Journal of Archaeological Science 36 (2009) 2184–2191

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Journal of Archaeological Science

journal homepage: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/jas

Atlantic salmon, archaeology and climate change in New England

Brian S. Robinson a, *, George L. Jacobson b, Martin G. Yates c, Arthur E. Spiess d, Ellen R. Cowie e
a
Department of Anthropology and Climate Change Institute, University of Maine, Orono ME, 04469, United States
b
Department of Biological Sciences and Climate Change Institute, University of Maine, Orono ME, 04469, United States
c
Department of Earth Sciences, University of Maine, Orono ME, 04469, United States
d
Maine Historic Preservation Commission, State House Station 65, Augusta ME, 04333, United States
e
Archaeology Research Center, University of Maine at Farmington, Farmington ME, 04938, United States

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: A paucity of archaeological remains of Atlantic salmon in Northeast North America has been cited as
Received 28 March 2009 evidence that the species may have been present in the region only during and after the Little Ice Age
Received in revised form (ca. 1450–1850 AD), one of coldest periods of the Holocene. However, significant problems of preser-
24 May 2009
vation, recovery and identification remain. Here, improved methods of identification use vertebra
Accepted 2 June 2009
structure to distinguish salmon from trout, and strontium/calcium ratios to differentiate sea-run from
landlocked salmon. In addition to the Little Ice Age, Atlantic salmon is identified in tightly dated contexts
Keywords:
at 7000–6500 and 3500–3000 calendar years BP, during climate periods that were comparatively warm
Atlantic salmon
Calcined bone and wet.
Strontium Ó 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Northeast
Climate change

1. Introduction to restore salmon in rivers where their numbers are depleted. ‘‘The
general lack of success in salmon restoration programs over the
Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) was historically distributed in last two centuries, despite fish ladders and habitat improvement,
North American rivers from the Canadian Arctic to the Housatonic suggests a more fundamental ecological cause for impoverished
River in Connecticut and possibly the Hudson River in New York salmon runs in New England than an anthropogenic one’’ (Carlson,
(Fig. 1, Dunfield, 1985:9). Over the past century, salmon stocks have 1995:22).
been dwindling precipitously in most of the southern rivers. There can be little doubt that modern human impacts have been
Numerous factors may be responsible, representing both human devastating for anadromous species in many rivers (Saunders et al.,
activities and climate change, including dams, land clearing, 2006:542). At Old Town, Maine it was reported that ‘‘the fish called
overfishing, pollution, water temperature, predator ecology and salmon shad and Alewives were abundantly plenty in the Penob-
marine survival (Fay et al., 2006:113, 174; National Research Council scot River until about 1813,’’ but that by about 1820 there were
(NRC), 2004:47; Saunders et al., 2006:537). ‘‘scarce any to be taken in the season of the year when they are
A previous review of Northeast archaeology yielded so little most plenty,’’ the depletion attributed largely to introduction of
evidence of prehistoric salmon that it was hypothesized ‘‘salmon tidal fish weirs (Butterfield, 1822). The Penobscot Indians peti-
did not begin to colonize New England streams until the historic tioned the state legislature repeatedly to preserve fishing grounds
period, corresponding to a more favorable period of climate when the earliest dams were constructed (Pawling, 2007:17).
cooling known as the Little Ice Age’’ (Carlson, 1995:19; also cited in However, the relative impacts of human and environmental factors
National Research Council (NRC), 2004:48), probably the coldest for each species are obscured because accurate estimates of
and wettest period of the Holocene epoch (Mayewski et al., 2004; distribution and abundance are from times after human impacts
Schauffler and Jacobson, 2002). If salmon colonization was were ongoing (Saunders et al., 2006:538).
enabled by this cold period, it suggests salmon had low tolerance Archaeology documents human exploitation prior to modern
for warmer water temperatures or low river flows at the southern human impacts, requiring consideration of additional factors
limit of salmon range in New England, bearing on modern efforts influencing the archaeological record such as procurement and
processing practices, preservation, recovery methods and problems
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ1 207 581 2174; fax: þ1 207 581 1823. of identification. In the Northeast, Atlantic salmon must be distin-
E-mail address: [email protected] (B.S. Robinson). guished from other members of the salmonid family largely from

0305-4403/$ – see front matter Ó 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jas.2009.06.001
 B.S. Robinson et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 36 (2009) 2184–2191 2185

Fig. 1. Rivers in New England that currently support Atlantic salmon and those that did so historically. Archaeological sites with Atlantic salmon bone (solid triangles): 1) Sharrow;
2) Norridgewock, Tracy Farm and Sandy River; 3) Fort Halifax; 4) Kidder Point; and 5) Turner Farm. The open triangle 6) is the Sebasticook Fish Weir site. Base map from Atlantic
Salmon Federation, 1990.

small fragments of burned (calcined) bone preserved on interior Except for a few references to Pacific species, ‘‘salmon’’ in this paper
riverine sites (Spiess, 1992). We propose that salmon is one of signifies the northeastern species, qualified as Atlantic or land-
relatively few taxa in the Northeast that can be identified to species locked salmon when appropriate. Other native members of the
using minute aspects of bone structure, enhancing recognition in salmonid family in New England are all of one genus, including lake
calcined bone samples. Distinguishing Atlantic from landlocked trout (Salvelinus namaycush), brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) and
salmon is accomplished with electron microprobe analysis of Arctic char (Salvelinus alpinus) (Kendall, 1914). All references to
strontium and calcium, a method (used extensively by fisheries trout refer to this genus unless otherwise stated.
biologists) that can be carried out on single vertebra. With The relationship between rich salmon resources and cultural
improved identification, we begin the process of discerning climate complexity on the Northwest Coast of North America is well
correlations in the Holocene epoch. known, where five species of Pacific salmon (genus Oncorhynchus)
run at different times of the year. In contrast, the Northeast has only
2. Background and previous research one species running in spring and summer, decreasing the relative
importance of salmon compared to other fish (Carlson,
S. salar, the only species of salmon native to New England 1988:71–73). Carlson’s study of 75 Northeastern archaeological
waters, occurs in two varieties. Freshwater landlocked salmon sites yielded ‘‘only two possible salmon vertebrae at Kidder Point
occurred in four large oligotrophic lakes in Maine at the time of and Lindquist and possibly two at Frazer Point (all of which may be
European arrival (Sebago, Green, West Grand, and Sebec; Warner trout),’’ leading to the hypothesis of late colonization in the Little
and Havey, 1985). The anadromous Atlantic salmon spends most of Ice Age (Carlson, 1992, 1995:19, 24). However, only 20 of the 75 sites
its life at sea, returning to freshwater rivers to spawn. Young included in the study were located on interior rivers, where salmon
Atlantic salmon (parr) spend two to three years in fresh water would more likely have been intercepted (Carlson, 1992:121;
before returning to the sea (Bigelow and Schroeder, 1953:123). National Research Council (NRC), 2004:48).
2186 B.S. Robinson et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 36 (2009) 2184–2191

Interior faunal samples are largely restricted to calcined (4) Salmon vertebrae often shatter when burned, making screen
(burned) bone which greatly increases the need for fine-screening. size particularly important. In the recent analysis of Sharrow
Carlson’s (1986:176, 178) own study of fine-screened samples from sample 16168, four salmon fragments (18%) came from
Maine’s coastal shell middens was extensive, but in fairness, few 1/8-inch screen, 18 (82%) from 1/16-inch screen and none
fine-screened analyses of calcined fish bone from interior sites had from 1/4-inch screen. Spiess (1992) analyzed a much larger
been published at the time and 1/4-inch screen was considered portion of the Sharrow site faunal sample that had been
adequate to identify the comparatively large salmon vertebrae screened through 1/4-inch screen, recovering two calcined
(Carlson, 1992:12). Of the 20 interior sites in the study, three had salmon vertebrae (including Fig. 2c). At the Norridgewock
no fish identified beyond class, and eight yielded only one species Mission, Tracy Farm and Sandy River sites, rare unburned
of fish. Only two sites, Lindquist in Maine and Augustine Mound in salmon bone included six fragments (11%) from 1/4-inch
New Brunswick, produced possible or confident salmon (Carlson, screen, 33 fragments (62%) from 1/8-inch screen and 14
1992:123, 125), but other diadromous fish were not particularly (26%) from 1/16-inch screen. In the calcined sample from the
common either. Five sites had shad, three had alewife, and two same sites there were no salmon fragments in 1/4-inch
had eel (Carlson, 1992:121–128). The case for or against salmon is screen, 15 (23%) from 1/8-inch screen and 50 (77%) from
not strongly made by these data sets. Salmon has been under- 1/16-inch screen.
recognized in other regions, followed by increased recognition
associated with finer recovery techniques (Casteel, 1976:92; Mat-
sui, 1996). 3. Identification of S. salar based on vertebra structure
Additional salmonid bone has been identified since Carlson’s
study. The Sharrow site is deeply stratified on the upper Penobscot In the salmonid family as a whole, salmon and trout often
River drainage (Fig. 1) with occupation spanning the Holocene represent the saltwater and freshwater equivalents of the same
epoch (Petersen, 1991). Spiess identified two nearly intact calcined genus and ‘‘anatomical similarity prevents species-level identi-
vertebrae as likely Atlantic salmon, one in Feature 17 radiocarbon fication of most salmonid elements’’ (Butler and Chatters,
dated to 5900  100 BP and 6000  130 BP (6978–6478 and 1994:414). Identification is particularly difficult on the Northwest
7231–6507 Cal BP, 2s, Petersen, 1991:47; Spiess, 1992:176). Coast where the genus Oncorhynchus includes multiple species of
A fine-screened sample from this extensive feature was recently both salmon and trout, and DNA has been used for species
analyzed by Robinson, producing 21 fragments of large salmonid identification (Yang et al., 2004). Although the single species of
vertebra. The Turner Farm site on North Haven Island in Penobscot native salmon in the Northeast is a different genus from the trout
Bay has a rare Late Archaic period shell midden that produced two and char, archaeologists have conservatively limited identifica-
large unburned salmon vertebrae dated to ca. 3800–4500 radio- tion to the family name ‘‘large salmonid,’’ referring to either
carbon years BP (Bourque, 1995:89; Spiess and Lewis, 2001:91, 92). salmon or trout, except when specimens were sufficiently
The Fort Halifax site near the head of tide on the Kennebec River complete that vertebra size, combined with typical riverine
(Fig. 1) had rapidly deposited strata, including Level D dated to habitat were used to identify probable Atlantic salmon (Spiess
3100  80 14C BP (Beta 30913, 3477–3075 Cal BP). Spiess identified and Hedden, 1983:98; Spiess, 1992:176). In this paper we
two large salmon vertebra fragments in Level D and a third vertebra conclude that S. salar and Salvelinus sp. can be distinguished on
in Late Ceramic (Late Woodland) period strata. the basis of distinctive bone structure (especially the distinctive
The Norridgewock Mission and Tracy Farm sites on the upper rim fragments) without the need of overall element morphology
Kennebec River had Contact period storage pits and post-molds of (although small fragments are easily overlooked because they
the 17th and early 18th century, yielding 114 fragments of burned resemble cancellous mammal bone).
and unburned large salmonid vertebrae from fine-screened Salmon vertebrae have a complex lattice of branching trabec-
samples. The nearby Sandy River site produced four fragments of ulae forming an open cell-like pattern around the cylindrical
large salmonid from a stratum attributed to the 15th or 16th centrum (Nordvik et al., 2005:109; Fig. 2a, UM F6, centrum width
century (Cowie, 2002; Robinson and Cowie, 1992; Stewart, 2001). 12.7 mm). The cells toward the rim of vertebra tend to be equal in
With the salmon vertebra from the previously noted Kidder size, forming one or more uniform rows. This structure is also
Point site on Penobscot Bay (Spiess and Hedden, 1983:98), these characteristic of the genus Oncorhynchus (Pacific salmon), which
seven sites are now among the accepted occurrences of archaeo- contributes to the problem of identification on the Northwest
logical salmon in Maine (Fig. 1). The list of sites producing salmon is Coast. In S. salar the outer rim is flat, having an acute juncture with
still small, in part because the requisite preservation and recovery the interior surface of the centrum.
factors are reasonably demanding: The vertebrae of adult lake trout (S. namaycush) are more
strongly ribbed along the length of the centrum, with the cells
(1) Salmon was exploited only at selected sites. The distance recessed between the ribs, becoming more filled with increased age
anadromous salmon migrate upstream depends on the loca- (Fig. 2b, UM-F44 centrum width 7.6 mm). The overall form of the
tion of barrier waterfalls, which may change over time with vertebra is more constricted than in salmon. Adult lake trout
rising sea level. Interior and coastal human occupation sites are vertebrae lack the uniform row of cells around the centrum, and the
often seasonally specific, with only a portion occupied during rim is ridged as opposed to flat.
salmon runs (Sanger, 1996). These criteria appear sufficient to distinguish salmon from trout
(2) Fish remains must be disposed of in fire (in order to enhance on small fragments from adult fish, but the distinction is less clear
bone preservation in New England’s acid soils) and disposal on young fish. Young salmon vertebrae have the open cell-like
habits vary by species for different cultures and temporal pattern of the adults, but the cells near the rim are fewer and more
periods (Sanger, 2003; Spiess, 1992). varied in size. As the fish grows, the cell-pattern remains open and
(3) Preservation of calcined fish bone is often restricted to rapidly becomes more regular as smaller cells are added in rows at the edge
buried contexts, either in deep pits or deeply stratified sites. of the growing centrum. In young trout, the cell-like pattern is more
Shallow sites, even those located on ideal fishing locations, open than in adults and more similar to salmon, becoming more
often produce abundant calcined mammal bone but little or no filled and robust as the vertebra grows. Thus it is more difficult to
fish bone, regardless of the screen size used. distinguish salmon from trout in young fish.
 B.S. Robinson et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 36 (2009) 2184–2191 2187

Fig. 2. Modern Atlantic salmon (a, i) and lake trout (b), and archaeological salmon from the Sharrow site (c–h, j). Small calcined salmon fragments (d–h) are from sample UMF
16168. The large calcined vertebra (c, j) is UMF 1389F1. Brackets on polished sections (i, j) show location of microprobe transects.

4. Identification of Atlantic salmon based on strontium/ 30% (Grupe and Hummel, 1991:178; Spiess, 1992:164). Trace
calcium analysis elements are affected differently by burning. The proportion of Ca
and Sr in bone apatite increases with increased temperature in
We are left with the problem of distinguishing Atlantic from a predictable fashion, suggesting that Sr/Ca is one of few trace
landlocked salmon. The relative proportions of strontium (Sr) and element relationships that survives burning (Grupe and Hummel,
calcium (Ca) in bone can be used to distinguish terrestrial or fresh- 1991:181).
water species from marine species because strontium replaces The first experiment on the Sharrow bone sample (UMF 16168)
calcium in bone and seawater contains a higher proportion of was to test for a general difference in the Sr/Ca ratio for freshwater
strontium than most freshwater sources (Bentley, 2006:140), but the and saltwater species. The sample included all bone fragments from
relationships are not simple. Otolith analysis for Atlantic salmon one 50  50  10 cm block of Feature 17 (25 l). The use of bone
demonstrates systematic increase in strontium between freshwater fragments from the same provenience is intended to equalize the
and saltwater stages of life, with average increase in Sr/Ca ratio from effect of groundwater contamination, if any (Bentley, 2006:163).
1.25  103 to 1.87  103 (Friedland et al., 1998:1163), but with The sample included 13,032 bone fragments (142 g) including 3737
increasing strontium also associated with increasing maturity (Clarke fragments of fish (12.2 g). No fish was recovered from 1/4-inch
and Friedland, 2004:756). In burned bone, calcium phosphate in the screen, 10% came from 1/8-inch screen and 90% from 1/16-inch
form of hydroxyapatite is recrystallized to b-tricalciumphosphate at screen. The fish bone included 123 identified fragments from at
temperatures above 600–800  C, accompanied by shrinkage of up to least six species with 21 vertebra fragments of salmon. The most
2188 B.S. Robinson et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 36 (2009) 2184–2191

abundantly identified fish was American eel (Anguilla rostrata,

n ¼ 47) although the meaning of element counts is obscured
because different species contrast strongly in the number of iden-
tifiable elements. Bone fragments from three freshwater fish,
brown bullhead (Ameiurus nebulosus), chub/minnow (family
Cyprinidae) and brook trout (S. fontinalis) were compared with
anadromous alewife or shad (genus Alosa) and salmon. The
assumption was that Alosa and salmon should have higher Sr/Ca
ratios than the freshwater fish, and that clearly higher ratios for
salmon would support a marine rather than landlocked origin.
Twelve fish bone fragments (including some duplicates) were
tested for Sr/Ca ratios using the electron microprobe (Fig. 3A). All
were vertebra or occipital fragments (chosen to equalize bone
density) except for a pectoral spine of brown bullhead (Fig. 3A, #6)
and a prootic bula fragment of shad/alewife (Fig. 3A, #8). The
samples were embedded in epoxy, ground and polished. Sr and Ca
were analyzed using the University of Maine’s Cameca SX-100
electron microprobe with a 15 kV, 10 nA, 5 mm electron beam. Due
to the low concentration, Sr was measured simultaneously on four
PET crystal spectrometers with a total counting time of 70 sec while
calcium was measured for 5 sec on one PET crystal spectrometer.
The X-ray data was converted to weight percent ratios using apatite
and celestite standards for Ca and Sr, respectively, and by assuming
38% oxygen and 18.4% phosphorus. The errors reported on Fig. 3A
were calculated from replicate analyses while errors reported in
Fig. 3B were calculated from X-ray counting statistics.
At least 10 microprobe test locations were run on each sample.
Average readings for the freshwater group range from 1.40  0.24
to 2.33  0.29 (Sr/Ca ratio  1000). The three salmon specimens
returned readings of 2.84  0.10–3.61  0.18, higher than all the Fig. 3. A) Bar graph of microprobe results for calcined fish bone fragments from
freshwater species with no overlap at 1s. Taking the averages of the Sharrow site sample 16168. Specimens beginning with same sample number and
freshwater species and salmon, the ratio of 1:1.7 is consistent with a different letter (e.g., specimens #3A and 3B) are different fragments of the same bone
set vertically and horizontally. B) Sr/Ca ratios for microprobe transects measured from
the change from freshwater to saltwater in modern salmon otoliths
the interior to exterior edge of vertebra on modern Atlantic salmon (lower, UM F6) and
with a ratio of 1:1.5 (Friedland et al., 1998:1163). archaeological Atlantic salmon (upper 1389F1). Arrows show proposed transition from
The results for alewife/shad were unexpected and quite inter- fresh water to saltwater. Representative error bars (1s) are shown at right equal to
esting. The very low Sr/Ca ratio (1.58  0.16) was on a tiny atlas 12% of the Sr/Ca ratio for each point.
vertebra that was identified as a very small alewife but may be from
center of the vertebra for the modern and archaeological specimens
the freshwater-stage juvenile of either shad or alewife. In sharp
respectively, interpreted as the freshwater stage of the salmon parr.
contrast, the prootic bula fragment produced the highest Sr/Ca ratio
The relatively abrupt transition from fresh to salt water phases is
recorded, 6.49  0.33, perhaps related to the dense and specialized
similar to results obtained on modern otoliths, with variability in
nature of the bone structure.
later life presumably associated with life-cycle factors (Clarke and
Given the possibility of age-dependent factors that increase the
Friedland, 2004:749). The average Sr/Ca ratio between the
Sr/Ca ratio in adult Atlantic salmon (Clarke and Friedland, 2004),
proposed fresh and marine intervals on the Sharrow site specimen
we conducted a second test on one of the nearly complete salmon
is 2.28:3.13, compared to 1.90:3.23 for the ratio of the combined
vertebra, employing close interval transects of Sr/Ca ratios.
freshwater species to salmon (Fig. 3A). The modern vertebra
A vertebra originating from a salmon at the Chamcook Hatchery in
(Fig. 3B, lower) shows similar magnitudes of change, but the
New Brunswick (Fig. 2a, UM F6, 1978) and a nearly intact vertebra
absolute values are not directly comparable, probably because the
from Feature 14 of the Sharrow site (Fig. 2c, UMF 1389F1) were
sample was unburned bone.
embedded in epoxy and polished (Fig. 2i and j, respectively).
The results are consistent with the freshwater and marine
Hatchery and wild salmon both show increase in Sr upon entering
phases of Atlantic salmon growth, confirming that the early spec-
the marine environment (Friedland et al., 1998:1163). Microprobe
imens of salmon at the Sharrow site, dated to ca. 7000–6500 Cal BP,
transects began near the center of the vertebra to test for the
are Atlantic salmon and providing additional support that salmon
freshwater-stage growth of salmon parr, extending at wider inter-
bone found on active Atlantic salmon rivers or on marine bays and
vals to the outer rim. Salmon vertebrae have four growth layers,
islands, away from landlocked salmon habitat, are very likely to be
with only the third (compact lamellar) preserving sequential
Atlantic salmon. All specimens previously identified as ‘‘large
growth rings (Nordvik et al., 2005:106, 108). This thick layer was
salmonid,’’ for the seven sites listed above (Fig. 1) are S. salar, and
clearly visible in the modern vertebra facilitating transect place-
are very likely Atlantic salmon, although we are unable to evaluate
ment. Transect lengths for the modern and archaeological speci-
other published references to ‘‘large salmonid.’’
mens were 5.90 mm with 124 test locations, and 5.03 mm with 104
test locations. Three of 228 measurements were discarded due to
extreme negative or positive strontium measurements. The Sr/Ca 5. Discussion: salmon habitat and climate change
ratios are plotted against the distance from the center of the
vertebra (Fig. 3B). Water temperature is a critical control on salmon distribution at
The two transects show similar increases in Sr beginning most the southern edge of its range. Optimum growth of Atlantic salmon
abruptly at 0.56 mm (point 45) and 0.63 mm (point 35) from the juveniles occurs at 16–19  C, higher than any other salmonid
 B.S. Robinson et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 36 (2009) 2184–2191 2189

(Elliott, 1991). If constrained purely by freshwater thermal regimes,

Atlantic salmon should be found much farther south than their
current or historic distribution – as indicated by distribution of the
less heat-tolerant brook trout. However, the southern distribution
of brook trout is determined by cool groundwater, which is
confined to high-altitude Appalachian streams (Meisner, 1990).
High water temperatures may limit the distribution of anadromous
species by constraining opportunities for migration, rather than
growth. Temperatures of 27–29.5  C and higher have caused mass
mortalities of adult salmon on the Penobscot River and in rivers of
New Brunswick and Nova Scotia (Fay et al., 2006:114; Huntsman,
1946). The effects of water temperature are complicated, however,
because temperature varies within each river due to a variety of
natural and cultural factors, and salmon adjust the time and place
of migration and spawning to avoid warm water (Juanes et al.,
2004; Mather et al., 2008). The Kennebec and Penobscot rivers in
Maine, among other rivers, span a transition zone in modern
vegetation distribution, with headwaters located in cooler upland
environments (Schauffler and Jacobson, 2002:237). On the Con-
necticut River, localized basin temperatures were not simply
correlated with the north/south axis of the river and seasonal mean
temperatures were not necessarily biologically meaningful to
stream fish (Mather et al., 2008:187, 189). Local variability is
influenced by broader climate change, appropriate to the scale of
archeological time scales.
Calibrated dates for Atlantic salmon are compared to three
aspects of climate change including rapid climate change intervals Fig. 4. Salmon occurrences shown relative to rapid climate change intervals
(Mayewski et al., 2004), solar radiation changes (Kutzbach and Webb, 1993:6), and
(RCC), the summer insolation curve, and Holocene water level
periods of low water in the lakes and ponds of Maine (Dieffenbacher-Krall and Nurse,
changes for Maine (Fig. 4). Solar radiation is among the forcing 2005). All dates are calendar years before present with archaeological dates at 2s.
conditions of climate change with increases of 2–4  C above
present summer temperatures in continental regions for the period
between 12,000 and 6000 Cal BP (Kutzbach and Webb, 1993:6), 2002:237). Thus the Fort Halifax salmon falls within a general trend
although coastal regions surrounding the Gulf of Maine would have of cooler and wetter climate, but before the more extreme trends of
been cooler. Paleoecological evidence of fire-adapted vegetation the Little Ice Age.
and an abundance of microscopic charcoal in Maine lake sediments The Sharrow site salmon, at ca. 7000–6500 Cal BP, falls between
from the early Holocene provide evidence of the strong influence of two periods of rapid climate change (Fig. 4e and f) during a some-
the precession-related summer insolation (Jacobson and what warmer period, but at a time of contrasting climate patterns.
Dieffenbacher-Krall, 1995). The RCC interval between 9000 and 8000 Cal BP encompasses the
Correlations of multiple climate proxies demonstrate variability 8200 BP cold event when cold air masses were influenced by the
of Holocene climate including six intervals of rapid climate change large continental ice sheets that were still present (Mayewski et al.,
‘‘at 9000–8000, 6000–5000, 4200–3800, 3500–2500, 1200–1000, 2004:248). In Maine, this cold period was also dry, associated with
and since 600 Cal BP’’ (Mayewski et al., 2004:246). These intervals low water levels in ponds and lakes (Fig. 4, Dieffenbacher-Krall and
are generally associated with cooler periods and glacial advances, Nurse, 2005:305). Subsequently the climate became warmer and
and are strongly correlated with concentrations of sea salt and wetter, with some ponds and lakes reaching their highest levels to
terrestrial dust in the Greenland ice cores, indicative of storminess. date between 8000 and 7000 Cal BP (Dieffenbacher-Krall and
The impacts are global in scale but regionally variable (Mayewski Nurse, 2005:305). For example, the water level of Sebasticook Lake
et al., 2004:245), representing important shifts from one climate on a tributary of the Kennebec River (Fig. 1) was up to 9 m below
configuration to another. modern lake level during the early Holocene. This was well below
The most recent RCC interval, after 1400 AD (Fig. 4a), is associated the elevation of the lake outlet, cutting off access to all anadromous
with the Little Ice Age when there was widespread expansion of fish in this lake (Miller, 2006:103). The lake rose to modern levels
spruce in the Great Lakes – New England region (Schauffler and between 7300 and 6700 Cal BP (6100  120 14C BP, Petersen et al.,
Jacobson, 2002:237). Existing mountain glaciers expanded more 1994:210), at about the same time as the occurrence of salmon at
than at any other time of the past 10,000 years (Davis, 1988; Karlén, the Sharrow site. Although not likely built for salmon, a fish weir
1988). Certainly this cold period was favorable to Atlantic salmon, was established on an inlet of Sebasticook Lake between 6800 and
influencing the historical record and impressions of salmon abun- 6500 Cal BP (5820  60 14C yrs BP) (Miller, 2006:103:Table A.1;
dance. The significant presence of Atlantic salmon on multiple Petersen et al., 1994:210) shortly after the rise in lake level.
archaeological sites on the upper Kennebec River during the 17th It is not known whether the prevalence of archaeological
and 18th centuries provides an important baseline for archaeolog- salmon in Maine compared to southern New England is correlated
ical visibility in Native American contexts during the Little Ice Age. with environmental factors or the greater occurrence of rapidly
The salmon from Fort Halifax at ca. 3500–3100 Cal BP overlaps buried occupation sites in Maine. At least on the Gulf of Maine,
with both a period of RCC (Fig. 4c) and a general period of cooling salmon was not restricted to the low atmospheric temperatures of
and increasing water levels at the end of the cool and dry period in the Little Ice Age, but occurred in the middle Holocene at times
Maine, between about 4800 and 3300 Cal BP (Fig. 4, Dieffenbacher- when temperatures were likely higher than during recent times.
Krall and Nurse, 2005:305). Spruce forests expanded more-or-less Importantly, the few salmon identified thus far are associated with
continuously after about 3000 years ago (Schauffler and Jacobson, periods of higher lake levels (and presumably higher flows in
2190 B.S. Robinson et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 36 (2009) 2184–2191

streams and rivers). We do not have sufficient evidence to interpret Dieffenbacher-Krall, A.C., Nurse, A.M., 2005. Late-Glacial and Holocene record of
lake levels of Mathews Pond and Whitehead Lake, northern Maine, USA. Journal
intervening periods. Access to upriver tributaries, higher rates of
of Paleolimnology 34 (3), 283–309.
flow, and scheduling of migration and spawning may have miti- Dunfield, R.W., 1985. The Atlantic Salmon in the History of North America, vol. 80.
gated the effects of warmer climate to some degree, accompanied Canadian Special Publication in Fisheries and Aquatic Science, Ottawa.
by range shifts associated with climate change and local conditions. Elliott, J.M., 1991. Tolerance and resistance to thermal stress in juvenile Atlantic
salmon, Salmo salar. Freshwater Biology 25, 61–70.
This does not reduce the importance of climate change, but Fay, C., Bartron, M., Craig, S., Hecht, A., Pruden, J., Saunders, R., Sheehan, T., Trial, J.,
emphasizes that climate change overlies already severe human 2006. Status Review for Anadromous Atlantic Salmon (Salmo salar) in the
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