office and the authors encourage you to provide

feedback on this guide and to report on your own agency's
experiences dealing with a similar problem. Your agency may
have effectively addressed a problem using responses not
considered in these guides and your experiences and
knowledge could benefit others. This information will be used
to update the guides. If you wish to provide feedback and
share your experiences it should be sent via e-mail to
[email protected].
 Acknowledgments v

Acknowledgments

The Problem-Oriented Guides for Police series is very much a

collaborative effort. While each guide has a primary author,
other project team members, COPS Office staff and
anonymous peer reviewers contributed to each guide by
proposing text, recommending research and offering
suggestions on matters of format and style.

The principal project team developing the guide series

comprised Herman Goldstein, professor emeritus, University
of Wisconsin Law School; Ronald V. Clarke, professor of
criminal justice, Rutgers University; John E. Eck, associate
professor of criminal justice, University of Cincinnati;
Michael S. Scott, police consultant, Savannah, Ga.; Rana
Sampson, police consultant, San Diego; and Deborah Lamm
Weisel, director of police research, North Carolina State
University.

Karin Schmerler, Rita Varano and Nancy Leach oversaw the

project for the COPS Office. Megan Tate Murphy
coordinated the peer reviews for the COPS Office. Suzanne
Fregly edited the guides. Research for the guides was
conducted at the Criminal Justice Library at Rutgers
University under the direction of Phyllis Schultze by Gisela
Bichler-Robertson, Rob Guerette and Laura Wyckoff.

The project team also wishes to acknowledge the members of

the San Diego, National City and Savannah police
departments who provided feedback on the guides' format
and style in the early stages of the project, as well as the line
police officers, police executives and researchers who peer
reviewed each guide.
 Contents vii

Contents
About the Guide Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i

Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v

The Problem of Shoplifting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Related Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Factors Contributing to Shoplifting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Goods Sold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Customers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Seasonal and Temporal Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Retail Policies, Staffing and Stock Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Store Layout and Displays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Understanding Your Local Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Asking the Right Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Incidents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Offenders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Locations/Times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Conditions Facilitating Shoplifting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Current Responses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Measuring Your Effectiveness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Responses to the Problem of Shoplifting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

General Considerations for an Effective Response Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

Specific Responses to Reduce Shoplifting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Retailing Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Staffing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
viii Shoplifting

Shoplifting Policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

Appendix: Summary of Responses to Shoplifting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Endnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

About the Author . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

Recommended Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

Other Guides in This Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

 The Problem of Shoplifting 1

The Problem of Shoplifting†

This guide discusses measures to reduce shoplifting (theft of

† Sometimes known as retail theft.
store merchandise during business hours). It focuses mainly
on the usual shoplifting method of concealing items in
clothing or bags. It does not cover unusual forms of theft
involving trickery, as occasionally practiced in jewelers' shops.
In many cases, the preventive techniques discussed will also
apply to "price switching" (switching price tags from less
expensive to more expensive items) and refund fraud
(returning stolen or fraudulently acquired items for cash
refunds). Due to the lack of available research, the guide
makes few distinctions between (1) casual, opportunistic
shoplifting and (2) shoplifting committed by "professionals,"
or gangs of thieves who sometimes descend on a particular
mall or shopping center to take advantage of lax security or
unsuspecting shop owners.

The guide begins by reviewing factors that increase the risks

of shoplifting. It then lists a series of questions that might
help you analyze your local shoplifting problem. Finally, it
reviews responses to the problem, and what is known about
them from evaluative research. It will be apparent that there
are many gaps in knowledge, and that particularly lacking is
information about the market for goods stolen by shoplifters.

Police data seriously under-represent the extent of shoplifting

–one of the most common but least detected and reported
crimes. This is shown by studies in which researchers have (1)
asked people to report whether they have shoplifted, (2)
followed people into shops to see if they steal anything, and
(3) compared counts of marked items with sales of those
items. All three methods have revealed very high rates of
undetected and unreported thefts. For example, one careful
 2 Shoplifting

review of the evidence suggested that only about one in 150

shoplifting incidents leads to the offender's apprehension and
subsequent police action.1
† In some cases, especially for small
shops in transitional neighborhoods,
fear of retaliation by the thief might It is perhaps not surprising that shoplifting is so widespread.
also prevent retailers from reporting Shops contain new goods, temptingly displayed. Self-service
offenses to the police. sales methods, now so common, provide ample opportunity
for shoppers to handle goods (many of which are
prepackaged) and conceal them in clothing or bags. People
seem to have fewer inhibitions about stealing from shops than
from private individuals. They know they have little chance of
getting caught, and, if caught, they can often produce
plausible excuses such as forgetting to pay.

The stock control in shops is so deficient that few retailers

know how many goods they lose to shoplifters, or even to
their own staff. So long as theft and damage of goods, known
in the retail industry as shrinkage, does not rise above 2 to 3
percent of goods sold, retailers may pay little attention to
shoplifting. Indeed, they have certain incentives to do so:
Stolen goods may be taken as tax write-offs; detection and
prosecution of shoplifters takes time and energy; mistaken
apprehensions can result in lawsuits; and the store could
acquire a reputation for crime if it continually reports
shoplifting.† This means retailers may be unwilling to take
official action against shoplifters, especially those who claim it
is their first offense, show fear or remorse, and/or agree to
pay for the items stolen.

In addition, some retailers believe that the police can do little

about the problem and may be unwilling to get involved.2
Others see the role of the police as simply to take charge of
thieves whom store detectives or security staff have caught,
and to decide on their subsequent handling. When particularly
blatant shoplifting occurs, or when "professional" shoplifters
are thought to be operating, merchants may call upon the
 The Problem of Shoplifting 3

police to take some kind of preventive action, usually in the

form of increased presence or patrols. This may be of little
deterrent value, since shoplifting takes place inside the store,
† British retailers, in particular, have
away from police view. Consequently, this guide focuses on
sought to avoid the term
other preventive actions police might take. In many cases, "shoplifting" on grounds that it
their most important task is to persuade store owners and suggests a less serious form of theft.
They prefer "shop theft." However,
managers to improve their security. This is difficult, because "shoplifting" has been in use since
many retailers believe that the police should protect them the 17th century (Walsh 1978).
from dishonest people, people who should be caught and
†† Studies of criminal sanctioning
punished.† As mentioned, others are content to ignore the
have consistently failed to show any
problem until it seriously affects profits.3 Whatever the clear deterrent effects. In regard to
reasons, the police may have an uphill task convincing retailers shoplifting, the chances of getting
caught are so low, and the risks of
that their sales practices and lack of security may be severe punishment so small, that
contributing to the problem. most researchers believe offenders
pay little attention to the possible
costs (Bamfield 1997; Burrows 1988).
Faced with these attitudes, it is tempting for police to wash
their hands of shoplifting and let the shops bear the
consequences. But there are many reasons why this may be
shortsighted, including the following:

• Shoplifting is often regarded as an entry crime, from which

juveniles graduate to more serious offenses.
• Shoplifting can be said to fuel the drug trade, because it
provides the income some addicts need to buy drugs.
• For stores in deprived neighborhoods, shoplifting can
seriously erode profits and result in store closures. This can
depress employment prospects and further erode the
amenities in such neighborhoods.
• Shoplifting can consume a large proportion of police
resources in processing offenders whom store security staff
have detained. Indeed, the main police role in regard to this
offense is to channel shoplifters caught by private security
into the criminal justice system. In this regard, the police are
at the mercy of merchants who may avoid changing their
business practices in favor of simply relying on security
staff and police to handle shoplifters. Unfortunately, there
is little hard evidence that this results in reduced shoplifting
by those arrested or by others who learn about the arrests.††
4 Shoplifting

For all these reasons, police cannot ignore shoplifting. The

challenge facing them is to conduct a thorough analysis of the
local problem, guided by the information presented here, to
put together a combination of preventive responses.

Related Problems

Shoplifting is only one of the crimes that occur in the retail

environment. Other problems requiring their own analyses
and responses include:

• employee thefts (usually thought to account for more

shrinkage than shoplifting);
• credit card and check frauds;
• burglaries (see related guide in this series);
• smash-and-grabs;
• thefts from open-air or covered market stalls;
• thefts and frauds by delivery personnel;
• vendor frauds, shortchanging and other offenses; and
• harassment of immigrant shopkeepers.

Factors Contributing to Shoplifting

Understanding the factors that contribute to your problem

will help you frame your own local analysis questions,
determine good measures of effectiveness, recognize key
points of intervention, and select an appropriate set of
responses. Many of the factors contributing to a heightened
risk of shoplifting are under management control, while
others, such as seasonal and temporal patterns, are not; even
in the latter case, however, knowledge of those patterns can
assist in framing a preventive response.
 The Problem of Shoplifting 5

Goods Sold

Perhaps the principal factor determining a store's shoplifting

† Clarke (1999) has noted that
rate is the type of goods sold.4 For obvious reasons, furniture
certain analgesics contain ingredients
stores have much lower shoplifting rates than, say, that can be used in making other
convenience or drug stores. The following table shows the drugs, and that decongestants help to
produce a high when taken together
most common items stolen in the United States. These with some illegal drugs. He has also
include tobacco products (particularly cigarettes), health and noted that some frequently stolen
beauty products (such as over-the-counter analgesics, products, such as hemorrhoid
remedies and condoms, can be
decongestants, popular remedies, and birth control products),† embarrassing to buy, and has
recorded music and videos, and apparel ranging from athletic suggested that stores find
embarrassment-reducing ways to sell
shoes to children's clothing, with an emphasis on designer these products. The self-checkout
labels.†† system recently introduced by some
supermarkets might provide a
High-Risk Merchandise, by Store Type solution. It allows customers to scan
(based on items recovered from shoplifters) and bag their own goods. A
Store Type Merchandise conspicuous camera is mounted to
monitor the transactions, and a
Auto parts Small accessories: dash covers, software system detects irregularities.
compact disc players, driving
gloves †† These are national data and are
subject to local variations. Some
Book Cassette tapes, magazines jurisdictions may experience local
Consumer electronics/ CDs fads for stealing particular items.
Computer
††† These items seem to have
Department Clothing: shirts, particularly
displaced meat, which many police
Hilfiger and Polo still believe is the most common item
Discount Clothing, undergarments, CDs stolen from grocery stores and
supermarkets.
Drug/pharmacy Cigarettes, batteries, over-the-
counter remedies
General merchandise Earrings
Grocery/supermarket Over-the-counter remedies,
health and beauty aids,
cigarettes†††
Home center/hardware Hand tools
Music CDs
Shoe Sneakers
Specialty Bed sheets
6 Shoplifting

Store Type Merchandise

Specialty apparel Assorted clothes with designer
labels
Sporting goods Nike shoes
Theme park Key chains, jewelry
Toy Action figures
Video Video games
Warehouse Pens, movie videos
Source: Adapted from Hayes (1997), pp. 236, 242-245.

The acronym CRAVED captures the essential attributes of

these "hot products": they are concealable, removable,
available, valuable, enjoyable, and disposable. The last of these
attributes, disposability, may be the most important in
determining the volume of goods shoplifted. Those
shoplifting for a living or to support a drug habit–who
account for a disproportionate share of items stolen–must be
able to sell or barter what they steal. Unfortunately, little is
known about the market for shoplifted goods.5
Ronald Clarke

Self-checkout systems such as the one shown on the left are a new alternative to the
standard clerk checkout seen on the right and might reduce theft of products that
some shoppers find embarrassing to buy.

Store sections carrying hot products are the most vulnerable

to shoplifting. One study of shoplifting in a large London
music store found that the highest theft rates were in the
 The Problem of Shoplifting 7

sections carrying rock and pop recordings (nowadays, it would

probably be rap or hip-hop). Equally expensive recordings in
the classical music department were rarely stolen.6
† See Klemke (1993) for a
comprehensive review.
Customers

Much shoplifting is opportunistic, which means that

shoplifters are often little different from a store's regular
customers. Stores that attract younger people in general, and
males in particular, are more likely to experience shoplifting:
research has consistently shown these groups are more often
involved in theft. It is beyond the scope of this guide to
discuss all the social and psychological reasons for theft,†
though it should be noted that some thieves believe
shoplifting harms no one except an anonymous business that
can take the losses as a tax write-off.

Apart from these factors, researchers have identified some

personal characteristics related to shoplifting, and they have
also developed typologies of shoplifters.7 Most of this work
has little relevance for policing strategies, beyond the fact that
in many communities, the groups most involved appear to be
juveniles and substance abusers.8

Seasonal and Temporal Patterns

Most shoplifting occurs when stores are busiest, with the

majority of incidents occurring late in the week, between
Wednesday and Saturday.9 Seasonal shoplifting corresponds
with the demand for goods, which means that much
shoplifting occurs during pre-Easter, pre-summer and pre-
Christmas periods. As mentioned, juveniles commit much
shoplifting, and consequently, high-risk times include non-
school days, late mornings and afternoons into the evening.10
8 Shoplifting

Location

Research does not provide a clear indication of the risk

factors related to a store's location, but shoplifting rates tend
to be higher for stores located:

• in city centers and other busy places, with a large number of

casual customers;
• near schools, with many juvenile customers; and
• in deprived areas, with large concentrations of impoverished
or addicted residents.
Research also provides evidence that stores that "front onto
the open-street appear more likely to attract shoplifting than
those in enclosed malls due to greater 'opportunity' to escape
from the former."11

Retail Policies, Staffing and Stock Control

To some degree, retail policies, staffing and stock control are

management's responsibility, but they are heavily influenced
by the broader retail environment: competitive, profit-driven
and technology-dependent. For example, stock control has
been deficient in the past because the time and effort required
to keep proper track of stock have barely been justified by
any resulting improvements in profit due to reduced theft.
However, increased competition is continually eroding retail
profit margins, and thus the incentive to reduce shrinkage is
increasing. The more widespread use of merchandise bar
coding and point-of-sales technology at checkout is resulting
in big improvements in stock control. These improvements
can be expected to increase with further technological
developments.12

Similarly, sales policies and staffing are partly determined by

the broader retail environment. It would be impossibly
expensive for most stores to abandon self-service and rely
 The Problem of Shoplifting 9

instead on armies of helpful, attentive sales clerks, even

though this would substantially reduce shoplifting. The
savings in reduced theft would be greatly outweighed by
increased staff wages and, possibly, by sales lost as a result of
shoppers' being unable to inspect goods at their leisure.

Marketing considerations might also limit the scope for

tightening up return policies, which, if too liberal, can
encourage theft of goods to be returned for cash refunds. For
example, some clothing stores do not have changing rooms
because the staff costs of monitoring them to prevent
shoplifting may be too great, or because there is no room for
them. Such stores must allow the return of clothes that do
not fit or are otherwise unsuitable.

Store Layout and Displays

Research provides little guidance, but common sense suggests

certain store layout and display features contribute to
shoplifting.13 Most of these relate to the staff's ability to
supervise shoppers, and stores at greater risk include those
with:

• many exits, particularly where they are accessible without

passing through the checkout;
• passageways, blind corners and hidden alcoves;
• restrooms or changing rooms;
• high displays that conceal shoppers (and shoplifters) from
view;
• crowded areas around displays of high-risk items; and
• aisles that staff cannot easily survey from one end.

Store areas at greater risk of shoplifting include, as

mentioned, those with the most desirable goods. In addition,
goods on the ground floor and near entrances are at greater
risk of theft, because the shoplifter is in the store for less
time and is thus at less risk of getting caught.
 Understanding Your Local Problem 11

Understanding Your Local Problem

The information provided above is only a generalized

description of shoplifting. You must combine the basic facts
with a more specific understanding of your local problem if
you are to develop an effective response. In most cases, your
problem is likely to involve a group of stores, such as those in
a town center, mall or shopping precinct. If it involves a
single store (unless the store is very large), it is more
appropriate to offer routine crime prevention advice than to
undertake a full-scale problem-oriented policing project.
Accordingly, your analysis is likely to focus on differential
risks of shoplifting among the stores in your group, and the
reasons for those differences. In any case, the measures
appropriate to deal with the problem will vary with the nature
of the stores at risk.

Knowing who is committing the offenses, and why, will help

you decide how difficult they will be to stop. You will also
need to understand how the offenses are committed. This will
require a careful study of shop security practices.
Comparisons between shops can greatly assist in
understanding the conditions that facilitate theft.

Analysis of shoplifting is made difficult by low rates of

reporting, and by the fact that police records rarely permit
shoplifting offenses to be readily identified among reported
thefts. There are other ways to gather information about your
local problem, but these, too, have their difficulties:

• Store apprehensions may provide some useful information,

but the data tend to say more about surveillance and
apprehension practices than about the "typical" offender, or
even the most targeted goods.
 12 Shoplifting

• Observational studies–in which randomly selected shoppers

are followed around the store–can produce some useful
results, but they are labor-intensive and ethically
† McNees et al. (1976) pioneered an problematic. If followed by police or security, those
effective method of conducting observed stealing would have to be apprehended; if
routine shrinkage assessments that followed by researchers, the police or the store might be
can be used on a large scale to
evaluate the success of measures
criticized for permitting this approach.14
designed to reduce shoplifting • Identifying "hot" items among paying customers may also
(Buckle et al. 1992). Small tags, color- reveal those likely to be targeted by thieves. However, such
coded by type of item, were attached items may already be well protected by the store's security,
to the price tag of each high-risk
item in a store. An inventory of all
and theft might be concentrated on less popular but still
items was taken before opening the desirable goods.
store for business. When items were • The most accurate way to assess retail theft is repeated
sold, the clerks removed the tags, and systematic counting of items on display, but this, again, is
they were counted at the end of the labor-intensive.† It is also difficult to determine whether
day. The store manager then added
the number of tagged items sold to losses are due to theft by customers or by staff, or whether
the number of items left on the they are the result of innocent clerical error.
floor. If the total did not match the
initial inventory, then the residual In some cases, store stock-control records or staff may be
number of items were presumed
stolen. See also Farrington et al. able to provide information about items particularly
(1993) and Farrington (1999) for a vulnerable to theft. However, whenever possible, you should
description of this process. check such information by gathering additional data, as
discussed above. The effort required to obtain accurate
information about problems is almost always justified by the
improved responses that result.

Asking the Right Questions

The following are some critical questions you should ask in

analyzing your particular problem of shoplifting, even if the
answers are not always readily available. Your answers to these
and other questions will help you choose the most
appropriate set of responses later on.
 Understanding Your Local Problem 13

Incidents

• How many incidents are detected?

• How much is typically lost (dollar value of goods, lost
profit)?
• What proportion of shrinkage does shoplifting account for?
Compared with employee theft or delivery fraud?
• How do targeted stores' shrinkage rates compare with those
of similar-size stores of the same type?
• Which items do shoplifters target most frequently?
• Do the goods stolen fit the CRAVED model? (See the
"Factors Contributing to Shoplifting/Goods Sold" section
above.)
• Are they sold or kept for personal use?
• If sold, how so?

Offenders

• What is known about offenders? Do they tend to belong to

any particular demographic group? What proportion are
juveniles?
• What proportions of offenders are casual/opportunistic,
professionals or addicts? Are organized rings involved?
• Do some types of offenders use particular shoplifting
methods or target particular goods?
• Are there repeat offenders?

Locations/Times

• What is the nature of the surrounding neighborhood?

• When do thefts mainly occur (time of day, day of week,
month, season)? Are certain items more commonly stolen
during certain seasons (e.g., batteries for toys at
Christmastime)?
• Is the problem concentrated at particular stores, or does it
affect a cluster of stores? If concentrated at particular
stores, what do they have in common?
14 Shoplifting

Conditions Facilitating Shoplifting

• How large is the store? What type of store is it? What

market segment does it target?
• What are the store's hours? Is it open at night? Are nearby
businesses open at night and on weekends?
• Does the store have a security department or set of policies
on apprehending shoplifters?
• Does it treat shoplifting as a business cost? Or does it invest
resources in prevention?
• Does it report shoplifting incidents to the police?
• How adequate is stock control?
• Where are targeted goods located in the store?
• Is lack of natural surveillance a contributory factor? Can
thieves conceal goods without being seen?
• After stealing, can thieves evade store employees?
• Is there more than one escape route?
• What security hardware does the store have? Mirrors?
Electronic tagging? Closed-circuit television (CCTV)
cameras?
• What other prevention measures are in place?

Current Responses

• How do police currently handle shoplifting incidents?

• Do police train or regulate private security forces?
• How do prosecutors handle shoplifting charges?
• What sentences do courts typically hand down for convicted
offenders? Do offenders comply with the sentences?

Measuring Your Effectiveness

You should take measures of your problem before you

implement responses, to determine how serious the problem
is, and after you implement them, to determine whether they
have been effective. Measurement allows you to determine to
what degree your efforts have succeeded, and suggests how
you might modify your responses if they are not producing
 Understanding Your Local Problem 15

the intended results. For more detailed guidance on measuring

effectiveness, see the companion guide to this series, Assessing
Responses to Problems: An Introductory Guide for Police Problem-
Solvers.

Potential indicators of an effective response to shoplifting

include:

• fewer repeat offenders,

• decreased shrinkage,
• increased sales, and
• increased profits.

If you suspect that shoplifting is currently underreported to

police, increased reporting might be a positive indicator of
your efforts, at least temporarily. If you suspect too few
shoplifters are getting caught, a temporary increase in
apprehensions might also be a positive indicator. Ultimately,
though, the number of reported thefts and apprehensions
should decline as the number of actual shoplifting incidents
declines.
 Responses to the Problem of Shoplifting 17

Responses to the Problem of Shoplifting

Your analysis of your local problem should give you a better

understanding of the factors contributing to it. Once you
have analyzed your local problem and established a baseline
for measuring effectiveness, you should consider possible
responses to address the problem.

The following response strategies provide a foundation of

ideas for addressing your particular problem. These strategies
are drawn from a variety of research studies and police
reports. Several of them may apply to your community's
problem. It is critical that you tailor responses to local
circumstances, and that you can justify each response based
on reliable analysis. In most cases, an effective strategy will
involve implementing several different responses. Law
enforcement responses alone are seldom effective in reducing
or solving the problem. Do not limit yourself to considering
what police can do: give careful consideration to who else in
your community shares responsibility for the problem and can
help police better respond to it.

This section reviews what is known about the effectiveness of

various practices in dealing with shoplifting. Unfortunately,
the information is severely limited because few of the
common preventive practices have been evaluated. Retailers
have been reluctant to undertake the necessary studies, and to
share the results of any studies they do complete.
Government has funded little research in this field, generally
regarding it as the private sector's domain.

In the absence of research, you cannot assume that retailers

have learned through long experience what does and does not
18 Shoplifting

work. For example, hiring store detectives is a staple response

to shoplifting, but as will be seen below, their effectiveness is
questionable. Hiring them usually seems to be an economic
choice dictated by the need to do something about
shoplifting.

General Considerations for an Effective Response

Strategy

Police can do little on their own to prevent shoplifting, and

you will have to persuade the retailers themselves to act. You
may have to explain why police can achieve little through
more patrols, and why heavier court sentences are of limited
value. You may want to explain how the store's goods and
sales practices may be contributing to the problem. You may
have to convince retailers that they cannot ignore the
problem, due to the costs to the community and, in the long
run, the stores themselves. Finally, you will have to offer them
guidance on preventive measures they can take to reduce the
problem.

It is important that shoplifting responses be selective and

based on a thorough understanding of the risks. For example,
the highest-risk goods should be given the greatest
protection.15 Trying to provide equal protection to all goods
is inefficient and could lead to a loss of focus. In addition, it
might be better to concentrate on preventing shoplifting by
young or casual shoplifters, who are easier to deter and who
may account for many thefts, than to focus on the much
smaller number of "professionals," who are harder to defeat.

As explained, in framing advice, you must think carefully

about the nature of the risk, which varies greatly with the
kind of store and the goods offered. These factors also
 Responses to the Problem of Shoplifting 19

determine the nature of the remedies. The security approach

required for a self-service supermarket is quite different from
that required for a jewelry store. Department stores with huge
turnovers of expensive goods can afford to spend much more
on security than small retailers can. In all cases, you must
appreciate stores' need to make a profit. This determines
selling practices and how much money is available for
preventing shoplifting.

Even when shops can afford more for security, they are likely
to resist this expenditure. In making your case, you may need
to:

• calculate the likely cost of measures such as installing CCTV

or hiring security guards;
• convince owners that they can recoup the cost of increased
security through reduced losses associated with
shoplifting–item replacement, profit and lawsuit losses;
• enlist the support of the chamber of commerce or other
business organizations in persuading owners to improve
security; and
• brief the local media on the problem and the proposed
solutions.

Effective prevention often depends on well-rounded strategies

encompassing good retailing practices, appropriate staffing,
carefully articulated shoplifting policies, and selective
technology use.16 These components are reviewed below and
are summarized in the appendix. Many depend on retailers'
actions, but police may also have to collaborate with others in
the community, including loss prevention specialists, business
associations and court officials.
20 Shoplifting

Specific Responses To Reduce Shoplifting

Retailing Practice

Good management is the first line of defense against

shoplifting. Managers must ensure that stores are properly laid
out, have adequate inventory controls and follow standard
security practices.

1. Improving store layout and displays. Store layout and

displays must make it easier for staff to exercise effective
surveillance. This includes:

• reducing the number of exits, blind corners and recesses;

• carefully placing mirrors;
• providing good, even lighting;
• eliminating clutter and obstructions;
• placing goods away from entrances and exits;
• creating clear sight lines in aisles and reducing the height of
displays;
• reducing crowding near displays of high-risk items;
• moving hot products into higher-security zones with more
staff surveillance; and
• speeding up checkout to reduce congestion and waiting,
which provide the opportunity for concealment.
 Responses to the Problem of Shoplifting 21

Kip Kellogg

Properly placed mirrors like this "fish-eye" mirror, allow staff to keep
watch over customers and goods that might otherwise be hidden from view.

2. Tightening stock controls. Inventory control procedures

must permit shoplifting trends to be detected, and shoplifting to
be distinguished from employee theft.

3. Upgrading retail security. Standard security must make

shoplifting more difficult. This may include:

• restricting the number of unaccompanied children allowed in

small neighborhood stores;
• establishing clear rules for use of changing rooms in clothing
stores;
• displaying only the cassette, CD and video cases in music and
video stores (and only one shoe per pair in shoe shops);
• keeping high-value items in locked displays, or securing them
through cable locks and security hangers;
• encouraging shoppers to use supermarket-type baskets for
purchases (which removes the excuse for putting things in
their own bags or pockets);
22 Shoplifting

• sealing bags of legitimate purchases to reduce impulse

stealing;
• giving receipts and, where there is a high risk of shoplifting,
checking them against goods on exit; and
• requiring proof of purchase for refunds.
Kip Kellogg

Cluttered merchandise displays make it harder for staff to monitor

shoplifting.

4. Posting warning notices on high-risk merchandise.

Many stores display signs reminding customers that
shoplifting is a crime, and warning that shoplifters will be
prosecuted. Some stores display these signs alongside a life-
size cardboard cutout of a police officer. Nothing is known
about the effectiveness of these generalized warnings, and
since most shoplifters know they might get caught and
punished, it is doubtful that such warnings have more than a
marginal deterrent effect on a few susceptible people.
However, one well-known study showed that when specific
merchandise was prominently marked with large red stars as
being frequently taken by shoplifters, shoplifting was virtually
eliminated. The researchers explained that publicly identifying
specific items made the threat of detection and apprehension
tangible.17
 Responses to the Problem of Shoplifting 23

ATTENTION:
SHOPPERS AND SHOPLIFTERS
† Walsh (1978) quotes Fiber's
The items marked with a red star (1972:250-251) essential advice: "To
sustain a legal action against a
are frequently stolen by shoplifters. customer for shoplifting, it is usually
necessary to prove that the goods
were taken away, that no payment
Staffing was offered and that there was intent
to avoid payment. It is therefore
always advisable to wait until the
5. Hiring more and better-trained sales staff. Stores suspect has left the shop before
should hire sufficient numbers of staff to properly oversee making the accusation; otherwise,
goods and customers, especially at high-risk periods for they may claim they intended to pay
before leaving."
shoplifting. Stores must train staff to be attentive to
customers and alert for thieves. They also need to train staff
in procedures for dealing with shoplifting incidents.†

6. Hiring store detectives. Though certain kinds of stores

widely employ store detectives, research suggests detectives
may have only a limited impact on shoplifting. When
researchers have followed random samples of people entering
stores, few of those they have observed shoplifting have also
been seen by the store detectives.18 A study in a large London
music store, with four store detectives on duty at any one
time, suggested that the store would need to hire 17 times this
number to be able to catch all the shoplifters likely to enter
the store–clearly not an economic proposition.19 Most stores
do not advertise store detectives' presence, but some do.
Advertising their presence may provide a greater deterrent,
but it may also mean that shoplifters exercise greater caution.
No research has evaluated these possibilities.

While it must be assumed that store detectives have some

deterrent value, it is possible that they lower other staff's
vigilance. It is also important that store detectives spend as
much time as possible on the shop floor, and not have their
time consumed in court attendance or police liaison work.
24 Shoplifting

7. Hiring security guards. Little is known from research

about the effectiveness of uniformed security guards in any
environment–and retail is no exception. Only one small study
has been published, and it suggested that security guards had
less value than electronic article surveillance (EAS) or store
redesign in decreasing the risk of theft. However, only two
stores with guards were studied, and "[o]ne [guard] had never
been a guard before and asked the staff what he should do,
while the other was aged over 60 and relatively small, so it was
thought that he was unlikely to deter shoplifters."20

In general, guards who continually move around, creating an

active, visible presence, are likely to be more effective. To
maximize guards' surveillance, it may be necessary to pay
attention to layout and design, including mirror placement.

Kip Kellogg

Security guards who move around, creating an active, visible presence, are likely
to be more effective at preventing shoplifting.
 Responses to the Problem of Shoplifting 25

Shoplifting Policies

It is important that stores develop clear shoplifting policies,

† Sherman and Gartin (1986), in a
and that staff understand those policies. Most stores routinely randomized experiment, found that
refer apprehended shoplifters to the police. For persistent and recidivism rates did not differ for two
blatant offenders, this is clearly necessary. In the case of more large groups of apprehended
shoplifters: those released and those
opportunistic shoplifters, many of whom show shock at arrested.
getting caught, it is doubtful that police arrest has any
additional deterrent value.† It is also possible that an inflexible †† Not only is shoplifter prosecution
of doubtful preventive value, but
policy of referring shoplifters to the police could result in also, practice in this area is fraught
reduced staff enthusiasm for apprehending them.21 Stores are with difficulties: Merchants may see
probably best served by a flexible shoplifting policy that the police as being at their beck and
call; private security staff may expect
includes formal and informal avenues and, perhaps, civil the police to take cases that are not
recovery. "good," or that reflect a lack of
discretion (e.g., a 12-year-old stealing
a candy bar) off their hands; and
As mentioned earlier, there is little evidence that prosecuting there are issues regarding obtaining
ordinary shoplifters is an effective preventive measure. Even proper evidence, identifying alleged
offenders, using force, targeting
so, belief in the efficacy (and desirability) of prosecution is so minorities, imposing burdens on the
strong among storekeepers and the general public alike that criminal justice system, using statutes
there is little chance the police will be relieved of this or ordinances/summonses or
physical arrests, etc.
burden.†† Consequently, there is considerable value in making
the arrest process more efficient. Ways of doing so fall
outside the scope of this guide, but some police forces have
developed systems whereby private security officers are
authorized and trained to write criminal summonses
themselves (after first checking with the police by phone for
outstanding warrants and arrest histories). This obviates the
need for patrol officers to process arrests, but gets the cases
into the formal criminal process, nonetheless.

8. Using civil recovery. In nearly every state, retailers can use

civil law to collect restitution from shoplifters, and many
retailers take advantage of this.22 Civil recovery is designed to
operate quickly, with little recourse to the courts. The typical
sums sought are $250 for adult shoplifters and $120 for
 26 Shoplifting

juveniles, and in nearly half the cases, these sums are paid.
Civil recovery is not meant to be a substitute for criminal
† As an alternative to prosecution, proceedings. Rather, it is meant to provide an additional
police sometimes also refer first shoplifting deterrent (though of unknown effectiveness). Civil
offenders to structured programs like
recovery also allows retailers to defray some of the costs of
the Stop Shoplifting Education
Program, operated by the Better loss prevention.
Business Bureau of WNY Inc., or the
program offered by Shoplifters
Alternative, a nonprofit organization
In some states, such as Florida, statutes permit police to help
based in New York. The Stop retailers obtain civil recovery on the spot. With proper
Shoplifting Education Program claims procedural safeguards and reports, the offender can pay the
to reduce recidivism (Better Business
Bureau of WNY Inc. 1993). In set civil recovery amount–around $200–directly to the retailer
addition, stores themselves sometimes in the presence of the police, and thereby be spared arrest.
run first-offender warning programs,
This might cost offenders considerably more than the item
without extensive police involvement.
Stores might check with police to stolen is worth, but it spares them an arrest record.
determine whether the offender has
been charged before and, if not, issue
their own warning, without having an
9. Using informal police sanctions. In many jurisdictions,
arrest made. large proportions of shoplifters referred to police are dealt
with informally and not brought before the courts. In the
United States, this often entails "first offender" programs.
Upon arrest, first offenders are given the option, as an
alternative to prosecution, of participating in programs in
which they are instructed about the harms of shoplifting. If
the offender completes the program, which usually translates
into attending the required meetings, the initial charge is
dismissed and, sometimes, upon petition, can be erased from
the records, so that the person does not have a "criminal"
record.† In Britain, similar police programs are called
"cautioning." A recent program introduced by the Thames
Valley Police combines counseling modules and a formal
caution, and claims to have substantially reduced re-offending
among juvenile shoplifters. The counseling modules are
selected according to the offender's specific circumstances.
Modules include meetings with store managers, informational
sessions with youth workers about available leisure activities,
and group work to learn about resisting peer pressure to
offend.23
 Responses to the Problem of Shoplifting 27

10. Establishing early warning systems. Merchants in

some areas have found it useful to establish a same-day early
warning system whereby they notify one another about the
presence of mobile gangs of shoplifters, but there have been
no formal evaluations of this practice.24

11. Banning known shoplifters. A related but more

controversial practice entails banning offenders from, and
posting their pictures in, stores. Little is known about the
effectiveness of this practice, but if it publicizes shoplifters'
identity, it might have some limited value. Where courts have
not convicted those identified, both the merchants and the
police engaged in the practice are vulnerable to criticism and
legal challenge.

12. Launching public information campaigns. Some

communities have launched media campaigns to inform the
public about the harms of shoplifting, encourage people to
report it, and increase knowledge about the consequences of
apprehension. Posters, pamphlets, classes, and public service
announcements have all been used to get the message across.25
Evaluations of these programs have produced little evidence
that they reduce shoplifting.26

Technology

13. Installing and monitoring CCTV. Improvements in

quality and reductions in cost have resulted in the widespread
use of CCTV to prevent shoplifting. Few evaluations have
been published, though one careful study of 15 clothing
stores in England found that the value of CCTV was directly
related to the sophistication of the system used. Effectiveness
was quite marked in the first few months after installation, but
declined rapidly thereafter, which the researchers explained by
28 Shoplifting

arguing that "would-be offenders became progressively inured

or desensitized to CCTV's deterrent potential."27

Little is known about the value of CCTV in other kinds of

stores, and there is "a raft of unanswered questions about its
impact. These questions relate to:

• the detection of offenders;

• the deterrence of would-be offenders, and possible
displacement of criminal activities elsewhere;
• the relative value of video recordings and real-time images;
• the ability of operators to monitor and make sense of
multiple images;
• the impact on customers (who may be reassured, even when
there are no measurable benefits); and
• the effect on shop staff (who may become less vigilant
about crime following its installation)."28
Kip Kellogg

Surveillance cameras and CCTV are increasingly used to prevent shoplifting, but more
study is needed to determine their effects.
 Responses to the Problem of Shoplifting 29

14. Using electronic article surveillance. Electronic article

surveillance (EAS) is often known as electronic tagging. A tag
is either pinned onto a garment or fixed with adhesive to an
† Increasingly, tags are now being
item's packaging. Exit gates detect tags that have not been
included in the packaging of goods at
removed or deactivated, and sound an alarm. The tags have manufacture (Hobson 2001). This "source
tagging" helps to reduce the costs of using
been made progressively smaller and more versatile, and the this method.
detectors have become more reliable.† These systems are in
widespread use, but only recently have any evaluations been
published.29 The most comprehensive of these evaluations
used comparisons between stores with and without EAS
systems, and before-and-after studies, in a variety of retail
settings. The authors concluded that EAS could reduce
shoplifting and total inventory shortage from 35 to 75
percent.30 The considerable costs of buying and running EAS
systems must be set against these benefits. Moreover,
knowledgeable offenders can sometimes defeat EAS systems
(see Box).

Ways of Trying To Beat EAS Systems

• Removing and discarding product packaging in the

store, thereby removing the tag and giving the
appearance that the item is "used." Thieves then may
wear the item in plain view, or conceal it.
• Peeling off the tag, which can sometimes be done
despite strong adhesives–large stores afford offenders
plenty of cover for this.
• Holding the item–and the tag–tightly against the
body.
• Walking out in a group, or closely behind someone.
• Holding items outside the reach of the electronic
surveillance, i.e., lower than a foot above ground
(with shoes, for example), or above shoulder height.
• Using products to deactivate tags.
• Running through the electronic gates and trying to
escape before staff can respond.
• Putting items in insulated bags; the insulation can
prevent the tag from being activated.
30 Shoplifting

15. Attaching ink tags to merchandise. Retailers may attach

ink tags to clothing; such tags are quite different from
electronic tags. Rather than sounding an alarm when removed
from the store, and thus increasing the offender's risk of
getting caught, ink tags remove the rewards of theft by
ruining the garments to which they are affixed when the thief
tries to detach them. To date, only one rigorous evaluation has
been reported; it concluded that ink tags might be more
effective than EAS when used in the same retail
environments.31 Devices are now available that combine the
advantages of both electronic and ink tags, but with the
inevitable disadvantage of increased costs. Other devices not
containing ink are also available, such as small clamps that
cannot be removed from items such as jewelry or eyeglasses.

Kip Kellogg

Electronic tags affixed to goods activate alarms when passed through exit gates.
Electronic tagging has demonstrated effectiveness in preventing shoplifting,
although knowledgeable offenders can sometimes defeat the systems.
 Appendix 31

Appendix: Summary of Responses to

Shoplifting

The table below summarizes the responses to shoplifting, the

mechanisms by which they are intended to work, the
conditions under which they ought to work best, and some
factors you should consider before implementing a particular
response. It is critical that you tailor responses to local
circumstances, and that you can justify each response based
on reliable analysis. In most cases, an effective strategy will
involve implementing several different responses. Law
enforcement responses alone are seldom effective in reducing
or solving the problem.

Response Page No. Response How It Works Considerations

No. Works Best If…
Retailing Practice
1. 20 Improving store Makes it easier …staff are May be a
layout and for staff to trained and relatively
displays exercise effective motivated to inexpensive
surveillance detect shoplifting option, but some
stores' basic
design makes it
hard to eliminate
all opportunities
for shoplifters to
conceal their
activity

2. 21 Tightening stock Helps managers …managers have Increases in

controls to detect changes incentives to source tagging
in amounts or reduce shoplifting and electronic
patterns of point-of-sales
shoplifting systems will
gradually lead to
improvements in
stock control
32 Shoplifting

Response Page No. Response How It Works Considerations

No. Works Best If…
3. 21 Upgrading retail Makes it harder …staff and Some security
security for shoplifters to managers have practices may be
operate incentives to unpopular with staff
reduce shoplifting and customers alike,
and consequently
have the effect of
reducing sales;
sometimes carries
costs in terms of
staff time

4. 22 Posting warning Alerts potential …notices identify A low-cost measure;

notices on high- thieves that the the most might alarm some
risk merchandise identified frequently innocent shoppers
merchandise may targeted items
be subject to
special
surveillance

Staffing

5. 23 Hiring more and Makes it harder …staffing levels Can be a relatively

better-trained for shoplifters to are increased at expensive way to
sales staff operate high-risk periods reduce shoplifting

6. 23 Hiring store Provides a …stores are large, May not be an

detectives deterrent, so that the effective deterrent
especially to detectives' identity to "professional"
casual shoplifters does not become shoplifters who can
known, and the spot store detectives
detectives spend
considerable time
on the shop floor

7. 24 Hiring security Provides a …guards are Guard

guards deterrent to properly trained, characteristics and
shoplifters who are physically behavior are
might otherwise imposing and extremely
believe they could have an active, important; poor
escape if visible presence guards have no
apprehended by effect on shoplifting
sales staff
 Appendix 33

Response Page No. Response How It Works Considerations

No. Works Best If…
Shoplifting Policies
8. 25 Using civil May not deter …administrative May not be an
recovery shoplifting, but procedures are option for small
provides retailers clear and retailers who lack
with a practical uncomplicated, the time and
means of and shoplifters resources to pursue
recovering some are able to pay it
of the costs of it restitution

9. 26 Using informal Saves time for …combined with Usually used only
police sanctions retailers, police efforts to change with first-time
and the criminal offenders' offenders; often
justice system, attitudes about limited to juveniles
though its shoplifting
deterrent value is
unknown

10. 27 Establishing early Eliminates the …the systems are A low-cost, sensible
warning systems element of operated by stores precaution for
surprise whose stores vulnerable to
shoplifting gangs merchandise is shoplifting gangs
often rely on targeted by gangs
of shoplifters

11. 27 Banning known Alerts staff to the … the identities May have some
shoplifters presence of of those who limited value in
known have been deterring
shoplifters, whom convicted of shoplifting, but
they may then ask shoplifting are where those
to leave the publicized identified have not
premises; deters been convicted by a
known shoplifters court, both the
from entering the merchants and the
store; deters police engaged in
shoplifting by the practice are
others vulnerable to legal
challenge
34 Shoplifting

Response Page No. Response How It Works Considerations

No. Works Best If…
12. 27 Launching public Informs the …used to Little evidence
information public about the advertise new exists that these
campaigns harms of anti-shoplifting campaigns reduce
shoplifting; measures shoplifting, but they
encourages people might change
to report community attitudes
shoplifting;
increases
knowledge about
the consequences
of apprehension
Technology
13. 27 Installing and Increases …CCTV cameras Employees must be
monitoring surveillance of are located close properly trained to
CCTV vulnerable to key areas (but use the equipment;
merchandise and retailers should the equipment must
locations; can also guard against be of good enough
be used to identify offenders' quality to enable
offenders after the sneaking off to close watch to be
act and/or conceal goods kept on suspicious
provide evidence elsewhere, such as individuals; those
for charges around blind who watch the
corners, in monitors quickly
elevators and in become fatigued
stairwells)
 Appendix 35

Response Page No. Response How It Works Considerations

No. Works Best If…
14. 29 Using electronic Detects …tags are Staff may become
article shoplifters trying difficult to complacent about
surveillance to leave the store remove without other antitheft
with concealed damaging goods policies and
goods procedures;
equipment may be
compromised, so
staff must maintain
vigilance; not all
merchandise can be
easily tagged; an
expensive option,
though costs are
being
reduced–source
tagging will reduce
costs even more

15. 30 Attaching ink tags Removes the …combined with Not all merchandise
to merchandise rewards of EAS can be easily tagged;
shoplifting by it is important that
rendering stolen the security of ink
goods unusable tags not be
compromised by
the theft of tag-
removal equipment
 Endnotes 37

Endnotes
1
Farrington (1999).
2
Nelson and Perrone (2000), citing Ocqueteau and Pottier (1996) and Williams et al.
(1987).
3
Walsh (1978).
4
Nelson, Bromley and Thomas (1996); Hayes (1997); Clarke (1999).
5
Clarke (1999).
6
Ekblom (1986).
7
Krasnovsky and Lane (1998).
8
Klemke (1992).
9
Nelson, Bromley and Thomas (1996); Hayes (1997).
10
Nelson, Bromley and Thomas (1996); Hayes (1997); Lo (1994).
11
Nelson, Bromley and Thomas (1996).
12
Hope (1991).
13
Ekblom (1986).
14
Farrington (1999).
15
Ekblom (1986).
16
Hayes (1993).
17
McNees et al. (1976).
18
Burrows (1988).
19
Ekblom (1986).
20
Farrington (1999).
21
Bamfield (1998).
22
Bamfield (1998); Budden (1999).
23
McCulloch (1996).
24
Walsh (1978).
25
Klemke (1992).
26
Sacco (1985).
27
Beck and Willis (1999).
28
Beck and Willis (1999).
29
Farrington et al. (1993); Handford (1994); DiLonardo (1996).
30
DiLonardo (1996).
31
DiLonardo and Clarke (1996).
 References 39

References

Bamfield, J. (1998). "Retail Civil Recovery: Filling a Deficit in

the Criminal Justice System?" International Journal of Risk,
Security and Crime Prevention 2:257–267.

(1997). Making Shoplifters Pay. London: The Social

Market Foundation.

Beck, A., and A. Willis (1999). "Context-Specific Measures of

CCTV Effectiveness in the Retail Sector." In K. Painter and
N. Tilley (eds.), Surveillance of Public Space: CCTV, Street
Lighting and Crime Prevention, Crime Prevention Studies, Vol. 10.
Monsey, N.Y.: Criminal Justice Press.

Better Business Bureau of WNY Inc. (1993). "Stop

Shoplifting Education Program." Annual report. Buffalo,
N.Y.: Better Business Bureau of WNY Inc.

Buckle, A., D. Farrington, J. Burrows, M. Speed, and T. Burns-

Howell (1992). "Measuring Shoplifting by Repeated
Systematic Counting." Security Journal 3(3):137–146.

Budden, M. (1999). Preventing Shoplifting Without Being Sued:

Practical Advice for Retail Executives. Westport, Conn.:
Quorum Books.

Burrows, J. (1988). Retail Crime: Prevention Through Crime

Analysis. Crime Prevention Unit, Paper 11. London: Home
Office Crime Prevention Unit.

Clarke, R. (1999). Hot Products: Understanding, Anticipating and

Reducing the Demand for Stolen Goods. Police Research Series,
Paper 112. London: Home Office.

DiLonardo, R. (1996). "Defining and Measuring the

Economic Benefit of Electronic Article Surveillance."
Security Journal 7(1):3–9.
40 Shoplifting

DiLonardo, R., and R. Clarke (1996). "Reducing the Rewards

of Shoplifting: An Evaluation of Ink Tags." Security Journal
7(1):11–14.

Ekblom, P. (1986). The Prevention of Shop Theft: An Approach

Through Crime Analysis. Crime Prevention Unit, Paper 5.
London: Home Office Crime Prevention Unit.

Farrington, D. (1999). "Measuring, Explaining and Preventing

Shoplifting: A Review of British Research." Security Journal
12(1):9–27.

Farrington, D., S. Bowen, A. Buckle, T. Burns-Howell, J.

Burrows and M. Speed (1993). "An Experiment on the
Prevention of Shoplifting." Crime Prevention Studies, Vol. 1.
Monsey, N.Y.: Criminal Justice Press.

Handford, M. (1994). "Electronic Tagging in Action: A Case

Study in Retailing." In M. Gill (ed.), Crime at Work: Studies in
Security and Crime Prevention, Vol. 1. Leicester, England:
Perpetuity Press.

Hayes, R. (1999). "Shop Theft: An Analysis of Shoplifter

Perceptions and Situational Factors." Security Journal
12(2):7–118.

(1997). "Retail Theft: An Analysis of Apprehended

Shoplifters." Security Journal 8(3):233–246.

(1993). Retail Security and Loss Prevention. Boston:

Butterworth-Heinemann.

Hobson, K. (2001). "Hey, Security Tag Makers: You're It."

U.S. News & World Report, May 14, p. 34.

Hope, T. (1991). "Crime Information in Retailing: Prevention

Through Analysis." Security Journal 2(4):240–245.
 References 41

Klemke, L. (1992). The Sociology of Shoplifting: Boosters and

Snitches Today. Westport, Conn.: Praeger Publishers.

Krasnovsky, T., and R. Lane (1998). "Shoplifting: A Review of

the Literature." Aggression and Violent Behavior 3(3):219–235.

Lo, L. (1994). "Exploring Teenage Shoplifting Behavior: A

Choice-and-Constraint Approach." Environment and Behavior
26(5):613–639.

McCulloch, H. (1996). Shop Theft: Improving the Police Response.

Crime Detection and Prevention Series, Paper 76. London:
Home Office.

McNees, M., D. Egli, R. Marshall, J. Schnelle, and T. Risley

(1976). "Shoplifting Prevention: Providing Information
Through Signs." Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis
9(4):399–405.

Nelson, A., R. Bromley and C. Thomas (1996). "The

Geography of Shoplifting in a British City: Evidence From
Cardiff." Geoforum 27(3):409–423.

Nelson, D., and S. Perrone (2000). "Understanding and

Controlling Retail Theft." Trends and Issues in Criminal Justice.
Canberra, Australia: Australian Institute of Criminology.

Sacco, V. (1985). "Shoplifting Prevention: The Role of

Communication-Based Intervention Strategies." Canadian
Journal of Criminology 27(1):15–29.

Sherman, L., and P. Gartin (1986). Differential Recidivism: A

Field Experiment on the Specific Sanction Effects of Arrest for
Shoplifting. Washington, D.C.: Crime Control Institute.

Walsh, D. (1978). Shoplifting: Controlling a Major Crime. London:

Macmillan Press Ltd.
 About the Author 43

About the Author

Ronald V. Clarke

Ronald V. Clarke is a professor at the School of Criminal

Justice, Rutgers University. He previously headed the British
government's criminological research department, where he
had a significant role in developing situational crime
prevention and the British Crime Survey. Clarke is the
founding editor of Crime Prevention Studies, and his publications
include Designing Out Crime (HMSO 1980), The Reasoning
Criminal (Springer-Verlag 1986), Business and Crime Prevention
(Criminal Justice Press 1997), and Situational Crime Prevention:
Successful Case Studies (Harrow and Heston 1997). Together
with Herman Goldstein, he has recently been working on
problem-oriented policing projects for the Charlotte-
Mecklenburg (N.C.) Police Department. Since 1998, he has
chaired the selection committee for the annual Herman
Goldstein Award for Excellence in Problem-Oriented
Policing. Clarke holds a docorate in psychology from the
University of London.
 Recommended Readings 45

Recommended Readings

• A Police Guide to Surveying Citizens and Their

Environments, Bureau of Justice Assistance, 1993. This
guide offers a practical introduction for police practitioners
to two types of surveys that police find useful: surveying
public opinion and surveying the physical environment. It
provides guidance on whether and how to conduct cost-
effective surveys.

• Assessing Responses to Problems: An

Introductory Guide for Police Problem-Solvers, by
John E. Eck (U.S. Department of Justice, Office of
Community Oriented Policing Services, 2001). This guide is
a companion to the Problem-Oriented Guides for Police series. It
provides basic guidance to measuring and assessing
problem-oriented policing efforts.

• Conducting Community Surveys, by Deborah Weisel

(Bureau of Justice Statistics and Office of Community
Oriented Policing Services, 1999). This guide, along with
accompanying computer software, provides practical, basic
pointers for police in conducting community surveys. The
document is also available at www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs.

• Crime Prevention Studies, edited by Ronald V. Clarke

(Criminal Justice Press, 1993, et seq.). This is a series of
volumes of applied and theoretical research on reducing
opportunities for crime. Many chapters are evaluations of
initiatives to reduce specific crime and disorder problems.
46 Shoplifting

• Excellence in Problem-Oriented Policing: The 1999

Herman Goldstein Award Winners.. This document
produced by the National Institute of Justice in
collaboration with the Office of Community Oriented
Policing Services and the Police Executive Research Forum
provides detailed reports of the best submissions to the
annual award program that recognizes exemplary problem-
oriented responses to various community problems. A
similar publication is available for the award winners from
2000. The documents are also available at
www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij.

• Not Rocket Science? Problem-Solving and Crime

Reduction, by Tim Read and Nick Tilley (Home Office
Crime Reduction Research Series, 2000). Identifies and
describes the factors that make problem-solving effective or
ineffective as it is being practiced in police forces in
England and Wales.

• Opportunity Makes the Thief: Practical Theory for

Crime Prevention, by Marcus Felson and Ronald V.
Clarke (Home Office Police Research Series, Paper No. 98,
1998). Explains how crime theories such as routine activity
theory, rational choice theory and crime pattern theory have
practical implications for the police in their efforts to
prevent crime.

• Problem-Oriented Policing, by Herman Goldstein

(McGraw-Hill, 1990, and Temple University Press, 1990).
Explains the principles and methods of problem-oriented
policing, provides examples of it in practice, and discusses
how a police agency can implement the concept.
 Recommended Readings 47

• Problem-Oriented Policing: Reflections on the

First 20 Years, by Michael S. Scott (U.S. Department of
Justice, Office of Community Oriented Policing Services,
2000). Describes how the most critical elements of
Herman Goldstein's problem-oriented policing model have
developed in practice over its 20-year history, and proposes
future directions for problem-oriented policing. The report
is also available at www.cops.usdoj.gov.

• Problem-Solving: Problem-Oriented Policing in

Newport News, by John E. Eck and William Spelman
(Police Executive Research Forum, 1987). Explains the
rationale behind problem-oriented policing and the
problem-solving process, and provides examples of
effective problem-solving in one agency.

• Problem-Solving Tips: A Guide to Reducing Crime

and Disorder Through Problem-Solving
Partnerships by Karin Schmerler, Matt Perkins, Scott
Phillips, Tammy Rinehart, and Meg Townsend (U.S.
Department of Justice, Office of Community Oriented
Policing Services, 1998) (also available at
www.cops.usdoj.gov). Provides a brief introduction to
problem-solving, basic information on the SARA model
and detailed suggestions about the problem-solving process.

• Situational Crime Prevention: Successful Case

Studies, Second Edition, edited by Ronald V. Clarke
(Harrow and Heston, 1997). Explains the principles and
methods of situational crime prevention, and presents over
20 case studies of effective crime prevention initiatives.
48 Shoplifting

• Tackling Crime and Other Public-Safety Problems:

Case Studies in Problem-Solving, by Rana Sampson
and Michael S. Scott (U.S. Department of Justice, Office of
Community Oriented Policing Services, 2000) (also available
at www.cops.usdoj.gov). Presents case studies of effective
police problem-solving on 18 types of crime and disorder
problems.

• Using Analysis for Problem-Solving: A Guidebook

for Law Enforcement, by Timothy S. Bynum (U.S.
Department of Justice, Office of Community Oriented
Policing Services, 2001). Provides an introduction for
police to analyzing problems within the context of
problem-oriented policing.

• Using Research: A Primer for Law Enforcement

Managers, Second Edition, by John E. Eck and Nancy G.
LaVigne (Police Executive Research Forum, 1994). Explains
many of the basics of research as it applies to police
management and problem-solving.
 Other Guides in This Series 49

Other Guides in This Series

Problem-Oriented Guides for Police series:

1. Assaults in and Around Bars. Michael S. Scott. 2001.

2. Street Prostitution. Michael S. Scott. 2001.
3. Speeding in Residential Areas. Michael S. Scott. 2001.
4. Drug Dealing in Privately Owned Apartment Complexes.
Rana Sampson. 2001.
5. False Burglar Alarms. Rana Sampson. 2001.
6. Disorderly Youth in Public Places. Michael S. Scott. 2001.
7. Loud Car Stereos. Michael S. Scott. 2001.
8. Robbery at Automated Teller Machines. Michael S. Scott. 2001.
9. Graffiti. Deborah Lamm Weisel. 2002.
10. Thefts of and From Cars in Parking Facilities. Ronald V.
Clarke. 2002.
11. Shoplifting. Ronald V. Clarke. 2002.
12. Bullying in Schools. Rana Sampson. 2002.
13. Panhandling. Michael S. Scott. 2002.
14. Rave Parties. Michael S. Scott. 2002.
15. Burglary of Retail Establishments. Ronald V. Clarke. 2002.
16. Clandestine Drug Labs. Michael S. Scott. 2002.
17. Acquaintance Rape of College Students. Rana Sampson. 2002.
18. Burglary of Single-Family Houses. Deborah Lamm Weisel.
2002.
19. Misuse of 911. Rana Sampson. 2002.

Companion guide to the Problem-Oriented Guides for Police series:

• Assessing Responses to Problems: An Introductory Guide for

Police Problem-Solvers. John E. Eck. 2002.
50 Shoplifting

Other Related COPS Office Publications

• Using Analysis for Problem-Solving: A Guidebook for Law

Enforcement. Timothy S. Bynum. 2001.
• Problem-Oriented Policing: Reflections on the First 20 Years.
Michael S. Scott. 2001.
• Tackling Crime and Other Public-Safety Problems: Case
Studies in Problem-Solving. Rana Sampson and Michael S.
Scott. 2000.
• Community Policing, Community Justice, and Restorative
Justice: Exploring the Links for the Delivery of a Balanced
Approach to Public Safety. Caroline G. Nicholl. 1999.
• Toolbox for Implementing Restorative Justice and Advancing
Community Policing. Caroline G. Nicholl. 2000.
• Problem-Solving Tips: A Guide to Reducing Crime and
Disorder Through Problem-Solving Partnerships. Karin
Schmerler, Matt Perkins, Scott Phillips, Tammy Rinehart, and Meg
Townsend. 1998.

For more information about the Problem-Oriented Guides for Police series
and other COPS Office publications, please call the Department of
Justice Response Center at 1-800-421-6770 or check our website at
www.cops.usdoj.gov.
 FOR MORE INFORMATION:

U.S. Department of Justice

Office of Community Oriented Policing Services
1100 Vermont Avenue, NW
Washington, D.C. 20530

To obtain details on COPS programs, call the

U.S. Department of Justice Response Center at 1.800.421.6770

Visit the COPS internet web site at the address listed below.
e10011345 Created Date: January 24, 2002

www.cops.usdoj.gov