AP 3456 Avionics

DO NOT DISTRIBUTE AP 3456
Volume 4
AVIONICS
The See-through HUD
Table of Contents
PAR SEC CHA TITLE

T T P
1 COMMUNICATIONS AND
ELECTRONIC WARFARE
1 Communications
1 LF, MF, and HF
Communications
2 V/UHF Communications
3 UHF Homing
4 UHF Homing
5 Radio Airborne Teletypewriter
System (RATT)
6 Voice Recorders
7 Satellite Communications
8 Data Link and Encryption
9 Central Suppression Systems
2 Electronic Warfare
1 Introduction to Electronic
Warfare (EW)
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2 Electronic Support Measures

(ESM)
3 Electronic Countermeasures
(ECM)
4 Electronic Protective Measures
(EPM)
2 NAVIGATION AIDS
1 Radio Navigation Aids
1 Principles of Direction Finding
2 Principles of VOR
3 Principles of TACAN and
DME
4 Principles of Hyberbolic
Navigation Systems
5 Introduction to DECCA
6 Introduction to LORAN C
7 Introduction to OMEGA
8 Global Positioning System
(GPS)
2 Approach Aids
1 Ground Controlled Approach
(GCA)
2 Instrument Landing System
(ILS)
3 SENSORS
1 Airborne Radar
1 Doppler Navigation Radar
2 Ground Mapping Radar
3 Terrain Following Radar
4 Sideways-looking Airborne
Radar
5 Weather Radar
6 Air Intercept Radar
7 Maritime Radar
8 IFF/SSR
9 Radar Altimeters
2 Electro-optical Systems
1 Television, Low-light
Television and Night Vision
Goggles
2 Infra-red Systems
3 Laser Rangefinder and Marked
Target Seeker
3 Acoustic and Magnetic
Systems
1 The Submarine Threat
2 Aircraft Acoustic Systems
3 Sonobuoys
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4 Fixing Techniques
5 Magnetic Anomaly Detection
Systems
COMMUNICATIONS AND ELECTRONIC WARFARE
Communications
Chapter 1 - LF, MF, and HF Communications
Introduction
1. The principles of High Frequency (HF), Medium Frequency (MF) and Low Frequency (LF) radio propagation and
communications are discussed in Vol 9, Pt 2, Sect 2, Chapters 1 and 2. This chapter describes the installation and operation of a
typical HF communications system and briefly mentions the uses of MF and LF systems.
Typical HF Installation
2. Fig 1 illustrates, in block schematic form a typical aircraft HF installation.
3. Control Unit. The control unit enables selection of the frequency and mode of operation of the equipment. Typically an HF
set is able to operate in the 2 - 30MHz range, usually in the single sideband (SSB) mode but may be able to operate in double
sideband (DSB) and CW modes. Channel spacing is in the order of 100Hz intervals (giving 280,000 channels) with some older
equipments more widely spaced. The power output of an HF set is between 100 and 400W in the SSB and 125 to 250 W in the
DSB and CW modes. The control unit will normally be installed in the cockpit although in some multi-crew aircraft it may be at
a rear station.
4. Aerial Tuning Unit. The aerial tuning unit or coupler antenna matches the transmitter and antenna to ensure efficient
radiation of maximum power from the aerial. Aerial matching is normally automatic the transmitter is keyed.
4-1-1-1 Fig 1 Typical HF Installation
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5. Tuning Indications. During the tuning cycle, course matching of transmitter and aerial takes place and, in some systems,
this causes the tuner to resonate. Failure to resonate produces a 1kHz audio warning tone which will continue to operate until
the frequency has been reselected. Other systems include a warning light which extinguishes when tuning has been
accomplished. Automatic fine tuning takes place during the first 0.5 seconds of each transmission.
Operation of HF Radio
6. Mode Selection. Some devices operate only on the upper sideband and have no other modes. However, on other
equipments the following modes may be selectable:
a. Upper Sideband (USB).
b. Lower Sideband (LSB).
c. Double Sideband (DSB).
d. Continuous Wave (CW).
e. Data Transmission (DATA) (eg RATT).
7. Frequency Selection. The required frequency is set by turning selector knobs until the desired frequency appears in the
indicator windows. Channels may be preselectable.
8. RF Sensitivity. A squelch switch or sensitivity controller facititates clearer reception. When the receiver sensitivity is high,
the signal plus any associated background noise will be amplified, and the noise may obscure the signal. In such cases the
squelch switch should be activated. Conversely when sensitivity is low the signal may not be detected. The squelch facility
should then be switched off or the RF sensitivity should be adjusted such that background noise is reduced just sufficiently to
permit clear reception.
9. Preparation for Use. To prepare the HF for use the mode is selected, and the frequency is then set. If the required
frequency was already set before switching on, it may be necessary to offset, then re-select the frequency to allow aerial tuning.

The equipment cannot be used until the 1 kHz tone stops or the tuning light has extinguished, indicating that the equipment is
ready for use. When aerial tuning is complete the RF sensitivity or squelch should be adjusted if background noise needs to be
removed.
10. CW Operation. Few modern aircraft require a Morse Code CW transmission facility but often make use of CW reception
for which the CW mode (if available) should be selected. Provided a Morse key is fitted, CW signals may be transmitted on the
appropriate SSB or DSB frequency. Such frequencies may be offset slightly by the equipment for efficient operation.
11. Radio Airborne Teletypewriter (RATT) Operation. (See also Chap 5). The RATT may transmit data via any selected
channel on HF using the upper sideband and is normally selected at the RATT modem.
12. Skywave Disturbances. Regardless of the efficiency of the equipment, reliable conmmunications on HF are only likely to
be achieved if the frequency is close to the optimum working frequency for the time/date/distance determined from radio
propagation charts or the Flight Information Handbook.
The Uses of Medium and Low Frequencies

13. Medium Frequency (MF). Medium frequencies using ground waves are very reliable when used for reception of
non-directional beacons and broadcast stations up to about 350 km. Sky wave results are unpredictable although occasional
reception can be achieved many thousands of km distant. MF is susceptible to atmospheric and electrical interference.
14. Low Frequency (LF). LF is used for long range transmission of digital data to aircraft fitted with teletype installations, and
certain global navigation systems (eg LORAN C). Very Low Frequencies (VLF) are ideal for communicating with submerged
submarines. The LF and VLF bands may also be subject to atmospheric interference caused by electrical discharges from clouds
and by interference from unsuppressed electrical apparatus.
Communications
Chapter 2 - V/UHF Communications
Introduction
1. Short range communication with aircraft normally takes place on frequencies in the very high frequency (VHF) or ultra high
frequency (UHF) bands at ranges of up to approximately 100 miles. The UHF frequency band is used exclusively for military
aircraft control, while VHF is used for both civil and military control purposes
2. The theoretical maximum range of V/UHF air-ground communications is the line-of-sight range which varies according to
the altitude of the aircraft. In practical terms, however, the maximum range of V/UHF communications is approximately 100 n
mls, although this may be extended by the use of remote relay slave sites. The maximum range reduces at lower aircraft
altitudes until, at ground level, ranges of a few miles are normal. Because transmitter power has little effect on range at V/UHF
frequencies aircraft transmitter output power is typically 20 watts or less.
3. On modern equipment there are over 1300 VHF and 7000 UHF channels available at 25 kHz spacing. The control switches
usually select and identify a channel by its frequency in MHz, although a channel number or letter may be used.
4. Because V/UHF equipment may be used to communicate over transmission path lengths varying from a few hundred metres
to around 100 n mls, use is made of automatic gain control (AGC) to maintain a constant receiver output and obviate the need
for continuous adjustment of the manual volume control.
5. The aerials for VHF and UHF equipments are quite small and can be placed almost anywhere on the aircraft. They may be
“suppressed” into the contours of the aircraft skin to reduce drag on high performance aircraft. An aircraft fuselage may block
radiation from aerials in certain directions and to overcome this problem two sets of aerials may be mounted on the aircraft, one
set on top and one set underneath. When two sets of aerials are installed the pilot is able to select which set to use by means of
an aerial change-over switch.
6. Within the equipment there are separate receiver channels which are tuned to the emergency frequencies 121.5 MHz, VHF
or 243 MHz UHF. These channels, known as GUARD channels, may be monitored by superimposing the output from the
GUARD receiver onto the frequency or pre-set channel selected (see para 8).
MAIN EQUIPMENT

V/UHF Installation
7. A V/UHF system is shown in Fig 1. The UHF and VHF transmitter/receiver units and interface and adaptor units are
mounted together. A single control unit is used to control both transmitter/receivers. The adaptor unit is needed to convert serial
data from the control unit to parallel data for the VHF. The adaptor unit also contains a 1 kHz oscillator to provide tone
transmissions which, with the aid of a simple code, can be used to communicate information when speech is not possible, ie
microphone failure, or, in tactical situations, where the use of speech is not advisable. The interface unit contains controls and
links to allow the use of carbon and electro-magnetic microphones and the emergency intercom. In multi-seat aircraft where
boom microphones are used the function of the interface unit may be carried out by the intercom system. A block schematic
diagram of a typical V/UHF installation is shown in Fig 2.
4-1-1-2 Fig 1 V/UHF Installation
4-1-1-2 Fig 2 Block Schematic Diagram of a Typical V/UHF Installation

Control Unit
8. A typical control unit incorporates controls and switches for the selection of function, mode and frequency.
a. Function. The required function may be selected from transmit-receive (T-R), transmit-receive + Guard (T-R+G),
transmit-receive + homing (T-R+H), or transmit receive + guard + homing (T-R+G+H). Homing is only available when a
UHF frequency is selected.
b. Mode. The mode of operation selected determines whether the equipment will operate on a manually selected
frequency (M), or the frequency of a pre-set channel (P). Pre-set channels, or STUDS, may be identified by a letter or
number. The VHF and UHF guard frequencies, 121.5 MHz and 243 MHz can be selected by placing the Mode Selector to
Gv or Gu as appropriate.
c. Manual Frequency Selection. Frequencies can be selected manually in increments of 100 MHz, 10 MHz, 1 MHz, 100
kHz and 25 kHz. The first five digits of the frequency are displayed.
There are also controls for volume and lighting dimmer.
EMERGENCY UHF
Introduction
9. There are several types of Emergency UHF transceivers in use. Their prime purpose is to enable communications on the
Emergency UHF frequency 243 MHz in the event of power or main radio failure. In addition, some installations allow operation
on between 1 and 4 other preset channels.
Leading Particulars
10. The standby radio frequency range spans 238 - 248 MHz. Apart from the guard frequency of 243 MHz, facilities allow
operation on an additional channel or channels, depending on radio type, between 241 and 245 MHz.
1
11. Although some installations include a separate, 2 wave aerial, when in use most transceivers are switched to the main UHF
antennas. On some installations, where the emergency system can be utilized simultaneously with the main transceiver, the
Emergency UHF is switched automatically to the non-selected aerial.
Power Supplies
12. The Emergency UHF requires 24V - 28V DC which is obtained from the aircraft power supply. In the event of its failure, a
24V battery continues to allow emergency operation.
Communications
Chapter 3 - UHF Homing
Introduction
1. For the purpose of this description, only azimuth Direction Finding (D/F) will be considered, although, the principles are
also relevant to elevation D/F. UHF Homing is used in conjunction with the UHF Transmitter/Receiver (T/R) to provide relative
azimuth indications from sources of Continuous Wave (CW), Modulated Continuous Wave (MCW) or Radio/Telephony (R/T)
transmissions on any selected frequency in the 225-400 MHz band.
Leading Particulars
2. The equipment is used during SAR operations to enable an aircraft to home towards a Personal Locator Beacon (PLB). The
effective range is 100 nm.
3. The relative azimuth of a signal is shown by the deflection of the vertical pointer of an indicator.

Power Requirements
4. The power supplies for the equipment are obtained from the UHF T/R and from the aircraft 28 V DC supply.
Equipment Components
5. The units comprising a typical UHF homing system are:
a. RF unit.
b. AF unit.
c. D/F aerials.
d. Indicator.
e. Control switches.
6. RF Unit. The RF unit converts the phase difference of the two received signals into an amplitude modulation of the carrier
wave.
7. AF Unit. After amplification and de-modulation in the UHF T/R the AF unit converts the signals into a form suitable to
operate the indicator’s pointer.
8. D/F Aerials. Port and starboard aerials mounted close together on the upper surface of the fuselage are used for azimuth
D/F.
9. Indicator. Either the Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI) or Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI) will provide azimuth
indications during homing operations. The ‘OFF’ flag appears when homing signals become unreliable.
Principle of Operation
10. Depending on the relative bearing of a transmitting PLB, there will be a small time lag - and hence a phase difference -
between the signals received in the port and starboard aerials.
11. The signals are processed electronically to produce a DC voltage to the indicator which is a function of the displacement of
the signal source from the fore and aft axis of the aircraft. The polarity of the DC voltage depends on the phase relationship of
the incoming signals, and determine which way the pointer deflects.
12. If the two signals are received at the same time then the transmitting source is directly ahead of or directly behind the
aircraft. Fig 1 shows a simplified block diagram of a typical UHF homing system.
Operating Procedures
13. Selection of the homing function on the UHF T/R control unit brings the UHF homing into operation.
14. It should be noted that signals received from astern the aircraft displace the HSI lateral deviation bar in the same sense as
those ahead.
15. Operation of the transmit button causes the D/F aerial relay to be de-energized and the previously selected UHF aerial to be
reconnected.
4-1-1-3 Fig 1 Block Diagram of a Typical UHF Homing System

Communications
Chapter 4 - Central Communications Systems
Introduction
1. A typical communication control system for large aircraft, can provide control and distribution of up to six
transmitter/receiver services and up to a further eleven receive only services. In addition to the main intercommunication
(intercom) facility, independent subsidiary and conference intercom circuits are available.
2. Since the detailed requirements of individual aircraft vary, sometimes considerably, there is no standard communication
control installation. However, the basic control system consists of a number of units, each with different functions, which can be
interconnected in various ways to provide the facilities required. The underlying principles are the same irrespective of how the
system has been connected. Fig 1 shows a simple block diagram of a typical intercom system.
Intercom System
3. The main distribution box may serve as the central junction box for the entire installation. All incoming services and the 28
V DC power supply are connected to it. The various flight crew, cabin crew and ground crew circuits radiate from it to the
different aircraft positions. The main distribution box contains the intercom distribution transformer where all intercom signals
are combined and distributed to all stations in the circuit without crosstalk occurring.
4. Intercom stations are provided at each of the principal aircraft positions, providing a convenient means of selecting and
operating the various services and facilities available within the installation. They are fitted with pushbuttons or toggle switches
for the selection of the receivers, intercom and override facilities and a rotary switch for the selection of the transmitter/receiver
services. The unit usually contains a two-section amplifier for the amplification of local microphone and telephone signals, it
also provides the appropriate level of output to drive the selected transmitter. A press to call, override and a normal/emergency
facility are incorporated. A typical intercom station is shown in Fig 2.
5. The voice/range filters are used with the aircraft automatic direction finding (ADF) and VHF omni-range (VOR)

installations to separate the range and voice elements of the received signals. The installation contains two separate filter
networks which are brought into circuit by the VOICE/RANGE pushbuttons or switches on the intercom stations:
a. Range. Only the range frequency of 1020 Hz is acceptable by the unit.
b. Voice. The normal speech spectrum except 1020 Hz is accepted by the unit.
6. To reduce the risk of failure due to damaged cables, the intercom stations are usually wired in a continuous loop or ring
main circuit between the main distribution box. By this means, a complete break in one cable will not affect the operation of any
station. Spur circuits can be used where it is desired to reduce the length of cable runs and these can be connected into the main
circuit at any convenient point by means of a sub-junction box.
7. Intercom stations are designed to be operated in association with microphone stations, which provide a means of connecting
a headset, an external I/C-OFF-PTT switch and 28 V DC supply, via a dimmer control to the front panel illuminating lamps.
4-1-1-4 Fig 1 Dual Crew CCS Configuration- Block Diagram
4-1-1-4 Fig 2 Typical Intercom Station Box

8. Cabin/ground crew can use the normal intercom by plugging a headset into the crew jack box, which closes a switch, in turn
providing a path for the 28 V DC supply to the relays in the crew amplifier.
Operation
9. A receiver facility, or normal intercom, is selected by use of the appropriate pushbutton or switch; the volume of the selected
service can be adjusted. Each incoming receiver line is connected to a suitable load resistor forming part of an anti-crosstalk
network.
10. A transmitter/receiver is selected by means of a rotary switch. Rotation of the corresponding receiver pushbutton or switch
controls the volume of the service selected without having to engage the button.
11. The OVERRIDE pushbutton or switch permits high-priority messages to be fed at high volume to all other intercom
stations in the system, irrespective of the services which they have selected. Attention of all stations can be gained by the call
lights, which will be illuminated if any one CALL LIGHT is pressed.
12. The NORMAL/EMERGENCY switch can be set to restore intercom and receiver services in the event of a failure in the
two-section amplifier. The switch works in two stages:
a. The intercom microphone signals are switched to the transmitter selector switch.
b. The receiver signals, once selected by the appropriate pushbutton, are switched direct to the headset, by-passing all
volume controls.
Intercom may then be restored by utilizing the sidestone output of a convenient transmitter. All other crew members requiring
intercom with the faulty station must set their own selector switches to the same transmitter.
Communications
Chapter 5 - Radio Airborne Teletypewriter System (RATT)

Introduction
1. In some circumstances it is preferable to communicate between aircraft, and between aircraft and surface stations, using a
teleprinter system rather than voice. The system in use in the RAF is known as the Radio Airborne Teletypewriter System
(RATT), and both the equipment, and the operating techniques and procedures, are compatible with other national systems
within NATO.
2. The equipment incorporates an automatic on-line encryption/decryption facility and is thus capable of combining a high
level of communications security and accuracy. The use of RATT reduces the transmission time of messages compared to other
methods, reduces errors in coding and decoding, and since hard copies of messages are available to both operators, subsequent
enquiries and corrections are easily resolved. Fully formatted messages can be sent between, and are readily understood by, all
NATO members which helps to avoid ambiguity and overcome any language problems.
Equipment and Operation

3. A RATT system uses a basic radio modified for telegraphy and incorporating a crypro unit (BID). The principles of radio
communication and telegraphy are described in Vol 9, Pt 2, Sect 2, Chap 2.
4. A simplified diagram of a RATT system is shown in Fig 1. Switching on the MODEM (modulator/demodulator) initiates a
tone transmission containing no data. A Phase Indicator and Message Indicator (PIMI) superimposes a signal on this tone which
enables remote receivers to lock on to the phase of the transmitter, using a Pseudo Random Sequence (PRS) technique, and so
synchronize their equipment ready to receive the message.
5. Prepared messages are released via the Tape Punch Reader (TPR), automatically encrypted by the BID, converted into
Murray code, and then sent by modulating the transmission with tones corresponding to the marks and spaces.
6. The RATT can operate in the HF, UHF, and LF bands:
a. HF. In HF the operation is simplex, ie transmission and reception is on the same frequency and so cannot be
accomplished simultaneously. The transmission uses single sideband (upper) suppressed carrier techniques, with the mark
being represented by a tone of 1575 Hz and the space by 2425 Hz.
b. UHF. UHF operation is also simplex but uses double sideband transmission. The mark is represented by a 700 Hz tone
and the space by a 500 Hz tone.
4-1-1-5 Fig 1 RATT System - Schematic
c. LF. LF is a receive only mode using frequency shift telegraphy. There is an 85 Hz shift between mark and space with
the mark low, ie fo − 42.5 Hz.
7. Switching the transmitter to standby at the MODEM returns the equipment to the receive state, which is automatically
activated by incoming PIMIs. The receive chain is almost the reverse of the transmit chain with any correctly phased traffic
being printed out in clear at the teleprinter; any other traffic will be indecipherable.
Communications
Chapter 6 - Voice Recorders
Introduction
1. A typical cockpit voice recorder (CVR) operates as an audio flight log for crew members and provides a rapid data entry
(RDE) facility for the insertion of data into the main computer (MC). The CVR works on the same principle as a domestic tape
recorder. The following description is for the Tornado.

Control Panel
2. The control panel, shown in Fig 1 controls the operating mode, power supply and position of the tape. The cassette housing
is located behind the control panel and is accessed by pulling the panel up using the recessed handle, see Fig 2. This permits the
cassette to be inserted or changed.
Operation
3. Rapid Data Entry (RDE). Before take off, pre-recorded information can be entered into the MC via the CVR, ie, operational
flight program (OFP), map definition data or mission data. The information is used by other avionics systems during the flight
and if necessary further data can be entered as the mission progresses.
4. To replace or insert a cassette REPLAY and OFF should be selected on the CVR control panel before opening the unit.
Once the tape is loaded, standby should be selected and using the reverse/normal/forward (REV/NORM/FWD) control, the tape
wound to the required position, watching the tape position indicator. Prior to selecting START and DATA ENTRY on the CVR
control panel the MC and TV Tabular Displays (TV Tabs) need to be switched to ON.
a. Operational Flight Programme. When loading the OFP the LOAD light on the main computer control panel (MCCP)
will illuminate. Should a failure occur the FAIL light on the MCCP will illuminate and the LOAD light will extinguish.
4-1-1-6 Fig 1 CVR Control Panel
4-1-1-6 Fig 2 Cassette Location

b. Map Definition/Mission Data. While loading map definition data or mission data one of the following messages will be
displayed on the TV Tabs:
(1) RDE COMPLETE, which indicates the data has been loaded correctly.
(2) RDE FAULT, which indicates one two or three faults in the data loaded.
(3) RDE FAILED, which indicates there are four or more faults in the data loaded.
5. Automatic Voice Recording. The CVR records automatically with START and AUTO selected on the control panel and
when audio signals exist. Recording ceases approximately five seconds after the audio input ceases. To facilitate separate
recordings for each crew member the tape has two tracks, each track designated to a crew position.
6. Manual Voice Recording. The CVR will record continuously, the length of time depending on the length of the cassette
tape, with START and manual (MAN) selected on the control panel. The CVR rotary/push switch on the intercom box must
also be selected.
7. Replay. With START and REPLAY selected on the CVR control panel and the CVR control on the intercom box adjusted
to give the required volume, previously recorded information can be replayed. A separate switch on the intercom box, track
1/off/track 2 (TRK1/OFF/TRK2), is used to enable the crew member to select which track they replay.
8. Faults. If a failure occurs in data loading or a recording sounds garbled the CVR heads should be cleaned using the
prescribed head cleaner.
Communications
Chapter 7 - Satellite Communications
Introduction

1. The continued increase in long distance communications traffic and the expected growth in world-wide digital transmissions
have led to the development of high capacity satellite communications systems.
2. Satellite communication is by line of sight; the satellite acting as a relay between Earth based communications stations. For
military applications a satellite link has the advantage of providing a reliable and secure communication system between remote
theatres of defence interest without the necessity for multiple, en route ground relay stations.
Frequencies
3. Satellite communications systems mostly operate in the frequency range 1 GHz to 32 GHz. Below 1GHz cosmic noise is a
restrictive factor, although one military system uses the UHF band. Above 15 GHz cloud and heavy rain can cause signal
attentuation, depolarization and increased noise. Low Earth station antenna elevation angles also reduce signal strength but
provided antenna angles are above 10 degrees to the local horizon and the weather is clear, 40 GHz transmissions are feasible.
Satellite Orbits
4. Depending on the Earth coverage requirements, satellite orbits may be circular or elliptical, with equatorial, polar or inclined
planes, two examples of which are illustrated in Fig 1.
4-1-1-7 Fig 1 Circular and Elliptical Orbits
5. These orbital categories may be further classified by reference to the orbital period, as depicted in Fig 2:
a. A sub-synchronous orbit is one in which a number of spaced satellites are employed, each with an orbital period of up to
12 hours depending on its height (2000 to 20000 km). Earth stations communicate with each other via a satellite mutually
in view.
4-1-1-7 Fig 2 Sub-synchronous and Geosynchronous Orbits

b. A geosynchronous orbit is one in which a satellite stationed in an equatorial plane at a height of approximately 36,000
km has an orbital period of 24 hours; viewed from an observer on Earth the satellite appears to be stationary.
6. Item Deleted.
7. The geosynchronous satellite configuration requires fewer satellites and launches, but complex technology is required to
provide reliability comparable to the sub-synchronous configuration through satellite on-board equipment redundancy.
Worldwide communications coverage, with the exception of the polar regions, can be achieved using 3 geosynchronous
satellites 120 degrees apart, as Fig 3 shows.
Satellite Sub-systems
8. Communications satellites contain the following sub-systems:
a. Transponders.
b. Antennae.
c. Telemetry and Command.
d. Attitude and Orbit Control.
e. Propulsion.
f. Electrical Power.
9. Transponders. The communications sub-system contains a number of transponders, each capable of handling multiple
signals simultaneously. A transponder receives the up-link signal in one frequency band, translates the signal to a down-link
band, amplifies and retransmits those signals within a specified bandwidth and at a set power level. In addition to

up-link/down-link frequency separation, use is made of circular polarization to further isolate the transmitter from the receiver.
The transmit signals have right hand polarization and the receive signals left hand polarization.
4-1-1-7 Fig 3 Worldwide Earth Coverage
10. Antennae. Satellites carry one or more communications antennae. Simple satellites may use only a single antenna to
receive and another to transmit. More complex satellites use a mixture of widebeam and narrowbeam antennae. The widebeam,
or Earth coverage antenna, enables the transponder to radiate its power over an 18 degree footprint or illuminating area. The
narrow, or spot beam, antenna concentrates its power into a 4 degree beam thus focusing the available power into a restricted
area - see Fig 4.
11. Telemetry and Command. Separate telemetry and command antennae are usually carried. The down-link transmissions
contain engineering and equipment status information, and the up-link is used for commands to select equipment modes and to
pass any information needed to maintain or change the satellite's orbit.
12. Attitude and Orbit Control. Communications satellites need to be maintained in the chosen orbit as follows:
a. Attitude. The attitude of a satellite is defined by aspect relative to Earth and in particular the direction in which its
antennae are pointing. Satellites are either spin stabilized or three axis stabilized. Spin stabilization is achieved by allowing
the satellite to spin about its pitch axis whilst the antenna platform is maintained pointing in an Earthly direction.
Three-axis stabilization means that the satellite body, including the antenna platform, maintains a fixed attitude relative to
Earth whilst the solar panels point towards the sun.
4-1-1-7 Fig 4 Satellite Coverage Beams

Orbit Control. If a satellite is disturbed, or if it deviates from its designated path, its inclination and speed may need to be
adjusted. Corrections are made using propulsion units to manoeuvre the satellite about its North-South or East-West axes
(relative to an observer on the surface of the Earth).
13. Propulsion. The propulsion system provides the motive power to drive the satellite to, and maintain it by Earth command
in, the selected orbit. Most satellites use hydrazine thrusters.
14. Electrical Power. Primary electrical power is derived from solar cells mounted on panels around the body of the satellite or
in the form of winged arrays - typical power levels are between 300 W and 3 kW. Stand-by batteries are used during, for
example, solar eclipse periods.
Earth Segment
15. The Earth segment of a military satellite communications system comprises the communications ground stations, working
at UHF or SHF, and their control function. The Earth segment has to ensure that:
a. The satellite is not jeopardized by the action of any of its associated ground stations.
b. Receiving ground stations obtain and maintain links with the terminals having the lowest performance rating.
Military Applications
16. A military satellite communications system is designed to provide adaptable and flexible telecommunications to support
operational requirements. It must also be compatible with existing communications networks. Ground stations may be fixed,
semi-static deployable, mobile tactical or terminals located on ships or in aircraft.
17. The United Kingdom Military Satellite Communications System (UKMSCS) is one of the services within the UK Defence
Communications Network (DCN). From a master ground station the UKMSCS links ships at sea, a static ground station in
Cyprus and various deployed transportable terminals. The system has its own satellite, Skynet 4.
18. The NATO Satellite Communications System forms part of the NATO Integrated Communications System (NICS), and
provides links with member governments and Commanders-in-Chief in each strategic theatre. The system comprises 3 NATO

satellites positioned over the Atlantic Ocean illuminating 21 fixed ground stations and one transportable terminal in 14 countries
ranging from Turkey to Canada. The master ground station is in Belgium.
Communications
Chapter 8 - Data Link and Encryption
Introduction
1. Data link is the term used to describe equipment which is used to pass tactical information between units in a manner that
can be readily understood and absorbed into the Tactical Data Systems (TDS) of the linked units. Data link is the standard
method used by NATO forces to co-ordinate actions, whether anti-air, anti-surface, or anti-submarine, where more than one unit
is involved.
2. A Data Link Net consists of a Net Control Station (NCS) and one or more Participating Units (PU), which may be ground
stations; reconnaissance, offensive or airborne warning and control system (AWACS) aircraft; or capital warships. The sensor
information from each PU is co-ordinated to produce the best possible assessment of the tactical situation which is then made
available to all PUs by the NCS.
Operation
3. In a simple system, data is passed between PUs by radio and Fig 1 shows a simplified diagram of a data link transmission
system; the reception equipment is essentially the same except that the output buffer is replaced by an input buffer.
4. All sensor inputs are passed to the unit’s data base by the individual sensor operators for display on the tactical plot and for
storage in the structured message formats ready for transmission to other PUs as and when required. Command and
administration messages are also formatted and held ready for transmission. All messages are stored as digital groups. Although
it is an operator function to decide which data are to be put on the link, from then on the process is automatic.
5. Data is transmitted, typically, as 30-bit frames arranged in predetermined formats, each frame consisting of 24 information
bits and 6 error detection and correction bits; two such frames form one link message.
6. Messages for transmission are passed to the output buffer ready to be encrypted by the crypto sub-system. The encryption is
completed on-line automatically as part of the normal transmission process. The encrypted information passes to the Data
Terminal Set (DTS) where it is converted from its digital form into analogue audio before being used to modulate the transmitter
output. Data is passed at high speed, at either 2,250 or 1,364 bits per second, either sequentially, or simultaneously as 15
multiplexed tones.
7. Analogue audio received signals are converted to digital form and, if multiplexed, rearranged into their original format ready
for decryption and subsequent passage via the input buffer to the tactical display; display is generally automatic although inputs
may be manually filtered out if required.
4-1-1-8 Fig 1 Data Link Transmission Chain - Schematic
8. The control of transmission is vested in the NCS which may interrogate each of the PUs in turn which then automatically
release the information stored in their output buffers. Alternatively, in order to maintain a greater degree of radio silence, PUs
may broadcast short bursts of data as necessary to all other units on the net. The NCS promulgates details of the information
required on the net together with operational details of, for example, frequencies and crypto to be used.

9. Effective data linking demands very precise navigation and any unit in a net must be able to determine its own position
accurately and continuously both geographically and relative to other PUs in the net in terms of a common positional grid
system. Errors in position can generate false targets on the net and may also result in real targets being missed. Typically, a PU
will identify a target by its relative position as range and bearing. Depending on the sensor used there will be some degree of
error in this data which may be aggravated when converted into a grid position. Another PU may hold the same target but with
different system errors and so may relay a different position to the NCS. One of the principle tasks of the NCS, therefore, is to
resolve these inconsistences and relay the correct target position to the PUs.
Digital Data Link Systems

10. The following paragraphs describe the data link systems in most common military use by NATO forces:
a. Link 1. Link 1 is a non-secure dedicated point-to-point telephone data link for exchange of the Recognized Air Picture
(RAP).
b. Link 4. Link 4 is a tactical fighter direction link. It is fitted in a variety of NATO aircraft including the E3D Sentry.
This unencrypted link operates at high speed in the UHF band.
c. Link 11. Link 11 is an automatic, high speed, encrypted maritime system using both UHF and HF frequencies It is
installed in the E3D Sentry and certain warships. It provides real-time air, surface and sub-surface track data, track
management and EW information.
d. Link 14. Link 14 is a secure link used to disseminate non-real-time data, particularly the Recognized Surface or
Sub-surface Picture (RSP/RSSP). It can utilize a broad spectrum of channels covering HF to SHF frequency bands. It is
capable of operating in broadcast mode.
e. Link 16/Joint Tactical Information Distribution System (JTIDS). JTIDS and its associated Link 16 is a high speed, ECM
resistant, secure system. It has high capacity voice and data capabilities and is used in coordination of air, ground and
maritime operations. It can transfer data automatically between AWACS assets and command centres, to suitably equipped
ships and aircraft and to beyond line of sight by the use of relays. Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) techniques are
employed to enable a large number of users to communicate amongst themselves using formatted or free text messages. To
that end, an Interim JTIDS Message Standard, (IJMS) was introduced to allow early development of a message library. The
sophisticated JTIDS system uses spread spectrum techniques combined with variable carrier frequencies making it difficult
to detect or jam. Fig 2 represents a typical JTIDS display screen showing a variety of features which could be presented in a
hostile environment.
4-1-1-8 Fig 2 Typical JTIDS Display

Communications
Chapter 9 - Central Suppression Systems
Introduction
1. The central suppression system (CSS) provides a facility for routeing suppression and blanking signals between certain
avionic equipments within the aircraft. The equipments connected to the system are given priorities so that whilst one is
transmitting or receiving others are suppressed. A typical CSS fitted to a multi- role combat aircraft interfaces with the
following systems: Radar Warning, Ground Mapping Radar, Terrain Following Radar, Radar Altimeter, TACAN, IFF, HF and
ECM.
2. Since the equipment priorities are decided in advance there is no need for a control unit, control is implemented within the
individual units through the CSS.
3. Equipments which operate within the same frequency bands or transmit high powered signals can cause unwanted
interference within other systems. Within these groups of systems an order of priority is given so that whilst the higher priority
system is operating the lower orders of priority are disabled, thus preventing unwanted interference.
4. When, for example, the aircraft IFF transponder replies to an interrogation, a suppression pulse is generated within the unit
and routed to the CSS, informing the CSS which equipment is operating and at what priority. Should another equipment of a
higher priority and within the same frequency band be required to transmit, then a suppression pulse is routed from that
equipment via the CSS to the IFF transponder, thus inhibiting responses. Conversely, if the equipment is of a lower priority,

then an inhibit signal is returned to it from the CSS. Another application prevents the aircraft radar warning receiver from
giving indications of the aircraft's own radar transmissions. Blanking occurs on a pulse-by-pulse basis, and in practice the
suppression system does not prevent the effective operation of on-board equipments.
Power Supply
5. The power supplied to the CSS is typically, 115 V 400 Hz single phase AC and since there is no control unit the supply is
switched by a circuit breaker.
Electronic Warfare
Chapter 1 - Introduction to Electronic Warfare (EW)
Introduction
1. Electronic warfare (EW) is military action which exploits the electromagnetic spectrum. It encompasses the interception
and identification of electromagnetic emissions, the employment of electromagnetic energy to reduce or prevent hostile use of
the electromagnetic spectrum, and actions designed to ensure its effective use by friendly forces. EW is not an end in itself, but
a supplement employed to enhance the probability of delivering weapons onto a target, and to reduce the probability of the
enemy achieving the same end.
2. The time around World War Two saw rapid developments in the military applications of radio and radar and it is often
considered that the evolution of modern EW stems from this time. Certainly, since 1945, there has been a proliferation of
weapons, such as radar guided missiles and radar laid guns, which rely on electronic systems for their operation, and there has
been a corresponding expansion of EW techniques in an attempt to reduce the effectiveness of these weapons in the hands of the
enemy, while at the same time ensuring friendly use. However, it should not be forgotten that EW embraces the whole of the
electromagnetic spectrum, and techniques involving other than radio and radar frequencies, such as the use of camouflage,
deception, and smoke screens in the visible band, are much older, and indeed are also extensively encountered in the natural
world. Recent years have seen a considerable emphasis in the field of electro-optical weapon systems using both the visible and
infra-red parts of the spectrum, and both laser and non-coherent energy. Electro-optical systems can be used by day and by night
for the safe and accurate navigation of an aircraft, for target detection, and for the aiming and guidance of weapons, and they are
therefore worthwhile targets for the employment of EW techniques. Future developments may include directed energy weapons
in which the energy contained in electromagnetic radiation is used as a damage mechanism; such weapons may be considered as
EW constituents, particularly where they are targeted against electronic or electro-optical systems or components.
Sub-divisions of Electronic Warfare

3. EW is normally sub-divided into three major constituents:
a. Electronic Warfare Support Measures (ESM).
b. Electronic Countermeasures (ECM).
c. Electronic Protective Measures (EPM).
Electronic Protective Measures were formerly known as Electronic Counter-Counter Measures (ECCM), and this term will still
be met in many texts. ECM, ESM, and EPM are defined below, but are discussed more fully in subsequent chapters. Although
the three constituents are dealt with separately, in practice they are closely interrelated and developments in any one aspect will
inevitably stimulate developments in the others.
4. Electronic Warfare Support Measures (ESM). Electronic Warfare Support Measures constitute that division of EW
involving actions taken to search for, intercept, and identify electromagnetic emissions and locate their sources for the purpose
of immediate threat recognition. It provides a source of information required for immediate decisions involving ECM, EPM,
and other tactical actions.
5. Electronic Countermeasures (ECM). Electronic Countermeasures constitute that division of EW involving actions taken to
prevent or reduce an enemy’s effective use of the electromagnetic spectrum, through the use of electromagnetic energy. There
are three divisions of ECM:
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a. Electronic Jamming. This involves the deliberate radiation, re-radiation, or reflection of electromagnetic energy, with
the object of impairing the effectiveness of electronic devices, equipment, or systems being used by the enemy.
b. Electronic Deception. This involves the deliberate radiation, re-radiation, alteration, absorption or reflection of
electromagnetic energy in a manner intended to confuse, distract or seduce an enemy or his electronic systems.
c. Electronic Neutralization. This is the deliberate use of electromagnetic energy to damage, either temporarily or
permanently, enemy devices which rely exclusively on the electromagnetic spectrum.
6. Electronic Protective Measures (EPM). Electronic Protective Measures are embodied in that division of EW involving
actions to ensure friendly effective use of the electromagnetic spectrum despite the enemy’s use of electromagnetic energy.
There are two sub-divisions of EPM:
a. Active EPM. Active EPM involve taking detectable measures, such as altering transmitter parameters, to ensure friendly
effective use of the electromagnetic spectrum.
b. Passive EPM. Passive EPM involve undetectable measures, such as operating procedures and technical features of
equipment, which are meant to ensure friendly effective use of the electromagnetic spectrum.
Summary
7. A knowledge of EW is necessary for aircrew so that they can exploit the electromagnetic spectrum to the best advantage,
and perhaps as importantly, can recognize when the enemy is using EW techniques against them so that they can take any
necessary actions to negate or reduce the threat. EW is an area of continuous development; any system development by one side
will stimulate the development of a counter by the other, which will in turn lead to further developments to circumvent the
counter, and so on. There is therefore no intention to describe any specific equipments in the following chapters, rather the
nature of ESM, ECM and EPM will be explored, and the underlying general principles of various techniques will be described.
Electronic Warfare
Chapter 2 - Electronic Support Measures (ESM)
Introduction
1. Electronic Warfare Support Measures (ESM) encompass that division of EW involving actions taken to search for,
intercept, and identify electromagnetic emissions and locate their sources for the purpose of immediate threat recognition. ESM
therefore provide a source of information required for immediate decisions involving ECM, EPM, and other tactical actions.
2. ESM should not be confused with the much wider activity of intelligence gathering, which provides information for other
than just EW purposes, and is principally a long-term, strategic, activity. Where intelligence gathering is directed towards data
on electromagnetic radiations it is known as signals intelligence (SIGINT), which may be divided into communications
intelligence (COMINT) and electronic intelligence (ELINT). ELINT in particular has an input into EW in that it provides most
of the background knowledge necessary for the effective design and operation of ESM, ECM, and EPM systems.
3. Enemy electronic transmissions can be detected and analysed in considerable detail by specialized equipment, but the
immediate threat recognition requirement for a combat aircraft is met by the radar warning receiver (RWR).
Radar Warning Receivers

4. The radar warning receiver (RWR) is designed to detect, localize, and identify threat radars in order that appropriate
countermeasures can be taken. A RWR may simply provide warning which will require an aircrew to assess the potential threats
and decide on a response, or it may be part of an integrated computer controlled EW system which can automatically assign
priorities and initiate appropriate ECM.
5. Range Advantage. A RWR should normally be able to intercept a threat radar transmission before the aircraft itself is
detected. The margin of this benefit is known as the range advantage (see Fig 1). It occurs because the radar echo to be detected
by the radar receiver is subject to a two way propagation path and the power received back at the radar therefore varies inversely
with the fourth power of range, while the radar power received by the RWR has only a one way propagation path and varies

inversely with the square of the range. The degree of range advantage depends on a number of factors including:
a. Radar receiver sensitivity.
b. RWR sensitivity.
c. Radar cross-section (RCS) or reflectivity of the target.
d. Local propagation effects.
e. Radar operator efficiency.
The degree of advantage should be a minimum of 10% and can be in excess of 50% depending on the systems under
consideration.
4-1-2-2 Fig 1 RWR Range Advantage
6. Direction Finding. A RWR can determine the direction of a threat by using either amplitude or phase comparison
techniques. In the amplitude comparison method four aerials are aligned with the intercardinal directions relative to the aircraft
and the amplitude of the received signal in each aerial is compared. Accuracy is generally about 10° to 15°. The phase
comparison method uses a set of aerials in a phased array and the phase difference between the individual aerials for the same
incoming radar wave can yield a direction accurate to about 2° or 3°.
ESM RECEIVERS
The Ideal ESM Receiver

7. The ideal ESM receiver should:
a. Be sensitive in order to achieve long range intercepts on weak radar signals.
b. Have a 100% intercept probability, ie able to receive, at all times, signals from all directions and all frequencies within
its operating capability without having to steer antennae or tune receivers.
c. Cover the full range of frequencies used by threats (say, 0.5 to 40 GHz).
d. Cover 360° in azimuth and significant elevation angles, say 60°.
e. Obtain immediate direction finding and measurement of RF, PRF, PW, pulse modulation, and antenna scan.
f. Cope with pulsed, ICW, and CW signals.
g. Deal with jittered, staggered, and agile radars.

h. Sort and de-interleave signals when the system receives a large number of different radar emissions simultaneously.
i. Carry out a comparison with the parameter library, and allocate a priority to high threats.
j. Display the results clearly.
8. In practice there will be conflicts between some of these requirements; for example, high sensitivity demands narrow
bandwidth receivers with high gain, narrow beamwidth antennae, whereas high intercept probability demands receivers of wide
instantaneous bandwidth and antennae covering 360° of azimuth. In addition, the degree of sophistication may be limited by
considerations of cost.
9. Simple ESM receivers are wide open, ie they look at the full beamwidth and bandwidth of the system at all times. This
necessitates some sacrifice of sensitivity in order to achieve 100% intercept probability. In more complex systems
channelization or scanning techniques are employed. In a channelized system, each channel is a high sensitivity sub-system
specializing in a narrow range of directions or frequencies or both. The required overall coverage is achieved by having many
such channels working in parallel. A further advantage is that if the channels are independent the system can deal with the
simultaneous arrival of different signals, carrying out the measurements on each one independently. The scanning technique
employs a narrowband system which sweeps its coverage rapidly through the frequency band. This method gives a low
intercept probability against an isolated pulse, but provided that the radar keeps transmitting for a reasonable time an overall
intercept probability close to 100% can be achieved.
Crystal Video Receiver

10. Early types of RWR use crystal video receivers (CVR) which are ‘wide open’, relatively cheap, lightweight and compact,
but have rather poor frequency discrimination and low sensitivity. The CVR cannot intercept CW signals directly and additional
circuits are necessary to impress a modulation on the incoming RF; detection of the modulation (typically a 10 kHz square wave)
implies the presence of a CW signal.
11. The simple CVR's limited frequency discrimination makes it unsuitable for use where the received signals are compared
with a stored library of emitter parameters since there will inevitably be ambiguities.
Narrow Band Receivers

12. In order to reduce the number of ambiguities and unknowns it is necessary to distinguish more accurately between radars
which use the same part of the electromagnetic spectrum. To achieve this a receiver with a finer frequency discrimination than
the simple CVR is required. Although a CVR could be fitted with a large number of narrowband RF filters, this channelization
method tends to be expensive and is normally only used for rather crude filtering, ie allocating the received RF to one of a
number of broad bands without accurately measuring the frequency. A more practical alternative is to use a narrowband filter
with a pass band which can be retuned rapidly. The filter employed uses a material, Yttrium Iron Garnet (YIG), which has the
property that the resonant frequency depends on the strength of any magnetic field in which the crystal is placed. A swept
voltage applied to a coil surrounding the crystal causes the crystal resonant frequency to sweep.
13. Instead of a CVR, a superheterodyne (or superhet) receiver (see Vol 9, Pt 2, Sect 1, Chap 6, Para 2) is frequently used with
either scanning or channelization techniques. Scanning is achieved by sweeping the local oscillator frequency rapidly which
causes the IF to sweep at the same rate. A channelized superhet, having a large number of narrowband fixed-tuned superhets
operating in parallel and simultaneously, is a very capable arrangement - but is very expensive. For example, in order to cover
frequencies from 1 GHz to 18 GHz in 10 MHz channels requires 1700 superhets in parallel.
14. The superhet is unable to provide an audio analogue output and so frequently a CVR is incorporated in a hybrid system to
provide this function. In fact the lack of audio is in many cases rather academic as modern high PRF radars would produce an
audio PRF outside of the ear's range. Superhet receivers normally only provide a limited range of warning tones to alert the
crew to, for example, a radar lock-on or a missile guidance frequency detection.
4-1-2-2 Fig 2 Bragg Cell Rx

15. The Bragg Cell Receiver. The arrangement of a Bragg Cell receiver is shown in Fig 2. The incoming RF is mixed down to
an IF of about 2 MHz which is then applied to a piezo-electric crystal (usually lithium niobate). The piezo-electric action
establishes longitudinal waves in the crystal such that there are alternating regions of compression and rarefaction. This pattern
acts as a diffraction grating to the laser light causing the laser energy to be deflected. The degree of deflection depends on the
separation of the regions in the crystal which in turn varies with the IF. The diffracted laser energy impinges onto an array of
detectors, each detector corresponding to a particular IF and therefore to a particular original RF. Frequency resolution depends
on the spacing of the detectors, and the system can cope with the simultaneous arrival of signals with different RFs - the laser
energy dividing into a number of sub-beams each of which is deflected through the appropriate angle and detected
independently.
RWR DISPLAYS
General
16. It is important that the information displayed by a RWR should be easily understood and show an appropriate amount of
data, without being distracting or confusing. The minimum information given to the crew should be a visual and aural warning,
and an indication of the type and direction of the threat.
17. Older RWRs use analogue displays comprised of coloured lights and a small cathode ray tube to display the direction of
arrival (DOA) of radar signals in the frequency bands from E to J. A typical display is shown in Fig 3 in which the DOA of CW
radar beams is displayed, rather coarsely, by four quadrant lights, while pulse radars are shown as strobes on the CRT, the
strobes being coded (solid or broken) to indicate the radar band. The length of the strobe gives a crude indication of the strength
of the received signal. Additional warning lights show that a pulse radar, or track-while-scan (TWS) system, has been
intercepted.
4-1-2-2 Fig 3 Typical RWR Analogue Display

18. In addition to the visual display, an audio output is available on the aircraft's intercom system which produces an audio
analogue of the PRF of the received radars. The audio is arranged so that long range radars with a low PRF generate a low
pitched tone indicative of no immediate threat, while a threatening, short range, high PRF radar generates a more urgent, high
pitched tone. Furthermore, early warning and acquisition radars will be distinguished by some seconds of silence between bursts
of energy reflecting the radar's relatively long aerial rotation period. Conversely, threatening fire control and tracking radars will
be characterized by a more or less continuous tone. Alarm tones for CW radars are synthesized by additional internal circuits.
19. It is possible by comparing the radar PRF, band, and modulation or scan type (ie pulse, CW, TWS) to determine the type
and possibly the identity of the illuminating radar. However, this analysis requires a considerable degree of skill and imposes a
considerable workload during a high stress part of a mission, and can become very difficult in a multi-threat environment.
Furthermore, many threat radars now use PRFs well above the audio limits of the intercom system.
20. In order to reduce the degree of skill and time required to interpret an analogue display, an RWR can be fitted with a small
digital processor and memory so that the warning lights or CRT display can show the name or function of the identified radar
together with its relative position. A typical display is shown schematically in Fig 4; it can be designed to show closer threats
either nearer to the centre or nearer to the edge. The audio output from this type of system is identical to that from the analogue
display RWR.
4-1-2-2 Fig 4 Typical Digital RWR Displays

21. In order to identify a radar, the values of the various radar signal parameters, eg frequency band, pulse width, PRF, and
amplitude, are digitized and the result compared with a set of stored identities in the RWR memory. If and when a match is
found the appropriate symbol is displayed. Because the size of the RWR memory is limited by considerations of, for example,
cost and processing time, there will be some instances when the RWR is unable to find any match in its memory and in this case
an ‘unknown’ symbol will be displayed. In order to minimize the number of ambiguities and unknowns the RWR memory
should be programmed before flight with a library of emitters reflecting those most liable to be encountered. In addition, the
library will have a priority allocation so that if a conflict in processing and display between two intercepted signals arises, the
higher threat is portrayed.
Electronic Warfare
Chapter 3 - Electronic Countermeasures (ECM)
Introduction
1. Electronic Countermeasures (ECM) comprise that division of Electronic Warfare (EW) involving actions taken to prevent or
reduce an enemy's use of the electromagnetic spectrum, through the use of electromagnetic energy. It includes all the actions
taken to deny the use of radar, communications, navigation, and electro-optical systems by jamming, deception, decoys, stealth,
and directed energy weapons - although this last technique is still largely at the development stage and will not be considered in
detail in this chapter.
RADAR ECM - USE OF ELECTRONICS
General
2. ECM against radars will frequently take the form of on-board electronic devices. It is important that an indication is
obtained that an enemy radar is operating, and is a threat, before countermeasures are applied, since their unnecessary early use
could alert the enemy to the presence of an otherwise undetected target. The detection of a threat radar will normally be
accomplished by the use of ESM equipment, typically a radar warning receiver (RWR), and determination of the threat radar
characteristics, eg frequency, scan type, CW or pulse, can assist in making the choice of the best ECM technique to be
employed.
3. In order to reduce the effectiveness of a radar the ECM waveforms used must be of a type which will be accepted by the
receiver. Thus the ECM signal should match the radar signal in frequency and ideally in polarization, and should have a

bandwidth which is at least as wide.
4. The use of electronics as an ECM technique against radars will be considered under the headings of:
a. Electronic Jamming (Noise Jamming).
b. Electronic Deception.
In some modern systems the two techniques are combined in some way so that, for example, deception signals could have noise
modulation superimposed, or noise jamming could contain deception signals designed so that the enemy may filter them out,
discarding them as real targets.
Electronic Jamming (Noise Jamming)

5. Electronic jamming is the deliberate radiation, re-radiation, or reflection of electromagnetic energy, with the object of
impairing the effectiveness of electronic devices, equipment or systems being used by the enemy.
6. Radar receivers need to be highly sensitive in order to detect the very weak amplitude of returned radar echoes and this
sensitivity makes them vulnerable to jammers which can generate sufficient noise in the receiver to swamp the wanted signal.
On a PPI radar display the effect of a noise jammer is to mask the range of the jammer although the azimuth is still apparent (Fig
1).
4-1-2-3 Fig 1 Main Lobe Jamming on PPI Display
7. However, if the jammer is sufficiently powerful, energy can be injected into the radar sidelobes, and on a PPI display this
noise will be painted on the azimuth of the main lobe. Fig 2 shows the effect as the radar aerial rotates. In Fig 2a the energy
enters the sidelobe, as the aerial rotates to the position in Fig 2b the main lobe intercepts the target, and further rotation (Fig 2c)
brings the next sidelobe into a receiving position. In each position a paint is made along the current main lobe azimuth. The
display video persistence causes a display similar to that shown in Fig 2d to result.
4-1-2-3 Fig 2 Combined Effect of Main Lobe and Sidelobe Jamming

8. A radar transmission covers a finite band of frequencies, for example, a pulse radar using 0.5 µsec pulses would use a band
of about 2 MHz centred on its carrier frequency, and for noise jamming to be successful the noise bandwidth must be at least as
wide as that of the victim radar. A jammer has a limited power output and can be designed so that this power is either
concentrated over a narrow bandwidth, or spread over a wide bandwidth, and there are four major categories of noise jammers
reflecting these design options:
a. Spot Jammers.
b. Sweep Jammers.
c. Barrage Jammers.
d. Search-lock Jammers.
9. Spot Jammers. A spot jammer is one which is tuned to, and targeted against, one particular radar. This type of noise
jamming provides the maximum jamming power, but the limitation of being able to jam only one radar at a time may be a
disadvantage in a complex tactical scenario. In order to use a spot jammer the target radar frequency and bandwidth must be
known from intelligence or must be determined using an intercept receiver. The jammer is then tuned manually or automatically
to be centred on the target radar's carrier frequency and sufficient bandwidth is allowed to encompass that of the target (Fig 3).
4-1-2-3 Fig 3 Spot Jamming

10. Sweep Jammers. Sweep jammers are employed when there is a requirement to jam a large number of radars which are
operating over a wide frequency band and it would be impractical to employ a similar number of individual spot jammers. The
technique can also be employed against frequency agile radars. The jammer is tuned to a narrow bandwidth, sufficient to cover
that of any of the target radars, and this narrow frequency band is swept over the wide band containing the target radars (Fig 4).
This results in all the radars being affected, but not continuously. Thus for example in Fig 4a, radars 2 and 3 will be able to
operate while radar 1 is being jammed. Fast sweeping can sometimes overcome this disadvantage by being able to depress
automatic gain control circuits, or cause oscillation in the radar receiver for the time taken by the jammer to return to its
frequency.
4-1-2-3 Fig 4 Sweep Jamming

11. Barrage Jammers. Barrage jammers are used when it is necessary to jam over a wide bandwidth, enabling a number of
radars, including those which are frequency agile, to be jammed simultaneously and continuously (Fig 5). However the jammer
power must be spread over this wide band and thus the power at any frequency is reduced in comparison to that available from a
spot jammer with the same available power. In addition, a lot of energy may be wasted in jamming frequencies which are not
being used by target radars. In order to overcome these disadvantages, barrage jammers need to be high power devices.
4-1-2-3 Fig 5 Barrage Jamming
12. Search-lock Jammer. The search-lock jammer is a special version of the spot jammer in which a receiver able to search a
large bandwidth is tied in with a spot jammer. Thus the receiver searches for a target radar and initiates the jamming signal on
the detected frequency. The system alternates between receiving and transmitting, and so if a victim radar stops transmitting or
switches frequency, the receiver notes the lack of signal and the jammer stops transmitting until the receiver re-acquires a signal
and retunes the transmitter. The period when the receiver is allowed to look at the victim's radar frequency is known as a
‘look-through' period, and some equipments have sufficient isolation between the receiver and transmitter to allow continuous

‘look-through'. The ‘look-through' capability allows search-lock jammers to operate against frequency agile radars, although if
one jammer is working against several frequency agile radars operating in the same frequency band, the effect of the jamming on
any individual radar will be significantly reduced. Radars which are frequency agile on a pulse-to-pulse basis are virtually
invulnerable to this type of search-lock jammer as it will be constantly searching for the frequency rather than transmitting.
4-1-2-3 Fig 6 Comparison of Echo and Jamming Power Arriving at Radar
Burnthrough
13. The ECM power arriving at the enemy's radar is always competing with the radar's received target echoes. Since the ECM
transmission is only one way its power falls off as the square of the distance from its source. A radar echo, however, travels two
ways, to the target and back after reflection and re-radiation. Its power thus falls off as the fourth power of range to the target.
A graph showing these two cases of power fall-off against range is shown in Fig 6. It will be seen from the graph that there is a
range below which the radar echoes have a greater power than the jamming signals and the jammer will show as a target through
the jamming signal. This range is known variously as the Burnthrough Range, the Self-screening Range, or the Crossover
Range and its value depends principally upon the radar and jammer power, and on the radar cross-section of the target.
Implications of Noise Jamming

14. Noise jamming is a simple and effective method of screening or denying the range, velocity, and strength of an attack but
its implementation must be given careful consideration. Noise jamming advertises the jammer's presence, and if the jamming
power is insufficient to jam the radar sidelobes, the azimuth or elevation of the jammer will be available to the defender. If the
radar under attack is a surveillance type, and more than one site is available, the jammer's position can be determined by
triangulation.
15. When more than one jammer is used against a set of surveillance radars and triangulation is attempted, the defenders will
have to deal with ghost targets as shown in Fig 7, the number of possible target positions increasing as the square of the number

of jammers.
4-1-2-3 Fig 7 Jammer and Ghost Positions
16. In some situations, notably against radar laid guns where lack of range information seriously degrades the weapon system,
noise jamming is a viable technique. However, against a missile system noise jamming could be counter-productive since the
fire control radar could track the noise strobe and direct a weapon against the target using 3-point or command-to-line-of-sight
guidance, making the assumption that the target is within range. In this situation deception jamming is usually the better option.
Electronic Deception
17. Electronic deception is the deliberate radiation, re-radiation, alteration, absorption, or reflection of electromagnetic energy
in a manner intended to confuse, distract, or seduce an enemy or his electronic systems.
18. Deception ECM (DECM) equipments are generally used in self-protection jamming applications against weapon systems
which use fire control radars, and are designed to degrade or deny the range, velocity, or angle tracking capabilities of such a
tracking radar. Since, as with noise jamming, it may be possible to fire a weapon against a jamming target even if range or
velocity information is denied, angle track breaking has the highest priority.
19. In order for DECM to be successful, the victim radar's search pattern, radar parameters, and tracking method must be
established. Techniques are then available to cause false targets to appear, to pull-off range and velocity tracking gates, or to
displace angle tracking. In general, DECM requires less power than noise jamming and in many cases more than one threat can
be jammed simultaneously using time sharing techniques. Deception jammers have an additional advantage over noise jammers
in that their output signals have waveforms similar to those of the threat radar, and they are therefore less likely to be screened
by the radar's noise reduction circuits.
False Target Generation

20. The aim of false target generation is to produce on the victim radar's display a set of returns which look like targets, making
it difficult for the operator to decide on a correct course of action. The DECM equipment receives the radar transmission and
either re-transmits it or uses it to trigger the transmission of a stored replica. This transmission can be made with a delay or in
anticipation of a radar pulse to produce returns which vary in range, or it can be injected into the sidelobes at a proportionally
higher power resulting in false azimuth returns. Suitable programming of the equipment can cause a matrix of echoes to be built
up on the victim radar's display as shown in Fig 8.
4-1-2-3 Fig 8 False Target Matrix on PPI Display

21. Although false targets outside of the target's range are relatively easy to generate, the production of credible targets
elsewhere is rather more difficult. To produce false returns inside the target's range the deception signal must be transmitted
before the radar pulse arrives at the jammer. Whereas this is a relatively straightforward technique if the radar has a stable PRF,
it is less so if the radar is PRF agile or unstable due to design or maintenance problems. In this case the false target range will
vary from pulse to pulse and is likely to be recognized as false by the operator. To produce a target on a false azimuth it is
necessary to inject the deception signals into the radar sidelobes and ideally at a power level inversely proportional to the ratio of
the sidelobe power to the main lobe power. If the signals deviate too widely from this ideal the operator is likely to be able to
differentiate between real and false echoes. The successful placement of credible returns over the whole of a PPI will only be
possible if a computer is incorporated into the ECM equipment.
Track Breakers
22. Fire control radars require to track the position (angle and range) or velocity of a target in order to guide a weapon
successfully; track breaking DECM equipments seek to negate this capability.
23. Range Gate Stealing. The technique of range gate stealing or range gate pull-off (RGPO) is shown in Fig 9. In a typical
pulse radar system a range gate is initially placed in coincidence, either manually or automatically, with the true target return and
range gate circuits then maintain the coincidence enabling range data to be continually available. Once the radar has been
range-gated, automatic gain control (AGC) circuits set themselves to the appropriate level commensurate with the echo signal
strength (Fig 9a). The victim radar's signal is received by the jamming equipment where it is amplified and re-transmitted with
minimal delay so as to provide a very strong signal at the radar. This causes the AGC circuits to adjust to a higher level,
suppressing the true target, and seducing the tracking gates into following the false target (Fig 9b). The false signal is
successively delayed or advanced away from the true target echo on a pulse-to-pulse basis (Fig 9c & d) until after a while the
false target generation is stopped and the tracking is lost (Fig 9e). The AGC circuits then adjust until the true target is seen once
again (Fig 9f) but if re-lock is attempted the RGPO process starts again. As there is a finite delay between the reception of the
radar signal and the transmission of the deception signal, range gate stealers can be defeated by some radars by employing
leading edge trackers. This in turn can be overcome by anticipating the pulse arrival at the jammer, but only if the radar has a
stable PRF. RGPO can operate against PRF agile radars by using a technique known as cover-pulse jamming in which a
relatively long pulse of energy is transmitted such that it is likely to cover the range of PRF agility. The transmission is triggered
by the previous radar pulse.
4-1-2-3 Fig 9 Range Gate Pull-off (RGPO)

24. Velocity Gate Stealing. Velocity gate stealing works on an analogous principle to range gate stealing. Doppler type radars
determine and track target velocity using velocity gates and these can be seduced by a jamming signal which shifts in frequency
rather than time. The shift can be up or down the frequency spectrum but the rate of change must be limited to that acceptable as
a target acceleration by the victim radar.
25. Angle Deception. Angle deception should have the highest priority in deception jamming since, even if range or velocity
deception techniques are successful, the defender may be able to employ a weapon using 3-point guidance techniques. The
appropriate angle breaking technique depends on the type of angle tracking used by the radar:
a. Mechanical Track-while-scan Radar. Mechanical track-while-scan systems may be defeated by noise jamming into the
main and sidelobes, with proportionally more power into the sidelobes, so that the operator is faced with a matrix of
possible target positions and with little chance of employing 3-point guidance.
b. Overlapping Lobe Radar. Overlapping lobe radars, such as conical scan or sequential lobing systems, obtain tracking
information by correlating angular error signals with lobe position so that servo systems drive the aerial to centralize the
target. Inverse square wave jamming equipment receives the scan modulated pulses, inverts the modulation, and
re-transmits the signal causing false error signals at the radar which drive the aerial away from the target.
c. Lobe-on-receive-only Radar. Lobe-on-receive-only radars are more difficult to deceive as the scan rate is not readily
apparent. However some opportunity may be conceded by the unintentional induction of scan rates onto the transmitted
beam by the lobing action of the receiver. Another technique is to slowly sweep the jammer output amplitude modulation
through the likely range of scan rates in order to match the actual scan rate and thus induce errors in the tracking.
d. Monopulse Radar. Monopulse radars are probably the most difficult to deceive electronically but four techniques are
available:
(1) Cross-polarization Jamming. All of the beams of a monopulse system will exhibit one orientation of linear
polarization. However, if the antenna is of a reflector type it will respond to signals with the orthogonal polarization
through the sidelobes. Thus if a jammer radiates powerful signals with this orthogonal polarization into the sidelobes,

the radar would assume that the jamming target is in the main beam and angle track breaking would be achieved. The
technique has the disadvantage that any variance from exact cross-polarization would provide a signal component readily
seen by the main beam and the jammer would effectively become a beacon. Flat plate planar array antennae are not
susceptible to cross-polarization jamming.
(2) Cross-eye Jamming. Cross-eye jamming employs two widely separated coherent transponders on the same airframe
emitting signals 180° out of phase. The jamming signal appears as a distorted wavefront at the radar and, as the radar
will seek to align itself normal to the received signal, angle track breaking will be achieved.
(3) Co-operative Modulated Jamming. Co-operative modulated jamming is a method whereby two or more aircraft
employ non-coherent jamming simultaneously against the same victim radar. The technique causes the fire control radar
to centre its angle tracking on the centroid of the multiple jamming sources rather than on an individual target. All of the
jamming sources must lie within the beamwidth of the radar and there are severe constraints on aircraft manoeuvre while
jamming is being attempted. The technique cannot be used against multiple radar sites simultaneously.
(4) Terrain Bounce Jamming. Terrain bounce jamming is postulated primarily for use against semi-active missiles.
The jammer illuminates the Earth's surface in front of the aircraft so that it bounces up to the missile and causes the
missile to home into the ground. The signal must be very strong to overcome losses at the surface and there must be no
sidelobes at or above the horizon on to which the missile might home.
RADAR ECM - PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL METHODS
Introduction
26. On-board electronics do not provide the only ECM techniques, and other methods may be employed either instead of, or in
conjunction with, electronic devices. The employment of decoys, chaff, and tactics will be discussed in the following
paragraphs; stealth technology, which is a passive technique, will be covered separately.
Decoys
27. An airborne decoy is an expendable or semi-expendable device which is launched from the target aircraft, or from the
ground, with the objective of simulating a genuine target. A physically small decoy can be made to be indistinguishable on radar
from the aircraft to be protected by the use of corner reflectors which increase and modify the decoy's radar cross section.
Decoys may be fitted with noise and deception jammers, and with chaff dispensers, commensurate with the physical constraints
of size, payload, and available power. Since the prime aim of decoy craft is to mimic the real aircraft target they should
duplicate the speed and height of the launch aircraft and they therefore tend to be expensive. Nevertheless, future fire control
radars are likely to be very difficult to jam successfully and decoys may be the only viable option. Current development is
toward air-towed decoys.
28. Decoys are also used to simulate potential ground targets in order to deceive attacking aircraft. They may employ
deception transmitters or may be mechanical reflectors. Active decoys can be used to seduce anti-radiation missiles away from
the main radar head either by acting alone in an expendable mode, or by working in unison with the main radar to shift the
overall power centroid. Passive decoys can be used to simulate ground radar features such as roads, bridges, power stations, and
airfields in order to confuse radar guided missiles.
Chaff
29. Chaff is a general term covering all elemental passive reflectors, absorbers, or refractors of radar, communication, and other
weapon system radiations, which can be floated or suspended in the atmosphere for the purpose of confusion, screening, or
otherwise adversely affecting the performance of the victim electronic systems. The most commonly encountered example
consists of thin metallic or metallic-coated dielectric strips of various lengths and frequency responses that cause confusion
targets, clouds, or corridors on victim radar displays.
30. Most chaff is made of solid aluminium, aluminium coated glass fibres, or silver coated nylon filaments packaged in small
units containing hundreds of thousands of elements, and light enough to allow an aircraft to carry large quantities.
31. Chaff is usually cut to match the half-wavelength of the victim's radar frequency to create a half-wave dipole, and as such it
re-radiates the incident radar energy very efficiently; a small package of chaff may have a radar cross section similar to, or
greater than, that of the dispensing aircraft. Typically a package will contain varying lengths of chaff filaments in order that it
will respond to a variety of frequencies. Long lengths of chaff material, known as ‘rope', are sometimes used against low
frequency, long range, radars, although they are less effective than tuned lengths.

32. Chaff can be employed in large clouds in an attempt to hide attacking aircraft, in a large number of randomly dispensed
small packages designed to create false target returns, or as a self-protection measure by an aircraft which has been locked on to
by a terminal threat radar. Developments in radar technology have greatly reduced the effectiveness of the first two applications,
and chaff is now mainly used as a self-protection aid. It can be quite effective in breaking radar lock when dispensed in small
discrete packages, or in a short series of packages, in conjunction with a hard turning manoeuvre.
Tactics
33. Technological counters to an improvement in an enemy's radar or weapon systems are not usually realized quickly, and
tactical changes, either to the flying pattern or to the use of existing equipment, will usually be the quickest countermeasures to
be developed.
34. Flying at low level makes it more difficult for enemy systems to engage an aircraft due to the limited radar horizon, terrain
screening, and the difficulty of achieving a correct weapon fuzing.
35. Tactical countermeasures may also involve evasive manoeuvre, probably in association with electronic or physical
measures. A change of heading, altitude, or speed whilst an enemy radar is degraded by ECM is likely to make re-acquisition by
the operator more difficult. Long term degradation or destruction of the enemy system, although desirable, is probably not
achievable. However it is only necessary to create confusion or delay for the time taken to escape from the weapon's
engagement envelope.
RADAR ECM - STEALTH
Introduction
36. Probably the best ECM is to avoid detection, and the concept of stealth involves the reduction of the detectability of an
aircraft, or any other vehicle, with the aim of enhancing its survivability.
37. The fundamental parameter encountered when dealing with radar stealth techniques is the radar cross section (RCS). RCS
may be defined as a hypothetical area intercepting that amount of power, which, when scattered equally in all directions,
produces an echo at the radar equal to that of the target. RCS therefore provides a measure of radar visibility; an aircraft with a
large RCS will be more detectable than one with a small RCS under the same conditions.
38. An aircraft does not have a fixed RCS - the value depends upon the illuminating radar parameters, the aircraft's shape, size,
orientation with respect to the radar, and construction material. Also, since it is not possible to take any actions to change an
enemy's radar parameters, the range and radar factors will not be explored further.
Effect of Size
39. In general the RCS of an object increases with increasing size. However resonance effects, which can greatly enhance
RCS, can occur when radar waves impinge upon an object which is of a comparable size to the radar wavelength. Whereas, as a
whole, an aircraft is larger than any radar wavelength, there are often components, such as cabin conditioning intakes and gun
muzzles, which may respond resonantly to, say, an I-band radar. This potential problem can be alleviated to an extent by
incorporating the smaller components into a smooth, blended, structure.
Effect of Shape and Aspect

40. Shape and aspect are considered together as the shape of an object will depend upon the aspect presented to the illuminating
radar. The RCS of a complex shape, such as an aircraft, depends upon its constituent shapes. In particular a corner reflector has
a high RCS compared to its physical size, and one of the principle design aims therefore is to reduce the number of near 90°
corners on an aircraft, by, for example, blending the wings into the fuselage. A particularly reflective area is generated by the
external carriage of weapons, fuel tanks, and ECM equipment, where the joints between wings, pylons, and stores provide a
large number of 90° corners. This problem can be overcome by the internal carriage of stores.
41. The other main sources of reflection are planar surfaces orientated normal, or near normal, to the incident radiation. It will
be virtually impossible to eliminate this effect for all viewing aspects, but some reduction in RCS can be achieved by arranging
for fins to slope inwards, and by having highly swept leading edges to wings and tailplanes. Ideally an aircraft fuselage
cross-section would be one where virtually all of the incident radiation was reflected away from the illuminating radar, as
illustrated in Fig 10.
4-1-2-3 Fig 10 Stealthy Aircraft Fuselage Cross Section

42. Any cavity will efficiently reflect radar - cockpits and engine intakes being good examples. As well as being a resonant
cavity, a cockpit normally contains a large number of corner reflectors. One method of reducing the RCS of a cockpit is to coat
the canopy with a thin metallic film - gold and indium tin oxide have been used. The RCS of engine intakes is increased by the
presence of the LP compressor face, so deep intakes are desirable. The problem could also be reduced by placing the intakes so
that they were not visible to the likely threat radars (eg above the fuselage to counter ground based radars) but aerodynamic
considerations will frequently make this approach unsuitable. More practically, the intakes can be shielded by the use of an
intake bullet or lined with radar absorbent material.
Materials
43. One method of reducing the RCS of an aircraft is to reduce the absolute amount of energy being reflected by the use of
radar absorbent material.
44. Ideally such material would be of negligible thickness and weight, would be effective over a wide bandwidth and over a
wide range of angles of incidence, and could either be moulded to form complex shapes and surfaces, or could be stuck on to
them. There is, of course, no one material which completely satisfies all of these requirements but radar absorbent materials
suitable for use in aircraft structures have been developed, as have radar absorbent paints.
COUNTERMEASURES TO INFRA-RED HOMING MISSILES
The Infra-red (IR)-homing Missile

45. Historically, most aircraft which have been shot down by guided missiles have been hit by the IR-homing type, so clearly
the development of countermeasures to this threat is highly desirable.
46. The IR energy onto which the missile can home can be considered to emanate from three sources:
a. The jet pipe hot metal.
b. The exhaust plume.
c. The kinetically heated leading edges of the aircraft structure.
47. The threat can be countered by using IR stealth measures aimed at preventing the missile from achieving a lock, by using
decoys, or by using noise or deception techniques to jam the missile guidance circuits.
Stealth Measures
48. Stealth measures are directed towards reducing the IR visibility of an aircraft, the main areas for consideration being the jet
pipe and the exhaust plume, together with a number of miscellaneous ‘hot spots'.
49. Jet Pipe. Shielding of the hot metal of the jet pipe from the view of an IR missile is especially effective against older IR
missiles which use un-cooled sensors and need to home onto the short wavelength energy emitted by the very hot metal.
Un-reheated engine exhausts can be shrouded, and helicopter jet pipes are particularly suitable for such treatment.
50. Exhaust Plume. Missiles with cooled seeker heads are able to home onto the energy emitted by the hot jet exhaust gases.
The problem is partly overcome by the use of high bypass ratio turbofan engines where the hot gas is mixed with the cooler

bypass gas before expulsion. If afterburners are in use when a missile launch is seen or suspected then it is essential that the
engine power is reduced to ‘military range' to reduce the IR radiation. Helicopters are often fitted with exhaust deflectors which
reduce the plume's temperature by forcing it into the rotor downwash.
51. Hot Spots. Powerful landing lights or searchlights can provide a usable source of IR energy in some circumstances. The
most effective measure is to switch off if a missile launch is seen or suspected, but if this action is unacceptable then it will be
necessary to resort to decoys or jammers. In some circumstances sun glint from glossy surfaces can be sufficient for a missile to
acquire lock - this can be overcome by the use of matt or semi-matt finishes.
Infra-red Decoys
52. The aim of infra-red decoys is to present a target to the missile which is more compelling than the aircraft. Decoys are in
the form of flares which emit energy at all appropriate IR frequencies, and the missile guidance transfers lock either to the flare
or to the power centroid between the aircraft and the flare. As the flare falls away, the missile seeker follows the movement until
the aircraft is no longer within the field of view (FOV) as shown in Fig 11. In order to be successful the flare must ignite
quickly so that it is sufficiently bright while still in the missile's FOV, and then burn for long enough so that the aircraft can
escape from the FOV.
4-1-2-3 Fig 11 Flare Decoying of IR Homing Missile
53. Decoys are not without drawbacks. The initial problem is that there is as yet no equipment available to warn the crew of a
missile launch and so reliance has to be placed on the aircrew seeing the launch flash, being told of the launch by other aircraft
in a formation, or simply releasing decoys in a predetermined pattern as a precautionary measure during a period of maximum
susceptibility. Most aircraft will not be able to carry enough flares for them to be used indiscriminately.
54. If a series of flares is initiated manually there is a danger, if the time gap between flares is too short, that the missile will
transfer lock up the series until it arrives back at the aircraft - the ‘stepladder' effect.
55. In addition to artificial flares, many missiles can be decoyed by flying so that the sun, or a strong solar reflection from a
cloud edge, enters the missile FOV. Similarly, IR missiles may be confused if presented with strong IR sources on the ground
such as fires or explosions.
Infra-red Jamming
56. The tracking system of an IR missile employs a device which modulates the incoming infra-red energy, either in amplitude
or frequency, in response to the direction of the infra-red source with respect to the missile boresight. The aim of an infra-red
jammer is to disrupt this modulated signal so as to cause errors in the missile guidance.
57. In the missile the incoming infra-red energy is focused onto an infra-red sensitive cell by a set of optics. In order to
produce an output signal which is modulated in response to the source direction, one of two systems is generally used. Each
system incorporates a reticule which has a pattern of opaque and transparent sectors. In the spin scan seeker head the reticule
rotates, while in the conical scan seeker head moving mirrors in the optical system move the image of the infra-red source over a
fixed reticule. The pattern of this ‘chopper' disc varies from missile to missile, but a simple type of spin scan reticule, known as
a ‘rising sun' reticule, is shown in Fig 12 and its mode of operation will serve to illustrate the principle of IR jammers.

4-1-2-3 Fig 12 A ‘Rising Sun' Reticule
58. Half of the disc has alternating transparent and opaque sectors; the other half is an area of 50% transparency. Fig 13a
shows the output from the sensitive cell for a target appearing near the 12 o'clock position on the reticule. As the disc rotates the
IR energy will be alternately passed and stopped during the first 180° of rotation, and then 50% of the energy will be allowed
through for the second 180°. This 50% transmission interval is known as the phasing sector. Figs 13b, c, d show the output
signals for targets at 3, 6, and 9 o'clock respectively. This output signal is used to modulate a carrier wave which, by comparison
to a reference signal, allows the position of the phasing sector to be determined and thereby a tracking error signal to be
generated. If the target is on boresight there is no modulation, and therefore no error signal.
59. Infra-red Jammers. The IR source in a jammer is typically either a doped graphite rod, or an alkali metal vapour lamp. The
graphite rod is contained in a sealed case of sapphire and is heated to 1,800 K or 2,000 K. Graphite sources are usually limited
to helicopters and light aircraft. The element of an alkali vapour lamp is commonly caesium or rubidium and is heated to
between 3,800 K and 4,000 K. The metal then forms a plasma between the lamp's two electrodes so that when a current is
passed a large IR pulse is emitted. The output of the alkali vapour lamp is significantly greater than that of the graphite source
and so this type of jammer is commonly found on large helicopters and transport aircraft.
4-1-2-3 Fig 13 IR Cell Output for Various Target Positions


60. Noise Jamming. For noise jamming applications the IR output is modulated to produce a constant stream of pulses, ideally
at or close to the chopping rate of the missile seeker head. The effect is to add pulses to that part of the seeker head output signal
which was originally the phasing sector, and to alter the amplitude of the originally pulsed part of the signal. The overall result
is to reduce the size of the tracking error signal which reduces the missile's acquisition range, reduces the seeker's tracking
sensitivity, and prevents the seeker from following a highly manoeuvring target.
61. Deception Jamming. For deception jamming purposes the output of the jammer is modulated to produce a series of pulses
similar to that produced by the reticule when it is tracking an off-boresight target. With a suitable jam/signal power ratio, the
jammer pulses will tend to dominate and, if out of phase with the reticule output, will put pulses into the phasing sector. The
carrier wave output will have an amplitude and phase altered from that due to the target alone and false tracking signals will
result. When the missile guidance circuits receive the false phasing information from the reticule system, the missile will
attempt to fly to bring the false target onto boresight and, in doing so, lose the real target from its FOV. Deception jammers are
able to induce much larger miss distances than noise jammers, and although more complex, can require less power if an
electrically modulated lamp source is used.
62. Effect. Jammers are less effective against conical scan seeker heads than they are against the spin scan system described. In
general they will fail to break lock completely but will induce a small tracking offset which will result in a relatively small miss
distance.
COUNTERMEASURES TO ELECTRO-OPTICAL SYSTEMS
Techniques
63. The use of passive viewing systems by an enemy is extremely difficult to detect and, if a system is detected, and a
countermeasure is used, it is very difficult to assess the effectiveness. Against a purely optical system it will be necessary to
attack the operator, but the techniques of contrast reduction, deception, obscuration, jamming, and tactics can be employed to
defeat an electro-optical system.
64. Contrast Reduction. Contrast reduction, or camouflage, is a well established technique. Aircraft can be painted to blend
with their likely background and these paint schemes may need to be altered as theatres of operation change. Camouflage nets
are commonly used to conceal ground targets, although to be fully effective they should be responsive at both visible and
infra-red wavelengths.
65. Deception. It is possible to produce decoys to closely resemble many types of target regardless of the type of sensor
employed, for example, a decoy aircraft or tank could be finished with IR reflecting material, and equipped with radar reflectors.
66. Obscuration. All electro-optical systems are degraded to some extent in the presence of cloud, haze, fog, or smoke. Thus
the introduction of such a scattering medium into the field of view can be an effective countermeasure, although consideration
must be given to both visible and infra-red wavelengths. Terrain or vegetative masking might also be classified as an
obscuration countermeasure.
67. Jamming. Lasers or flares can be used to overload an indirect viewing system, or to distract the operator or damage his
eyes. The flashing of very bright lights at certain rates can also be employed to disable the operator.
68. Tactics. The employment of tactics to defeat electro-optical systems include planning attacks so as to maximize terrain
screening and ideally such that the sun is behind the aircraft. Manoeuvres can be employed to escape from the system's FOV or
to fly into cloud to achieve obscuration.
LASER COUNTERMEASURES
Laser Uses and Countermeasures

69. Lasers are currently used in target designators, rangefinders, and communications links. However laser damage weapons
may become operational in the future, either in the form of eye damage weapons, or as high energy lasers capable of inflicting a
‘hard kill' against equipment. Military lasers operate in the visible or infra-red bands and the radiation is subject to the same
attenuation and scattering effects as non-coherent radiation in these bands. Laser countermeasures generally use one or more of
the following techniques:
a. Absorption.
b. Reflection.

c. Ablation.
d. Jamming.
70. Absorption. Rangefinders, designators, and communications links can be disrupted by the use of smoke, the particles of
which are able to absorb and scatter the beam. However, it seems unlikely that active smoke dispensers could be employed by
high speed aircraft, although some protection may be afforded by clouds and perhaps by the smoke of battle. Land targets on the
other hand may well be able to use smoke screens as a viable countermeasure. Eye damage weapons could in theory be
countered by the use of narrow band filters built into the aircrew visor or into the aircraft cockpit. However, the wide range of
laser frequencies available would entail the use of a large number of filters, and the total light attenuation would be
unacceptable. Devices which darken when light falls on them have been proposed but at present their reaction time is too slow.
The most promising current line of development is to decouple the eyes from the outside world by using some form of indirect
viewing system. Such a system could be made more tolerant to high laser energy levels than the eye.
71. Reflection. A possible counter to laser damage weapons is to use highly reflective aircraft finishes, although these are not
effective against designators and trackers. Unfortunately these reflective finishes are difficult to maintain in practice,
particularly in a combat situation, and of course defeat any attempt at visible camouflage.
72. Ablation. Ablative coatings are a possible counter to ‘hard kill' laser damage weapons. These coatings absorb the incident
energy and either melt or flake away and thereby protect the underlying structure. The technique has the disadvantage of
imposing a significant weight penalty.
73. Jamming. Rangefinders, designators, and communications links employ amplitude or frequency modulation and are
therefore theoretically susceptible to jamming. Unlike radars, however, laser systems have no sidelobes and the jammer must
therefore be placed in the narrow main beam. If this can be achieved, and the laser wavelength is known, noise jamming is
relatively easy. Deception jamming is difficult since the laser uses a very high frequency and very wide bandwidth and therefore
very complex coding.
COMMUNICATIONS COUNTERMEASURES
General Considerations
74. ‘Communications' in these paragraphs refers to the transmission and reception of messages by means of radio. The
messages may be in speech or data form and the system used may be teleprinter, telegraphy, telephony, data link or a visual
system.
75. Bandwidth Considerations. On average, human hearing covers a frequency range from about 20 Hz to about 16 kHz but
for acceptable clarity of speech it is only necessary for the ear to receive up to about 4 kHz. The sound waves are converted to
electrical signals which modulate an electromagnetic carrier wave and the bandwidth around the carrier frequency extends over a
few kilohertz. In a typical aircraft communications system the carrier frequency may be about 200 MHz, although in general
communications carrier frequencies may lie between 100 kHz and several gigahertz. Messages may be sent in coded form rather
than as speech. As with radar, when pulses are used to modulate a carrier, the bandwidth necessary for adequate reproduction is
much higher than that adequate for simple speech modulation. As an example, for a pulse width of 0.25 µsec a bandwidth of
about 4 MHz would be required.
76. Propagation Considerations. Radio communications may be effected by using either stationary or mobile transmitters and
receivers. Although it may be easier to determine the requirements of a jammer if it is to be used against a static site, it may in
practice be more difficult to position the jammer satisfactorily due to geographical considerations.
77. Antennae. A communications aerial does not scan like a search radar antenna, but either transmits omnidirectionally, or is
directional - in a microwave link the beam is highly directional and very narrow.
78. Reception. In most cases a receiver is concerned only with one-way propagation direct from the transmitter and thus the
signal power at the receiver is essentially inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the transmitter, although this
simple relationship will often be modified by the effects of the local terrain. Some systems do not rely on direct transmission but
make use of ionospheric refraction or forward scatter to achieve long distance communication.
Electronic Jamming
79. The principle drawback to the noise jamming of enemy communications is that the jamming is likely to create similar havoc
to friendly communications and intelligence gathering, both on the jammed frequency and on close frequencies within the spread
of the noise spectrum. Intentional communications jamming has therefore to be carefully controlled and authorized. It is

possible nevertheless to plant short range jammers, perhaps dropped by parachute, adjacent to enemy communications centres so
that the likelihood of interference to friendly systems is reduced.
80. Communications noise jamming can take the same forms as radar jamming, ie spot jamming, sweep jamming, barrage
jamming, or some hybrid form. Ordinary communications transmitters can be used as jammers if set to the victim frequency and
modulated with voice, music, tones, or noise. In addition, deceptive messages can be included in the hope that when filtered
from the noise the enemy will believe them to be genuine.
81. The sidelobes of communications aerials are considerably down on power compared to the main lobe and thus it is
necessary for jamming to be injected into the main lobe. This can be difficult in, for example, microwave links which have very
narrow highly directional beams; the jamming would have to originate somewhere close to the line joining the two aerials.
82. Satellite communication systems present a rather different situation. The satellite is usually communicating with a number
of ground stations and its radiation pattern is consequently broad. Conversely, the ground station directs a very narrow beam
continuously at the satellite. As a result, jamming normally has to be concentrated on the up-link to exploit the satellite
receiver's broad radiation pattern. Since these systems use short wavelength radiation, the jammer aerials can be designed to
have narrow beams which reduces the probability of interfering with friendly communications.
NAVIGATION AIDS COUNTERMEASURES
Types of Radio Navigation Aids and Countermeasures

83. Radio navigation aids can be broadly classified into three categories; those giving bearing, those giving range, and
hyperbolic systems generating a fix. Although it is quite feasible to jam most radio navigation aids, it is debatable whether an
enemy would consider it worthwhile to expend energy and resources in doing so, especially as most military aircraft can operate
satisfactorily without using external aids.
84. Bearing Aids. Radio aids which give a bearing from a ground station may operate either by determining the direction of
arrival of the wavefront using a directional aerial (ADF), or by phase comparison techniques (eg VOR or TACAN). ADF
systems are easily deceived by broadcasting on the same frequency using a CW transmitter. This creates a composite signal and
the directional aerial will indicate a direction towards the mean of the two components. VOR and TACAN can be countered by
broadcasting a carrier signal on the same frequency as the beacon, and modulated in the same way, which would cause errors in
phase measurement. In order to attack the receivers on low flying aircraft it is likely that the jammers would need to be
airborne.
85. Range Aids. The range element of TACAN and DME operate identically and a lock can be broken by constant
transmission of noise generated pulses of sufficient amplitude. The jammer must be line of sight with the ground beacon and
this constraint implies using airborne equipment.
86. Hyperbolic Systems. Noise jamming is not likely to be simple or effective against Decca, or LORAN C, due to the narrow
bandwidth of the systems. The most appropriate techniques involve copying and re-broadcasting the signals leading to phase
measurement errors in the equipment. Because of the large power and aerial size requirements any jammers would have to be
ground based. Navstar is very resistant to ECM and it is unlikely that the system could be degraded electronically over a wide
area.
4-1-2-3 Fig 2a Jamming into Sidelobe

4-1-2-3 Fig 2b Jamming into Main Lobe
4-1-2-3 Fig 2c Jamming into Next Sidelobe
4-1-2-3 Fig 2d Overall Effect on PPI
4-1-2-3 Fig 4a

4-1-2-3 Fig 4b
4-1-2-3 Fig 4c
4-1-2-3 Fig 9a

4-1-2-3 Fig 9b
4-1-2-3 Fig 9c

4-1-2-3 Fig 9d
4-1-2-3 Fig 9e

4-1-2-3 Fig 9f
4-1-2-3 Fig 13a IR Target at 12 o'clock

4-1-2-3 Fig 13b IR Target at 3 o'clock
4-1-2-3 Fig 13c IR Target at 6 o'clock
4-1-2-3 Fig 13d IR Target at 9 o'clock

Electronic Warfare
Chapter 4 - Electronic Protective Measures (EPM)
Introduction
1. Electronic Protective Measures (EPM) comprise that division of EW involving actions to ensure the friendly effective use of
the electromagnetic spectrum despite the enemy's use of electromagnetic energy.
2. A resolute enemy could put any electronic system out of useful action provided that he was prepared to allocate the
necessary resources. One of the principal aims of EPM is to make the cost of carrying out such a campaign unacceptable.
3. Much can be done to effect EPM before any equipment is introduced into service by careful overall planning, and by
designing equipment with EW in mind so that susceptibility to ECM is minimized. Once an equipment is in use much reliance
will be placed on appropriate tactics and on operator skills.
Overall Planning
4. Frequency Allocation. One of the main considerations at the planning stage is the allocation of operating frequencies within
the usable parts of the spectrum. The allocation will depend upon a knowledge of both the military and technical requirements
of the numerous radar and communications systems, and the problems caused both by electronic warfare and by interference
effects between friendly systems. In a war situation an ill-considered frequency allocation policy may well make the enemy's
ECM task easier, and possibly unnecessary if mutual interference causes significant problems. Alternative communications
frequencies should be allocated so that a reversion can be made if jamming becomes intolerable, and if intelligence or ESM has
made enemy frequencies known, these can be used as a last resort.
5. Operating Procedures. The establishment of standard operating and communications authentication procedures will make it
harder for the enemy to enter a network by posing as a friendly station and thereby introducing deception messages.
6. Parallel Operation. The enemy will inevitably attempt to exploit any weaknesses in a radar or communications system.
Any potential weak points should therefore be identified at the planning stage and protection measures implemented. One
remedy is the use of parallel operation in which two or more devices are available to do the same task. As an example, more
than one radar can be used to supply the same information so that if one is jammed the other may still be able to operate
successfully, particularly if the two sets use widely separated frequency bands (frequency diversity). This method increases the
resources needed by the enemy to jam or destroy the facility but of course this desirability must be weighed against the cost of
providing the additional installations; much will depend on how vital the radar (or other) information is considered to be.
Radar Equipment Design

7. The design of any radar equipment should take due account of EPM features. One such feature is frequency agility, another
technique is that of diplexing in which a common aerial is fed from two separate transmitters /receivers operating on different

frequencies within the same band. When one receiver is jammed the other is still able to operate and when neither channel is
being jammed the two signal powers may be added to enhance the signal-to-noise ratio.
8. In many cases the inherent characteristics of a radar which are included to enable it to perform a particular task will in
themselves contribute to EPM; such features include MTI, pulse-width compression, and sidelobe cancellation or blanking.
9. It is desirable for EPM purposes that a radar should be designed with the maximum permissible transmitter power and with a
high aerial gain. This forces the enemy into using a high power jammer in order to jam the radar successfully. This implies
more cost and, if the jammer is to be airborne, there may be weight and volume penalties.
10. Several anti-clutter devices have been devised and, although these are primarily intended to reduce the effect of unwanted
‘natural' noise, they also provide EPM to varying degrees. These techniques include swept gain, logarithmic amplifiers, fast
time constant, Dicke-fix, instantaneous automatic gain control, pulselength discrimination, and pulse interference suppression;
details of these systems will be found in Vol 9, Pt 2, Sect 2, Chap 5.
Communications Equipment Design

11. As with radar equipment, communications equipment for military use should be designed with EW in mind and, where
possible, circuits should be selected for the EPM features they exhibit. There are, for example, circuits and techniques which
can increase the signal-to-noise ratio, and some pulse transmission systems which will only handle pulses of a designated width,
thus excluding many jamming signals.
12. The range of a transmission should be restricted to that necessary to accomplish the task as this reduces the chances of
enemy interception; this implies that the equipment should be designed to use the highest practicable frequency as this will limit
the range of propagation.
13. Although some applications will need to use omni-directional aerials, the employment of directional transmission aerials
will reduce the probability of signal interception, and directional reception aerials will be less susceptible to jamming signals.
14. Further EPM advantages can be gained by reducing transmission time, thereby reducing the chances of both signal
interception and of the enemy determining the transmitter location by D/F methods. Much can be achieved in this way by
planning, procedures, and control, but equally high speed transmission devices should be made use of where possible.
15. Frequency Diversity and Agility. Frequency diversity allows jamming to be avoided by switching to an alternative
frequency band. Frequency agility can keep spot jamming at bay by rapidly changing the operating frequency - the enemy is
continually trying to determine the current frequency rather than jamming. Frequency agility will not protect against barrage
jamming, but of course this results in either jamming on any individual frequency being less intense, or it imposes a high power
and therefore cost penalty on the enemy. The penalty of frequency agility is that, because of the broad band of frequencies used,
the number of available communications channels will be reduced.
16. Spread Spectrum. The spread spectrum technique is an efficient measure in which a pseudo-random noise signal is added
to the normal transmission modulation. The receiver employs an identical, synchronized, pseudo-random noise generator to
remove the noise code and reveal the original voice or data signal. Since the spread spectrum signal occupies a wide bandwidth
an enemy will have to resort to broadband jamming to defeat the signal. Furthermore, it will be extremely difficult for the
enemy to demodulate the noise and reveal any information. The system has the additional advantage of being able to transmit
several signals simultaneously provided that each transmitter and receiver pair has its own individual noise code.
Training and Tactics

17. Despite the many technological protective measures available, a large part of EPM will be vested in the effective use of
resources and in the skill of operators.
18. One of the most effective ways of avoiding jamming is to refrain from using the equipment. Although this is not entirely
acceptable, a considerable amount of protection can be gained by restricting transmissions, since doing so reduces the enemy's
chances of detection, location and jamming. Regular routines should be avoided, rather operating schedules should, as far as is
possible, be pseudo-random and opportunities should be taken to vary frequencies. The location of a jammer may often be
determined by triangulation or homing techniques and consideration might be given to implementing the ultimate EPM - the
destruction of the jammer.
19. Operators will often be the best EPM and much reliance will be placed on their skill and initiative; this skill can only be
developed through effective theoretical and practical training. It is important that operators are exposed to a variety of jamming
scenarios so that they can learn to recognize and minimize the impact of these effects, and how to implement the appropriate
anti-jamming techniques.

NAVIGATION AIDS
Radio Navigation Aids

Chapter 1 - Principles of Direction Finding
Introduction
1. Radio compasses and ground based radio direction finding equipment use specially designed receiver aerials to measure the
direction from which the received signal is coming. Airborne equipment operates in the LF/MF frequency range between 200
kHz and 1700 kHz and the system normally provides for the automatic determination and display of the relative bearing of the
transmitter. The technique of radio direction finding is based on the reception characteristics of a loop aerial.
Loop Aerial Theory

2. Fig 1a shows a loop aerial, consisting of two vertical members, A and B, connected in the form of a loop by horizontal
members. If a vertically polarized (see Vol 9, Pt 2, Sect 1, Chap 8) radio wave is incident upon the loop, it will induce voltages
in the vertical members of the loop of value Va and Vb.
3. Consider a wave incident at an angle θ to the plane of the loop (Fig 1b). Distance AB is insignificant compared with the
range from the transmitter to the loop, so both A and B receive the same signal strength. However, as the signal travels a
different distance to each, there is a phase difference at A and B given by AB cos θ.
4. Since AB is constant, the value of the resultant voltage in the loop is proportional to θ, giving the ‘figure of eight’ polar
diagram for a loop aerial shown in Fig 1c. The plus and minus signs show the sign of cos θ, and hence the resultant voltage, Vr,
in both lobes of the loop. The horizontal polar diagram has two sharply defined minima at θ = 90° and θ = 270°, and two poorly
defined maxima at θ = 0° and θ = 180°.
4-2-1-1 Fig 1 Simple Vertical Loop
Page 54 : Wed Jan 02 02:31:26 2002 Radio Navigation Aids 4- 2- 1- 1

5. If a loop aerial which is receiving a wave from a transmitter is rotated, the resultant voltage in the loop will vary as θ varies.
When θ = 90° or 270° the resultant voltage is zero. When θ = 0° or 180° the resultant voltage is a maximum. As the minima are
the more sharply defined, these are used for direction finding. To take a manual loop bearing, the loop is rotated until a
minimum signal, or null, is found, when the transmitter must, subject to certain errors mentioned later, be on the line normal to
the plane of the loop. However, there is no indication on which side of the loop the transmitter is sited. The process of resolving
this ambiguity is known as sensing.
Sensing
6. If a vertical omni-directional aerial is placed midway between the two vertical members of the loop, the voltage induced in it
by an incident wave will be midway in phase between the voltages induced in the vertical members of the loop (Fig 2a). It can
be shown that the phase of the voltage in the sense aerial, Vs, is always 90° removed from the phase of the resultant voltage, Vr,
in the loop.
4-2-1-1 Fig 2 Sensing

7. If the incident wave comes from the left of the normal to the plane of the loop (direction X in Fig 2b), Vs leads Vr by 90°,
while if it comes from the right (direction Y), Vr leads Vs by 90°. By permanently incorporating suitable components in the
sense aerial circuit, the phase of Vs can be retarded by 90°. If this is done Vs will be in phase with Vr if the wave comes from
the left of the normal and in antiphase if the wave comes from the right. The aerials are designed so that the value of Vs is equal
to the maximum value of Vr.
8. If Vs and Vr are combined the polar diagram shown in Fig 3 will result. The figure of eight is the polar diagram for the loop
alone, the circular polar diagram is for the sense aerial alone, and the heart-shaped or cardioid polar diagram is for the loop and
sense aerial combined. (To the right of the normal to the loop, Vs and Vr are in antiphase, and cancel each other; to the left they
are additive). In many installations the sense aerial is located away from the mid-point of the loop, but the principle is
unchanged.
4-2-1-1 Fig 3 Generation of Cardioid Polar Diagram

Manual Sensing
9. With the sense aerial switched out the loop is rotated until a direction of minimum signal is found. The transmitter must lie
on the line CD in Fig 3 but can be either in direction C or in direction D. To resolve the ambiguity the sense aerial is switched in
to combine with the loop to provide the cardioid polar diagram. A signal of medium strength will be received proportional to the
distance from the loop to point R or point N on the polar diagram. Rotating the loop anti-clockwise by 10° - 15° changes the
signal strength due to the eccentricity of the polar diagram. If the beacon is in direction D point S on the diagram will now be on
the line CD so that a greater signal strength will be received. If the beacon had been in direction C a weaker signal would have
resulted as point M would now be on the line CD. Thus if an anti-clockwise rotation produces a stronger signal the assumed
bearing of the transmitter is correct, and if a weaker signal is produced, the bearing is a reciprocal.
Automatic Direction Finding (ADF)

10. The loop aerial principle is used in practical radio compasses which automatically determine and display the transmitter
direction. Instead of the single loop aerial, a ‘Bellini-Tosi’ aerial system is used. This consists of two loops at right angles to
one another and each loop has a primary coil connected within the loop such that the coils cross at the centre (Fig 4).
4-2-1-1 Fig 4 Bellini-Tosi System

11. The alternating current flowing in each loop is proportional to the angle the incident wave makes with loop. The field set
up by the coil in each loop is proportional to the current flowing in its loop, thus the strength of each field depends on the angle
of the incident wave on the respective loop. The resultant field produced by the combined effect of both coils will lie in the
same direction as the incident wave. A rotor can be rotated within this resultant field and the current induced in it will be
dependent on the angle it makes with this field. If it is parallel to the field maximum current and therefore maximum signal will
be produced. If it is perpendicular no signal is produced. The combination of two static perpendicular coils and a rotatable coil
is known as a goniometer.
Direction Finding Errors

12. Night Effect. A loop aerial is designed to use vertically polarized waves for direction finding. If the incoming wave has a
horizontal component of polarization it will induce a current in the horizontal members of the loop which will tend to cancel.
However, if the loop is not at right angles to the travelling wave, the currents in the top and bottom will not cancel completely.
A resultant current will flow in the loop which will degrade the nulls of the polar diagram thus making it impossible to take
accurate bearings. By day MF transmissions propagate by surface waves and their plane of polarization does not change during
propagation. However at night, sky wave propagation becomes significant and, on being refracted at the ionosphere a vertically
polarized wave becomes elliptically polarized, ie it has a changing horizontal component of polarization. On arriving back at the
surface it is down travelling and has a horizontal component of polarization, the two features necessary to interfere with the
direction properties of the loop. At night therefore, the nulls of the loop polar diagram tend to be wandering and indistinct. In
order to reduce the effect the horizontal members should be kept as close as possible so that any phase difference in induced
currents is minimized and in addition to the top of the loop should be screened.
13. Coastal Refraction. The velocity of propagation of a surface wave is affected by the nature of the surface over which the
wave is travelling. A radio wave travels slower over a surface of poor conductivity than over a surface of good conductivity,
thus, for example, it travels faster over the sea than over the land. Fig 5 shows the case where an aircraft flying over the sea is
receiving transmissions from an inland beacon. When the wave-front reaches the coast it will speed up but, due to the angle of
the coast, elements of the wave-front to the north will reach the coast before elements to the south and hence they will speed up
earlier. This causes a tilting of the wave-front at the coast away from the normal. The wave is thus refracted at the coast so that
the angle of refraction is greater than the angle of incidence. The greater the angle of incidence the more the wave is refracted to
a maximum of 3° or 4°. The error can be minimized by using coastal beacons or by taking bearings from an inland beacon when
a line joining the DR position to the beacon crosses the coast at 90°.
4-2-1-1 Fig 5 Coastal Refraction

14. Synchronous Transmission. If two or more beacons are transmitting on frequencies that are the same or within the pass
band of the receiver, and within effective range, the measured bearing will in the direction of the resultant of the signal strength
vectors (Fig 6). The act of deliberately creating a false bearing as part of electronic warfare is termed ‘meaconing’.
15. Quadrantal Error. The electrical axis of an aircraft usually coincides with its fore-and-aft axis. Incoming radio waves
cause re-radiation from metallic parts of the aircraft and the wave is refracted towards this axis (Fig 7). Since the error tends to
be greatest on relative quadrantal points it is called quadrantal error.
Quadrantal error can be virtually eliminated by incorporating a quadrantal error corrector in the radio compass.
4-2-1-1 Fig 6 Synchronous Transmission
4-2-1-1 Fig 7 Quadrantal Error

4-2-1-1 Fig 1a Vertical Loop
4-2-1-1 Fig 1b Loop AB in Plan

4-2-1-1 Fig 1c Horizontal Polar Diagram
4-2-1-1 Fig 2a Loop + Sense Aerial

4-2-1-1 Fig 2b Direction of Incident Wave

Chapter 2 - Principles of VOR
Introduction
1. Very High Frequency Omni-Directional Radio Range (VOR) comprising a ground beacon and an airborne installation,
automatically and continuously provides the airborne operator with the magnetic bearing of the aircraft from the beacon. The
system is used extensively as an en-route navigation and terminal approach aid.
2. VOR, operating in the frequency band 108.00 to 117.95 MHz, has a great advantage over any MF system offering similar
facilities, for its performance is not affected by static or night effect. However the line of sight properties of VHF transmissions
limit the VOR coverage provided for low flying aircraft.
3. In 1960 ICAO adopted VOR as the international standard short range navigation aid, and a large number of Service aircraft
now carry the necessary receiver equipment enabling them to use the numerous beacons throughout the world.

Ground Beacon Operation

4. The principle of the VOR system is bearing by phase comparison: the aircraft's equipment derives the bearing from the
phase difference between two 30 Hz modulations associated with the radio frequency transmission of the ground beacon.
5. Although the aerial systems of VOR beacons vary in construction, all transmit omni-directional and rotating directional
signals. The polar diagrams of these transmissions, a circle and a figure of eight respectively, are shown in Fig 1 together with
their resultant, a limacon pattern. (A limacon differs from a cardioid in that there is some signal strength present at the
minimum).
6. The figure of eight diagram, and consequently the limacon, is made to rotate at 30 revs/sec by rotating the horizontal dipole
within a resonant cavity.
4-2-1-2 Fig 1 VOR Polar Diagram
7. If the limacon polar diagram starts rotating from the initial position shown in Fig 2, then the characteristics of the signal
received at the four cardinal points during one revolution are as shown in Fig 2. It can be seen that the signal is amplitude
modulated at 30 Hz, one full cycle for each complete rotation of the polar diagram, and that the phase of the modulation varies
with the position of the receiver relative to the beacon. The modulation depth is maintained at 30 per cent.
8. To compute the aircraft's bearing from this information it is necessary to have a reference from which the phase of the
directional signal can be measured. This is provided by the omni-directional or reference signal which is frequency modulated at
30 Hz by the transmitter.
9. The two 30 Hz modulations are arranged to appear in phase to a receiver due North (Magnetic) of the beacon, hence any
difference in phase is a direct measure of the bearing of the receiver from the beacon, see Fig 3.
4-2-1-2 Fig 2 Amplitude Modulation of Variable Signal

4-2-1-2 Fig 3 Bearing by Phase Comparison
Airborne Installation

10. The heart of the VOR airborne installation is the Navigation Unit: this contains the circuits that detect and phase compare
the variable and reference signals and provide outputs to the VOR displays.
11. The input arrives at the phase detector via two paths which are designed to extract the two 30 Hz components and present
them in a suitable form for phase comparison within the detector. One path allows only the 30 Hz component of the AM signal
to pass; the second path extracts the 30 Hz FM reference signal and converts it to a 30 Hz AM signal. The output from the phase
detector is a signal proportional to the measured phase difference.
Frequency Allocation
12. The allocation of frequencies in the 108.00 MHz to 117.95 MHz band is as shown in the Flight Information Handbook, but
can be summarized as follows:
a. Even 100 kHz channels up to and including 111.80 MHz and all channels in the range 112 to 117.95 MHz - VOR.
b. Odd 100 kHz channels in the range 108 to 112 MHz - ILS localizers.
13. The majority of VOR receivers also act as ILS localizer receivers, and the selection of a frequency automatically puts the
equipment into the appropriate mode, VOR or ILS. However, on military airfields, some of the VOR channels are used for ILS
purposes, and so that the equipment can use this extended coverage an external manual VOR/ILS switch is fitted to most Service
installations. This switch overrides the automatic internal VOR/ILS switching and enables the receiver to operate in the ILS
mode with a VOR frequency selected.
VOR Performance
14. As VOR is a VHF aid, the ranges that can be expected depend largely upon aircraft height. VHF range is approximately
line of sight plus 15-20% to allow for atmospheric refraction. The table below lists the approximate ranges to be expected.
Height (ft) Range (nm)

1,000 40
5,000 90
20,000 185
30,000 230
Note that there is a cone of confusion overhead the beacon. The radius of the cone is about 4 nm at 30,000 ft.
15. It is difficult to lay down specific accuracy figures for a complete VOR system, the final accuracy being the result of errors
induced by the ground beacon, the airborne equipment and the crew's interpretation of the display. Beacon errors can be caused
by misalignment with magnetic North (which is itself subject to diurnal and longer term change), reflections of the signals from
nearby objects or terrain and minor inaccuracies within the manufacturing tolerances of the equipment. Airborne equipment
error is considered to be the total error due to the receiver and display, ie the difference between the received and displayed
bearing. Errors due to crew interpretation depend on the way in which the information is used, ie whether the display is used by
the pilot to fly a radial or whether the bearing is plotted as a position line.
16. At the 95% probability level these error components are considered to be:
a. Ground Beacon Error - ± 3° (easily achieved in practice).
b. Airborne Equipment Error - ±3°.
c. Pilot Error - ±2.5° (for radial tracking).
Since the errors are independent of each other the aggregate error can be taken as the RMS of the individual components. This
results in an error of +5° in the case of an aircraft attempting to maintain a selected radial and +4° in the case of a plotted
position line.
Protected Range
17. To overcome the problem of mutual interference from adjacent beacons a ‘protected range' is quoted in the form of two

figures, eg 30/50. This describes a cylinder of radius 30 nm and height 50,000 ft within which a reliable, accurate signal, free
from interference, should be obtained.
Types of VOR Beacons

18. Various prefix and suffix letters may be seen against VOR beacon information in En-Route Supplements. The most
common are:
a. BVOR - Weather Broadcast VOR. Between beacon identification signals, area and selected airfield weather information
is broadcast.
b. DVOR - Doppler VOR Beacon. Doppler VOR reverses the modulation type of the reference and variphase signals, ie
FM instead of AM and vice versa. The aerial system is fixed and the horizontal dipole rotation is synthesized by feeding
phase differences to many small dipoles in the form of a ring. Provided that the aircraft receives both signals there is no
difference in the operation of the airborne equipment. The advantage of the system is that it does not have any moving parts
and is less susceptible to siting effects.
c. TVOR - Terminal VOR. A beacon, usually low powered, located at a major terminal airfield.
d. VOT - Test VOR Transmitter. Broadcasts a fixed omni-directional 180° radial signal for testing VOR receivers. NOT
for navigational use.
e. (AFIS) and (ATIS). AFIS (Aerodrome Flight Information Service) may be seen as a suffix to a TVOR; in this case the
beacon will be broadcasting information about that particular airfield. ATIS (Automatic Terminal Information Service) can
appear as a suffix to any VOR beacon, and the entry in the En-Route Supplement will indicate for which terminal airfield(s)
the information is valid.
f. VORTAC. Collocated VOR and TACAN beacons.
g. Combinations of the above (except VOT). eg DBVORTAC, a weather broadcasting Doppler VOR beacon collocated
with a TACAN.
VOR Displays
19. Many forms of VOR displays may be encountered. The type of display will be determined to an extent by whether the
information is to be presented for pilot or navigator interpretation. In addition the display may be integrated into other
equipments, eg HSI. Some of the more common displays are briefly outlined below but users should refer to the appropriate
Aircrew Manual for detailed information and operating procedures.
20. Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI). An RMI (Fig 4) simultaneously displays aircraft heading and the magnetic bearing to a
radio navigation aid. The radio bearing is given by a pointer moving over a rotatable compass card which is driven by the
aircraft's gyromagnetic compass. An RMI is usually capable of accepting two radio inputs at a time. An RMI therefore usually
has two separate pointers of different shape or colour or both, with changeover switches to control their functions. Before
display, the VOR magnetic bearing has to be converted to a relative bearing by subtraction of the aircraft's magnetic heading.
The relative bearing is then fed to the display, and as the compass card rotates with aircraft heading changes, the result is a
display of magnetic bearing.
4-2-1-2 Fig 4 RMI Display

21. Relative Bearing Indicator (RBI). The RBI is similar to the RMI in mechanization except that the compass card is not
driven by the gyromagnetic compass. The card is fixed with 000° aligned with the aircraft fore-and-aft axis, ie at the top of the
display. The pointer thus indicates a relative VOR bearing.
22. Omni-Bearing Selector (OBS). The OBS is the basis of many types of VOR display, which will normally offer the
following features:
a. Track Selector. The track selector can be used to either set up a desired track on which to approach or leave a beacon, or
to determine the current bearing to, or radial from, a beacon. To fly a desired track the figure is set on the selector and the
aircraft is then flown to zero the deviation indicator. The current radial or magnetic bearing to the beacon can be
determined by adjusting the track selector such that the deviation indicator is zeroed.
b. TO/FROM Indicator. The TO/FROM indicator shows the operator which sector the aircraft is in relative to the
perpendicular to the selected track through the beacon (Fig 5). It does not indicate that the aircraft is heading towards or
away from the beacon.
c. Deviation Indicator. The deviation indicator can be separate from or integral with the OBS. It may have either a
VOR/ILS localizer needle alone or may be combined with an ILS deviation indicator (Fig 6). The deviation indicator will
only be central when the aircraft is actually on the selected track. Full scale deflection is approximately 10° off the selected
track. The indicator is not a demand indicator in that it does not show the direction or amount by which the aircraft should
be turned as it takes no account of aircraft heading. It does indicate the direction relative to the selected track that the
aircraft must be flown in order to achieve that track.
4-2-1-2 Fig 5 Operation of TO/FROM Indicator

4-2-1-2 Fig 6 Deviation Indicator
23. Radial Magnetic Selector (RMS). The RMS (Fig 7) is a combination of the RMI and OBS. The RMI features are the twin

pointers and the gyromagnetic compass driven compass card. The OBS features are the selection and numeric display of
selected track, and the output to a remote deviation indicator. There is no TO/FROM indicator but a radial index always
brackets the track selected.
4-2-1-2 Fig 7 Radial Magnetic Selector
24. Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI). The HSI (Fig 8) is another OBS derivative and is a multi-purpose navigation display
which, in addition to heading, can display VOR, ILS, DME and TACAN information, with track selection and deviation
indication, depending on the aircraft fit. The instrument is covered more fully in Vol 3, Pt 2, Sect 1, Chap 3.
4-2-1-2 Fig 8 HSI


Chapter 3 - Principles of TACAN and DME
Introduction
1. TACAN and DME are UHF navigation aids that operate in the 1000 MHz band. DME ground beacons provide range
information only, whilst TACAN beacons supply magnetic bearing in addition to range. The range function of both TACAN
and DME beacons is identical in operation, and is based on the transponder principle, but the bearing information of a TACAN
beacon is in the form of a continuous transmission.
2. The principle advantages of TACAN and DME are world-wide beacon coverage, high accuracy, ease of use and the rapid
acquisition of navigational information without the need for special charts. TACAN can also be used for air-to-air rendezvous,
eg in-flight refuelling.
3. The transponder beacon is identified by its receiving and transmitting frequencies which are paired to give up to 252
channels, and by a three letter Morse code aural callsign. An unlimited number of aircraft can be given individual magnetic
bearing information from a TACAN beacon, but only 100 aircraft at a time can utilize the range facility of a TACAN or DME
beacon.
4. The airborne equipments differ in terms of information provided and operation as shown in Table 1.
5. This Chapter will discuss the principles and use of TACAN and DME.
Table 1 - Airborne TACAN and DME Equipment Capabilities

PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION
Transponder Beacon Operating Cycle

6. There are two types of TACAN and DME beacons, X and Y. Both operate on exactly the same principle, but there are
differences in detail. These differences are discussed in detail in paras 29 - 35. For the purposes of explanation of the principles
of operation of TACAN and DME beacons, figures relating to an X beacon have been used.
7. The transponder beacon transmits continuously. If it does not receive any interrogations, the receiver output will be random
noise. This noise is fed to a trigger circuit which will fire under the following conditions:
a. On the receipt of a 12 µsec pulse pair, ie the pulses in each pair are separated by 12 µsec.
b. The pulses must have amplitudes exceeding a pre-set level.
8. If the trigger circuit fires, it prompts the beacon to transmit a 12 µsec pulse pair of a fixed amplitude. The random noise
from the receiver will contain a number of pulses which satisfy the firing conditions of the trigger circuit (see Fig 1a).
4-2-1-3 Fig 1 Derivation of Ground Transmitted Pulse Trains

9. If the receiver gain is increased, more pulse pairs will exceed the pre-set amplitude level and the trigger circuit will fire more
frequently: the converse applies when the receiver gain is decreased. Therefore the number of pulse pairs transmitted by the
beacon varies directly as the gain and is continuously and automatically adjusted to produce 2,700 pulse pairs per sec. These
pulse pairs are of constant amplitude and shape, but have a random recurrence frequency (see Fig 1b).
10. If the beacon is interrogated by an airborne equipment, a 12 µsec pulse pair with an amplitude well above the pre-set level
will appear at the receiver output as at X in Fig 1a. The trigger circuit therefore will fire and a reply will be transmitted to the
aircraft amidst the pulse pairs produced irregularly by the noise from the receiver.
4-2-1-3 Fig 2 Duration of Replies
11. Since the beacon transmits a constant number of pulses per second, the greater the number of interrogation pulses received,
the fewer are the noise pulses used by the trigger circuit. This is because the gain will be reduced until the noise pulses with
small amplitudes fail to satisfy the requirements of the trigger circuit. As the tracking rate of the interrogating pulses is 24 to 30
per sec, the trigger circuit will be saturated by the interrogations from about 100 aircraft. The receiver gain will be reduced until
replies are generated only by the strongest 100 interrogations.
Distance Measurement by TACAN and DME

12. The airborne equipment will receive the reply to its interrogation amidst all the other pulse pairs transmitted by the beacon.

However, the airborne receiver must recognize its own reply to calculate the distance from the beacon. This it can do, for the
interrogations are transmitted at irregular intervals, ie the PRF is jittered, therefore only the associated replies will occur at a
regular time after each interrogation, see Fig 2. All other signals, whether they are random transmissions or replies to other
aircraft, will be received at varying times with respect to each interrogation.
13. An automatic search strobe progressively examines small portions of the receiver time base and quickly counts the number
of pulses occurring in that portion within a certain time. If the number of pulses is low, the strobe advances to examine the next
portion of the time base. When the strobe is so positioned that a large number of pulses occur the search is stopped. The
distance calculation is made using the standard pulse radar technique and the PRF of the interrogation drops from 150 to 24 to
30 pulse pairs per sec. Thereafter the strobe automatically follows small variations in the position of the reply pulses as the
aircraft's range changes.
14. If the replies are interrupted for less than approximately 10 sec the distance indication will be frozen by the memory circuit
in the airborne receiver, and the search process will be inhibited. If no replies are received within approximately 10 sec the
search cycle will recommence and the distance counters will rotate. So far this chapter has discussed a pure DME system.
Bearing Measurement by TACAN

15. The pulses produced initially by the beacon, whatever their origin, are of constant shape and amplitude. However, in order
to convey bearing information they are amplitude modulated by the aerial system. As the beacon transmits 2,700 pulse pairs per
sec, the modulation is carried as accurately as if a CW bearer was used.
16. The beacon's aerial system comprises a central vertical aerial around which two concentric fibreglass cylinders rotate at 15
revolutions per second. Embodied in the surface of the inner and outer cylinders respectively, are one vertical reflector and nine
equally-spaced directors (see Fig 3).
4-2-1-3 Fig 3 TACAN Ground Beacon Aerial System
17. The polar diagram produced by the fixed aerial and vertical reflector is shown at Fig 4. As the reflector is rotating, the
polar diagram will also rotate at the same rate of 15 revolutions per second. Any airborne equipment receiving a signal from this

combination would find that the pulse amplitudes varied through one sinusoidal cycle for each rotation of the polar diagram, see
Fig 5. Therefore the transmissions are amplitude modulated at 15 Hz. The phase of the modulation received by each aircraft
would vary with the airborne equipment's position relative to the beacon. This can be seen in Fig 5 by comparing the signals
received to the North and South of the beacon.
4-2-1-3 Fig 4 Polar Diagram for Fixed Aerial and Reflector
4-2-1-3 Fig 5 Amplitude Modulation due to Aerial Rotation
4-2-1-3 Fig 6 Determination of Bearing by Phase Comparison

18. A reference is required to measure the phase of the signal and therefore the bearing of the airborne equipment to the beacon.
This reference is supplied by the beacon transmitting a short train of 12 even-spaced 12 µsec pulse pairs each time the maximum
of the polar-diagram passes through magnetic East. A priority circuit ensures that the reference signal is transmitted at the
correct instant, irrespective of the trigger circuit output at that time.
19. The airborne receiver will recognize this distinctive pulse train, known as the Main Reference Burst (MRB), and will
measure the phase of the modulated signal relative to this and compute the bearing. Therefore if the reference signal coincides
with the peak of the modulated signals, the aircraft is to the East of the beacon. In practice it is easier, and it does not alter the
principle, to compare the position of the reference signal relative to the zero point on the modulated signal. Fig 6 illustrates the
relative position of the two signals for aircraft on the cardinal bearings from the beacon. It should be noted that 1° of phase
difference corresponds to 1° of bearing.
20. The 1:1 relationship between the aircraft bearing and the phase of the received signal makes such a system susceptible to
error. It would require a very accurate measurement of phase difference and reflections could cause a phase shift in the received
signals with a similar change in the computed bearings.
21. The nine directors in the aerial outer rotating cylinder overcome these disadvantages by providing a fine bearing facility.
The polar diagram for the complete aerial system has nine lobes as shown at Fig 7. When this complete aerial system is rotated
15 times.
4-2-1-3 Fig 7 TACAN Aerial Polar Diagram

4-2-1-3 Fig 8 Modulation Envelope
22. A 360° phase change in the 135 Hz component corresponds to 40° phase change in the 15 Hz component, ie 40° change in
the airborne equipment's bearing. A 1:9 relationship therefore exists between the aircraft's bearing and the phase of the received
signal; a change of 1° in phase representing only 1/9° bearing change. Thus the effect of any distortion in the phase of the
received signal upon the bearing is reduced.
23. A secondary reference signal, of six 12 µsec pulse pairs, is transmitted when each of the nine maxima of the complete polar
diagram passes through magnetic East and is known as the Auxiliary Reference Burst (ARB). These are used to determine the
aircraft's bearing from the 135 Hz components, for the position of the 135 Hz component relative to the reference signals is also
a measure of the aircraft's bearing.
24. However, since the phase of the 135 Hz component changes through 360° for a 40° change of bearing, the same phase
difference could occur in any one of the nine 40° sectors around the beacon. This ambiguity is resolved by the bearing obtained
from the 15 Hz component.
25. The phase of the 135 Hz component is measured by selecting the mean of the displacement of the nine zero points from the
respective reference markers. This is more accurate than relying upon one measurement, though the measurement is not too
critical because of the 1:9 relationships between bearing and phase.
26. Since the depth of modulation is never greater than 50%, the airborne receiver can extract the pulses it requires even if they
are in the trough of the modulated signal.
Beacon Identification
27. Coded pulses giving a two or three-letter aural callsign in Morse code are transmitted every 37.5 sec to identify the

beacon.
28. Unreliability Coding. When an unserviceable beacon is required to transmit, eg for calibration, the aural identification
signal is followed by a series of dots. The number of dots varies between 9 and 15 depending on whether the beacon has a two
or three-letter identification code. Information from a beacon coding in this manner should be regarded as unreliable.
X and Y TACAN and DME Beacons

29. The ground equipment described so far is more correctly known as an X beacon (TACAN or DME). In order to increase
the number of channels from 126 to 252 within the same frequency allocation, modified beacons known as Y beacons are
employed.
30. A Y beacon receiver operates on the same frequency as an X beacon receiver of the same channel number, but the
transmitter frequencies are different. Where an X beacon transmitter is 63 MHz lower than the receiver frequency (Channel Nos
1 to 63), the Y beacon transmitter is 63 MHz higher; and where the X beacon transmitter is 63 MHz higher than the receiver
frequency (Channel Nos 64 to 126), the Y beacon transmitter is 63 MHz lower. Normally, TACAN beacons have the suffix X
or Y quoted in addition to the actual channel number, although it can be assumed that any beacon without a suffix is an X
beacon. DME beacons are distinguished by the final digit on the VHF setting frequency. A 5 for a Y beacon, and a 0 for an X
beacon, eg 114.15, Y, and 114.20, X.
31. The other major differences between X and Y beacons are:
a. Pulse Pair Time Intervals. The time interval between the pulses that make up the pulse pairs is different in X and Y
beacons. The X spacing is 12 µsec for both the beacon receiver and transmitter, whilst the Y beacon is designed to receive
pulses with an interval of 36 µsecs and to transmit pulses with an interval of 30 µsecs.
b. Reply Delay Time. The X beacon has a reply delay time of 50 µsecs and the Y beacon one of 74 µsecs (no transponder
replies instantly to interrogation, therefore for each type of beacon a fixed and constant time interval is introduced. The
airborne equipment takes this delay into account when calculating slant range).
c. Main and Auxiliary Reference Bursts (TACAN only). The duration of the MRB and ARB is different in X and Y
TACAN beacons.
32. In order to operate with a Y beacon the airborne equipment must be modified to:
a. Produce the 36 µsec spaced pulse pairs
b. Select the appropriate receiver frequency (126 MHz different to the equivalent X channel).
c. React to 30 µsec spread pulse pairs and ignore those spaced at 12 µsec from an X beacon.
d. Compensate for the different Reply Delay Time.
e. React to the different duration of the MRB and ARB and ignore those produced by an X beacon (TACAN only).
33. Details of TACAN channel allocation, TACAN and DME beacon receiving and transmitting frequencies and the
appropriate VHF frequencies for setting on DME controllers are contained in the En Route Supplement and Flight Information
Handbook. These exclude the Y beacon figures for Channels 1 - 16 and 60 - 69 which are not required.
34. All of the TACAN beacons in use within the United Kingdom are of the X type, as are the majority elsewhere in the world.
A relatively small proportion of the DME beacons in the United Kingdom are of the Y type.
35. Note that to use a TACAN airborne equipment with a beacon that has a channel number with a Y suffix (TACAN) or with a
DME beacon that has a frequency ending in a 5, eg 115.35, the controller must be selected to Y function. For an airborne DME
equipment that has a Y capability, dialling the appropriate VHF frequency is all that is required. The X or Y function will be
selected automatically.
USE OF TACAN AND DME
Navigational Use

36. The maximum range of TACAN and DME primarily depends on the aircraft height since radio waves in the 1,000 MHz
band are quasi-optical in character.
37. A TACAN ground beacon has a 70° cone above it in which the bearing function is inoperative. It should be remembered
that the distance shown on the airborne equipment is slant range, not ground range, from the beacon.
38. When TACAN bearing information is used it must be remembered that the arrowhead of the needle points towards the
beacon. Therefore when plotting a position from the beacon, the tail end of the needle gives the required magnetic bearing.
Interference
39. To overcome the problem of possible mutual interference, the operational requirement for each beacon for coverage in
range and altitude has been specified. Each ground installation has been protected against interference up to the stated range and
altitude. Outside the protected range and altitude, interference may occur and navigational information may be unreliable. The
protected ranges and altitudes of beacons are listed in Royal Air Force Flight Information Publications.
Accuracy
40. Bearing indications should be accurate to ±0.5° and distance measurement accurate to ±0.1 nm or ±1% of the distance,
whichever is the greater.
AIR-TO-AIR TACAN
General
41. Air-to-air TACAN enables suitably equipped aircraft to measure the range between each other, up to a maximum of 195
nm; bearing information is not available. The changeover between air-to-ground and air-to-air operation is controlled by a
selector switch on the airborne equipment.
42. The maximum number of interrogating aircraft to which one responder can reply simultaneously is theoretically 33.
However, in order to remain locked-on an aircraft must receive replies to 90% of its transmissions. If 33 were locked-on and a
further interrogation was attempted, the responder would reply to this interrogation, but this would mean that one or more of the
aircraft would receive replies to less than 90% of its transmissions and lock would be lost. In addition, the responder's gain is set
by the amplitude of the strongest signal seen and if there is a large difference between the signal strength received from different
aircraft it may be the case that the weaker signals are not seen. It is thus impossible to state precisely the maximum number of
aircraft that can lock-on simultaneously.
TACAN OFFSET COMPUTER
General
43. The addition of a TACAN offset computer to an airborne installation enables bearings and distances to be obtained from a
point offset from the TACAN beacon.
44. The range and bearing of the offset point relative to the TACAN beacon are manually set on the computer control. The
computer then converts the range and bearing into electrical signals and transmits them to the navigation display where they are
added to the direct TACAN signals. The combination of signals causes the display to indicate the range and bearing of the offset
point instead of the TACAN beacon.
4-2-1-3 Fig 1a Receiver Output

4-2-1-3 Fig 1b Transmitted Pulse Pairs

Chapter 4 - Principles of Hyperbolic Navigation Systems
Introduction
1. This chapter describes the basic theory and construction common to the various hyperbolic navigational aids. Subsequent
chapters in this section describe particular equipments in detail.
2. Hyperbolic navigation systems enable an aircraft to fix its position by means of two or more intersecting position lines. No
transmissions are required from the aircraft. Each position line is established by comparing electronically the difference between
the received transmissions of two separated ground stations. The position lines obtainable take the form of families of
hyperbolae, and these may be over-printed on suitable charts. Similar comparisons using another pair of transmitters will give a
second family of hyperbolic position lines such that the intersection of two position lines will provide a fix.
Basic Types
3. The comparison difference that is measured in the aircraft may be of two forms:-
a. Time difference of two synchronized pulse transmissions (eg LORAN). This method will be called, for brevity, “Pulse
Technique System”.
b. Phase difference of two phase-locked continuous wave transmitters (eg Decca). This method will be called “Phase
Comparison System”.
These two systems will be described later in detail, but first the construction of the hyperbolic families, common to both systems,
will be discussed.
Hyperbolae

4. A hyperbola is by definition the locus of a point having a fixed difference in range from two other fixed points. The two
fixed points are the foci, which in this context are two transmitting stations, shown in Fig 1 as M and S. The spreading
concentric circles around each transmitting station may represent either outgoing pulses of pulsed transmissions or the
wavecrests of a continuous wave transmission. Either way, inspection of the values of these numbered rings at their intersection
points will enable the family of hyperbolic lines of constant difference to be drawn.
4-2-1-4 Fig 1 Construction of Hyperbolae
PULSE TECHNIQUE SYSTEM
General
5. The fundamental fact on which this type of aid is based is that the time taken by a radio pulse to travel a given distance is a
measure of that distance. In one microsecond (µ-sec) a radio pulse will travel 983.24 feet, and will take 6.184 µ-secs to travel
one nautical mile. It is thus simple to calculate distance if the pulse travelling time is known.
Formation of Position Lines.

6. Consider two ground stations, M and S, which are transmitting pulses in synchronism on the same frequency. An aircraft
with a cathode ray indicator using a linear time base will receive the two transmissions, and their relative positions on the time
base will depend on the distance of the aircraft from each transmitter. If the aircraft is at the same distance from each station, the
pulses will be received simultaneously, and the blips will occupy the same position on the time base. If the aircraft is closer to
station M than to station S the pulse from M will be received first. Furthermore, and this is important, the time difference
between the receptions of the two pulses will indicate the difference in the distances of the aircraft from the two stations.
7. Fig 2 shows two ground radar stations, M and S, which are transmitting pulses in synchronism. P is the position of an
aircraft which is carrying both a receiver, tuned to the same frequency as the transmitting stations, and an indicator unit. Since P
is nearer to station S than to station M it follows that the aircraft will receive the transmission from S first. This will be indicated
by the appearance of a blip on the indicator unit time base. The subsequent reception of the transmission from M will be
indicated on the time base by a second blip. The distance between the two blips represents the time difference between the two
receptions, say χ µ-secs., and if the time base is calibrated in µ-secs this can be readily obtained. Expressed in terms of distance
it will be equal to MP - SP.
8. Now consider what will happen if the aircraft moves to position Q in Fig 2. It is so placed that MQ is the same distance as
MP and SQ the same as SP. There will, once again, be a time difference of χ µ-secs between the two receptions. Similarly, the
distance MT - TS equals MP - SP, and so the observed time difference at T will again be χ µ-secs. There will be other points at
which the time difference between the receptions from M and S will be the same quantity, and these points can be plotted and
joined. This provides a position line on which the aircraft must be if the observed time difference is χ µ-secs. It follows that the
position line obtained by the method described above is a hyperbola; the two fixed points are the transmitting stations M and S,

and the constant difference, expressed in units of time, is χ µ-secs.
4-2-1-4 Fig 2 Time Difference
Ambiguities
9. At this point it must be stated that unless it is possible to determine whether the transmission from S is being received before
that from M or vice versa, considerable ambiguity will arise. This is illustrated in Fig 3 and numerical values are used to aid the
explanation. M and S are two stations transmitting synchronized pulses, 93 statute miles apart, the straight line joining them
being called the base line. Since radio waves travel at 186,000 statute miles per second, the distance may be expressed as a time
93
interval of 186,000 secs., or 500 µ-secs. An aircraft at C, 125 µ secs from M, will receive the signal from M first and that from
S a matter of 375-125 µ-secs later, that is, the blips will be 250 µ-secs apart on the time base. If the aircraft now moves to P, a
point on the hyperbola through C, the time difference measured on the time base will again be 250 µ-secs., since by definition
the distance SP - MP is equal to the distance SC - MC.
10. Now, if the aircraft moves to D, which is 125 µ-secs from S, the time difference between the reception of the pulses from M
and S will again be noted on the time base as 250 µ-secs although in this case the pulse from S is received first. The same
difference will be noted if the aircraft is at any point on the hyperbola through D. The result is that an observer reading a time
difference of 250 µ-secs would not know whether the aircraft was on the hyperbola through C or that through D. It follows that
for a given time difference the aircraft may lie on one of two hyperbolae.
11. A further difficulty arises when the aircraft lies midway between the two transmitting stations, at E in Fig 3. Pulses from M
and S will arrive at the aircraft simultaneously, and appear at the same point on the time base. The operator would see only one
blip and could not be certain that both stations were being received simultaneously. It should be noted that for zero time
difference the position line will be the perpendicular bisector of the base line between the transmitters (extreme case of the
hyperbola).
Delayed Pulsing
12. These ambiguities can best be overcome by introducing a delay at one of the stations, eg at S, so that the aircraft, no matter
where it is situated, will always receive the M pulse before the S. This delay must be regulated to an accuracy of microseconds,

and this cannot be achieved by mechanical means. The system employed is electronic. Advantage is taken of the fact that the
pulse from the M station, in addition to reaching the aircraft, also reaches the S station. The time taken to do this depends on the
distance between the stations, which is accurately determined when the transmitters are installed. An accurate electronic timer is
maintained at the S station, the operation of which is regulated by the reception of the pulses from the M station. This timer
controls the transmission of pulses by the S station, and can be set to operate at any time (in terms of microseconds) relative to
the M station. This regulation of the S station by the M station is known as synchronization. The M station is referred to as the
“master” station, and the S as the “slave” station. Without the precision made possible by such synchronization the system
would be liable to gross errors, for a timing error of only 60 µ-secs represents a distance error of 10 miles along the base line,
and even more elsewhere.
4-2-1-4 Fig 3 Ambiguity
Typical Lattice Construction

13. Now that the two ambiguities mentioned above have been overcome by the “delayed pulsing” method, it is necessary to
provide a complete series of hyperbolae for the master and slave stations. These hyperbolae must be plotted for convenient time
difference values, bearing in mind that confusion will be caused by a great many lines on the map, and that accurate
interpolation for intermediate values is necessary.
14. Consider once again the two transmitting stations, M, which has become the master, and S, which is now the slave (Fig 4).
Delayed pulsing technique is to be used with a delay of 1000 µ-secs at the slave station. The distance between the master and
slave stations remains 500 µ-secs, but now S is timed to transmit a pulse 1000 µ-secs after the M pulse reaches it, ie there will be
a time interval of 1500 µ-secs between the two transmissions. This means that anywhere along the line MS produced the time
difference between the reception of the M and S pulse is 1000 µ-secs. Similarly, along SM produced the time difference will be
the sum of the time of traverse of the M pulse to S, the delay at S, and the time of traverse of the S pulse to M, ie 2000 µ-secs.
4-2-1-4 Fig 4 A Delayed Pulse Lattice

15. Now consider the sub-division of the base line (Fig 4). At a position D, 300 µ-secs from M, the time difference will be the
sum of the time of traverse of the M pulse from D to S, the delay at S, and the time of traverse of the S pulse to D, ie 1400
µ-secs. The hyperbola drawn through D will therefore be the position line having a constant time difference of 1400 µ-secs.
Similarly the base line may be further divided into convenient time difference intervals, and the hyperbolae through these
divisions will be the position lines for the selected time differences.
16. In this way a complete family of hyperbolae for the master and slave stations are produced, as shown in Fig 4, and the
finished series is called a lattice. When drawn on a map or chart the lattice provides the necessary relationship between observed
time difference and position. In the example given in Fig 4 hyperbolae are drawn every 100 µ-secs, although any convenient
division may be used. A further point to note is that the hyperbolae have degenerated into straight lines along MS and SM
produced.
17. With a simple Master and Single Slave System it is only possible to obtain single position lines from the lattice. However,
if a second slave station is introduced, controlled by the same master, a second series of hyperbolae will be produced. Then, if
the two time differences are measured simultaneously, two position lines will be obtained and the point of intersection will
provide a fix. Alternatively a separate master and slave system may be introduced in a suitable position to provide the second
position line.
PHASE COMPARISON SYSTEM
Principle
18. The principle of differential range by phase comparison used in Decca systems is similar in geometrical principle to the
time difference system, but very different in detail. A pair of transmitting stations send out continuous wave signals; their
interference generates hyperbolic co-ordinates which are presented by phase meters in the aircraft. As in other hyperbolic
systems at least two pairs of stations are necessary to establish a fix.
Formation of Position Lines

19. In Fig 5, M and S are ground transmitters operating on the same frequency and spaced two wavelengths (2λ) apart. These
transmitters are phase-locked so that at one particular instant of time the phases at points distant from the transmitters may be
represented by the concentric circles shown. By moving a suitable receiver to different points, within the mutual coverage of the
system, the phase difference between the received transmissions from M and S can be determined. Lines of constant phase
difference, eg AB, CD, EF, can then be drawn giving a hyperbolic lattice.

Lanes
20. It can be seen that there are four areas through which the phase difference changes from 0° to 360°. Each such area is
called a Lane. If the distance MS were 3λ or 5 λ; then the system would provide six and ten lanes respectively. This means that
some system of lane identification must also be provided.
Operating Frequency
21. In practice it is impossible for M and S to transmit on the same frequency, since a receiver would be unable to separate the
two transmissions in order to measure their phase difference. The solution is for the stations to transmit on different frequencies,
which, after reception, are changed to a common frequency for comparison.
CHAINS
Coverage
22. The area to be covered by a hyperbolic navigation system will normally be served by a minimum of three pairs of
transmitters in order to resolve any ambiguities and to provide even coverage of the area. Such an arrangement is called a Chain.
Two pairs of stations does not necessarily mean four stations, for three stations may operate so that one of them forms a pair
with each of the others. Similarly, four or more stations may form three or more pairs.
4-2-1-4 Fig 5 Hyperbolic Lattice by Phase Comparison

Chapter 5 - Introduction to DECCA
1. The Decca Navigator is a navigation system using the principle of differential range by phase comparison of low frequency
CW transmissions.
2. The red and black concentric circles in Fig 1 represent successive wavelengths of the signals transmitted from two stations
M and S. Lines joining the points where equal phase difference is measured form a family of hyperbolae whose foci are the
stations. A diagram of the hyperbolae is prepared and printed as an overlay on standard charts and is referred to as a Decca
lattice.
3. An aircraft with a receiver and phase measuring equipment can obtain a measurement of the instantaneous phase angle
difference between the transmission from each master/slave pair of stations, each representing a position line within the
hyperbolic lattice pattern.
4-2-1-5 Fig 1 Phase Difference Hyperbolae
4-2-1-5 Fig 2 Layout of Typical Chain

4. A Decca chain normally consists of three slave transmission stations, referred to by the colours Red, Green and Purple,
arranged in a triangular pattern with a master transmission station at the centre (Fig 2). Some chains have only two slave
stations and some slave stations are shared by the two master stations of adjacent chains.
5. Decca receivers compare the instantaneous phase angles of the transmissions from each master/slave pair, and indicate the
phase angle difference for each pair. A fix is taken by reading off the numbers indicated by, say, the Red and Green phase
difference measuring instruments, called Decometers, and finding the point on the chart at which the two indicated position lines
intersect. The combinations green-purple and red-purple are similarly used, the choice depending upon the sector of coverage in
which the receiver is situated. The decometers are set initially to the correct values and thereafter they count the position line
units crossed. In some installations the aircraft’s position may be plotted automatically on a flight log, as it moves within the
coverage of the lattice.
Transmission and Comparison Frequencies

6. It is not possible to measure the phase difference between two transmissions of the same frequency since the voltages of the
transmitted signals combine in the receiver aerial to produce a single voltage. Each transmitter must therefore operate on a
different frequency.
7. Each chain has a slightly different base frequency (f) of around 14.2 kHz. In each case the master station transmits at 6 f,
the red slave at 8 f, the green slave at 9 f and the purple slave at 5 f. The phase comparison may then be carried out at the
frequency which is the lowest common multiple of the two frequencies concerned, ie the red and master at 24 f, the green and
master at 18 f and the purple and master at 30 f.
4-2-1-5 Fig 3 Division of Master-Red Baseline into Zones and Lanes

8. Although earlier Decca equipment (eg Mk 8a) followed the procedure outlined in para 7, later equipments bring the received
signals, 5 f, 6 f, 8 f, and 9 f to corresponding intermediate frequencies 5 F, 6 F, 8 F, and 9 F by mixing with the appropriate
harmonic of a local oscillator. The phase comparison is then carried out at a frequency 1 F.
Zones and Lanes

9. Chap 4 introduced the problem of ambiguity inherent in a phase comparison hyperbolic system. In the Decca system the
master and slave transmitters have an ideal separation of 5 at the base frequency f. As there are two areas of ambiguity within
each wavelength there are a total of ten areas along the baseline joining the master and slave. Each area is known as a zone and
is identified by a letter from A to J. Should the baseline be longer than ideal the zone lettering starts again at A.
10. At the comparison frequency, eg 24 f for the master/red combination, the base line has an effective length of 5 x 24 ie 120.
Within each wavelength there will be two areas of ambiguity making a total of 240 areas. Similarly there will be 180 areas of
ambiguity along the master/green baseline and 300 areas along the master/purple baseline. An area of ambiguity at the
comparison frequency is known as a lane.
11. In summary, there are ten zones along each ideal base line lettered A to J. Within each zone there are a different number of
lanes; 24 in each red zone, 18 in each green zone and 30 in each purple zone. The red lanes are numbered 0 to 23 inclusive, the
green lanes 30 to 47 inclusive and the purple lanes 50 to 70 inclusive. As an example Fig 3 shows the resulting division of the
master/red baseline.
12. The face of the phase measuring decometer (Fig 4) is analogous to a clock. The inner scale is calibrated in hundreths of a
lane and one complete revolution of the small pointer will cause the large pointer to move one lane number on the outer scale. A
small window at the bottom of the dial indicates the zone letter and moves one space when the lane pointer completes one
revolution. At times two letters may be visible in the window; the correct one is the one on the same side as the large lane
pointer.
4-2-1-5 Fig 4 Mk 1 (Air) Decometer

4-2-1-5 Fig 5 Decca Lattice
13. Fig 5 shows aircraft decometer indications at a position in the lattice.
Lane Identification
14. The Decca lane lattice enables the operator to determine the aircraft's position within a lane, but there is ambiguity as to

which of the many lanes is correct since a receiver in an analogous position in a different lane will feed exactly the same
information to its indicator.
15. In the situation where the decometers can be set accurately to a known position, eg before take-off, this presents no major
problem since the decometers will merely count the lanes as they are crossed and continue to provide accurate data, provided
that the aircraft remains within the coverage of the selected chain.
16. However this will not always be the case; the aircraft may be entering Decca coverage for the first time, or it may be
necessary to change chain, or there may have been a transient equipment failure. In most cases the zone uncertainty can be
resolved by reference to the aircraft's DR position or to a secondary fixing aid. Unfortunately this is not generally accurate
enough to resolve lane ambiguity.
17. The problem is overcome by lane identification transmissions from the ground stations. There have been two types of
ground station, the older type V and the newer Multipulse (MP) system. All current stations are of the MP type but two stations
transmit a combination of V and MP type transmissions. The MP transmissions include an extra frequency of 8.2 f which
triggers appropriate switching operations in those receivers designed for automatic lane identification (eg Mk 19). Earlier
receivers (Mk 1 (Air) and Mk 8a) were designed for use with the V type stations but can operate on the MP chains by filtering
out the unwanted extra transmissions.
18. During lane identification a triggering signal from the master station causes each slave in turn to either shut off or transmit
on a frequency differing by 1 f from its normal frequency. This generates a coarse lane pattern equivalent in size to an original
zone. The master also transmits on 5 f as well as its normal 6 f frequency and so by subtraction phase comparison can be carried
out at 1 f. In practice the transmitted frequencies are mixed in the receiver to produce intermediate frequencies of 5 F, 6 F, 8 F
and 9 F and the phase comparison is carried out at 1 F. The phase difference is displayed by a sector 'spade' on a fourth meter
known as a lane identification meter (Fig 6).
4-2-1-5 Fig 6 Lane Identification Meter
19. A zone embraces 18, 24 or 30 lanes in the green, red and purple patterns respectively and thus one lane will be represented
on the lane identification meter by an arc of between 12° and 20°. The receiver tolerances are such that the permissible total
decometer error exceeds this lower figure and the sector pointer could therefore be in error by ± 1 lane. To overcome this error a
second pattern is derived from the lane identification transmissions which is six times more accurate but has a six-fold
ambiguity. This more accurate pattern is displayed on a six-armed pointer on the lane identification meter. This pointer
indicates the lane accurately but ambiguously and the fan shaped, unambiguous but inaccurate, pointer overlays the arm showing

the correct lane.
20. Some receivers designed for the MP transmissions are capable of automatic lane identification with internal circuits
resolving the ambiguities. Zone identification is possible with these later systems and the correct zone is displayed on a separate
zone identification meter (Fig 7). There is some residual ambiguity in the meter in that each sector of the meter represents two
widely spaced zones. This ambiguity is easily resolved by DR position.
4-2-1-5 Fig 7 Zone Identification Meter
PERFORMANCE
Errors
21. The accuracy of decometer readings can be affected by the following factors:
a. Height Error.
b. Night Error.
c. Interpretation Error.
d. Decometer Lag.
e. Decometer Torque.
f. Lane Slip.
22. Height Error. Decca charts are constructed for ground level propagation paths. An aircraft at height receives signals which
have travelled along slant paths. This causes errors in the measurement of the phases of the master and slave signals. The error
is zero if the aircraft is positioned on the right bisector of the master/slave base line, and a maximum above either the master or
slave transmitter. It is possible to correct for height error using an equation or a correction graph although in practice this is
rarely done.
23. Night Error. The Decca lines are calculated on the assumption that the radiation follows the most direct path from the

transmitter to the aircraft receiver. Any reception of indirect radiation may cause errors because of the incorrect phase measured.
Except at great distances indirect radiation is absent during the daytime in summer but in winter it can occur to some extent by
day. The reception of indirect radiation increases suddenly at dusk and dawn with a possible decrease in fixing accuracy.
Caution should be used at night with ranges from the transmitters in excess of 200 nm.
24. Interpretation Error. The ability of the operator to check and plot decometer readings accurately and simultaneously is a
factor which can materially affect the overall accuracy of the equipment.
25. Decometer Lag. The time constants of the receiver are such that a lag in the decometer readings occurs whenever the
aircraft is crossing lanes. This lag, which is non-cumulative, is a maximum of about 0.2 lanes when the groundspeed and track
are such that 0.6 lanes are being crossed each second. The maximum error for a master/slave pair occurs when a flight is made
along the baseline and the lanes are closest together.
26. Decometer Torque. The decometer loses torque proportional to the rate of lane crossing, causing a small additional phase
lag. The maximum error occurs, again, when a flight is made along the base line.
27. Lane Slip. In some equipments (Mk 8a) the decimal decometers' pointers are not driven during the lane identification
transmissions. The decometers are designed so that the pointer takes the shortest path to the reading once the identification
transmission is complete. It is possible when travelling over closely spaced lanes for more than half a lane to be lost and for the
pointer to drive the wrong way to the reading when the signal resumes, thus slipping one whole lane. As discussed earlier,
newer equipment carries out the phase comparison not directly on the received signals, but on the intermediate frequency outputs
from local oscillators. The oscillators are highly stable and will continue to run for a short time without appreciable drift in
frequency when control by the incoming signals is removed as it is during lane identification periods. This technique
significantly reduces the incidence of lane slip since phase comparison can continue during these periods.
Range and Accuracy

28. Although Decca signals have been received at ranges in excess of 1000 nm, the usable fixing cover (that area in which the
95% fix accuracy is better than 1 nm by day and 5 nm by night) tends to be limited to about 300 nm by day and 200 nm by night.
Coverage
29. Decca has only limited world-wide. Details of individual chains and a map of the area covered are to be found in the Flight
Information Handbook.

Chapter 6 - Introduction to LORAN C
Introduction
1. LORAN C is a pulse hyperbolic navigation fixing system operating in the LF band at a frequency of 100 kHz. The
principle of pulse hyperbolic systems is outlined in Chap 4 of this section. With the advent of GPS (see Chap 8), LORAN C has
a questionable future but may evolve as a reliable back-up to that system.
2. A requirement for a pulse system is that the leading edge of the pulses should ideally be vertical and certainly steep so that
the time difference measurements can be accurate. In order to achieve this a very wide band width would be necessary,
(infinitely wide for a true rectangular pulse), but ICAO frequency allocations restrict LF navigation aids to between 90 and 110
kHz. A fairly slow rising pulse therefore has to be accepted and this disadvantage is emphasized by the fact that the low
efficiency aerial systems necessitate a wide and slow rising pulse in order to transmit sufficient power.
3. If the LORAN C system was confined to measuring the time interval between the reception of pulses from master and slave
transmitters the accuracy would be poor and so to improve accuracy the phases of the cycles of energy within pulses are also
compared. A phase matching circuit is used to lock on to one cycle within the master pulse and the corresponding cycle of the
selected slave pulse; this technique results in a highly accurate system.
LORAN C Chains
4. A LORAN C chain comprises a master station and two (designated X and Y), three (designated X, Y and Z), or four

(designated W, X, Y and Z) slaves sited around it at distances of 600-1,000 nm. The master transmits a pulsed signal and, after
reception and the introduction of additional different time delays, each slave in turn radiates signals which are time locked to the
master. The delays are so selected that the slaves can be identified from their positions along the time base of a CRT in the
aircraft receiver equipment. The time intervals between master and slaves, measured by pulse matching and phase measuring,
define hyperbolic position lines.
5. Although each chain operates on the same 100 kHz frequency, the PRF for each chain is different and acts as a chain
identification. The PRFs are in three series, with 100 µs separation between adjacent PRFs in each series as shown in Table 1.
The chain is designated by the first four figures of the PRF. When the chain is selected at the receiver the timebase recurrence
frequency is made equal to the PRF and hence the selected chain's signals are stable while others drift along the timebase.
Table 1 - LORAN C PRFs (in µ secs)
100,000 80,000 60,000
99,900 79,900 59,900
99,800 79,800 59,800
99,700 79,700 59,700
99,600 79,600 59,600
99,500 79,500 59,500
99,400 79,400 59,400
99,300 79,300 59,300
Multiple Pulsing
6. Each pulse transmitted by a LORAN C station is 180-270 µs long and therefore contains at least 18 cycles of 100 kHz
energy. Such a pulse cannot contain sufficient energy to achieve the desired range and to improve the long range performance
each station transmits a train of 8 pulses at 1,000 µs intervals. These are summed in the receiver to reduce noise and improve
signal strength. The master station in addition radiates a ninth pulse, 2,000 µs after the eighth, for identification and to indicate
chain abnormalities by blinking in a code (see paras 14 - 17). Each slave transmits a fixed time after the master so that the slaves
can be identified by their position on the timebase. Fig 1 shows how a master and slaves appear on an A-scope timebase. If the
sweep speed of the timebase was increased sufficiently each pulse would have the shape shown in Fig 2.
4-2-1-6 Fig 1 Example of Transmission Cycle of a LORAN C Chain
4-2-1-6 Fig 2 LORAN C Pulse Shape

Sky-wave Contamination
7. LORAN C is primarily intended to use signals propagated by ground waves. For frequencies near 100 kHz the ionosphere
acts as an almost perfect conducting medium and reflected sky-wave signals show little fade or phase variation over long
periods. At these frequencies the sky-waves tend to be reflected by the lower layers of the ionosphere leading to short skip
distances and relatively short intervals between the arrival of the ground wave and the corresponding sky-wave. This
combination of long range ground waves, wide pulse widths, and fairly stable sky-waves with short skip distances makes
sky-wave interference with the ground wave signal very probable at ranges in excess of 700 nm.
8. In order to achieve an acceptable degree of accuracy some measure of sky-wave rejection is required. The solution is to
introduce phase measuring at a point in the pulse train where the amplitude is acceptable but where the pulse is unaffected by
single hop sky-waves. This technique also overcomes the difficulty of accurately measuring time intervals with a slow rising
pulse. To reduce the risk of multi-hop sky-wave interference the pulses are phase coded so that a sky-wave experiencing a delay
that makes it arrive at the receiver coincident with the next ground wavepulse can be rejected. This phase coding technique is
examined in paras 11 - 13.
9. Fig 3 shows a graph of the minimum time delay of a sky-wave signal under different conditions of the ionosphere. At
ranges beyond about 700 nm in medium latitudes the first sky-wave signal is delayed by approximately 40 - 45 µs by day and 55
- 60 µs by night. In high latitudes the minimum delay may be as little as 35 µs. It is thus necessary for the phase comparison to
be done within the first 35 µs of the pulse to avoid sky-wave contamination. The LORAN C signal reaches 50% power by the
40 µs point and phase comparison between master and slave is carried out at the third cycle within each pulse, ie at the 30 µs
point.
4-2-1-6 Fig 3 Minimum Sky-wave Delay

10. The third cycle can sometimes be selected visually when the signals are very strong but is usually selected automatically.
Although the automatic indexing enables quite weak signals to be used there may be times when the third cycle is too weak or
too subject to noise to be used satisfactorily and the fourth cycle may be preferable. The selection of the third cycle (which will
not be subject to first hop sky-wave interference) in preference to the fourth cycle (which may be) is of secondary importance to
the necessity of selecting the same cycle in master and slave pulses. One cycle difference between the master and slave will
introduce a time difference error of 10 µs which will usually correspond to an error of at least 1 nm whereas the average error
incurred by using a possibly contaminated fourth cycle will not exceed about 200 yards.
Phase Coding of Pulses

11. Contamination of the ground wave by the first hop sky-wave has been avoided by ensuring that the phase comparison is
accomplished within the first 35 µs of the pulse. However multiple reflections of the sky-wave may delay its arrival by anything
up to 2,000µs. As the LORAN C station transmits a train of pulses at 1,000µs intervals it is possible that subsequent pulses may
suffer contamination throughout their length. To overcome this a system of phase coding is used.
12. The phase of the RF carrier relative to the pulse envelope can have one of two values, either positive when the first half
cycle of the carrier is positive going, or negative when the first half cycle is negative going (see Fig 4).
4-2-1-6 Fig 4 Phase Designation

13. The transmission of pulses in groups of eight separate pulses allow some of the pulses of each group to be given opposite
phase to that of the remaining pulses of the group, in a set pattern. Pulses are synthesized in the receiver with this same phase
pattern and comparison with the received pulses allows rejection of non-matching pulses. The technique also eliminates the risk
of locking a master signal instead of a slave or vice versa. The phase reversals are removed in the receiver prior to integration of
the eight pulses for display as a single pulse.
Transmitter Fault Indications

14. The ninth pulse in the master's multipulse signal can be coded to indicate a variety of unserviceabilities, and a slave signal
can also blink its first two pulses to indicate a fault. The blink code would be brought into operation for such irregularities as:
a. Station not transmitting (the blink being used by its partner in that slave/master pair).
b. Incorrect phase coding.
c. Incorrect number of pulses.
d. Incorrect pulse spacing.
e. Incorrect pulse shape.
f. Observed time difference at monitor station outside specified limits.
15. Both master and slave stations of a pair blink if either station is operating incorrectly, and readings from that pair must be

treated with caution until both stations have stopped blinking.
16. When the slave station blinks the first two of the eight pulses are transmitted for only 0.25 second in every 4 seconds. The
rate of blink of the ninth pulse of the master station pulse group, and the code employed, are illustrated in Fig 5.
17. The chain's performance is monitored at the master station, slave stations and special out-stations, and the form of the
warning signals depends on which monitor locates the fault, thus
a. If the master discovers a discrepancy the ninth pulse will blink the morse code letter R (·−·) followed by a second
character in accordance with Fig 5, repeated in a 12 seconds cycle until the fault is corrected. If more than one slave is at
fault the appropriate codes will occur in each transmission sequence. The slave(s) at fault will also blink its/their first two
pulses.
4-2-1-6 Fig 5 Master Station Blink Code
b. If a monitor out-station identifies a discrepancy, all slaves are made to blink until the master locates the fault. During
this search period the master does not transmit its ninth pulse. Once the fault is located the sequence described in sub-para a
is instituted.
c. If a slave station discovers a discrepancy it will immediately blink its own transmission. The master will suspend
transmission of its ninth pulse until the fault is located, when the sequence of sub-para a is instituted.
Summary of Pulse Characteristics

18. LORAN C pulses may be summarized as follows:
a. They are transmitted in packages of eight which are summed at the receiver to give a better signal/noise ratio than with a
single pulse. The master has a ninth pulse for identification and unserviceability warnings.
b. The leading edges of the pulse envelope rise slowly. To achieve better accuracy, coarse envelope matching is
supplemented by phase matching of surface waves at a point in the pulse envelope free of first hop sky-wave interference.
c. The eight component pulses are phase coded, thus allowing comparison with a receiver generated reference pulse,
facilitating the rejection of long delay multi-hop sky-waves, and eliminating the risk of locking a master pulse instead of a

slave pulse or vice versa.
d. A blink code is used to give warning of chain irregularities.
Receiver Operation
19. Many receivers have been designed for use with LORAN C, ranging from fully automatic to some which use only the
inaccurate technique of measuring the pulse time difference between the leading edge of the master and slave pulses.
20. The receivers in RAF use employ the cycle matching technique as described in paras 7 - 10. The operation can be split into
two parts; coarse measurement and fine measurement. For coarse measurement the locally generated reference pulses are first
brought into time coincidence with the master pulses and then fed into a variable delay circuit where they are delayed until they
are in coincidence with the slave pulses. The amount of delay incorporated gives a coarse indication of time difference. For fine
measurement the reference pulses are aligned with a particular cycle within each pulse from master to slave. All eight main
pulses from each transmitter are superimposed to give a final presentation of one large pulse from each transmitter. Provided
that the reference pulses have been aligned with the same cycle in both master and slave pulses, a very accurate time difference
measurement can be made.
21. As explained in para 9 the third cycle is the one that is normally used and automatic systems can select this cycle by
comparing the measured gradient of the cycle with the known value of the third cycle.
Range and Accuracy

22. General. The LORAN C system does not lend itself to a precise assessment of range and accuracy, either of which may be
affected by the following factors:
a. The power and accuracy of the ground transmissions.
b. The path of the surface wave (whether over land or water).
c. The propagation conditions for sky-waves.
d. Receiver characteristics and performance, and the aerial system employed.
e. Noise in the reception area.
f. The aircraft's position in relation to the transmitters.
g. Whether entering or leaving LORAN cover.
h. Operator skill.
23. Using Groundwave. Performance of the following order may be expected in average conditions:
NOTE:
Ranges are reduced by about 20% over land, perhaps more in noisy areas.
a. Range entering cover - 900 - 1,000 nm (sea)
b. Range leaving cover - 1,200 - 1,300 nm (sea)
c. Accuracy with correct third cycle indexing - a few hundred yards in good cover, with overall ± 0.5 nm on 95% of
occasions at ranges up to 900 - 1,100 nm over the sea.
d. Accuracy without third cycle indexing - 1 nm at 500 nm, 5 nm at 700 nm, errors increasing at greater ranges.
24. Using Sky-wave. Sky-waves are present at all times but should normally be used only when out of groundwave range;
sky-wave corrections are available. The following performance might be expected:
a. Range - Better than 1,500 nm and up to 2,300 nm at night.

b. Accuracy - 10 - 15 nm at 1,500 nm if accurate setting up possible. A 10 µs (1 cycle) error at 1,000 nm range would give
a position error of up to 8 nm if one position line were in error or 14 nm if both were in error depending on the geometry of
the chain.

Chapter 7 - Introduction to OMEGA
Introduction
1. On 1 October 1997 the Omega system was withdrawn by the operating authority. Some stations world-wide continue to
transmit but accuracy of any positions obtained cannot be classed as reliable. The description which follows is retained for
interest purposes only. Omega was an all weather, very low frequency (VLF), radio navigation system which used eight primary
transmitting stations around the world to give global coverage with an average position error of 1-2 nm. In addition, other VLF
stations were used when dedicated Omega stations were unable to provide adequate coverage. However, accuracy of the
systems was not maintained in the long term because the additional VLF stations were not 'time locked' into the Omega system.
Fig 1 is a World map, showing the location of the stations in 1997.
4-2-1-7 Fig 1 Omega Transmitting Stations at System Closure
2. The use of VLF ensured low attenuation and very long range, and the 10 kw signals radiated from Omega transmitters were
normally detectable around the globe. The signals could also be received by submarines to a depth of about 100 ft. At VLF the
ionosphere is a perfect reflecting surface and forms a natural wave guide (Fig 2). The main propagation mode was via this wave
guide thus providing coverage that was not limited by line of sight and giving good signals at low level.
3. Omega transmitters were built and maintained by the host nation. The antennae were either 1200 to 1400 ft top loaded
towers (Fig 3a) or 0.5 to 1.5 mile valley spans (Fig 3b). Although the eight stations operated independently, they had to transmit
at precise times and for exact intervals, and atomic (caesium) clocks were used for synchronization.

4-2-1-7 Fig 2 Omega Transmission Mode
4-2-1-7 Fig 3 Omega Antennae
4-2-1-7 Fig 4 Omega Transmission Sequence

Omega Transmissions
4. Omega had a ten second transmission cycle, and this period was divided into eight transmission time slots, with a 0.2 sec
space separating the slots. The transmission time slots were not all equal but varied from 0.9 to 1.2 sec.
5. Each station transmitted on three frequencies, 10.2, 13.6, and 11.33 kHz, in adjacent time slots as shown in Fig 4. The order
in which the frequencies were transmitted was the same for all stations and the sequence was repeated in each ten second period.
It will be seen from Fig 4 that during any one time slot only three stations were transmitting, and each on a different frequency.
The sequence and duration of each transmission provided a means of station identification. The time not occupied by the
transmission sequence was filled with a frequency which was unique to each station.
6. All transmitters were phase locked to a near absolute time standard by the use of atomic clocks which were synchronized
using the quiet time frequencies. The timing error between stations was limited to 1 µsec which equated to an error of less than
300m.
Position Fixing
7. If it is assumed that radio waves propagate at a constant speed, the phase of a received signal will vary as the range of the
receiver from the transmitter. Thus by comparing the phase of the received signal with that of a local oscillator that was phase
locked to the transmitted signal, a measure of range could be made, albeit with a considerable amount of ambiguity; for the 10.2
kHz frequency signal, a 360° phase change occurred every 16 nm. By phase comparison with two or more transmitting stations
a fix could be obtained provided that the ambiguity could be resolved.
8. The cost of installing a phase locked local oscillator on each aircraft would have made the system prohibitively expensive,
and two signal processing techniques were devised to overcome this problem. The Omega system originated as a hyperbolic
navigation system as outlined in Chap 4, however later development used a technique known as direct ranging, or
Rho-Rho-Rho, navigation.
Direct Ranging (Rho-Rho-Rho) Navigation

9. Phase contours (and therefore position lines) were circular and centred on the transmitting station (Fig 5). Lanes were
therefore of a uniform width which depended on the frequency (16 nm for 10.2 kHz). In order to establish a position line within
a lane it was necessary to compare the phase of the received signal with that of a local oscillator. If a system of lane

identification was possible, a range from the receiver could be determined by counting the whole lanes and adding that portion
of a lane determined by phase comparison.
4-2-1-7 Fig 5 Omega Lanes and Position Lines
10. The accuracy of such a system depended on the accuracy of the local oscillator in that its phase had to be tied to the
transmitter phase, or any difference had to be known, and similarly any phase drift had to be eliminated or tracked.
11. At switch on, the present position was entered into the system computer which estimated a value for the phase it should
receive. The receiver then ranged on three transmitters and the only way the three position lines could intersect at a point was if
the local oscillator was in phase with the transmitters. If the three position lines did not converge to a point, a value for the local
oscillator offset was calculated to correct the error.
12. Similarly, if the local oscillator phase drifted with time, the fix point would degenerate to a cocked hat and the computer
could then adjust its estimate of phase offset to correct the error. In essence, the system used two position lines to determine
position, and a third to calibrate its local oscillator.
Ambiguity Resolution
13. As with all phase comparison navigation systems, there is considerable ambiguity as any phase is repeated at intervals
corresponding to the transmission wavelength. On the ground, this ambiguity could be resolved by entering the present position.
This also allowed the system to establish the local oscillator offset.
14. When present position was not known accurately, as when the system was turned on in the air, a lane identification system
had to be used. This method generated broad lanes by subtracting the phase of one transmission frequency from that of another.
Thus, for example, by subtracting the phase of the 10.2 kHz signal from that of the 13.6 kHz signal, a frequency of 3.4 kHz
resulted which generated a lane width of 48 nm. Similarly, by subtracting the 11.33 kHz signal from the 13.6 kHz signal, and
the 10.2 kHz signal from the 11.33 kHz signal, broad lanes of 72 nm and 144 nm were generated. Thus, it was only necessary
for the present position to be entered to an accuracy of ± 72 nm in order to resolve the ambiguity.
Error Sources
15. The major sources of error in the Omega system were:
a. Diurnal effects.

b. Sudden Ionospheric Disturbances (SIDs).
c. Polar Cap Anomalies (PCAs).
d. Ground Conductivity.
e. Latitude effects.
f. Modal Interference.
g. RF Interference.
16. Diurnal Effects. Omega signals were propagated in the natural wave guide formed by the ionosphere and the Earth's
surface. Since the height of the ionosphere rose at sunset and lowered at sunrise, the length of the transmission path varied,
which affected the phase of the received signal (Fig 6). This diurnal effect was automatically compensated for in the system
computer provided that date and UT were entered at initialization.
4-2-1-7 Fig 6 Diurnal Effect
17. Sudden Ionospheric Disturbances (SIDs). SIDs are changes in the ionospheric height brought on by solar flares. They
rarely last for long periods but they can cause errors of up to 8 nm in any position line. For Omega, the onset of SIDs was
virtually impossible to predict but broadcasts of SID occurrences were made to aid in post flight analysis.
18. Polar Cap Anomalies (PCAs). PCAs are similar to SIDs but are long lasting (several days). They are the result of a
concentration of electrons created in solar flares in the Earth's magnetic field. PCAs affected both the strength and phase of
Omega signals, and both the day and night propagation paths.
19. Ground Conductivity. Ground conductivity differences caused attenuation and phase shift of the Omega signals which
could result in errors in position calculation if not corrected. Water is a near-perfect conductor and had little effect, land masses
had a greater effect, and ice could attenuate the signal to the extent that it became unusable. Earth conductivity patterns were
measured and a map was stored in the computer memory and thus a correction could be determined and applied.
20. Latitude Effects. The non-spherical shape of the Earth was taken into account when computing the path of the signal from
the transmitting station to the receiver. Compensation was also made for the effect on the height of the ionosphere caused by
differences in pressure at various latitudes.
21. Modal Interference. VLF signals can theoretically circle the Earth, and a receiver might receive interfering signals from
both the direct path and a path around the far side of the Earth. To prevent this occurrence, stations at a distance in excess of
8500 nm were automatically deselected. Interference could also occur between ground and sky waves and the primary
propagation path. Both ground and sky waves had limited range and did not normally have an effect beyond 300 nm, and thus
any problems were minimized by automatically deselecting any station at a range of less than 300 nm.
22. RF Interference. 10.2 kHz is a harmonic of 50 Hz and so the Omega antenna had to be carefully sited, and isolated from
interference generated by AC power sources.
Receiver Operation and Navigation Facilities

23. The receiver processor received the Omega signals and was also fed with heading and TAS. This information was used to
correct for aircraft movement during the ten second transmission cycle, and could also provide a DR capability if signals were
lost.
24. The equipment was largely fully automatic in that it synchronized itself to the Omega transmission pattern after entry of
position, date, and UT, measured the phase of all eight stations on all three frequencies, selected the stations to be used for
navigation, resolved lane ambiguity, converted fix positions into latitude and longitude, and calculated and applied diurnal
corrections.
25. The system allowed the operator to store a great circle flight plan which could be updated prior to or during flight.
Navigation information relative to the stored flight plan could be displayed, and steering information could be fed to an
autopilot.
4-2-1-7 Fig 3a Top Loaded Tower
4-2-1-7 Fig 3b Valley Span


Chapter 8 - Global Positioning System (GPS)
Introduction
1. The NAVSTAR Global Positioning System (GPS) is a space based radio positioning system, using a constellation of
satellites to provide highly accurate position, velocity, and time (PVT) data. There are three major segments to the system;
Space, Control and User. The system is available globally, continuously, and under all weather conditions to users at or near the
Earth’s surface. As the receivers operate passively there can be an unlimited number of simultaneous users. GPS has features
designed to deny an accurate service to unauthorized users, prevent spoofing and to reduce receiver susceptibility to jamming.
2. Each satellite broadcasts radio frequency ranging codes and a navigational data message. The GPS receiver measures the
transit time of the signals and can thereby determine its range from a satellite. The data message enables the receiver to
determine the position of the satellite at the time of transmission, and thus by ranging from 3 or more satellites a fix can be
obtained.
Space Segment
3. The GPS space segment consists of 24 operational satellites. There is a continuing programme to replace and maintain the
space segment to account for technical failures of satellites in service and faults during launch so this figure of 24 may vary
slightly as new and failing orbiters are exchanged. The satellites are in six orbital planes with three or four operational satellites
in each orbit. The orbit height is 20,200 km and the orbital planes are inclined at an angle of 55° to the equator. A satellite takes
approximately 12 hours to complete an orbit. The satellites are positioned such that at least 5 satellites are normally observable
by a user anywhere on the Earth.
4. The satellites transmit on two frequencies: L1 (1575.42 MHz) and L2 (1227.6 MHz). A coarse/ acquisition code (C/A) is
transmitted on L1 and a precision code (P) on both L1 and L2; either code can be used by a receiver to determine its range from
a satellite. Superimposed on both codes is the NAVIGATION-message (NAV-msg) containing satellite ephemeris data,
ionospheric propagation correction data, and timing information. These aspects are covered more fully in later paragraphs.
Control Segment
5. The control segment consists of one Master Control Station (MCS) in Colorado Springs (USA) together with additional
monitor stations at Hawaii, Kwajalein (Western Pacific), Diego Garcia (Indian Ocean), and Ascension (S Atlantic). The
monitoring stations on Kwajalein, Diego Garcia, and Ascension are equipped with ground antennae for communication with the
satellites. The monitor stations passively track all GPS satellites in view, collecting ranging data which is passed to the MCS
where each satellite ephemeris and clock parameters are estimated and predicted. The MCS periodically uploads this data to
each satellite for re-transmission in the NAV-msg.
User Segment
6. The user segment comprises a wide variety of military and civilian GPS receivers which can decode and process the satellite
signals. The receivers may be ‘stand alone’ sets, or part of integrated systems, and can serve a variety of applications such as
navigation and surveying. Receivers for different applications can vary significantly in their design and function.
Level of Service
7. Two levels of navigation accuracy are provided by the GPS: the Precise Positioning Service (PPS) and the Standard
Positioning Service (SPS). The PPS is a highly accurate positioning, velocity, and timing service which is made available only
to authorized users, whereas the SPS is a less accurate service available to all GPS users.
8. Precise Positioning Service (PPS). The PPS is primarily intended for military users and the authorization for use is decided
by the US Department of Defense. Authorized users include the US and NATO military and the Australian Defence Forces.
The PPS is specified to provide a 16 metre Spherical Error Probable (SEP) positioning accuracy and 100 nanosecond (1σ) UTC
time transfer accuracy; at the 2σ level this equates to approximately 37 metres and 180 nanoseconds. Depending on receiver
-1
design it is possible to obtain a 3-D velocity accuracy of 0.2ms . A selective availability (SA) feature is used to reduce the GPS
PVT accuracy to unauthorized users by introducing controlled errors into the signals. The level of degradation can be varied and

might, for example, be increased in time of crisis or war to deny accuracy to a potential enemy. An anti-spoofing (A-S) feature
is invoked at random times without warning to negate potential hostile imitation of PPS signals. The technique alters the P code
cryptographically into a code denoted as Y code. Encryption keys and techniques are provided to PPS users which allow them
to remove the effects of the SA and A-S features. PPS receivers can use either the P(Y) or the C/A code or both. Maximum
accuracy is obtained using the P(Y) code on both L1 and L2. The difference in propagation delay between the two frequencies
is used to calculate ionospheric corrections. P(Y) capable receivers commonly use the C/A code initially to acquire GPS
satellites and determine the approximate P(Y) code phase although some P(Y) receivers are able to acquire the P(Y) code
directly by using a precise clock. Some PPS receivers use only one frequency L1 and in this case they use an ionospheric model
to calculate corrections. Typically this will result in less positioning accuracy than dual frequency P(Y) receivers
(approximately 65 metres 3-D accuracy at the 2σ level).
9. Standard Positioning Service (SPS). The SPS is primarily intended for civilian use and is specified to provide a 100 metre
(2σ) horizontal positioning accuracy to any GPS user in peacetime. The horizontal accuracy specification includes the
peacetime degradation of SA which is the dominant source of error. SPS users do not have access to the Y code and therefore
cannot rely on the P(Y) code to measure the propagation delays of L1 and L2 signals in order to determine ionospheric
corrections. Typically therefore a SPS receiver uses only the C/A code and an ionospheric model to calculate corrections, which
is a less accurate technique than measuring dual frequency propagation delays. The accuracy specification also includes this
modelling error source.
Receiver Operation
10. In order for the GPS receiver to navigate it has to acquire and track satellite signals to make range and velocity
measurements, and to collect the NAV-msg data. Because the clocks in the GPS receivers are not synchronized with system
time there is a bias in the ranges actually measured and they are termed pseudoranges.
11. Satellite Signal Acquisition. The satellite signal level near the Earth is less than the background noise and correlation
techniques are used by the GPS receiver to obtain the navigation signals. A typical satellite tracking sequence begins with the
receiver determining which satellites are visible for it to track. Satellite visibility is based on the user-entered estimates of
present PVT and stored satellite almanac information. If no stored data exists or if only very poor estimates of position and time
are available the receiver must search the sky in an attempt to locate randomly and lock on to any satellite in view. If the
receiver can estimate satellite availability it will target a satellite to track. Once one satellite has been acquired and tracked the
receiver can demodulate the NAV-msg and read almanac information about all of the other satellites in the constellation. The
receiver has a carrier tracking loop which is used to track the carrier frequency and a code tracking loop which tracks the C/A
and P code signals. The two tracking loops work together in an iterative process in order to acquire and track the satellite
signals.
12. Carrier Tracking. The receiver’s carrier tracking loop generates an L1 carrier frequency which differs from the received
carrier signal due to a Doppler shift. This Doppler offset is proportional to the relative velocity along the line of sight between
the satellite and the receiver, plus a residual bias in the receiver frequency standard. The carrier signal strength is lower than the
background and so has to be code correlated by the code tracking loop in order to be seen through the noise. The carrier
tracking loop adjusts the frequency of the receiver generated carrier until it matches the incoming carrier frequency and thereby
determines the relative velocity between the receiver and the satellite being tracked. The receiver uses the velocity relative to
four satellites being tracked to determine its velocity in the navigation reference frame. The velocity output of the carrier
tracking loop is used to aid the code tracking loop.
13. Code Tracking. The code tracking loop is used to make pseudorange measurements between the receiver and satellites.
The receiver’s code tracking loop generates a replica of the targeted satellite’s C/A code with estimated ranging delay. The
phase of the replica code is compared with the phase of the received signal code and the difference is directly proportional to the
pseudorange between the receiver and satellite. In general, prior to tracking, the receiver generated code will not correlate with
the received code due to the time taken for the satellite signal to reach the receiver and the receiver’s clock bias error. The
receiver will therefore slew its generated code through a one millisecond cycle search window to achieve C/A code tracking.
However, in the case of the P code, every week each satellite is allocated a different 7 day portion of a 267 day long code and an
approximate P code phase must therefore be known in order to obtain signal lock. Information on the P code phase is contained
in the NAV-msg and the receiver uses this data, together with the C/A code derived pseudorange to minimize the P code search
window. It is feasible for a P code receiver to acquire the P code without first acquiring the C/A code, but this requires a good
knowledge of the receiver position and a very good knowledge of the GPS time; an external atomic clock would usually be
required
14. Navigation. When the receiver has acquired the satellite signals from four GPS satellites, achieved carrier and code
tracking, and has read the NAV-msg, the GPS receiver is ready to start navigating. The GPS receiver normally updates its
pseudorange and relative velocities once every second. The next step is to calculate the receiver position, velocity, and GPS
system time. Each satellite signal includes its time of transmission in GPS time, and the receiver must determine system time

very accurately in order to measure the reception of signals in the same time reference. The difference in these times is directly
proportional to the actual range between receiver and satellite. However, it is not necessary for the receiver to have a highly
accurate clock such as an atomic time standard. Instead a crystal oscillator is used and the receiver computes its offset from GPS
system time by making four pseudorange measurements which are used to solve four simultaneous equations with four
unknowns. Once solved the receiver has estimates of its position and GPS system time. The receiver velocity is calculated
using similar equations with relative velocities instead of pseudoranges. GPS receivers perform most calculations using an Earth
centred, Earth fixed co-ordinate system which is subsequently converted to a geographic co-ordinate system using an Earth
model (World Geodetic System 1984 - WGS84). During periods of high jamming the receiver may not be able to maintain both
code and carrier tracking, although it will normally be able to maintain code tracking even when carrier tracking is not possible.
If this is the case the receiver will slew the locally generated carrier and code signals based on predicted rather than measured
Doppler shifts. These predictions are performed by the navigation processor which may have additional PVT information from
other sources.
Types of GPS Receiver

15. There are three types of GPS receiver: sequential tracking, continuous tracking and multiplex. The following descriptions
apply to P code receivers which use dual frequency measurements to determine ionospheric corrections. C/A code receivers are
essentially the same except that they use a model of the ionosphere to determine corrections.
Sequential Tracking Receivers

16. A sequential receiver tracks the necessary satellites by using one or two hardware channels. The set will track one satellite
at a time and combine all the four pseudorange measurements once they have been made. These receivers are amongst the
cheapest available but cannot operate under high dynamics situations and have the slowest time to first fix.
17. A P code one-channel sequential receiver makes four pseudorange measurements on both the L1 and L2 frequencies in
order to determine a position and compensate for ionospheric delay. The search for a satellite, code correlation, NAV-msg
reading, data demodulation and ionospheric measurement is accomplished for each satellite in turn and the four pseudoranges
must be corrected to a common time before a navigation solution can be achieved. Any movement of the vehicle during the time
taken by the receiver to collect the pseudoranges will result in a degradation of the navigation solution. The use of one-channel
sequential receivers is therefore limited to low dynamic or stationary applications.
18. Two-channel sequential receivers have been developed for use on medium dynamic vehicles such as helicopters. During
the initial power-up each channel operates like a one-channel sequential receiver. Once four satellites have been acquired one
channel is dedicated to navigation while the other reads the NAV-msg from each satellite. Both channels are used to perform
dual frequency measurements to compensate for ionospheric delay. Two-channel sequential receivers decrease the time it takes
to start navigating by better than one minute compared to one-channel sequential receivers.
Continuous Tracking Receivers

19. A continuous tracking receiver must have at least four hardware channels in order to track four satellites simultaneously.
GPS receivers are available with up to 12 channels, but due to their greater complexity multiple channel sets involve
proportionally higher costs. Four and five channel sets offer suitable performance and versatility, tracking 4 satellites
simultaneously; a five-channel receiver uses the fifth channel to read the NAV-msg of the next satellite to be used when the
receiver changes the satellite selections. The fifth channel is also used in conjunction with each of the other four for dual
frequency measurements. A continuous tracking receiver is the best for high dynamic vehicles such as fighter aircraft and those
requiring a short time to first fix such as submarines. It also exhibits a good anti-jamming performance.
Multiplex Receivers
20. A multiplex receiver switches at a fast rate (typically 50 Hz) between the satellites being tracked, continuously collecting
sampled data to maintain two to eight signal processing algorithms in software. The NAV-msg data is read continuously from
all the satellites. For a receiver tracking four satellites this results in the equivalent of eight channels delivering 20 parameters
continuously; four L1 code phases, four L2 code phases, four L1 carrier phases, four L2 carrier phases, and four NAV-msgs.
Four pseudoranges, four velocities and the ionospheric delay can be derived from these twenty parameters.
'All-in View' Receivers

21. GPS receivers traditionally choose the four satellites of those available which give the best geometry to perform a position
fix. However, in situations where one or more of the satellites are temporarily obscured from the antenna’s view, the receiver
will have to acquire additional satellite signals to generate a PVT solution. The solution will be degraded until the new satellite
is acquired. In order to overcome this problem a receiver can be designed to use all available satellites in view, typically six or

seven, to generate the solution. If one or two satellites are then lost from view there will be little or no loss of accuracy. The
receiver will need a channel for each satellite or will have to use a multiplex technique with the attendant penalties of increased
hardware, weight, power consumption and cost.
Approach Aids
Chapter 1 - Ground Controlled Approach (GCA)
Introduction
1. Ground Controlled Approach (GCA) is a runway approach aid consisting of a ground radar which tracks aircraft in azimuth
and elevation. A GCA controller observes the radar display and passes instructions to the pilot which enables an approach to the
runway to be made in conditions of bad weather and poor visibility.
Surveillance Radar Element

2. The surveillance radar or search element is a Plan Position Indicator (PPI) display, the prime function of which is to locate
and identify aircraft and vector them onto the final approach path, where they are handed off to the precision radar system. Its
function may also include the surveillance of aircraft in any holding pattern and it can usually be used to provide a runway
approach service but with less accuracy than the precision radar. Typically, the 360° scan radar will display out to a maximum
range of 40 nm. At 40 nm it will normally be possible to detect aircraft above 4,000 ft. Aircraft are identified by their response
to manoeuvring instructions by IFF/SSR equipment.
Precision Approach Radar

3. The final approach path to the runway is scanned by the precision approach radar (PAR) which is a three centimetre radar
transmitting two narrow beams. The azimuth beam is displayed on a range and azimuth display whilst the elevation beam is
shown on a range and height display (Fig 1). The controller notes the aircraft's position on the displays and instructs the pilot to
take corrective action to remain on the designated approach path. The accuracy of GCA depends to a large extent on the
proficiency of both the pilot and the controller. The equipment limitations, which take into account obstacles on the approach
path, are published as Instrument Approach Minima (IAM) in the En Route Documents and Terminal Approach Procedure
Charts (TAPs) for each airfield. PAR equipment can be badly affected by weather clutter.
Direction
4. Based upon the position and height of the aircraft requesting a radar service, there are four types of radar recovery
procedure:
a. Overhead Approach. This procedure is used when the aircraft concerned is above radar cover or requires homing. The
aircraft is homed to the overhead for a descent into radar coverage and subsequent handoff to the Director when positively
identified.
b. Direct Approach. A procedure in which an aircraft under Approach Control homes to within, or calls within, radar
cover, is identified and is then handed over to the Director for recovery.
c. GCA Pattern (Training Circuit). A procedure in which an aircraft at low level, either on climb-out from an airfield, or
following an Overhead or Direct approach, requires an instrument approach.
d. Short Pattern Circuit. A procedure in which an aircraft rolling or overshooting from a precision approach, may be
repositioned on final approach in the shortest time possible.
GCA Procedure
5. The GCA procedure involves passing to the pilot a series of verbal instructions and, provided that the pilot is proficient at
instrument flying, is relatively straightforward. A standard British military GCA pattern based on STANAG 3817 is described
in the following paragraphs developed from the Overhead or Direct Approach procedure and illustrated at Fig 2. However,
variations can occur to take account of local conditions and the prevailing air traffic situation. Procedures at civilian airfields
and at military airfields of other nations may vary in detail from those described but the principles remain the same. Full
Page 107 : Wed Jan 02 02:31:37 2002 Approach Aids 4- 2- 2- 1

definitions and explanations of the various height minima are contained in JSP 318A, Pt 4, Chap 31.
6. Identification. This phase is completed before the aircraft can be accepted into the procedure and may involve one or more
identifying turns either on the approach to the airfield or after leaving the overhead. When identified the pilot will be given
relevant procedural information together with radio frequency instructions.
7. Downwind Leg. Once identified, the pilot will be passed headings and heights to fly, based on QFE, in order to vector the
aircraft to the downwind leg. This is a leg extending from a point abeam the runway threshold to a point situated at a range of
10nm from touchdown and ±25° from the reciprocal of the runway QDM depending on the circuit direction (Point A in Fig 2).
All messages should be acknowledged and executive instructions read back. During the downwind leg pre-landing checks are
carried out, and weather conditions, IAM, and missed approach and communications failure instructions are broadcast. The pilot
will be asked for his decision height (based on the IAM, the pilot's instrument rating and in some circumstances an engine-out
allowance) and intentions.
8. Base Leg. At a range of approximately 10 nm downwind (depending on aircraft type, the needs of separation or controller
availability) the aircraft is directed on to a base leg, the track of which is at a right angle to the runway QDM and which extends
from Point A to Point B (Fig 2) where a line bearing ±10° from the reciprocal of the runway QDM bisects the base leg.
9. 40° Leg. The 40° leg avoids the need to make a 90° turn to feed on to final approach and is to the advantage of both the
pilot and the controller. Depending upon the precise distance flown downwind, the aircraft will intercept the extended centreline
of the runway at about 7 nm from touchdown. The talkdown is normally started from 1,500 ft above touchdown elevation. If,
because of terrain clearance or other air traffic consideration, it is not possible to fly the whole circuit at 1,500 ft, the pilot is
normally instructed to reduce height to 1,500 ft before the glide path is reached.
10. Final Approach. At about 7nm from touchdown the final controller takes over, usually on a different frequency from that
used by the search radar controller. In all cases, handover to the talkdown controller must be established prior to arrival at the
descent point. If this is not the case, the pilot will be instructed to descend to successive pre-determined lower heights to avoid
penetration of the glidepath until the talkdown controller is able to establish control, the pilot is able to continue the landing
visually, or the approach is abandoned at descent minima. The glide path is normally 3°, although a 2.5° glide path may
sometimes be offered. When positive contact has been established the controller will request the pilot to state his decision height
and read back his altimeter setting, and will then instruct him not to acknowledge further instructions.
4-2-2-1 Fig 1 PAR Azimuth/Range (lower) and Height/Range (upper) Display


4-2-2-1 Fig 2 Standard GCA Pattern


Immediately prior to the descent point, the controller will warn the pilot of the impending descent. For a normal PAR the
controller then instructs the pilot to start a descent to maintain a 3° glide path at a range of 5 nm. From this point instructions are
passed by the controller to enable the pilot to fly the aircraft down the approach path whilst maintaining the centreline. The
talkdown is normally to be interrupted by short, regular, breaks in transmission in order to provide the pilot with an opportunity,
where necessary, to pass a short message to the controller without detracting from the limits of the procedure. However, the
exchanges must be kept to the absolute minimum. Between 3.5 and 2.5 nm the controller instructs the pilot to check the aircraft
configuration for landing, and to confirm that the undercarriage is down. The descent is continued until the controller advises
the pilot that he is approaching his decision height. From this point only advisory information is passed and the pilot must
continue the descent visually or carry out the missed approach procedure if conditions do not permit a landing.
Straight-in Approach
11. As a variation on the Direct Approach procedure an aircraft may be fed directly into the GCA pattern from an airfield
approach aid such as an NDB, VOR, or TACAN. The pattern is arranged so that the aircraft is vectored on the extended centre
line at a range of 15 to 20 nm. The search radar controller vectors the aircraft in to seven miles where the PAR controller takes
over for the final approach as described in para 10. This procedure often results from a handover from the Centralized Approach
Controller (CAC) at an ATCRU.
Surveillance Radar Approach

12. When precision approach radar is not available, the surveillance radar may be used to carry out a non-precision surveillance
radar approach (SRA). This is carried out without glide path information and there is less accuracy in azimuth when compared
with a precision approach. The controller passes instructions to the pilot to enable a pre-determined approach path to be
followed to a position from which a visual landing or overshoot into the circuit can be made. The pilot therefore has to equate
the aircraft height above touchdown elevation with the correct height for the range to ensure that the correct rate of descent is
being maintained.
13. The pattern is similar to that of the standard GCA procedure and at 5 nm the pilot is requested to start a descent. If a 3°
glide path is used the approach height will be 1,500 ft and the rate of descent 300 ft per mile. The controller passes headings to
fly and ranges with advisory heights until the procedure is complete.
Approach Aids
Chapter 2 - Instrument Landing System (ILS)
Introduction
1. The Instrument Landing System (ILS) is a pilot interpreted aid which provides azimuth, elevation, and limited range
information to enable a runway approach to be made under instrument flight conditions from a range of 25 nm to within
approximately 0.5 nm of the threshold.
2. The ground transmitters emit localizer and glide path signals which define the approach path to the runway using the
principle of lobe comparison. The airborne receivers provide signals of aircraft displacement from the ILS centre-line and glide
path which can be used to feed an ILS indicator on an HSI, a flight director, a separate ILS indicator or directly to an autopilot
system. Ground marker beacons radiate vertically to provide range checks.
The Localizer
3. The ground localizer transmitter is usually installed approximately 1000 ft beyond the upwind end of the instrument runway
and with the aerial in line with the runway centre-line. In some early military installations the approach path is offset from the
runway centre-line because of siting difficulties. The angle of offset is generally less than 3° and is listed in the En Route
Supplement and TAPS. For this reason, the runway centre line and the localizer front course line are not necessarily coincident.
4. The transmitter operates on VHF on odd 100 kHz frequencies in the range 108 - 112 MHz and emits two lobes which
overlap in the region of the extended centre line, the centre of the region of overlap providing an area of equal signal amplitude

defining the approach path (Fig 1).
4-2-2-2 Fig 1 ILS Localizer Lobes
The two lobes are modulated at different frequencies, the beam to the right of the centre line (when approaching to land) at 150
Hz; that to the left at 90 Hz. The localizer transmitter also emits the identification code for the installation comprising a two
letter morse code signal transmitted every ten seconds which can be received aurally by the pilot. The localizer channel can be
interrupted in an emergency by speech transmissions from ATC to the aircraft, but not vice versa.
4-2-2-2 Fig 2 Behaviour of HSI Deviation Bar

The range of the localizer signal is 25 nm at 2000 ft within plus or minus 10° of the localizer front course line or 17 nm between
10° and 35° of the localizer front course line. Above 2000 ft these ranges may be reduced.
5. The aircraft localizer receiver detects the two signals and produces two output voltages which are compared and displayed
as a deflection of the display deviation bar as shown in Fig 2. The aircraft at position A will receive a signal from the 150 Hz
modulation which is stronger than that from the 90 Hz modulation. This will cause a large deflection of the deviation bar.
Conversely an aircraft at B will receive a stronger signal from the 90 Hz lobe and the deflection will be equally large but in the
opposite sense to that experienced at A. At position C the two signals will be equal and there will be no deviation bar deflection.
The display convention is such that the display centre represents the aircraft, and the deviation bar the ILS centre-line, so for
example at position A the deviation bar to the left indicates that the ILS centre-line is to the left.
6. Display Sensitivity. Variations in azimuth between positions A and B in Fig 2 will cause the deviation bar to vary between
the deflections shown. The display sensitivity will dictate at what angle, either side of the centre-line, full scale deflection
occurs. This is normally adjusted so that full scale deflection corresponds to ± 2.5°, which in turn corresponds to the beamwidth
shown in Fig 2 where the two signals overlap. It should be noted that the displacement of the deviation bar reflects the angular
distance of the aircraft from the centre line and, thus, the closer the aircraft is to the transmitter the larger is the displacement of
the deviation bar for any given linear distance from the centre-line.
The Glidepath
7. The glidepath transmitter operates on UHF on a frequency, which is paired with the localizer frequency, in the range 328.6

MHz - 335.4 MHz. The glidepath produces two overlapping lobes, analogous to the localizer but in the vertical sense as shown
in Fig 3. The transmitter is offset some 300 to 400 ft to the side of the runway at a position approximately 750 to 1000 ft from
the threshold depending on the runway length and the touchdown point. The upper lobe is modulated at 90 Hz and the lower
lobe at 150 Hz. The range of the glidepath signal is 10 nm at 2000 ft up to 8° in azimuth either side of the localizer front course
line.
4-2-2-2 Fig 3 ILS Glidepath Lobes
8. As with the localizer, the glidepath receiver compares the signal strength received from each lobe and deflects an indicator
accordingly. The type of display found on an HSI is shown in Fig 4 and the three cases reflect the aircraft positions shown in
Fig 3. As with the localizer display, the centre of the indicator represents the aircraft, and the needle the glide path.
4-2-2-2 Fig 4 ILS Glidepath Indicator (HSI Display)
9. Beamwidth. The glide path beam is usually set at an angle of 3° but can be varied between 2° and 4° to suit local
requirements. The beamwidth is a function of the beam angle (θ) and extends from 0.45θ to 1.75θ above the horizontal. For a
3° beam angle this equates to 1.35° to 5.25° above the horizontal. The edges of the beam correspond to full scale deflection of

the indicator needle.
Marker Transmitters
10. Limited information about the range from touchdown is provided by two marker beacon transmitters operating on a
frequency of 75 Hz. The beacons are situated in line with the approach path and at fixed distances from the touchdown point.
The outer marker is situated approximately 4.5 nm from touchdown, radiates a vertical fan shaped beam, and transmits a series
of dashes which may be displayed either aurally or on an indicator lamp. The middle marker is situated approximately 3000 ft
from touchdown at the beginning of the runway bar lighting system. The polar diagram is again fan shaped but the transmission
consists of alternate dots and dashes. The range of the marker signals is 6000 ft vertically.
Procedure
11. Navigation to acquire the localizer may be accomplished using self-navigation techniques, radar vectors, or a terminal
procedure. Typically the localizer is intercepted at an angle of approximately 45°. When the localizer needle begins to
centralize the aircraft is turned onto the centre-line and a heading is taken up to allow for drift. Fairly course corrections may be
necessary to maintain the centre of the beam which is quite wide in the early stages.
12. If approaching at 1500 ft QFE, the aircraft will intercept the glide path at 5 nm from touchdown, approximately at the
position of the outer marker. The indicator needle will start to move down from its full deflection up position. The aircraft
descent should be initiated so that the descent is established as the needle centres. Since the beam is only about 500 ft deep at
this point the aircraft must be established on the correct descent path as quickly as possible.
13. As the runway is approached the beams become more sensitive and accurate steady flying is necessary to follow the beam,
for example the beam is only 70 ft deep at a height of 200 ft. Particular care must be taken not to descend below the glide path
since this increases the risk of striking an obstruction and the needle indications are less sensitive below than above the glide
path. Where the localizer is offset the beam centre-line is positioned so that it crosses the runway centre-line at about 4000 ft to
4500 ft from the glide path origin, coinciding approximately with a height of 200 ft. On transferring to a visual approach the
aircraft may have to be turned through a few degrees to achieve alignment with the runway centre-line.
SENSORS
Airborne Radar
Chapter 1 - Doppler Navigation Radar
Introduction
1. Doppler navigation radar is an airborne radar which relies on the Doppler effect to determine the aircraft’s ground speed and
drift. The values may be continuously displayed, or transmitted to other equipment such as a navigation computer.
The Doppler Effect

2. The Doppler effect is described in Vol 8, Pt 2, Sect 3, Ch 1, The Nature of Sound, to explain the apparent change in pitch
that occurs when a sound source is moving relative to an observer; the same effect occurs with electromagnetic waves.
3. Fig 1 shows a stationary transmitter transmitting a signal of f Hz towards a stationary receiver, the circles representing
successive wave-fronts. Providing that the medium of transmission is homogeneous, the wave-fronts will be equally spaced and
the receiver will detect a frequency identical to that transmitted.
4. Fig 2 shows the situation where the transmitter is moving towards the receiver at a velocity of V m/s. The first wave-front is
centred on position 1, the second on position 2 and so on. The overall effect is to decrease the wave-front spacing in front of the
transmitter, which will appear to the receiver as an increase in the received frequency. Behind the transmitter the wave-front
spacing is increased and so a receiver placed there would experience a reduced frequency.
4-3-1-1- Fig 1 Stationary Transmitter and Receiver
Page 116 : Wed Jan 02 02:31:40 2002 Airborne Radar 4- 3- 1- 1

4-3-1-1 Fig 2 Transmitter Moving - Successive Wavefronts
5. The change in frequency, known as the Doppler shift (fd), is proportional to the transmitter’s velocity such that:
Vf
fd =
c
8
where c is the speed of propagation of the electromagnetic waves (approx 3 x 10 m/s for radio waves in air). Since the
transmitted frequency, f, and wavelength, λ, are related by:
¸ = c/f

fd may be written as V/λ.
6. The same doppler shift is apparent with a stationary source and a moving receiver. In the case of an airborne radar the
transmitter and receiver are collocated and the radar energy is reflected by the ground. When the energy reaches the ground
from the moving transmitter it undergoes a Doppler shift to produce a frequency of f + Vf/c and it is this frequency which is
reflected back to the aircraft. The situation is now that of a stationary transmitter (the ground) and a moving receiver which
therefore detects a further Doppler shift of Vf/c. Thus compared to the transmitted frequency, f, the receiver detects a total
frequency change of 2Vf/c. Since both f and c are known, if the change in frequency can be measured a value for V can be
determined and it is this principle which is used in Doppler navigation radars to determine groundspeed.
Doppler Measurement of Groundspeed

7. Fig 3 illustrates the general principle of groundspeed measurement in which a narrow radar beam is transmitted forwards
and downwards from the aircraft at an angle, θ, called the depression angle. In this situation the difference in frequency between
2Vf
the transmitted signal and the echo received from the ground will be c cos θ, where V is the aircraft groundspeed.
4-3-1-1- Fig 3 Principle of Doppler Groundspeed Measurement
8. The choice of depression angle for the beam is a matter of compromise. If θ is small the beam strikes the terrain at a
shallow angle and less energy will be reflected back to the aircraft than would be the case with a steeper beam. Conversely, if θ
2Vf
is made large its cosine becomes small and the value of c cos θ may become too small for accurate measurement. In practice
the value of θ is usually between 60° and 70°.
9. Operating Frequency. The Doppler frequency to be measured, fd, equates to about 34 Hz per 100 MHz of transmitter
frequency per 100 knots, multiplied by the cosine of the depression angle. Since this represents a very small proportion of the
transmitted frequency, it is necessary for this to be high in order to obtain a value for fd which can be measured with sufficient
accuracy. In practice, two frequency bands have been allocated to Doppler systems, one centred on 8.8 GHz generating a fd of
about 1.5 KHz per 100 kts, and the other on 13.3 GHz giving a f d of about 2.3 KHz per 100 kts (assuming a depression angle of
60°).
Single Beam System

10. So far the system described has used a single fixed beam radiating forwards and downwards from the aircraft as shown in
Fig 3. The doppler shift would be the same if the beam was directed rearwards and downwards, although the received frequency

would in that case be less than the transmitted frequency ie −fd. However, such a single beam system would have a number of
disadvantages:
a. Transmitter Instability. High powered I/J-band transmitters tend to suffer from some instability of frequency and if the
frequency should drift between the time of transmission and the time of reception of the reflected signal an incorrect fd
would be measured leading to an error in measured groundspeed.
b. Pitch Error. Unless the aerial was stabilized in the pitching plane, the depression angle would be dependent on the
attitude of the aircraft. Thus deviations from level flight would result in changes to fd even if the horizontal velocity of the
aircraft remained constant. The consequent errors in computed groundspeed would be significant, typical values being 3%
for 1° of pitch and 15% for 5° of pitch.
c. Vertical Motion. Any vertical motion of the aerial would generate a Doppler shift not associated with a change in
groundspeed.
d. Drift Error. In a fixed single aerial system the Doppler shift would be measured horizontally along the direction of the
beam, thus velocity would be calculated along heading, whereas groundspeed is measured along track. This error could be
eradicated by rotating the aerial until a maximum Doppler shift was obtained, at the same time determining the drift angle
by the amount of aerial rotation. However, this technique is imprecise in practice and is not used any longer even in multi
beam systems.
Two Beam System

11. Some of the errors inherent in a single beam system can be significantly reduced by employing two beams, one directed
forward and the other rearward; the arrangement is shown in Fig 4 in which both beams are depressed with respect to the
horizontal.
4-3-1-1 Fig 4 Two Beam System
12. The frequency of the signal received from the forward beam, fr, is higher than the transmitted frequency, f, by an amount
equal to the Doppler shift, fd, ie:
fr = f + f d
The frequency received from the rearward beam has a negative Doppler shift of the same magnitude, ie:

fr = f ¡ fd
In a two beam system these two received signals can be mixed together and the difference frequency extracted as a beat
frequency, fb, such that:
fb = (f + fd ) ¡ (f ¡ fd ) = 2fd
4Vf
ie cos µ
c
13. The beat frequency produced by a two beam system has twice the value of that from a single beam allowing greater
precision in the measurement of groundspeed. Variations in transmitter frequency become less important as such changes affect
the forward and rearward echo signals equally, and are therefore cancelled when taking the difference frequency. Similarly, any
changes in the aircraft’s vertical speed will be sensed by both beams and will be cancelled. Pitch errors will cause an increase in
depression angle for one beam and a decrease in depression angle for the other beam, which although not providing complete
compensation does reduce the errors significantly; 5° of pitch will cause an error of around 0.38%. However, such a two beam
system cannot be used to determine drift accurately and most modern systems use four or three beam arrangements.
Four and Three Beam Systems

14. Four beam systems, known as Janus arrays, provide for the accurate measurement of both groundspeed and drift. Consider
a rotatable system of 4 beams arranged as in Fig 5, radiating alternately in pairs, eg A & A1 for a half second, B & B1 for the
next, and so on. In this example there is no drift and the beams are disposed symmetrically about the aircraft heading which is
also the track, ie:
fd (A & A1 ) = fd (B & B1 )
4-3-1-1 Fig 5 Four Beam System - No Drift

4-3-1-1 Fig 6 Four Beam System - Port Drift
15. Fig 6a illustrates the case when the aircraft has port drift. Before the drift angle has been resolved, the two sets of beams A
& A1 and B & B1 are, as before, positioned symmetrically about the aircraft heading. Under these conditions the Doppler shift
obtained from beams B & B1 is greater than that from beams A & A1, shown in Fig 6b. The difference in frequency is
converted into an error voltage which rotates the aerial assembly to the null position in which A & A1 and B & B1 are
symmetrical about the aircraft track, and the Doppler shifts from each set are the same (Fig 7). The angle of movement of the
aerial assembly is then reproduced as a drift indication.
16. Most modern lightweight systems in fact use a fixed aerial system with only 3 beams in which the Doppler shifts are
derived individually, and mixed electronically to resolve the horizontal and vertical velocities. Such a system is illustrated in Fig
8.
4-3-1-1 Fig 7 Four Beam System - Port Drift but with Aerial Aligned with Track

4-3-1-1 Fig 8 Three Beam Fixed Aerial Arrangement
Transmission Types
17. Either pulsed or CW transmissions can be used in Doppler equipments. CW equipments have the advantage that less power
is required (typically 100 mW), but they may be affected by misleading signals reflected from vibrating parts of the aircraft
structure, or more commonly from appendages such as weapons and fuel tanks. This problem is overcome in some systems by

using frequency modulation (FMCW), which permits the rejection of signals which have been reflected from nearby objects.
18. In pulsed systems the pulse recurrence frequency (PRF) must not be allowed to produce spurious signals in the Doppler
frequency band and is therefore made very high, usually at least twice as high as the highest expected Doppler frequency.
Beam Shapes
19. The analysis so far has assumed that the radar energy is transmitted in pencil beams, each of which is reflected at any
instant from a single point on the ground. However, in reality the beams must have a finite width and must illuminate a finite
area of ground. The total reflected signal at each aerial is therefore composed of the vector sum of signals from a very large
number of reflecting points. The Doppler frequency shift from any reflecting point is proportional only to the speed of the
aircraft, the angle between the line of flight and the transmitted beam, and the frequency. It is independent of the distance of the
reflecting point from the aircraft and so the same Doppler shift is produced over flat terrain as over more mountainous country.
20. The Doppler frequency change is proportional to the cosine of the angle between the line of flight and the beam and thus all
reflecting points which lie on the surface of a cone of semi-angle θ, whose axis coincides with the direction of motion, produce a
Doppler frequency of 2 fV c cos µ. Thus if the transmitted beams are so shaped as to form parts of such conical surfaces, a
groundspeed measurement may be obtained as accurate and unambiguous as that from pencil beams. This arrangement is
illustrated in Fig 9 and the beams are achieved using a squinting linear array aerial.
4-3-1-1 Fig 9 Beams Arranged to form Part of Conical Surface
21. The areas of ground illuminated by the beams lie on hyperbolae (Fig 10). The width of a beam along such a hyperbola is
known as the broadside beamwidth and is commonly of the order of 9° or10°. The depression beamwidth is the nominal
beamwidth of the cone measured in a vertical plane through the aerial axis and is normally around 5°. Smaller depression
beamwidths result in more accurate Doppler shift measurement, and make the system less susceptible to sea bias error (see para
27). The angle in the rolling plane between the vertical and the beams is known as the broadside angle. Although a large
broadside angle allows sensitive drift measurement, if it is made too large there will be an unacceptable decrease in the power of
return signals.
4-3-1-1 Fig 10 Beam Parameters

Frequency Spectrum
22. Although the beams have been described as forming part of the surface of a cone, they do in fact have some thickness
represented by the depression beamwidth. Each part of the beam therefore has a different depression angle, and since the
Doppler shift is proportional to the cosine of depression angle, the reflected signal does not have a single frequency, but is
composed of a spectrum of frequencies. Fig 11 shows an idealized spectrum with the signal strength plotted against a range of
Doppler frequencies. Steeper depression angles result in broader spectra, and the shape depends on the polar diagram of the
beam. A frequency tracker is used to determine the mid-point of the frequency spectrum.
4-3-1-1 Fig 11 Idealized Doppler Spectrum

Frequency Tracking
23. The determination of fd from the spectrum of Doppler frequencies is accomplished by a frequency tracker device, which is
electro-mechanical in older equipments, and electronic in more modern lightweight 3-beam systems.
24. Electro-mechanical Frequency Tracking. Electro-mechanical systems employ a device known as a phonic wheel oscillator
which produces an oscillatory output voltage. The frequency can be varied over the range of the Doppler spectrum by varying
the speed of rotation of the phonic wheel shaft. In older two-window systems two oscillators are used, the output frequencies of
each differing by a fixed amount. The incoming Doppler signal is fed to two discriminator circuits, to one of which is also fed
the lower phonic wheel frequency and to the other the higher. The output of each discriminator is a measure of the energy
contained in a narrow window of the Doppler spectrum centred on the phonic wheel frequency. If the two discriminator outputs
are equal, the two windows contain equal amounts of energy, and must therefore be symmetrically disposed around the centre
frequency as in Fig 12a. If the outputs are different, the windows are displaced from the symmetrical position as in Fig 12b, and
the difference in outputs is used as an error signal to realign the phonic wheel frequencies until parity is achieved. In single line
tracking systems a single phonic wheel oscillator is used. The Doppler spectrum is applied to two mixer circuits, each of which
is also fed with the phonic wheel frequency, but with a 90° phase difference to each. The output of the mixers is fed to a two
phase motor (integrator motor), which turns in one direction if the phonic wheel frequency is higher than the mid Doppler
frequency, and in the other direction if it is lower. The movement of the integrator motor is used to vary the phonic wheel
frequency until there is no movement from the integrator motor. The phonic wheel shaft speed is then proportional to the
Doppler mid frequency and may be used to drive indicators and computers.
4-3-1-1 Fig 12 Two Window Frequency Tracking

25. Electronic Frequency Tracking. In a 3-beam fixed aerial system, as shown diagrammatically in Fig 13, the Doppler shift in
each beam is detected independently in a different channel. The Doppler spectrum is frequency shifted by a carrier frequency to
a higher band, and a voltage controlled oscillator is then used to track the centre frequency in order to produce a single
frequency output. The three channel outputs are fed to a velocity resolution stage where the carrier is removed to leave the three
Doppler frequencies, each of which contains vector components of along, across, and vertical velocities. These are resolved
algebraically and displayed or used in a navigation computer.
4-3-1-1 Fig 13 Transmitting/Receiving Beam Pattern
Potential Errors

26. Height Hole Error. A pulsed Doppler radar cannot transmit and receive signals at the same time and it is therefore possible
for a reflected signal to be lost if it arrives back at the receiver at the same time as a pulse is being transmitted. The effect,
known as height hole error, occurs at certain aircraft heights dependent on the pulse recurrence frequency (PRF) of the radar.
Over uneven ground the slant range of the illuminated area of ground is continually varying and is unlikely to remain at a critical
value long enough for height hole error to be significant. Over the sea however the aircraft height is liable to remain constant for
a longer period and prolonged loss of signal may occur. A similar effect occurs with FMCW transmissions when the aircraft is
at such a height that the reflected signal at the instant of reception, is in phase with the transmitter and is therefore rejected.
Height hole error is usually avoided by varying the PRF of a pulsed system, or the modulation frequency of a FMCW system.
27. Sea Bias. The amount of energy reflected back to the aircraft depends, among other things, upon the angle of incidence,
such that more energy will be received from the rear edge of a forward beam than from its front edge. Over land, the
irregularities of the surface mask these variations in energy level, but over a smooth sea the reflection is more specular in
character. As a consequence, not only is a larger proportion of the total energy reflected away from the aircraft, but because the
leading edge of a forward beam has a lower grazing angle, more higher frequency energy is lost than is lower frequency energy
from the trailing edge. The resulting change to the Doppler spectrum is shown in Fig 14 and this distortion leads to the
determination of a value for fd which is too low. The consequent error in calculated groundspeed is known as sea-bias error and
typically results in groundspeeds which are 1% - 2% low. Most systems incorporate a ‘Land/Sea’ switch which, discriminate
between Doppler frequencies over water (fdw) and over land (fdl) and when switched to ‘Sea’, alters the calibration of the
frequency tracker so as to increase the calculated groundspeed by a nominal 1% or 2%.
4-3-1-1 Fig 14 Sea Bias and Spectrum Distortion
28. Sea Movement Error. Doppler equipments measure drift and groundspeed relative to the terrain beneath the aircraft which,
if moving, will induce an error into the results. There are two causes:
a. Tidal Streams. The speed of tidal streams is generally greatest in narrow waterways and, since the time during which an
aircraft is likely to be affected is small, the effect is minimal. Ocean currents occupy much larger areas but their speed is
low and so cause little error.
b. Water Transport. Wind causes movement in a body of water and, although wave motion is quite complex, the net effect
so far as Doppler systems are concerned is a down-wind movement of the surface. The resultant error is an up-wind
displacement of a Doppler derived position. An approximate value for the error can be derived by considering an error
vector in the measured drift and groundspeed which has a direction in the up-wind direction of the surface wind, and a

length equal to about one fifth of the surface wind speed, with a maximum of 7 - 8 kts.
29. Flight Path and Pitch Error. In climb and descent a true speed over the ground will be calculated only if the Doppler aerial
is maintained horizontal. Partial compensation for pitch is inherent in a Janus array system (see para 14) and errors can be
further reduced, if necessary, by gyro-stabilizing the aerial to the horizontal, or by correcting the errors using attitude
information in the groundspeed computer. Without these facilities, and with the aerial slaved to the aircraft’s flight path or to the
airframe, a small error will be introduced.
30. Roll Error. Theoretically a combination of drift and roll can cause axis cross-coupling errors, but these are transient and
too small to be of significance. However, signals may be lost in a turn if one beam, or a pair of beams, is raised clear of the
ground.
31. Drift Error. Large drift angles will have no effect on accuracy provided that:
a. In a moving aerial system the aerial can rotate to the same degree as the drift.
b. In a fixed aerial system a small broadside beamwidth can be obtained to prevent adverse widening of the frequency
spectrum.
In both cases a large area in the aircraft is needed, since a moving aerial needs room in which to turn, and a fixed aerial needs to
be large to obtain a small broadside beamwidth. (Beamwidth is inversely proportional to aerial dimension).
32. Computational Errors. Doppler systems are mechanized on the assumption than 1 nm is equivalent to 1' of latitude.
However, the actual change of latitude in minutes, equating to a distance of one nautical mile measured on the Earths surface
along a meridian, ranges from 1.0056' at the Equator to 0.9954' at the poles, and is only correct at 47° 42' N and S. In addition,
1' of latitude change equates to a greater distance at height than on the surface (see Fig 15). Both latitude and altitude errors are
small and are not normally corrected for in navigation. Additional small errors can be introduced into position calculations.
Since the aircraft never flies in a straight line, but rather weaves slowly from side to side of track, the calculated distance gone
will exceed the distance directly measured on a map. Doppler drift is added to heading to deduce track and so any error in the
heading input will result in an error in any computed position.
4-3-1-1 Fig 15 Height Error

4-3-1-1 Fig 16 Typical Doppler Navigation Computer Chain
Computer Display
33. The two basic outputs from a Doppler system as described are groundspeed and drift angle, and these can be combined in a
computing system with aircraft heading and desired track to produce a display which may include along and across track
indications, computed position in a selected reference frame, distance and time to go, etc. Fig 16 illustrates a typical Doppler
computer chain for the navigation function. The Doppler velocities may also be used in a mixed inertial/Doppler navigation and
weapon aiming system in which the Doppler velocities are used to dampen the Schuler oscillations of the IN system (see Vol 3,
Pt 3, Sect 3, Ch 3).
34. For rotary wing aircraft applications, the vertical component of velocity can also be derived by Doppler and Fig 17
illustrates a hover meter. The cross pointers show movement, in knots, forwards and backwards on the vertical scale, and left
and right on the horizontal scale. The vertical scale at the extreme left of the display shows vertical velocity in feet/minute.
4-3-1-1 Fig 17 Hover Meter

4-3-1-1 Fig 6a
4-3-1-1 Fig 6b

4-3-1-1 Fig 12a
4-3-1-1 Fig 12b
Airborne Radar
Chapter 2 - Ground Mapping Radar

Introduction
1. In Vol 9, Pt 2, Sect 2, Chap 3 it was explained how a pulse radar can be used to detect a reflecting target, and measure its
range and relative direction from the transmitter. This principle is used in ground mapping radars to present the operator with an
image of terrain features, which can then be used to aid navigation, locate targets, and determine weapon aiming parameters. A
ground mapping radar is often one component of an integrated navigation and weapon aiming system such that radar derived
data can be used directly to update the system, and conversely data from the rest of the system is used to enhance the radar
facilities. Doppler or inertial velocities, for example, may be used to stabilize the radar image and superimposed electronic
cursors. In many cases a ground mapping radar will have a secondary air intercept mode of operation - although often with
rather limited facilities. Similarly, many air intercept and most cloud warning radars have ground mapping as a secondary mode.
2. A radar map of an area of the surface is achieved by scanning the radar beam either by mechanically moving the aerial or by
using a phased array antenna. The radar image is presented on a CRT, the time base of which sweeps in synchronization with
the radar beam, and is intensity modulated in response to the signal strength of received echoes. The image brightness is thus
related to the nature of the reflecting object and, in general, built-up areas appear bright, water appears dark, and land appears in
an intermediate tone. The persistence of the CRT phosphor ensures that a continuous image of the ground is maintained
between sweeps. Although a few installations provide a 360° PPI display, more normally the radar is mounted in the aircraft
nose and scans a sector ahead of the aircraft, typically 60° either side of the aircraft heading. The radar aerial must be stabilized,
within limits, to the true horizontal both in roll and pitch to avoid image distortion, and this is normally achieved by using inputs
from the aircraft attitude system - the degree of roll and pitch for which compensation can be provided will vary between aircraft
types. In addition to the radar image, it is possible to superimpose electronically produced symbols and cursors, and in some
systems a topographical map can be projected onto the display (see Vol 3, Pt 4, Sect 2, Chap 3). Fig 1 shows an example of a
ground mapping radar image together with a map of the area for comparison. Fig 2 shows the same radar image with a
superimposed projected map; the discrepancy between the map and radar features indicates an error in the navigation system’s
knowledge of position. Fig 3 shows a larger scale display.
Beam Characteristics
3. The beam of a ground mapping radar must be narrow in azimuth so that the bearing of any echo can be accurately defined,
and broad in the vertical plane in order to illuminate all of the ground between a point beneath the aircraft and the horizon (or
effective range).
4-3-1-2 Fig 1 Ground Mapping Radar Image
4-3-1-2 Fig 2 Radar Display and Superimposed Projected Map Display

4-3-1-2 Fig 3 Larger Scale Radar and Superimposed Projected Map Display

4. Azimuth Beamwidth. It is impossible to produce a beam in which all of the radar energy is distributed and confined within a
finite beam. However, with a well designed antenna most of the radiated power can be constrained to a given direction, and a
typical polar diagram is shown in Fig 4. It is impossible to eradicate the sidelobes completely but it is desirable to minimize
them since they represent wasted power, and their presence makes the radar more vulnerable to EW interference. Two
definitions of beamwidth are recognized:
4-3-1-2 Fig 4 Half Power Beam Width
a. Nominal Beamwidth. The nominal beamwidth is defined as the angle subtended at the source by the lines joining the
two points on the radiation diagram where the power has fallen to a certain proportion (usually a half) of its maximum
value. Radiation patterns are normally plotted showing relative field strengths, and since field strength is proportional to the
square root of power, the corresponding
p half power points A and C on the field strength diagram shown in Fig 4 are where
the field strength has fallen to 0:5, ie 0.707, of the maximum value OB. Conversely, the power radiated in the direction

2
OA and OC = 0.707 = .5 of the power transmitted along the centreline OB. The angle Θ is the nominal beamwidth and is
proportional to the wavelength (λ) of the radiation and inversely proportional to the size of the aerial:
K¸
Nominal Beamwidth / degrees
Dish Diameter
Where λ is the wavelength and K is a constant which varies with the side lobe level, but for a simple parabolic aerial is
typically 70.
b. Effective Beamwidth. From an operator’s perspective, the effective or apparent beamwidth is of more concern than the
nominal beam width since it is one factor which influences the accuracy with which radar returns are displayed. The
effective beamwidth is the angle through which the beam rotates whilst continuing to give a discernible image from a point
response. Fig 5 illustrates the effect of a radar beam with an effective beamwidth of 4° scanning clockwise through a point
target. The target will be displayed on the CRT once the leading edge of the beam intercepts it, however it will not be
portrayed on its correct bearing of 090°, but in the direction in which the aerial is pointing, ie along 088°. The target
continues to be displayed until the trailing edge of the beam passes through it. The effect is to spread the image of the point
response across the effective beam width, thus, for example, a point target at a range of 60 nm would appear to be 4 nm
wide (1 in 60 rule), ie 2 nm either side of the correct bearing. The effective beamwidth is largely a function of receiver gain.
Both transmitted power and receiver sensitivity are maximum along the beam centre line, decreasing towards the beam
margins. Receiver gain determines the overall amplification of the received signal and may be reduced to a level which is
only sufficient to ensure that signals near to the centre line of the beam are displayed, generating a narrow effective
beamwidth, or may be increased so that signals at the edge of the beam are amplified sufficiently to exceed the video
threshold.
4-3-1-2 Fig 5 Effective Beamwidth
5. Vertical Beamwidth. A pencil beam as produced by a parabolic aerial is not ideal for mapping purposes since it does not
2
illuminate a sufficient area of land, instead, a diffuse beam known as a spoiled or cosecant beam is used. The main
characteristic of such a beam is that greater power is transmitted to greater ranges so as to compensate for range attenuation and
2
in this way similar targets will give similar returns regardless of range (Fig 6). The cosecant beam dilutes the power per unit
area of ground coverage and is therefore normally restricted to the shorter range scales; at longer ranges reversion to a pencil
beam is necessary.
4-3-1-2 Fig 6 Cosecant² Beam

Radar Parameters
6. Operating Frequency. As with all radar parameters the choice of operating frequency is inevitably a compromise between
conflicting requirements. High frequencies allow narrow beamwidths to be achieved with relatively small aerials, and
pulselengths can be relatively short - both attributes leading to improved resolution. Additionally, high frequency equipment
tends to have size and weight advantages. Conversely, high frequency radar is restricted in the power that can be employed, and
therefore in the effective range. Furthermore, the higher the frequency, the more the radar will be susceptible to interference and
atmospheric attenuation. In practice, the majority of airborne mapping radars operate in the I or J band with frequencies around
10 GHz (wavelengths around 3 cm).
7. Pulse Length. The energy content of a pulse is directly proportional to its length and thus the shorter the pulse, the weaker
any echo will be. However, shorter pulses are desirable for good discrimination in that if two targets are separated in range by
less than half the distance occupied by a pulse, they will be seen as a single echo. Pulse length also determines the minimum
range that the radar can measure. The leading edge of the echo cannot be received until the trailing edge of the pulse has left the
transmitter and must therefore travel a return distance at least equal to the distance occupied by a pulse. A pulse occupies 300 m
for every microsecond of duration and so for a typical pulse length of 2 µs the return distance will be 600 m, giving a minimum
range of 300 m. In practice the minimum range will be greater than this since some finite time will be necessary for the aerial to
switch from transmission to reception. A pulsed radar signal contains a spectrum of frequencies which broadens with decreasing
pulse length, and a receiver for short pulses therefore requires a wide bandwidth, making it more susceptible to noise. Pulse
lengths for mapping radars are usually between 0.5 and 5 µs. Some radars use pulse compression techniques to achieve the
power levels of long pulses while retaining the resolution of short pulses - the techniques are outlined in Vol 9, Pt 2, Sect 2, Ch
4.
8. Pulse Recurrence (or Repetition) Frequency (PRF). The selection of pulse recurrence frequency is closely associated with
maximum unambiguous range and with scanning rate.
a. PRF and Range. In order to avoid ambiguity in range measurement it is essential that the echo of any one pulse is
received before the next pulse is transmitted. The PRF will therefore determine the maximum range at which the radar can
be used, or conversely the PRF must be selected with regard to the desired maximum range of the radar. The maximum
unambiguous range is given by:
c
Runamb =
2 £ PRF
where c = speed of light

In practice, the maximum range of an ground mapping radar is more likely to be limited by attenuation effects than by
considerations of range ambiguity.
b. PRF and Scanning Speed. The PRF must be sufficiently high to ensure that at least one pulse of energy strikes a target
while the scanner is pointing in its direction. A very narrow radar beam with a high rate of rotation therefore needs a high
PRF. In practice the relationship between scanner rate, beamwidth, and PRF is adjusted so that any target will receive
between 5 and 25 pulses each time it is swept by the beam.
The PRF of ground mapping radars is typically between 200 and 800 pulses per second and in some systems is variable.
9. The Transmitter Duty Cycle. Because a pulse radar transmits short pulses with relatively long interpulse periods, the
transmitter is only functioning for a small fraction of the time (typically 0.001). The magnetron, which is the normal power
source, must therefore be capable of handling high peak powers (typically around 200 kW) in order to achieve the necessary
mean power of a few tens of watts. The product of pulse length and PRF is known as the duty cycle, and magnetrons are limited
in the length of the allowable duty cycle in order to avoid overheating.
Image Distortion
10. A radar reflective target will not be portrayed accurately in size or shape on the CRT due to a combination of beamwidth,
pulse length, and spot size distortions.
11. Beamwidth Distortion. The cause of beamwidth distortion has already been examined in para 4; the effect is to add one half
of the effective beamwidth to each side of the target as shown in Fig 7. Beamwidth distortion increases with increasing range.
4-3-1-2 Fig 7 Beamwidth Distortion
12. Pulse Length Distortion. The range to the near edge of a target is correctly determined by half the time taken for the
leading edge of the pulse to reach the target and return multiplied by the propagation speed. However, although the range to the
far side of target is similarly determined by the leading edge of the pulse, the CRT continues to paint until the whole pulse is
completely received. The effect is to extend the far edge of the target by an amount equivalent to half the pulse length. The
distortion is added to the effect of beamwidth distortion as shown in Fig 8.
4-3-1-2 Fig 8 Pulse Length Distortion

13. Spot Size Distortion. The electron beam which produces the image on the CRT has a finite size, and although the centre of
the spot draws the correct outline, the image is blurred by the addition of a margin with a thickness equal to the radius of the spot
as illustrated in Fig 9. Adjustments to focus, brilliance, and gain affect the spot size, but it is independent of selected range scale
and therefore represents a greater distortion on smaller scales (ie on greater ranges). Spot size distortion is added to the effects
of beamwidth and pulse length distortions as shown in Fig 10.
4-3-1-2 Fig 9 Spot Size Distortion
14. Resolution Rectangle. Echos separated in azimuth by less than the effective beamwidth plus spot diameter, and echos
separated in range by less than half the pulse length plus the spot diameter, will merge together on the CRT. The combined
effect of beamwidth, pulse length, and spot size distortion is to limit the size of the smallest image which can appear on the CRT
to the approximate rectangle, known as the resolution rectangle, of Fig 10. Reflecting objects will be resolved as separate
images only if the distance between them is greater than the appropriate dimension of this rectangle.
4-3-1-2 Fig 10 Resolution Rectangle

15. Height Distortion. The range measured by a mapping radar is slant range, whereas for a completely accurate display plan
range is needed. If such accuracy is necessary, the CRT time base can be made non-linear such that the electron beam producing
the time base is made to move faster at the start of its movement from the centre of the display than towards the edge. Even so, it
is not possible to remove all of the distortion at the centre of the display. In the majority of cases height corrections are only
worthwhile if the aircraft is operating at very high altitudes.
Radar Reflection Characteristics

16. The creation of a map-like image on a radar display relies on the differing reflectivities of the various terrain features.
Radar energy is reflected in the same way as other electromagnetic waves, such as light, and two types of reflection situations
may be recognized, specular and diffuse.
17. Specular Reflection. If the radar energy impinges on a smooth surface the reflection is known as specular and is the same
as light being reflected from a mirror, ie with the angle of reflection equal to the angle of incidence. A surface may be
considered smooth if is approximately planar and contains no irregularities comparable in size with, or larger than, the
wavelength of the radar. From a horizontal surface, specular reflection causes the energy to be directed away from the receiver
and so such a surface would appear dark on the display. Such specular reflection is typical of smooth water and fine sand.
18. Corner Reflectors. In order for specular reflections to arrive back at the receiver from a single plane surface, that surface
must be very close to normal to the radar beam. A pair of plane surfaces, one vertical and one horizontal, will return a signal at
the same angle of elevation as the incident energy, but not necessarily in the same angle of azimuth (see Fig 11). However, if
there are three mutually perpendicular surfaces the geometry is such that energy is reflected back to the source regardless of the
angle of incidence. This arrangement is known as a corner reflector. Although rare in nature, corner reflectors frequently occur
in built-up areas, as in Fig 12, and are largely responsible for the bright display of such areas; they are also widely manufactured
to enhance the radar reflectivity of, for example, bombing targets, runway thresholds, and small boats.
4-3-1-2 Fig 11 Reflection from Two Plane Surfaces

4-3-1-2 Fig 12 Corner Reflector in Built-Up Area

19. Diffuse Reflection. When a reflecting surface is rough, ie when its irregularities are comparable in size with, or larger than,
the radar wavelength, the reflected energy is diffused in all directions, the rough surface acting as a mosaic of randomly
orientated specular reflecting surfaces. The amount of energy reflected in any direction is less than would occur in a single
specular reflection. Diffuse reflection is uncommon in man-made structures, but is typical of normal undeveloped land and
accounts for the intermediate tone of such terrain on the display. The proportion of the energy which is reflected back to the
receiver depends largely on the angle of incidence, as illustrated in Fig 13.
20. Influence of Materials. In addition to the geometrical considerations, the amount of energy arriving back at the receiver
from an object depends on the material from which the object is made. All objects transmit, absorb, or reflect different
proportions of any incident electromagnetic energy depending on their material. Broadly, metals reflect strongly, and naturally
occurring materials such as earth and wood reflect weakly. Brick, concrete, and stone have intermediate reflecting
characteristics.
4-3-1-2 Fig 13 Diffuse Reflection

Display Interpretation
21. Map reading from a radar display requires skill, experience, and care. The normal technique requires the identification of
pre-selected fix points from which present position can be determined or targets can be located. In most modern systems it is
possible to place cursors over the fix point and allow the system to calculate present position from knowledge of the fix point
co-ordinates and its relative position. Alternatively, the cursor position can be transferred to a target or waypoint by the
insertion of offset values.
22. The ideal radar fix point should be sufficiently large, a good reflector, unique, and exhibit good contrast against its
background. Since water in general reflects little or no energy back to the receiver (specular reflector), the best contrast is
usually afforded by a cultural return against a water background. Such features are normally of sufficient size, are man made
and therefore good reflectors, and tend to be unique; regrettably they are rather uncommon. A good example would be a large
bridge over a wide river such as the Humber Bridge seen in Figs 2 and Fig 3. More commonly, fix points will be cultural
features against a terrain background; the sharp bends and crossings of power cables apparent in Fig 1 might be suitable, as
might some of the smaller towns; power stations and large factories are often suitable. In these cases, however, the features are
unlikely to be truly unique, and confident identification must be achieved by relating the radar returns one to another. Coastal
features are often easily identified and suitable, however they must be used with some caution since their appearance can vary
with tide changes, especially in shallow and estuarine waters; precipitous and rocky coastlines (particularly small islands) are
more reliable than sandy or muddy ones. However, man-made coastal features such as piers, harbours, and lighthouses, usually
show significantly regardless of tide state.
Radar Interpretation at Low Level

23. Most of the factors discussed above are equally applicable to operation at low level. However, in addition, consideration
must be given to the effect of terrain shadowing on the display. The short wavelength radar energy travels in straight lines and
so any obstruction, such as a hill, will cast a shadow on the far side, and any feature in the shadow will not be apparent. Fig 14
gives an impression of the sort of display that might result from a low-level viewpoint over hilly terrain. Fig 15 shows a terrain
cross-section together with a simplified diagram of the the radar display that might be generated, although it should be
appreciated that variations in tilt and gain settings, and in the aircraft height will make significant differences.

4-3-1-2 Fig 14 Impression of Typical Low Level Radar Display over Hilly Terrain
4-3-1-2 Fig 15 Terrain Cross-Section and Simplified Radar Display Diagram
24. If the terrain elevation is equal to, or greater than, the aircraft altitude the radar can no longer ‘see’ over the hill as shown in
Fig 16 - a situation known as radar ‘cut-off’. Cut-off is indicative that the flight path is not clear of the obstruction. However, a

potentially dangerous situation can occur when cut-off is not apparent. Fig 17 shows the radar display from a terrain
cross-section with a series of hills (A, B, and C), each successive hill being higher than the previous one. It might be supposed
from the display that there is adequate terrain clearance, whereas in fact the flightpath impinges on hill B. Initially, as hill B is
approached, the radar display still gives no impression of the true situation (Fig 18), but eventually the angle between the peaks
changes and a cut-off from hill B appears (Fig 19). However, if the final hill, C, is significantly higher than hill B, the cut-off
might not become apparent until it is too late to climb over hill B.
4-3-1-2 Fig 16 Radar 'Cut-Off'
4-3-1-2 Fig 17 Cross-Section and Display with Three Hills

4-3-1-2 Fig 18 Cut-Off From Hill C, but Not From Hill B

4-3-1-2 Fig 19 Cut-Off from Hill B now Apparent

Airborne Radar
Chapter 3 - Terrain Following Radar
Introduction
1. To avoid detection by enemy radars strike/attack aircraft need to fly at very low altitudes when in, or approaching, defended
airspace. The day/night all weather capability of strike/attack aircraft has been greatly enhanced by terrain following radars.
Height/Speed Considerations
2. The optimum height to fly is a balance between being so low that collision with the ground is a real risk and being so high
that the aircraft is vulnerable to interception by the enemy. Fig 1 shows how the risk of collision with the ground increases with
decreasing height, and exposure to enemy action increases with increasing height. This does not apply in all cases; the detection
distance of a ground based radar over a flat desert or on a sea coast is virtually independent of height and is mainly limited by
range and the curvature of the earth. Excluding these cases the resulting curve of total risk shows that 200 feet is the optimum
operating level.
4-3-1-3 Fig 1 Optimum Height to Fly

3. The faster an aircraft can fly, the safer it is from enemy attack; however, there is a point where the penalty of increased fuel
consumption in flying at supersonic speed at low level is hardly compensated for by a reduction in vulnerability. Therefore, the
highest sustainable subsonic cruise speed is regarded as the optimum at low level.
Safety Factors
4. The safety requirement for a terrain radar system is that no single failure should endanger the safety of the aircraft. Any
failure must result in a safe pull up manoeuvre. From the fail safe aspect, duplication, where feasible, is adopted.
Terms
5. The following terms describe the capabilities of particular systems:
a. Terrain Warning (TW). A system which warns the crew of terrain which lies directly in their flight path. Virtually any
airborne radar can be used for this purpose.
b. Terrain Clearance (TC). A system which flies “peak to peak” rather than accurately following the terrain contours.
c. Terrain Avoidance (TA). A normal plan position indicator (PPI) radar enables the terrain to be avoided in azimuth rather
than elevation. Most radars can accomplish this, however, a specialist TA radar will usually only display terrain which
penetrates above a present clearance level.
d. Terrain Following (TF). This system enables the aircraft to closely follow all ground contours in elevation and it is the
most effective of all terrain systems.
Monopulse Radars
6. In a non-monopulse radar the aerial produces a single beam with a width dependent on the size of the aerial and the
frequency used. A typical beamwidth in an airborne radar is 4 degrees and any ground within this beam will give a return, the
range of which can be measured. However, since the strength of the return can have any value, depending on the reflecting
position within the particular piece of ground, its position within the beam cannot be determined. The angular accuracy would
therefore be 4 degrees or more which is inadequate for terrain following (see Fig 2a).

4-3-1-3 Fig 2 Transmitted Beams


7. The single-plane monopulse aerial has two feeds (see Fig 2b) simultaneously producing two slightly divergent and
overlapping beams. The area in which the beams overlap is known as the radar boresight. The ground returns illuminated by
these beams are simultaneously processed in two different ways. A “sum” signal is formed by adding together the returned
signals of each beam. This gives the effect of a single beam equal in width to that of the sum of both beams. At the same time a
difference signal is formed by subtracting the returned signal of one beam from the other. The difference signal has a phase
which may be compared with that of the sum signal and it also has a minimum amplitude where the beams are equal, ie along the
boresight. The phase and amplitude relationships between sum an difference signals are such that returns from above the
boresight produce a positive output whilst those from below give a negative output. Where the boresight intersects the ground
the output is zero, the exact range along the boresight to the ground can therefore be accurately determined.
SCANNING MONOPULSE RADAR
General
8. A scanning monopulse radar system scans the terrain ahead of the aircraft and determines the path in elevation which the
aircraft must follow to clear the ground by the required height.
9. Guidance information for manual flying is produced by the radar, on a head-up display, or the output can be coupled directly
to the autopilot.
10. The target spot on the display represents the path which the aircraft should be following to clear the ground ahead by the
required amount and the aiming mark indicates its present path (see Fig 3).
11. Other sources of information which are necessary are provided by the radar altimeter and airstream direction detector
(ADD). Attitude reference is also required to provide signals for radar roll axis stabilization.
12. The radar aerial scans in the vertical, +8 degrees to −22 degrees, about the radar roll axis. As the aircraft manoeuvres the
radar roll axis changes to ensure that the beam covers the ground at all times. The range to the ground along the aerial boresight
for each pulse is measured and range to the ground at all scanner angles is therefore known. The ground profile is compared
with a computer generated “ideal flight path”, called the zero command line, (ZCL) shown in Fig 3. The ZCL is made up of two
parts, the ski toe and the base line (not shown), the effect of various parameters on the ZCL is summarized as follows:
a. Set Clearance Height. The ZCL moves downwards with increased set clearance height to keep the aircraft further from
the terrain.
b. Flight Vector. The ZCL is moved downward with increased climb angle but there is little movement of the ZCL during
a dive.
c. Groundspeed. The flat portion of the ZCL is elongated and the curved portion flattened with increased groundspeed.
d. Ride and Weather Mode. The flat portion of the ZCL is elongated and the curved portion flattened with the selection of
soft ride or weather mode which is used in normal/heavy rain conditions.
The “Ski” in Action

13. The overall principle of the system is illustrated in Fig 3. Over reasonably smooth terrain the aircraft flies straight and level
and the base line (not shown) “rests” on the terrain. On approaching an obstacle, position 2, the terrain profile penetrates the ski
toe generating a pull up command. The command is satisfied at position 2 and the terrain profile rotates upwards with respect to
the ski toe as the aircraft pushes over into a shallow dive. By position 4 the terrain profile again penetrates the ski toe generating
a pull-up command. The speed at which this happens is controlled so that by keeping the target spot within the aiming circle the
pilot should not experience uncomfortable g forces.
14. When the elevation is zero, the base line must be parallel to the direction of aircraft flight, ie parallel to the velocity vector.
The ADD is used to measure the difference between the radar roll angle and the velocity vector. This angle is fed to the
computer to position the ZCL correctly.
4-3-1-3 Fig 3 Flight Patch Indications

15. The height measured by the radar altimeter is compared with the selected clearance height and an up or down command is
generated. This command is fed to the terrain radar computer and then onto the head-up display or autopilot.
OPERATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS
Radar Returns
16. Radar returns from the built-up areas and isolated buildings can be very much stronger than those from sand or arid ground,
therefore the strength of the return is not a measure of its importance, since the top of a hill may be a poor reflector. If the
receiver is sensitive enough to see such weak signals, strong reflections to one side may swamp or break through the main signal
and appear at the output as ground at a higher angle than in reality. Automatic gain control (AGC) minimizes this problem.
High Speed, Low Level Scanning

17. The equipment has to provide safe steering signals in elevation, while the aircraft navigation system demands a turn either
via the autopilot or the head-up display. A bank angle of 45 degrees at 0.9 M has to be tolerated. To satisfy this requirement the
aerial scan pattern changes from being purely vertical to one which “leans over” into the Terrain Following Radar turn. The
angle of lean is a function of aircraft bank angle and speed, thereby ensuring that the ground is “seen” sufficiently early to
generate any necessary climb demand.
4-3-1-3 Fig 2a

4-3-1-3 Fig 2b

Airborne Radar

Chapter 4 - Sideways-looking Airborne Radar
Introduction
1. Conventional airborne radars used for ground mapping or reconnaissance use either a mechanically scanning, or a planar
phased array aerial, to produce a PPI display. In order to achieve good resolution it is desirable to have an azimuth beamwidth
that is as narrow as possible, but since beamwidth is inversely proportional to aerial size, this implies the use of large aerials.
Unless the radar is mounted in a large external radome with the attendant weight and aerodynamic penalties, the size of a
forward facing aerial will be restricted by the frontal area of the carrying aircraft, and in the case of a mechanically scanning
aerial, there must also be room to accommodate the aerial movement. A further disadvantage of forward facing transmissions is
that they give advance notice of the aircraft's approach to the enemy's electronic scanners.
2. Sideways-Looking Airborne Radar (SLAR) is used for reconnaissance, and overcomes these disadvantages by looking
sideways and downwards from the aircraft using a non-scanning aerial mounted parallel to the aircraft fuselage. This
arrangement allows the aerial to be made long, so giving a narrow azimuth beamwidth and good resolution in that plane.
3. The aerial is normally of the slotted waveguide type where one or more slotted waveguides are physically attached parallel
to the fore-and-aft axis of the aircraft, either along the side of the fuselage or in an underslung pod. A SLAR aerial for a
fighter-type aircraft would typically be 3 - 5 m long compared to a maximum size of about 2 m for a circular scanning aerial in a
large aircraft. The equipment is normally designed for two aerials, one looking to port and the other to starboard.
Operation
4. A beam of radar pulses is transmitted at 90° to the aircraft’s fore-and-aft axis, the number of pulses transmitted being
proportional to the ground speed of the aircraft to maintain a series of overlapping scans. The radar transmission is switched
from one aerial to the other on a pulse to pulse basis to produce two maps of parallel strips of ground, equally spaced either side
of the aircraft, as illustrated in Fig 1.
4-3-1-4 Fig 1 Radar Ground Cover
5. The output from the receiver can be displayed on a CRT, processed by an optical system to produce a film record, stored on
magnetic tape for post-flight display and analysis, or telemetered to a ground receiving station.
6. SLAR typically operates in the K or L band and uses pulse compression techniques to retain good range resolution while
2
transmitting sufficient energy to achieve a satisfactory range performance. In elevation the beams are cosec in shape and are
adjustable in depression angle so as to obtain the optimum ground illumination with changing aircraft height.
7. The beamwidth of a linear array aerial may be determined approximately, in degrees, by 50λ/D where λ is the operating
wavelength and D is the aerial array length. Using this approximation for a fighter-type aircraft installation with an aerial length
of 3m, and assuming a wavelength of 1cm, yields a beamwidth of about 0.16°. On a large aircraft where an aerial length might

be 10m the beamwidth would be 0.05° at the same wavelength, which at a range of 10 nms equates to a linear beamwidth of
some 16 m (50 ft). Although this may be adequate for some situations, many reconnaissance applications require a narrower
beamwidth. However, since there is clearly a practical limit to the length of the aerial which can be accommodated on an
aircraft, an alternative approach is needed - a technique known as synthetic aperture.
8. Synthetic Aperture. The synthetic aperture technique relies on the aircraft movement to simulate an aerial array much longer
than the physical installation. The parameters (including phase) of the radar returns from a pulse are recorded, and then
combined and processed together with returns from subsequent pulses transmitted from different aircraft positions. The effect is
to synthesize an aerial with a length equal to the distance flown during the period in which the data is collected. Synthetic
aperture techniques achieve useful improvements, typically yielding linear resolutions an order smaller than a conventional
linear array. However, this improvement is at the expense of considerable processing complexity, which, particularly if a near
real-time performance is needed, would preclude their use on other than large aircraft. There is a further requirement to stabilize
the antenna to a high degree of accuracy.
Image Quality
9. SLAR systems use high frequency transmissions with high pulse recurrence frequencies which, together with pulse
compression techniques and narrow beamwidths, enable high quality, good resolution images to be obtained; Fig 2 shows an
example low altitude SLAR image together with the equivalent Ordnance Survey map for comparison.
4-3-1-4 Fig 2 SLAR Map
10. Distortions. Uncompensated deviations from the planned flight profile can cause distortions in the image:
a. Height and Ground Speed. Any variation in planned height or ground speed will cause distorted scales across the map.

b. Roll. If the aerial is not roll stabilized, rolling will cause uneven illumination of the ground which will be apparent on
the resulting imagery but may not produce distortion.. However, large roll angles may result in complete loss of the picture.
c. Drift. Without drift stabilization of the aerial or drift compensation in the display system, parallelogram distortion will
result as shown in Fig 3.
4-3-1-4 Fig 3 Parallelogram Distortion
Airborne Radar
Chapter 5 - Weather Radar
Introduction
1. A weather radar is an airborne pulse radar designed to locate turbulent clouds ahead of the aircraft so that, in the interests of
safety and comfort, they may be circumnavigated either laterally or vertically, or penetrated where the turbulence is likely to be
least. The radar beam is conical, and typically scans in azimuth 75° to 90° either side of the aircraft’s heading (see Fig 1). Some
systems can scan vertically (typically ± 25°) to give a profile display. Cloud returns are displayed as bright areas on a sector PPI
display equipped with either fixed or electronically generated range and bearing markers as shown in Fig 2. The scanner has
limited stabilization in pitch and roll so that the scan remains horizontal and with a steady tilt angle relative to the horizon during
aircraft manoeuvre.
4-3-1-5 Fig 1 Conical Beam Scanning in Azimuth

2. Most weather radars have a secondary ground mapping application and in this mode the radar transmission is often
2
converted to a cosecant beam - this type of beam is described in Chap 2.
4-3-1-5 Fig 2 Cloud Formation on a PPI Display
3. Cumuliform clouds are associated with rising and descending currents of air leading to turbulence, which can be severe in
the case of cumulo-nimbus clouds. The turbulence tends to retain the water droplets within the cloud which increase in size until
they fall as heavy precipitation. It is this precipitation, and in particular the large water drops, which reflect the radar energy and
from which turbulence can be inferred. Hailstones are normally covered with a film of water and tend to produce the strongest
echoes; gentle rain, snow, and dry ice produce the weakest echoes. Non-turbulent, principally stratiform, clouds are not usually
detected by the radar as the water droplet size is too small, neither can the radar detect clear air turbulence. Normally the radar
energy will penetrate the precipitation of one cloud so as to be able to display echoes from clouds beyond. However, extremely
heavy precipitation may attenuate the radar to an extent that this penetration is not achieved.
4-3-1-5 Fig 3 Generation of Iso-echo Display

Iso-Echo Contour Display

4. The strength of the returned radar signals varies according to the precipitation rate and by inference reflects the degree of
turbulence. However, a normal monochrome CRT display is unable to discriminate between these different signal amplitudes;
clouds with significantly different degrees of turbulence would appear the same on the display.
5. In order to overcome this shortcoming a system known as Iso-echo Contour has been developed. In this system an
amplitude threshold level is established, and all signals which exceed this level are switched to earth (see Fig 3). The effect is to
create a ‘black hole’ on the display corresponding to those parts of the cloud return with the greatest precipitation rate (Fig 4).
The outer and inner edges of the surrounding return correspond to two contours of precipitation rate, and the width of the
‘painted’ return reflects the precipitation gradient in the area; the narrower the paint, the steeper the gradient, and therefore the
more severe the turbulence.
Multi-threshold Displays
6. An extension of the Iso-echo Contour system is to have a number of threshold levels in order to generate a series of
precipitation rate bands. It is necessary to have a colour CRT to display these gradations, with a different colour used for each
precipitation rate band. Conventionally, the colours range from black, indicating no or very light precipitation, through green
and yellow to red, which corresponds approximately to the traditional Iso-echo Contour threshold. Increasingly, new systems
add another colour, magenta, to indicate areas of most intense precipitation. One such display is shown in Fig 4.
Sensitivity Time Control

7. As well as the nature of the cloud target, the strength of the returning radar signal is dependent on the range of the cloud. In
order to eliminate this variable, sensitivity time control (STC), or swept gain, techniques are used in which the receiver gain is
lowered at the instant each pulse is fired, and then progressively increased according to a predetermined law. This ensures that
echoes from distant ranges are amplified more than those from close range.
8. At long ranges a cloud is likely to fill the radar beamwidth only partially and the echo signal will vary inversely as the
fourth power of range whereas at lesser ranges, where the beamwidth is completely filled, the reflected signal varies inversely as
the square of the range. There is, therefore, no universal law for all ranges to which STC can be made to conform and any
installation will have a display that is compensated only over a limited, fairly short, range (eg 25 nm).
4-3-1-5 Fig 4 Weather Radar Colour Display

Display Interpretation
9. Radar is only reflected by cloud if there are water droplets above a certain size, or hail, but rapidly building storms will
typically contain ice in their upper levels which reflects very little radar energy. When cruising at high altitude it is therefore
important to use the tilt control to scan downwards or to use the ‘profile’ capability of some radars to intercept the lower portion
of the storm containing the water droplets. A ‘profile’ scan is shown in Fig 5.
4-3-1-5 Fig 5 ‘Profile’ Scan
10. Having detected a cloud which is likely to be turbulent a course of action must be determined. The best option would be to
avoid the cloud altogether, however this may not be possible in practice, and consideration must be given as to the best part of
the cloud to penetrate. Fig 6 shows a typical Iso-echo display cloud return diagrammatically. There are two areas, marked W,
where the amplitude of the received signal has exceeded the threshold level, and these, therefore, show as ‘black holes'.
Although these areas can be assumed to be areas of high precipitation and therefore of turbulence, greater consideration should
probably be given to areas where the precipitation gradient is highest. This is indicated by the width of the ‘paint’. The upper

part of Fig 6 illustrates the returning signal strength and it will be seen that the gradient is higher to the left than to the right. On
the display this variation is shown by the narrower band at A than at B. By implication, the particularly narrow band at Y can be
considered to be the area of greatest turbulence.
4-3-1-5 Fig 6 Diagram of Typical Cloud Return Indicating Zones of Differing Turbulence
11. Area Y should, therefore, be the first priority for avoidance. The two areas labelled W represent returns above the Iso-echo
threshold level and are therefore areas of high precipitation and turbulence, and although area X between these ‘holes’ is of a
lower level, the degree to which the amplitude has dipped below that of W is not apparent from the display; it may easily be
very nearly as turbulent. The best area for penetration is likely to be B where the paint is wide (wider than A), and the amplitude
continues to fall to below the video threshold level on the right.
Determining Cloud Vertical Extent

12. The vertical extent of cloud is most simply determined on screen if the equipment has a profile scanning capability (Fig 5).
On azimuth only systems it is possible to make an approximate estimation of the vertical extent of a cloud by tilting the aerial
both above and below the horizontal until the echo just disappears as shown in Fig 7. The solution to the trigonometrical
equation involving the tilt angles and range is normally solved using a table or a graph, such as that shown in Fig 8.
4-3-1-5 Fig 7 Cloud Height Measurement
4-3-1-5 Fig 8 Cloud Height Measurement Graph

Airborne Radar
Chapter 6 - Air Intercept Radar
Introduction
1. The principle purposes of an airborne intercept (AI) radar are to detect and identify, low, medium, and high flying targets -
including those below the horizon - to enable the timely use of appropriate tactics and weapons. It should be capable of
tracking, measuring the flight parameters, and predicting the flight path of multiple targets simultaneously, so as to provide the
crew with an overall air picture.
2. The radar will also be required to provide the necessary cueing and guidance signals for air launched weapons such as radar
guided missiles. At closer range, the radar should provide accurate steering and range information so that a visual identification
of a target can be accomplished. In close combat the radar may be required to provide range and angle rate data for gun aiming,
and range cueing for infra-red homing missiles. Radar angle data may also be used to slave IR missile heads onto a target to
facilitate IR lock before missile launch.
3. Such diverse requirements cannot be met with one type of radar transmission, and modern AI radars are able to operate in a
number of modes, the most appropriate being selected for any particular situation. The capabilities of these various modes can
only be realized with the aid of an airborne computer capable of processing the signals and of providing the necessary inputs to a
synthetic display.
Operating Modes

4. Whereas a non-coherent pulse radar can readily be used to determine the range of a target it cannot determine velocity, and
furthermore it is not suitable for detecting airborne targets against a terrestrial background, since the target echo would be
indistinguishable from the ground returns. Conversely, a pure CW radar cannot be used to determine range but can be used to
determine the radial velocity of a target by measuring the Doppler shift in the radar echo. Since only the Doppler shift (ie not
the absolute frequency) of the returning signal is measured, a simple CW radar cannot discriminate between multiple targets
which occur in the beam at the same time. Another disadvantage of pure CW is that it requires separate transmitting and
receiving aerials. Thus, although pure CW on its own is not a suitable transmission type for an AI radar, an AI radar will usually
have a CW mode which is used to illuminate a target for missile guidance. In this mode the aircraft radar only transmits, the
receiver being in the missile seeker head.
5. Clearly some combination of the characteristics of both pulse and CW is desirable and this is achieved in a type of
transmission known as pulsed Doppler (PD) or interrupted continuous wave (ICW). In this transmission type the pulses are
coherent with respect to each other, ie they have a constant phase relationship. The coherency allows a Doppler shift and
consequently velocity to be measured; the pulse characteristic means that range can be determined, although in practice not as
simply as in a simple pulse radar.
Clutter
6. One of the desirable features of an AI radar is the ability to detect targets against a terrestrial background, and this ability is
conferred by the CW element of the transmission. However, in addition to the Doppler shift in the received echo generated by
the target, there will also be a spectrum of frequencies returned from the ground as a result of the carrier’s speed. In addition to
the main beam, all radars produce a number of side lobes which, since they intercept the terrain at a variety of angles, will detect
varying Doppler shifts (Fig 1a). The side lobes reaching the ground immediately underneath the aircraft generate clutter
(altitude returns) centred on the transmission frequency (since the range rate is essentially zero) but with some frequency spread
due to terrain variation and aircraft climb and descent. The Doppler frequency sensed by the main beam will vary with radar
angle, terrain profile, and of course with the carrier aircraft’s velocity. The result, in the case of a simple CW transmission, is to
produce a clutter spectrum similar to that shown in Fig 1b. In some systems the peaks due to altitude and Main Lobe Clutter
(MLC) can be removed using filters, to leave a band of clutter of fairly level amplitude extending either side of the central
frequency by an amount equivalent to groundspeed Doppler shift. In the ‘look-up’ situation MLC is eliminated but Side Lobe
Clutter (SLC) is still present.
4-3-1-6 Fig 1 Generation of Clutter in a CW Radar

4-3-1-6 Fig 2 Effect of Intercept Geometry on Target/Clutter Interference
7. In order to detect a target readily, its Doppler shift must lie outside of the clutter region. Whether this will be the case
depends on the target’s radial velocity which, in addition to its actual speed, is a function of the intercept geometry. In the
head-on case (Fig 2a) the radial velocity will be the sum of the target’s and the carrier’s speeds, and the Doppler shift will
always be outside the clutter region. In the beam and stern chase cases however (Fig 2b and 2c), the radial velocity is likely to
be low giving a Doppler shift inside the clutter region, thereby making detection more difficult.
8. The clutter problem is complicated once a pulsed transmission is considered since the transmission comprises several
spectral lines which can be determined by Fourier Analysis to be multiples of the Pulse Repetition Frequency (PRF), as shown in
Fig 3a. The clutter spectrum is superimposed on each of these spectral lines (Fig 3b) and this is significant when choosing the

PRF, since the higher the chosen PRF, the wider will be the clutter free regions.
Eclipsing and Blind Ranges

9. Since a common aerial is used for transmission and reception, the receiver is only able to accept returning echoes for a
proportion of the time. As a consequence, many returning echoes will be partially cut off, an effect known as eclipsing; at
certain ranges the echoes will be completely cut off giving rise to blind ranges (see Fig 4).
10. The problem of blind ranges can be alleviated by jittering or staggering the PRF so that no particular range remains blind
permanently. The technique also helps to spread the eclipsing effect more uniformly over different target ranges. In very high
PRF systems the loss of received power caused by eclipsing can be compensated for in the signal processing by integrating
pulses.
Velocity and Range Ambiguities - The Influence of PRF

11. In any pulsed radar system it is essential, if ambiguities are to be avoided, for each echo to be associated with its own
transmitted pulse.
4-3-1-6 Fig 3 Clutter in an ICW Transmission
4-3-1-6 Fig 4 Eclipsing and Blind Ranges

12. Velocity Ambiguity. In the example of a received spectrum of an interrupted continuous wave radar at Fig 3b, the pulse
repetition frequency is sufficiently high to allow clutter free regions to exist, and if the target’s Doppler shifted frequency falls
into this clear region it is relatively easy to detect since it is competing only with noise. If, however, the pulse repetition
frequency is reduced, the spectral lines become closer together until, at some point, the clutter spectra overlap (see Fig 5). In
addition to the increased problem of detecting the wanted return against the clutter background, it is also impossible to determine
to which particular spectrum the return belongs and it is therefore not possible to measure velocity unambiguously. A
sufficiently high PRF must be used to prevent the maximum Doppler shift from appearing in the adjacent spectrum.
4-3-1-6 Fig 5 Reduction of PRF Leading to Overlap of Clutter Spectra and Frequency Ambiguity
13. Range Ambiguity. Although the problem of velocity ambiguity can be avoided by employing a sufficiently high PRF, this
approach will lead to an increased likelihood of range ambiguity. Radar range is determined by timing the radar echo with
respect to its transmitted pulse and, in order to avoid range ambiguities, the echo must be received before the next pulse is
transmitted. Using a high PRF reduces the time available for this to be possible, and therefore reduces the maximum range at
which the radar can be used without incurring ambiguities in range measurement.
14. If a target is in sidelobe clutter, as in Fig 6a, the likelihood of detection is low. The situation would not appear to improve
at a lower, medium PRF if the target remains in the SLC (see Fig 6b), but this allows time for the use of a number of range bins,
as illustrated in Fig 7.
4-3-1-6 Fig 6 High Medium Doppler Spectra

4-3-1-6 Fig 7 High/ Medium Pulse Spacing
These range bins act effectively as separate radar receivers, each dealing with a different range band, enabling the clutter to be
divided between them. It is useful to consider the derivation of SLC - in the high PRF mode it is generated from horizon to
horizon; in the medium PRF mode it is generated within annular rings as shown in Fig 8.
4-3-1-6 Fig 8 Sidelobe Clutter Regions in Medium PRF Mode

Medium PRF Radars

15. A medium PRF mode requires processing for each range bin and is therefore more complex than a high PRF mode. This
complexity is further increased by the need to resolve both velocity and range ambiguities. Moreover, there are no clutter free
regions such as those shown in Fig 3b, and so approaching targets are more difficult to detect than in the high PRF mode. The
ideal solution is to provide operator choice of high or medium PRF modes.
16. Many AI radars can use a medium PRF mode - typically in the range 10 - 30 kHz. Although a medium PRF system suffers
from both range and velocity ambiguities, neither is particularly severe and they can be resolved using the technique of multiple
PRFs.
17. Range Resolution. The principle involved in multiple PRF ranging is shown in Fig 9. The transmission is first made at
PRF 1 which generates a series of ambiguous range values. The PRF is then altered to PRF 2 and a further set of ambiguous
ranges obtained. A coincident range value from each PRF indicates the true range.
18. Velocity Resolution. Fig 10 shows a typical medium PRF radar frequency spectrum in the presence of ground clutter; the
PRF is selected so that the MLC is at the PRF line. The target return is repeated for every PRF line. The area for detection is
limited to the frequency range between the centre line and the first PRF line and detection filters are arranged to cover this space.
In modern systems the task of the array of filters will be carried out by the computer software.
4-3-1-6 Fig 9 Two-PRF Ranging Techniques

4-3-1-6 Fig 10 Medium PRF Frequency Spectrum with Ground Clutter - Location of Detection Filters
Ambiguity arises since a target detected by the filters may be due either to the centre line, or to one or more PRFs before the
centreline. Fig 11 shows the situation when two PRFs are used - 15 kHz in Fig 11a and 12 kHz in Fig 11b. The dots represent
the detection filters. Consider a target detected by the 7th filter using the 15 kHz PRF and by the 10th filter using the 12 kHz
PRF. The correct value for the Doppler shift is found by repeatedly adding the corresponding PRF increment to the filter
number until a matching value is found. In this example:
Filter Value + PRF + PRF +.........

7 + 15 + = 22
10 + 12 + = 22
ie, the correct Doppler shift is 22 kHz.
4-3-1-6 Fig 11 Two-PRF Velocity Resolution

4-3-1-6 Fig 12 Principle of FM Ranging
19. In practice three PRFs are normally used for velocity resolution in order to cater for positive and negative relative
velocities, and a further two PRFs for range resolution. Both the ranging and velocity PRFs must be transmitted during the
period of target illumination.
High PRF Radar - FM Ranging

20. Whereas a medium PRF radar is usually considered the better option in an agile close combat situation, a high PRF radar is
generally a better choice when the task is to detect and engage fast, low-flying aircraft at maximum missile range. By using a
high PRF, at least twice that of the highest Doppler frequency shift expected, velocity ambiguity can be avoided, but the system
would suffer from multiple ambiguities in range. Unfortunately, the technique of using multiple PRFs to resolve the ambiguities
is impractical at PRFs above about 20 kHz as it is difficult to provide a sufficient number of range bins and high PRF radars
typically employ PRFs in excess of 200 kHz. An alternative ranging technique is therefore necessary and the method employed
is that of frequency modulation (FM). Since the transmission type is interrupted continuous wave (ICW), this mode of operation
is often known as FMICW.

21. The principle is illustrated in Fig 12 which shows that the transmission frequency is first ramped up, and then down,
followed by a period of zero modulation. At any instant, the difference between the transmitted and received frequency is due to
a combination of range delay and Doppler shift. During the up ramp the difference between the transmitted and received
frequencies (∆f) is the Doppler shift, fd, minus the change due to the range delay, fr; during the down ramp, ∆f = fd + fr. During
the zero modulation phase the difference is solely due to the Doppler shift. Thus three frequencies are generated, the Doppler
shift and two frequencies equally spaced either side of the Doppler frequency and separated from it by an amount which is a
function of the target’s range (Fig 13). These frequencies are detected in the computer software using fast Fourier transform
(FFT) techniques, and the target’s range and velocity is computed. A target is only recognized if all three frequencies are
present.
4-3-1-6 Fig 13 FM Ranging Frequency Triplet
22. Ghosting. When more than one target is present there is a possibility of false targets, known as ghosts, being generated as
the software searches for the pattern of three equally spaced frequencies. Consider the situation in Fig 14 where there are two
real targets, X and Y, each generating a frequency triplet. The computer will recognize a further target composed of the centre
and lower frequency of X, together with the upper frequency of Y. The more real targets there are, the greater is the potential for
ghosts.
4-3-1-6 Fig 14 Generation of Ghost Target Triplet
Low PRF Mode

23. Some radars have the option of using a low PRF mode which is sometimes known as Pulse mode since, although the
transmission is still ICW, the severity of velocity ambiguity is such that Doppler detection is impractical, and the radar acts in a
similar manner to a simple non-coherent pulse radar. The low PRF mode would typically be used in a stern attack situation
where it has the advantages of providing a relatively tenacious lock-on and accurate unambiguous ranging down to close range;
it is usually the most appropriate mode for the visual identification task and for close range gun attacks.
Scanning and Tracking

24. The aerial of an AI radar may be scanned either mechanically or electronically, and the degree of scan, together with the
scan pattern, is normally variable and under the control of the crew - some typical scan patterns are shown in Fig 15. In some
systems the PRF is switched between high and medium on alternate bars, the pattern reversing with each scanning frame (Fig
15e). This gives the ability to detect both nose (high PRF) and tail (medium PRF) targets at nearly maximum ranges within a
single scan. However, since the scan frame time is divided between the two modes, neither mode provides its maximum
potential detection performance.
25. Tracking techniques are outlined in Vol 9, Pt 2, Sect 2, Chap 8; monopulse tracking is usually employed for angle tracking
in AI radars. Range and velocity tracking is accomplished using gating techniques, although the problem is complicated in the
FMICW mode by the necessity to have three gates to track the triplet of frequencies.
4-3-1-6 Fig 15 Typical AI Radar Scan Patterns
26. Track-While-Scan (TWS). Track-while-scan (TWS) is a facility generally available in AI radar systems, the capability
being determined more by the computing power available than by the radar parameters. A detected target is analysed to
determine its velocity and on this basis the computer predicts its position for the time of the next radar scan. If the target is
detected within a small search area around the predicted position a track is established. If the target is not detected the search
area is enlarged for the next scan until the target is either detected or declared lost. The computer will smooth the calculated
track over a number of detected positions. Since a TWS system can track a number of targets simultaneously it can provide the
crew with a good overall ‘air picture’.
Displays
27. AI radars will usually provide the operators with a selection of head-up and head-down display formats.
28. Head-up displays for pilot use may show, in addition to some basic flight parameters (eg TAS, heading, altitude), the
relative position of targets, an aiming mark, and maximum and minimum engagement ranges.
29. The head-down display may be a plot of either range or velocity against azimuth. A typical range/azimuth TWS display is
illustrated in Fig 16 and shows friendly (numeric labels) and hostile (alphabetic labels) targets with their predicted tracks. The
relative elevation of a target is shown by means of the target label against a vertical scale on the right hand side of the
display.
4-3-1-6 Fig 16 Typical Azimuth/Range Display Format

4-3-1-6 Fig 1a Radar Transmission Main and Side Lobes
4-3-1-6 Fig 1b Received Frequency of a CW Radar

4-3-1-6 Fig 2a Head-on Case
4-3-1-6 Fig 2b Beam Case

4-3-1-6 Fig 2c Stern Chase Case

4-3-1-6 Fig 3a Frequency Spectrum of ICW Transmission
4-3-1-6 Fig 3b ICW Received Signal - Clutter Superimposed Over Each PRF Line

4-3-1-6 Fig 6a High PRF
4-3-1-6 Fig 6b Medium PRF
4-3-1-6 Fig 11a
4-3-1-6 Fig 11b
4-3-1-6 Fig 15a Single Bar Scan

4-3-1-6 Fig 15b Two Bar Scan
4-3-1-6 Fig 15c Four Bar Scan
4-3-1-6 Fig 15d Eight Bar Scan
4-3-1-6 Fig 15e Four Bar Scan with Interleaved PRF

Airborne Radar
Chapter 7 - Maritime Radar
Introduction
1. The principal task of a maritime radar is to search an expanse of ocean for maritime targets which may range in size from a
submarine periscope to an aircraft carrier. Ideally the system should allow friendly and hostile targets to be distinguished, and
may have the capability to identify surface vessels broadly. The radar performance should be such that the aircraft can remain
outside the engagement envelope of any hostile vessel’s weapon systems.
2. Having located a target, the system should be capable of tracking it and, if necessary, of prosecuting an attack either directly
or by relaying target information to other units. In anti-submarine operations the radar transmissions may be employed to deter
an enemy from surfacing, thus frustrating attempts at using its periscope for target identification, raising communication masts,
recharging batteries, or firing surface launched missiles.
3. In addition to its primary role, a maritime radar will typically be able to operate in weather avoidance and ground mapping
(navigation) modes, and will usually have IFF interrogation facilities.
Radar Type and Parameters

4. Maritime radars are invariably pulsed radars and, in common with the majority of airborne radars, usually operate in I, or
occasionally J, band (for definition see Vol 9, Pt 2, Sect 2, Chap 1). Although using higher frequencies would permit smaller
aerials or better resolution, in the maritime environment there would be an unacceptable increase in clutter returns from water
droplets in the atmosphere, such as from blown spray.
5. In order to achieve an acceptable level of resolution, while still being able to operate at long range when necessary, the
technique of pulse compression using linear frequency modulation is often used. Pulse compression techniques are explained in
Vol 9, Pt 2, Sect 2, Chap 4, while the surface acoustic wave (SAW) technology employed in many maritime radars to achieve
pulse compression is outlined in Vol 9, Pt 2, Sect 1, Chap 9.
6. Pulse compression techniques using linear frequency modulation make the radar resilient to broadband noise jamming since
the receiver tends to ignore any signals which are not appropriately coded. In addition, most radars use frequency agility as a
further EPM measure.
7. The maritime radar environment can be very noisy and cluttered since, in addition to internal and external noise, clutter
returns may be produced, for example, from sea movement, waves, flocks of birds, and porpoises. Such returns can easily mask
the desired returns from small targets such as periscopes and masts and thus, although much of the external noise is filtered out
in the pulse compression process, only rarely are unprocessed radar returns displayed. Instead, the majority of systems employ
one or more filtering or integrating techniques to ‘clean-up’ the radar picture (see Vol 9, Pt 2, Sect 2, Chap 5).
8. In constant false alarm rate (CFAR) receivers a voltage threshold level is set, and returns are only processed as targets if
their signal strength exceeds this level. The threshold level is constantly adjusted in line with a running average value of the
received signal.
9. Integration may be applied on a pulse-to-pulse or on a scan-to-scan basis. The technique relies on the premise that whereas
a target return will be fairly constant in position and strength, clutter returns tend to be more transient. It is therefore possible to
set a threshold level so that, for example, a return is only processed as a target if it persists for, say, six pulses out of ten on a

single scan pass, and on a minimum number of successive scans. Unfortunately, small targets such as submarine masts and
periscopes may often fail to clear these threshold levels since they will often be physically masked in a rough sea.
Scanning
10. The scan pattern of a maritime radar may be either a forward hemisphere sector scan, or a 360° scan. However, in the latter
case only rarely is a full 360° achieved since in virtually all installations there will be some screening by the aircraft fuselage or
components. In addition where a 360° scan is available it is normally possible to restrict transmissions to certain sectors, either
to increase the data rate from an area of interest, or to deny an enemy any EW information from the transmissions. The radar
scanner will usually be stabilized in the horizontal and vertical planes to compensate for aircraft manoeuvre and in some systems
the scanner tilt may be controlled automatically to restrict transmissions in accordance with the selected range scale.
Target Tracking
11. One of the facilities of a maritime radar is the ability to track a number of targets automatically. In a typical system the
radar computer divides the search area into a matrix of cells, into which targets are allocated. Once a target has been identified
by the operator a computer file is opened, and as the target moves from one cell to another the track and speed are calculated and
the file updated. Problems can occur with rapidly manoeuvring targets and with large targets where the radar return occupies
more than one cell. In these cases it may be preferable for the operator to allocate a manually assessed track and speed to the
target. The efficiency of an auto-tracking system is highly dependent on the suppression of unwanted returns since these can
cause the computer to overload as it attempts to associate false targets with established tracks or to generate new, but false,
tracks.
Displays
12. Maritime radars usually employ 360° or sector PPI displays in their normal operating mode and in the case of a 360°
display it may be heading or north orientated. In addition to the PPI display, some systems will have high resolution displays
using an A- or B-scope which enable selected targets to be investigated more thoroughly by scanning through a narrow angle. It
may be possible to achieve some degree of target identification using these displays but this is largely dependent on operator
skill and experience.
Airborne Radar
Chapter 8 - IFF/SSR
Introduction
1. The military system, Identification, Friend or Foe (IFF), and the equivalent civilian system, Secondary Surveillance Radar
(SSR), are examples of secondary radar systems. Whereas a primary radar system depends on receiving a radar echo reflected
passively by a target, in a secondary radar system a transmitted radar signal is used to trigger a response from equipment in the
target.
2. IFF/SSR is used by air defence (AD) and air traffic control ground installations, and increasingly by AD aircraft, to identify
radar returns. The systems are normally operated in conjunction with a primary radar, the two aerials being either co-mounted,
or arranged to scan synchronously. The arrangement of a typical system is shown schematically in Fig 1. The ground (or AD
aircraft) transmitter, known as the interrogator, transmits a coded interrogation signal which is received and decoded by
transponders in friendly aircraft. Depending on the mode to which the transponder is set, a coded reply signal is transmitted
back to the interrogator. This reply signal is decoded and shown on the radar display along with the primary radar response.
3. Although IFF and SSR have a number of differences, the operating principle of each is basically the same and RAF aircraft
are fitted with transponders which can operate with both systems.
4-3-1-8 Fig 1 Secondary Identification and Primary Radar Systems

4. Operating Modes. Military IFF has three operating modes, 1, 2, and 3. Civilian SSR has potentially five modes, A, B, C, D,
and S, although Mode D is not currently used, and Mode S is not yet widely operational. IFF Mode 3 and SSR Mode A are
identical and normally referred to as Mode 3/A.
Interrogation Signal
5. The basic interrogation signal is transmitted at a frequency of 1030 MHz and consists of a pair of pulses, each pulse having
a width of 0.85 µs. The separation of the pulses determines the mode of interrogation as shown in Table 1.
Table 1 - Interrogation Signal Formats
Mode Pulse Pair Spacing (µs)
1 3
2 5
3/A 8
B 17
C 21
D 25
S Multiple Pulses
Normal Replies
6. If the transponder has been set to LOW or NORM, it will reply to an interrogation signal provided that the appropriate mode
has been selected.
7. A normal reply is transmitted on a frequency of 1090 MHz and consists of a pair of pulses (known as the framing pulses)
separated by 20.3 µs, with up to twelve information pulses in between. The framing pulses are referred to as F1 and F2, while
the twelve information pulses are in four groups of three designated A, B, C and D. Within a group, the pulses are annotated 1,
2, and 4, (A1, A2, A4; B1, B2, B4 etc), each pulse representing one digit of a three digit binary number. In this way the
presence or absence of pulses allows each group to represent a decimal number from 0 to 7. For example in group A:
A4 A2 A1
0 0 0 = No A pulse = 0
0 0 1 = A1 pulse only = 1

0 1 1 = A2 + A1 = 3
1 0 1 = A4 + A1 = 5
1 1 0 = A4 + A2 = 6
1 1 1 = A4 + A2 + A1 = 7
It is thus possible to transmit 4096 codes, the code being set on the controller. For example to transmit a code of 4167 the
transmitted pulses would be:
A4 B1 C2 + C4 D1 + D2 +
D4
4 1 6 7
The transmitted code is displayed on a digital indicator alongside the PPI radar display.
8. There are a total of seven normal reply modes:
a. Military Mode 1. Military Mode 1 replies comprise the framing pulses and the information pulses reflecting the Mode 1
code set on the cockpit control panel.
b. Military Mode 2. Military Mode 2 has the same form as Mode 1, however the code is not selectable in flight, but is
preset on the transponder unit.
c. Common Mode 3/A. Mode 3/A has the same form as Mode 1, but the controller has a separate set of code selection
switches so that replies can be made to Mode 1 and Mode 3/A simultaneously. Mode 3/A is the mode normally used by
ATC agencies to establish and maintain the identity of an aircraft, to assist in the transfer of control between agencies, and
to supplement primary radar information
d. Civil Mode B. Mode B is the same as Mode 3/A but can only be used as an alternative to the latter.
e Civil Mode C. Mode C is used for the automatic reporting of altitude. The transponder, in association with an encoding
altimeter, replies with a code train indicating the aircraft’s height relative to a 1013.25 mb pressure datum. The code uses
11 of the 12 information pulses and a change occurs every 100 ft. Mode C is used by air traffic controllers to confirm that
aircraft are maintaining, vacating, reaching, or passing assigned flight levels, and to monitor the vertical separation between
transponding aircraft, without recourse to ground/air communication.
f. Civil Mode D. Mode D is not currently used.
g. Civil Mode S. Mode S is designed to provide a warning of a possible collision with another similarly equipped aircraft,
together with avoidance directions - it is not yet in general use in the United Kingdom.
Identification Replies
9. Identification replies are initiated by a switch on the control panel and consist of the normal code followed by a pulse or
pulses which are transmitted for 20 seconds after operation of the switch. The switch is spring loaded to the off position and is
normally marked I/P or IDENT. Transmission of the signal allows the ground controller to identify rapidly a particular aircraft
among the many which may appear on the display operating in the same mode.
10. Military Ident Reply. This reply is given only on military Mode 1 when the I/P switch is operated. It consists of the
selected information pulse train followed by a second identical pulse train with the second F1 pulse 4.35 µs after the first F2
pulse.
11. Civil Ident Reply. Civil identification replies are given on military Mode 2, common Mode 3/A, and civil Modes B and D
when the identification facility is selected. It consists of a normal information code train followed by a further pulse, known as
the SP1 pulse, 4.35 µs after the F2 pulse.
Emergency and Special Purpose Replies

12. Operation of the emergency facility allows an emergency reply to be transmitted on military Modes 1 and 2, common Mode
3/A, and civil Mode B. This reply consists of a coded information pulse train followed by three repeats containing the framing

pulses only, with no information pulses. On common Mode 3/A or civil Mode B the information pulses contained in the first
frame depends on the position of a civil/military emergency switch. With the switch set to CIV, the first frame consists of an
automatic transmission of code 7700. With the switch to MIL, the first frame consists of the code which is already selected. In
reply to military Modes 1 and 2, the first frame consists of the selected information pulse code. No emergency reply is
transmitted on civil Mode C. Selection of the emergency facility overrides identification replies. Additionally, Code 3/A 7500
(hijack) and 7600 (communications failure) are internationally recognized. The special purpose code 4100 is allocated to Long
Range Maritime Patrol aircraft and those conducting fishery protection operations. This code is used only within the UK FIRs.
R/T Phraseology
13. The standard R/T phraseology used in connection with IFF/SSR is shown in Table 2.
Table 2 - Standard ATC IFF/SSR Phraseology
Phrase Meaning
Squawk Operate transponder, or check its operating condition (with
IFF set master control to ‘Normal’).
Squawk Alpha Select the Mode and Code as applicable
Code
Squawk Three (ie Mode A for SSR equipped aircraft and Mode 3 for (IFF
Code equipped aircraft).
Squawk Ident Use Ident or I/P facility, retaining present code.
Squawk Mayday Select ‘Emergency’.
Squawk Standby Switch to ‘Standby’, retaining present Mode.
Squawk Altimeter Switch on altitude reporting facility (Mode C).
Stop Altimeter Switch off altitude reporting facility (Mode C).
Squawk
Stop Squawk Three Switch off Mode 3 (used with military aircraft only).
Stop Squawk Switch off transponder.
SYSTEM REFINEMENTS
Three Pulse Side Lobe Suppression

14. In secondary radar, side lobes are effective at greater ranges than in primary radar since transponder transmissions are
detected rather than target echos. It is thus necessary to suppress any interrogator side lobes which would be capable of
triggering responses and the 3-pulse side lobe suppression system has been adopted as the international standard technique.
15. Each interrogation consists of a group of three pulses denoted P1, P2, and P3. The spacing of the pulses is shown in Fig 2;
P2, known as the control pulse, is spaced at a constant 2 µs interrogation pulses, is according to the mode as listed in Table 1.
4-3-1-8 Fig 2 3-Pulse Side Lobe Suppression - Pulse Spacing

16. The interrogation pulses P1 and P3 are transmitted from a rotating interrogator aerial, and the interrogation pulse P2 is
transmitted from the control aerial, producing radiation patterns as shown in Fig 3. The interrogator aerial produces a high
power, narrow beam with lower power side lobes. The control aerial radiates an omnidirectional signal which is modified to
produce a radiation pattern trough in the direction of interrogation.
17. By comparing the relative amplitudes of the control and interrogator pulses, the transponder determines whether the
interrogation is a correct, main lobe one, or due to a side lobe. P1 and P3 amplitudes are greater than a P2 amplitude only for a
correct main lobe interrogation and the transponder will then reply; if P2 is greater than P1 and P3 the transponder is suppressed.
The discrimination levels are indicated on Fig 2 which shows that there is a ‘grey area’ where the transponder may or may not
reply.
4-3-1-8 Fig 3 3-Pulse Side Lobe Suppression - Aerial Polar Diagrams

Defruiting
18. Since all IFF/SSR equipments work on the same transmit and receive frequencies, any interrogator can trigger any
transponder which is within range and selected to the appropriate mode. Thus any ground station can receive replies from
transponders interrogated by other nearby ground stations. These unwanted replies appear as interference or ‘fruit’. Defruiting
is the process whereby this interference is removed. Adjacent interrogators are operated at different pulse recurrence frequencies
(PRF) and comparator circuits only pass replies at the correct home station PRF.
Garbling
19. Because the length of a transponder code train is about 20 µs it is not always possible to decipher replies from aircraft
closer than 2-3 miles of each other on a radial from the interrogator. The reply signals may garble and the decoder equipment
can cause the generation of false targets between the aircraft or cause cancellation of all or part of either or both actual returns.
False targets or cancellation may occur even though altitude separation between aircraft exists. Circuits in the decoder
equipment are used to cancel garbled replies, and controllers will often ensure that only one aircraft within a formation has a
transponder operating.
Mode Interlacing
20. In order to use the different modes for various functions, it is necessary for them to be transmitted separately from each
other and on a sequential basis. The mixing of the mode transmissions is known as mode interlacing. Each mode is selected at
its PRF rate, and each mode sequence is selected at aerial rotation rate. Generally speaking, the use of more than three-mode
interlace is not satisfactory operationally, since the number of hits per scan for each mode transmitted falls to a non-effective
level, however, the interlacing of four or five modes can be achieved if necessary.
Airborne Radar
Chapter 9 - Radar Altimeters

Introduction
1. Barometric altimeters provide a standard datum for the safe vertical navigation and separation of aircraft; their limitations
and errors are considered in Vol 3, Pt 1, Sect 1. However, the nature of certain air operations - such as low level flying over the
desert or sea - determines the need for an indication of actual surface clearance and proximity warning, and additionally, many
on-board computing system require an accurate input of the instantaneous vertical distance of an aircraft from the earth's surface.
These include systems for:
a. Terrain following.
b. Weapon aiming.
c. Navigation.
d. Helicopter automatic transitions to and from the hover.
2. Pulsed radar altimeters are range finding radar devices mounted to point downwards and measure the distance to the ground
directly below the aircraft. Early systems had limited value because minimum range, determined by pulse width, was too great
for very low level use. However, developed, modern systems can now be used down to zero feet with an accuracy of ±1.5ft.
Pulse Radar Altimeter

3. Radar altimeters use conventional pulse radar techniques. The time taken for a short pulse to travel to the ground and back
is measured and displayed on an indicator. The display time base is synchronized with the transmitter pulse. From the block
diagram, at Fig 1 it can be seen that the main difference from a ‘conventional’ range finding system is that two aerials are used,
one for transmission and one for reception. Due to the very small ranges that have to be measured, very narrow short duration
pulses are transmitted at a typical frequency of 4.3 Ghz.
4-3-1-9 Fig 1 Block Diagram of a Typical Radar Altimeter Installation
4. Indicator. A typical height indicator is a remote position control (RPC) servo, fed with the height voltage from the range
computer. A manual index bug sets contacts which are operated by a cam on the pointer shaft. When the pointer indicates a
height less than that set by the index, a low level warning lamp lights, and the contacts can also operate an audio warning tone.
A yellow striped electromagnetic flag indicates power off or failure , or signal unlocked condition but is removed or shows black
when the instrument is functioning correctly. Some instruments have a NO TRACK flag to show when they are unlocked or
heights are unreliable. Two types of indicator are available, 0 to 5,000 feet or 0 to 1,000 feet depending on role.

5. Aerials. The aerials are usually identical, suppressed, and mounted flush with the aircraft skin. They are so positioned that
the receiving aerial cannot acquire signals directly from the transmitting aerial, which would result in a permanent zero
indication.
6. Power Supply. Depending upon system type, power is switched either from a remote RAD ALT ON/OFF switch or by an
OFF/SET/PUSH-TO-TEST switch on the face of the instrument. In all cases a short period of warming up is required before the
system will record heights.
7. Radar Altimeters have three principal components.
a. Transmitter Chain. The transmitter (TX) chain produces pulses of RF energy. A low power time zero (To) pulse is also
produced to trigger the range computer at the exact instant the transmitter fires.
b. Receiver Chain. The receiver chain (RX) amplifies the returned echo and passes the video pulse to the range computer.
c. Range Computer. The range computer measures the time interval between the To pulse and the video pulse and
produces a DC voltage proportional to the time interval. The track line is energized when the circuits “lock-on” to and track
a received signal, removing the POWER-OFF/NO TRACK flag from view.
8. The range computer has three states of operation:
a. Search. This is the state of operation if signals are not present or are too weak. The computer searches over the range of
voltages from a minimum, equivalent to 0 feet, to a maximum, equivalent to 1,000 or 5,000 feet (depending upon type), 4
times per second. The indicator shows the NO TRACK or yellow striped POWER OFF flag.
b. Lock/Follow.
(1) When a returning signal is detected and tracked for a pre-determined period the system “locks-on”, producing an
output voltage proportional to the height.
(2) This internal voltage is fed to the indicator which causes the pointer to move to the correct height. The track line is
energized and pulls the POWER-OFF/NO TRACK flag out of view.
(3) The tracking circuits can maintain lock with vertical range changes of up to 2,000 ft/sec.
c. Memory.
(1) If the signal is lost, the circuitry is prevented from reverting to search for approximately 0.2 seconds. If signals are
detected during this time, the indicator is unaffected.
(2) If signals are not detected, the range computer goes into its search condition, but the indicator display is held steady
for a further 1.0 seconds.
(3) If lock is not obtained within this period, the track line will be de-energized and the indicator will show the NO
TRACK or POWER OFF flag.
Self Test
9. The aircrew, or the maintenance crew, can check the operation of the equipment, with the exception of the aerials and their
cables, by means of the PUSH-TO-TEST (PTT) button. Detailed instructions for testing the equipment are contained in the
relevant Aircrew Manuals.
Electro-optical Systems
Chapter 1 - Television, Low-light Television and Night Vision Goggles
Page 187 : Wed Jan 02 02:31:57 2002 Electro-optical Systems 4- 3- 2- 1

TELEVISION
Introduction
1. Television has a number of applications in avionic systems, probably the most familiar being reconnaissance and missile
guidance. Although airborne television is different from its commercial and domestic counterparts in terms of size and
ruggedness, the principles of operation are identical.
Television Principles
2. A television camera receives light energy from a scene and converts it into photo-electric energy. This may be
accomplished either by scanning the scene with a camera tube which converts incident light into voltages proportional to the
changing light intensity, or by the use of staring arrays in which a detector is used for each point of the picture (pixel). The
varying voltage from scanning, or the output from the staring array, can be amplified and transmitted by wire or fibre optic
cable, or it can be modulated upon a radio frequency carrier wave and radiated to another area.
3. The display, or TV receiver, synthesizes the original scene by deflecting an electron beam spot across the fluorescent screen
of a CRT and varying its brightness in accordance with the received signals. The scanning process is carried out sufficiently
rapidly that an illusion of continuous, non-flickering, motion is achieved.
4. Two processes are used in television cameras to convert light energy into electrical energy:
a. Photo-emission. The photo-emission technique relies on the fact that light energies are sufficient to cause the ejection of
electrons from the surface of materials such as sodium, caesium, and potassium. The number of electrons emitted is directly
proportional to the incident light levels.
4-3-2-1 Fig 1 Simplified Construction of an Image Orthicon Tube
b. Photo-conduction. Photo-conduction is the process by which the conductivity of materials such as selenium, arsenic
trisulphide, and lead monoxide is increased by exposure to higher light levels. Electrons are not ejected, but are moved to a
higher energy level.
5. The photo-emission principle is used in the imaging orthicon type of camera, and the photo-conduction principle in the
vidicon camera. Non-scanning, solid state, charge-coupled device cameras use both principles.
The Imaging Orthicon

6. The elements of an imaging orthicon are contained in a cylindrical glass tube envelope which has an enlarged section at one
end (Fig 1). The device is closed at the enlarged end by an optically flat glass plate which has a continuous photo-sensitive
coating (photocathode) deposited on the inside.
7. The optical image is focused on the lens side of the glass plate, and photo-electrons are liberated from the inside in
proportion to the light intensity at any point. These electrons stream through the enlarged cylindrical portion of the tube and a
fine mesh screen until they encounter the target plate. At the target they induce a secondary emission of electrons from the
surface which are collected by the fine mesh screen that lies parallel and close to the target. The departure of the secondary

electrons leaves positive charges on the target with an intensity proportional to the light distribution of the original optical
image. The changes in electrical potential induced by the secondary emissions are transferred to the opposite face of the target
and as the streams of electrons from the photocathode continue to fall on the target, the intensity of electrical image continually
increases. As the target is very thin there is negligible leakage of the charge parallel to the target surface, which would otherwise
degrade the image detail.
8. The stored charge image on the reverse side of the target is scanned by an electron beam and the current in the returning
beam varies in amplitude according to the variations in the intensity of the successive portions of the image being scanned. An
electron multiplier produces an amplified reproduction of the current in the returning beam and the output is an analogue video
signal which can be displayed or stored.
The Vidicon
9. The elements of the vidicon camera are contained in a cylindrical glass envelope as shown in Fig 2. The signal plate, onto
which the optical image is focused, has a very thin layer of photo-conductive material deposited upon it. This material has high
electrical resistance in the dark but becomes progressively less resistant as the amount of light increases. Thus the optical image
induces a pattern of varying conductivity which matches the distribution of brightness in the image. The target is scanned by an
electron beam and the resulting video signal may be displayed or stored.
4-3-2-1 Fig 2 Simplified Construction of a Vidicon Tube
10. The scanning electron beam spot size imposes the only limitation on resolution and it is therefore possible to derive a high
2
quality image from a photosensitive area no larger than about 1.3 cm . . This permits the use of small and comparatively
inexpensive lenses, with a correspondingly large depth of field for any given aperture. In addition, the structure of the tube is
simple and small, and so cameras based on the vidicon principle are adaptable to a wide range of broadcasting, industrial, and
military applications (eg missile guidance).
Charge Coupled Device (CCD) Systems

11. Television tubes are susceptible to shock, overload, and stray magnetic fields. They impose size and weight penalties in
some applications, and they have a relatively short life expectancy. Solid state charge coupled devices which are more rugged
and reliable, have lower power requirements, and can be used to produce small, lightweight cameras with a long life.
12. A typical CCD sensor chip, about 8 × 10 mm in size, contains a matrix of many thousands of silicon photodiodes. Each of
these photodiodes effectively forms a capacitor which accumulates a charge proportional to the brightness of the light incident
upon it. Fig 3 illustrates schematically a simplified arrangement in which Cl, C2, C3, and C4 represent four such capacitors
which would form the first four pixels in one television line. The charge accumulated by each capacitor (eg Cl) appears as a
voltage at the output of the associated amplifier (eg Al). If all the switches, Sl to S3, were closed momentarily, the charge on Cl
would be passed into C2, C2’s charge would be transferred into C3, and so on all the way along the line. Thus by momentarily
closing all the switches synchronously, the charge representing the brightness level for each pixel can be made to proceed along
the line of capacitors, at a rate dependent on the switching frequency, and can be detected at the end of the line and read serially
as the pattern of the light level at each pixel. In practice the stored charge in each capacitor is relayed to a second set of
capacitors before being shifted, thus allowing the photodiodes to register the next pattern of illumination with no appreciable
blank period.

4-3-2-1 Fig 3 Simplified Schematic CCD Arrangement
LOW-LIGHT TELEVISION (LLTV)
Introduction
13. There is a requirement for military aircraft to operate both by day and by night, and a television system could provide a
solution to the visual acquisition problem of night operations. However the systems described so far are in general only capable
of producing a usable image down to the light levels associated with twilight. Variations of the vidicon and orthicon cameras
can operate at lower light levels, but it is normally necessary to attach an image intensifier system to the camera for it to be
usable down to the illumination level of starlight. Before describing the operation of these image intensifiers, the night
environment will be reviewed.
The Night Environment

14. Fig 4 illustrates the range of natural illumination. The human eye is at its maximum efficiency in daylight but can adjust to
operate in lower light levels, albeit with a reduction in capability. Colour perception is lost once the illumination level is down
−1 −5
to less than 10 foot-candles (fc); below this the eye’s resolving power is degraded rapidly such that at 10 fc the eye is only
capable of discerning large, high contrast objects, and then only after a prolonged period of dark adaptation. Clearly, unaided,
the eye is not suitable for night operations and hence the need for some form of imaging system.
4-3-2-1 Fig 4 The Range of Natural Illumination

15. A television camera forms an image of the scene being viewed by utilizing a small proportion of the radiant energy which is
incident upon the scene. The amount of energy which reaches the camera sensor depends mainly on the incident radiation level,
the reflectance of the subject, and the light collecting power of the optical system. Further, the video signal current obtained
from the sensor will be dependent upon the spectral energy distribution of the illuminant, and the spectral response and
sensitivity of the sensor.
16. Incident Radiation. The level of incident radiation will depend on many geographical and meteorological factors such as
the time of night, the latitude, the declination of the sun (season), the phase of the moon, and the degree of cloud cover.
−5
World-wide surveys indicate that minimum illumination levelsare practically constant everywhere at a value of about 1 × 10
−4
fc; values less than this are rare, and in temperate regions the light level is above 10 fc for 82% of the time. Under clear,
moonless conditions, the incident radiation has the following components:
a. 30% direct or scattered starlight.
b. 15% of zodiacal origin.
c. 5% of galactic origin.
d. 40% from air glow.
e. 10% scattered light from these various sources.
The air glow (or night sky luminescence) phenomenon contributes nearly half of the incident radiation and originates from the
ionization of rare gases in the upper atmosphere. Natural night sky spectral irradiance contains nearly 10 times as many incident
photons per unit wavelength at 0.8 µm as at 0.4 µm. In order to make use of this high energy content it is desirable that a sensor
has the highest sensitivity in the red and near infra-red parts of the spectrum.
17. Subject Reflectance. The apparent brightness of an object depends not only on the level of incident radiation, but also on
the manner in which the object reflects that illumination. If all objects reflected an equal amount of light, there would be no
contrast between a target and its background, and it would probably not be seen. The reflectance of an object (the ratio of
reflected to incident light) depends principally on the nature of the surface (eg its colour and texture), the wavelength and angle
of the illumination, and the viewing angle. Table 1 shows some typical values of reflectance.

Table 1 - Typical Reflectance Values

Snow 0.7 - 0.86
Clouds 0.5 - 0.75
Limestone 0.63
Dry Sand 0.24
Wet Sand 0.18
Bare Ground 0.03 - 0.2
Water 0.03 - 0.1
Forest 0.03 - 0.15
Grass 0.10 - 0.25
Rock 0.12 - 0.30
Concrete 0.15 - 0.35
Blacktop Roads 0.08 - 0.09
18. Contrast. Contrast is defined as:
Bmax ¡ Bmin
Bmax
where Bmax is the maximum luminance and Bmin is the minimum luminance in the scene and it is usually expressed as a
percentage. At the camera the contrast will often be reduced by the effect of the intervening medium, and in particular by haze,
fog, and rain, resulting in a reduction in the effective range of the system.
19. Optical System. The larger the diameter of the lens, the more capable it is of operating at low light levels. However, the
maximum size of the lens will often be constrained by the physical limits of the airframe, by considerations of the increase in
drag due to the flat plate effect, and by the need for the lens to resist the aerodynamic forces imposed by high speed flight.
Image Intensification
20. A basic image intensifier is an electronic device which reproduces an image on a fluorescent screen. Fig 5 shows a
schematic construction of such a device. The input and output plates are fibre optic plates which are made up of a complex of
minute glass tubes clad with another type of glass of lower refractive index, thus preventing cross-talk between adjacent fibres
(Fig 6). These tubes form light guides in which light entering at one end is trapped until it emerges at the other end. The shaped
fibre optic plates also transform the flat optical image into a curved image necessary for the electrostatic lens in the intensifier.
Electrostatic focusing elements ensure that electrons released from a particular spot on the photocathode are focused onto a
corresponding spot on the phosphor screen.
4-3-2-1 Fig 5 Construction of a Single Stage Image Intensifier

4-3-2-1 Fig 6 Construction of Fibre Optic Plate
4-3-2-1 Fig 7 Schematic Diagram of Modular-type Cascade Image Intensifier

21. The input plate is coated with a photocathode, and the output plate with a phosphor anode. When light falls on the
photocathode, electrons are released which are accelerated towards the phosphor by the 15 kV field across the device. The
increased energy acquired by the electrons is expended in exciting the phosphor such that the image formed can be 40 to 50
times brighter than the original.
22. An extension of the basic intensifier is to arrange 2 or 3 tubes together in series to form a cascade intensifier (Fig 7) which
can achieve gains of up to 50,000 times at 0.4 µm. A 3-stage cascade intensifier would be sufficient to make a simple vidicon
into a LLTV tube, and similar devices have been used as simple hand-held direct view image intensifiers. The multi-stage
systems have the disadvantages of lower picture quality, and increased size, weight, and cost.
23. If a LLTV system is used in a moving vehicle there is likely to be some angular vibration which will degrade its resolution.
To accommodate this problem an image intensifier has been designed in which the output image can be magnetically deflected
to counter the movement. The construction is shown in Fig 8. The front end is the same as a conventional image intensifier, but
the output end has a relatively long, field-free, section where the electron beams are moving essentially parallel to each other. A
transverse magnetic field in this area, controlled by position gyros, deflects the image as a whole to compensate precisely for the
angular movement of the system.
4-3-2-1 Fig 8 Motion Compensated Intensifier
4
24. Microchannel Plate (MCP) Intensifiers. Microchannel plate intensifiers are capable of gains of up to 10 . . A MCP is a
thin plate of special glass with a matrix of fine holes (channels) through it. The holes are from 10 to 12 µm in diameter and
about l mm in length. The inside of each channel is coated with an electron rich material and when a primary electron from the
photocathode strikes the channel wall secondary electrons are released. These in turn release more electrons as they move along
the channel (Fig 9) and the channel thus acts as a miniature photomultiplier tube. A potential gradient is provided along the wall

of the channel accelerating the electrons before they strike the phosphor. MCP image intensifiers have the advantage of greater
sensitivity, smaller size, and less weight than cascade devices.
4-3-2-1 Fig 9 Microchannel Plate - Principle of Operation
LLTV Limitations
25. The main limitations of LLTV are the limited field of view and blooming. The field of view is typically 30° × 40°, which is
barely adequate for the purpose of low level visual navigation for which a look-into-turn capability is needed. A narrower FOV
may be useful for reconnaissance purposes as this implies greater magnification and greater range. Blooming results from the
amplification of a bright light such as a flare, beacon, or search-light, in an otherwise low light scene. This problem can be
reduced by using filters which make light levels above a set threshold appear black.
NIGHT VISION GOGGLES (NVGs)
General
26. Night vision goggles are one means of solving the FOV problem associated with a fixed LLTV system. The image
intensifiers are mounted onto a helmet so that although the instantaneous FOV is smaller than that of a LLTV, the crew member
can look into the turn. NVGs are lightweight binocular devices and are sufficient for the rapid recognition of terrain obstacles at
light levels down to overcast starlight.
27. The prime disadvantages of NVGs are that their weight causes fatigue, they are a potential hazard in the event of ejection,
and they amplify all light entering them, including that from ordinary cockpit displays.
28. Image intensifiers are more sensitive to the red and near infra-red region of the spectrum in order to maximize the use of the
night sky spectral distribution, which contains 10 times as many photons in the red and near infra-red region as in the blue.
Unfortunately, cockpit displays contain light sources which are also rich in the red and near infra-red region, but at levels of
radiation significantly higher than those emanating from the night scene, and these sources can thus blind the goggles.
29. To overcome this problem, the spectral response of NVG intensifiers must be modified by filtration to allow the use of the
blue-green region of the visible spectrum for cockpit lights and displays, which themselves must be filtered to prevent any red or
near infra-red transmission from them.
Chapter 2 - Infra-red Systems

Introduction
1. Objects with a temperature above absolute zero (−273°C) will emit infra-red (IR) radiation, and in addition will reflect or
absorb incident IR to varying degrees. An IR sensing system can use these variations in emitted and reflected IR to form an
image in the same way that a sensor operating within the visible part of the spectrum uses variations in visual brightness to form
an image. IR imaging systems therefore rely on detecting differences in IR intensity rather than on measuring absolute values.
Such systems have the advantages of being independent of natural or artificial visual illumination, and are not easily deceived by
camouflage.
4-3-2-2 Fig 1 Relative Transmittance of IR Wavelengths in the Atmosphere (at Sea Level)
2. The basic physics of IR are covered in Volume 8, Part 2 Section 2, Chapter 3, where it is shown that the wavelength at
which maximum radiation occurs (λmax) is a function of the absolute temperature (T), and is governed by Wien’s Displacement
Law:
2900
¸max = ¹m
T
By substituting typical terrestrial temperatures (270 - 300°(K) into this equation it will be seen that the peak of radiation occurs
in the far infra-red range 9 - 11 µm.
3. Fig 1 shows the relative transmittance of IR wavelengths in the atmosphere at sea level. Terrestrial IR falls within a
transmission ‘window’ which covers wavelengths from about 8 - 13 µm. IR imaging systems have therefore to be designed to
operate in this band.
Atmospheric Attenuation
4. The transmission of IR energy through the atmosphere may be impeded due to scattering by suspended particles and
absorption by constituent gases. If the suspended particles are small, as in haze and battlefield smoke, an IR system will not be
affected, even in what appears as zero visibility to the naked eye. If the particles are larger as in cloud, fog, mist, and rain, IR
will be no better than the eye and the range of the system will be limited to the visual range. In addition, some energy in the 8 -
13 µm wavelengths is absorbed by gaseous water vapour.
Imagery Interpretation
5. Detecting and identifying IR images requires the same integration of size, shape, shadow, surroundings, and tone as is
employed in the interpretation of conventional, visual-light imagery.

6. When considering size and shape there are two aspects which must be considered. Firstly, the resolution of IR images is
lower than that of visual images and some detail may be lost. Secondly, the true size and shape of hot objects may be
exaggerated or disguised by blooming and halation effects.
7. Thermal shadows often mirror their visible counterparts and they are caused by areas being shaded from direct radiation. As
with visual shadows, they are liable to change with changes in the direction of illumination, and to dissipate when the
illumination lessens, eg after sunset or with cloud cover. The rate of dissipation however will vary with the physical
characteristics of the shaded area (thermal conductivity and capacity), and with the meteorological conditions. Thermal shadows
from movable objects (eg aircraft on the ground) can often be seen long after the object has moved.
8. The key factor in interpreting IR images is relative tone. The common materials encountered in night IR imagery are metal,
wood, pavement, soil, grass, trees, and water, and although the appearance of these can vary with meteorological and physical
parameters, some generalizations can be made (assuming the conventional cold is black, hot is white display):
a. Metal Surfaces. Thin, unheated, metal appears black as metals have low emissivity compared to other substances.
Although such surfaces are good reflectors and will reflect energy incident upon them from the sky, the intensity of
radiation at night is quite low and so any reflected component will also be weak. Metal could reflect radiation from a
nearby warm object, but this effect does not occur often enough to be significant.
b. Pavement. Pavement has relatively high emissivity and is in good thermal contact with the earth which acts as a
constant heat source. It also has a high thermal capacity and therefore retains any heat received from the sun during the day.
These characteristics are generally true for all types of pavement including concrete and asphalt and they all therefore
appear light grey to white in IR imagery.
c. Soil. Soil, including most earths, sand, and rock, have the same characteristics as pavement and similarly appear in a
light grey tone.
d. Grass. Grass has poor thermal contact with the ground and cools rapidly by radiation, and therefore appears black.
e. Trees. Trees appear medium to light grey. The tone is thought to be the result of a number of causes. There is some
convective warming of the trees by the air in conjunction with the night temperature inversion (air temperature at night is
usually lower at the surface than it is a few feet above the ground), some retention of heat from daytime solar heating, and
some heat generation from the tree’s life processes. In daytime imagery the same leaves appear colder than the ground as
temperature at tree top height is cooler than at ground level.
f. Water. In night IR imagery, water ranges in tone from light grey to white as a result of its high emissivity and good heat
transfer properties. Conversely by day, water appears dark; the main source of IR energy in daytime is reflected solar
radiation and water is a poor reflector at IR wavelengths.
9. Man made, heated, objects such as buildings and vehicles are easily seen in IR images, however the same applies to living
things, such as farm animals, and it can be difficult to distinguish between these groups other than at close range due to the
relatively poor IR resolution, and the blooming and halation effects referred to earlier.
FORWARD LOOKING INFRA-RED (FLIR)
Optical System Requirements

10. The optical system collects the IR radiation and focuses an image onto one or more detectors. The problems inherent in
achieving this are more severe than those encountered in visible-light optics. The bandwidth in which FLIR operates, 8 - 13 µm,
is significantly wider than that in the visible band 0.4 - 0.7 µm, and this increases the optical design problems.
Conventional glass is essentially opaque to IR at wavelengths in excess of 3 µm and thus special materials must be employed
which generally have higher refractive indices than glass. The combination of relatively wide bandwidth operation and high
refractive index optics results in much greater aberrations than have to be contended with in visible-light optics. Furthermore,
many of the materials suitable for IR optics are not ideal for military and airborne applications where they may be subject to
pressure, vibration, shock, and extremes of temperature.
IR Detection
11. The detectors used in FLIR systems are made of semi-conductor material and are photo-conductive, ie their electrical
conductivity increases in proportion to the number of incident IR photons. Cooling is essential for optimum performance. Two
of the main characteristics of a detector are its time constant and its detectivity. The time constant is a measure of the time

required for the detector to respond to radiation on its surface; detectivity is essentially a measure of sensitivity, ie the amount of
incident IR energy necessary to generate an output signal over and above the detector noise.
12. Although IR Charge Coupled Devices (CCD) are under development, current FLIR systems use a rectilinear scanning
action to examine the field of view. The two most common techniques are: (see Fig 2)
a. Serial processing, in which a single detector or a linear array using time delay integration (TDI) is used to scan a scene
line by line and element by element.
b. Parallel processing, in which an array of detectors is used to scan the scene element by element. Ususally, the elevation
field of view is covered by the line array and the scanning action covers the azimuth field of view.
4-3-2-2 Fig 2 FLIR Scanning Principle for Parallel Processing
13. Serial processing produces a good quality TV-like display but requires very high speed scanning calling for detectors of
very short time constant or high detectivity. Parallel processing allows a slower scan rate but requires multiple channels to
handle the simultaneous line output signals, and signal processing is complicated by the inevitable differences in performance of
the detectors forming the array.
14. In practice the detectors remain stationary and the scanning is achieved by mechanical movement of an optical system.
Such electro-mechanical hardware carries a significant penalty in terms of reliability and weight, and much effort is being
directed towards the development of non-scanning, solid state, devices, which in addition may dispense with the need for
cooling.
Display
15. FLIR imagery is presented on a CRT as a real-time raster scan in a similar manner to TV. The display is usually arranged
such that an increase in relative temperature corresponds to a transition from black, through shades of grey, to white. This tonal
correspondence can be reversed if it is considered appropriate for particular applications.

INFRA-RED LINESCAN (IRLS)
Introduction
16. Infra-red Linescan (IRLS) is a passive, airborne, infra-red mapping system that scans the ground along the flight path and
produces a high resolution film map of the terrain. Radiated infra-red energy from the ground is received by an optical scanner
in the IRLS and detected in the 8-13µm band
Recording and Display

17. Instead of an instantaneous view of the entire area beneath the aircraft, narrow strips are scanned by a rotating mirror
assembly. These scans are perpendicular to the heading of the aircraft. The forward motion of the aircraft accounts for the
scanning strips being parallel to each other in the line of flight. This linescan procedure is shown in Fig 3. the equipment scans
an area of about 60o either side of the nadir (a total 120° scan). At any instant, the optical system is collecting IR radiation
emitted from a small rectangular area on the gound. The area is called the Instantaneous Field of View (IFV). The IFV is an
important factor in determining the resolution of the system and is proportional to the altitude of the aircraft (Fig 4).
3-2-2 Fig 3 Infra-red Linescan Techniques
4-3-2-2 Fig 4 Instantaneous Field of View (IFV)

Height Limitation
18. The IRLS system is intended to be used at low levels but is capable of being used at medium altitudes.
The V/H range is in the order 0.06 to 1.6 knots perfoot, equating to heights between of 200 and 5,300 ft at 320kts.
Operation
19. Detection. The IR energy is focused by the scanner optical system on to two detectors which change the ground emissions
into fluctuating electrical signals. Objects emit infra-red energy if they are above a temperature of absolute zero (−273°C/0°K).
In order to reduce interference from the inherent infra-red emissions coming from the detectors, they are cooled in a
cryogenerator and helium is usually used to refrigerate them to as close to 0°K as possible. This action brings the sensitivity of
the detectors within satisfactory limits. If the cooling system fails, the results become unacceptable in a very short time. One
detector provides a wide, and the other a narrow, field of view of the ground along track. Infra-red energy in the 8-13µm band
radiated from successive IFVs is received at the detectors in the IRLS. The size of the IFV at any given time is determined by
which of the two detectors is selected. The selection is made automatically and depends on the V/H ratio.
20. Video and Film Presentation. The detected energy is processed in the receiver to obtain a video signal which is fed to a
recorder where, after correction, the video is displayed on a CRT. The displayed video is optically focused on to film moving at
a speed dependent on V/H. Flight data digital inputs (mainly aircraft position, height and heading) are projected by the optical
system on to one edge of the film. Similarly, fiducial and event markers are projected on to the film between the video and data
recordings. The result is an annotated continuous map of the terrain. An IRLS frame, with data markings suppressed, is shown
together with a comparative photograph in Fig 5.
4-3-2-2 Fig 5 Infa-red Linescan


Chapter 3 - Laser Rangefinder and Marked Target Seeker
Introduction
1. Laser radiation is monochromatic, coherent (ie controlled in constant phase), and capable of being transmitted in a beam
with very little divergence (typically less than 0.5 mrad). This latter characteristic, in particular, makes lasers suitable for
illuminating discrete targets by concentrating a considerable amount of energy into a small spot such that the reflected energy
can be detected by a suitable seeker head. The normal method of use is for a target to be illuminated by a Laser Target Marker
(LTM) operated by a ground based forward air controller, and for an attack aircraft to locate the target using its on-board seeker
equipment.
The Laser Rangefinder and Marked Target Seeker (LRMTS)

2. The Laser Rangefinder and Marked Target Seeker (LRMTS) is an equipment, fitted into the nose of ground attack aircraft,
which is able to seek for, and lock onto, the laser energy reflected from an illuminated target and, in addition, has its own laser
transmitter which is used as a rangefinder.
3. The LRMTS is an integral part of the aircraft weapon aiming system and is, therefore, harmonized with other parts of the
system such as the radar and head-up display. The laser is a neodymium doped yttrium aluminium garnet (YAG) device which
produces a pulsed output with a wavelength of 1.06 microns in the infra-red region, and a PRF of 10 pulses per second. The
LRMTS is usable at ranges up to about 9 km although this will be reduced by smoke, fog, haze, and clouds.
4. The Seeker. The seeker part of the system has a gyro-stabilized optical system which, in addition to keeping the laser
stabilized in direction despite aircraft manoeuvre, also permits the seeker head to be steered in azimuth and elevation either by
direct commands from the crew, or in response to the weapon aiming system’s estimation of target position. The pointing
direction of the head is indicated by a symbol on the head-up display. Once the energy from a marked target is within the
instantaneous field of view of the seeker head (18°) the head will lock onto and track the illumination; lock-on is indicated to the
crew by the head-up display symbology. It is clearly important that the seeker only detects the intended target and ignores any
other laser energy in the area. In order to fulfil this requirement the LTM transmission is pulsed, and the PRF is modulated
according to a code set into the equipment. The seeker is instructed to react only to laser energy with the selected PRF
modulation.
5. The Rangefinder. The rangefinder uses the same optical system as the seeker and a pulsed laser transmission to determine
range in the same manner as a pulse radar, ie by measuring the time interval between the transmission of a pulse and its
reception. The measured range is shown on the head-up display and is fed to the weapon aiming computer for use in aiming
calculations. Ranging accuracy is in the order of 3m.
Acoustic and Magnetic Systems

Chapter 1 - The Submarine Threat
Introduction
1. The submarine has a tactical advantage over its opponents by virtue of concealment. A submarine can track and close an
opposing force using stealth to avoid detection. Once detected however, the advantage diminishes and when localization is
successful it is completely lost. The primary function of the ASW acoustics operator is to counter the submarine threat. He
receives additional assistance from radar, visual and other detection aids. The acoustics operator must be familiar with the
features and operating modes of all types of modern submarines. This will enable him to assess and analyse the information
available from his sonobuoys and processing equipment, ensuring that tracking and localization will follow after initial detection
has been achieved.
Categories of Propulsion
2. A submarine may use either diesel engines or nuclear steam turbines as the basic means of propulsion. The diesel submarine
Page 202 : Wed Jan 02 02:32:00 2002 Acoustic and Magnetic Systems 4- 3- 3- 1
can also be operated in the Battery Mode when the propeller is driven by an electric motor, which is the primary mode of
submerged operation for this class of submarine.
Diesel Powered Submarines

3. Diesel powered submarines may have either 2, 3 or 4 high power diesel engines. The submarine’s propulsion system can be
split into one of three construction categories:
a. Diesel Direct (DD)
b. Diesel Reduction (DR)
c. Diesel Electric (DE)
The diesel engines can be either two stroke or four stroke cycle operating and the submarine can have up to three propellers.
4. Diesel Direct Mode. This mode of operation is only found in older types of submarine. The diesel engine is connected via
clutches directly to the propeller shaft and subsequently to the propeller, the RPM of both engine and propeller being the same,
(Fig 1). The diesel direct mode would be used when the submarine travelled on the surface or when snorkelling. When both
clutches are engaged, the engine drives the propeller via the motor generator and charges the batteries at the same time. For
submerged operation, the engine is stopped and the clutch nearest the engine is disengaged. The battery feeds power to the
motor and the propeller is driven by the rear clutch assembly. Diesel direct drive has the disadvantage of being noisy, as the
long propeller shaft gives rise to vibrations which are radiated through the hull into the sea, to be picked up as sound waves by
an acoustic sensor.
4-3-3-1 Fig 1 Diesel Direct Mode Submarine
5. Diesel Reduction Mode. Diesel reduction mode has been used in some submarines. It is similar to diesel direct but uses a
reduction gearbox between engine and propeller, and consequently the engine can be run at a higher RPM to maintain the same
propeller RPM. The gear ratio is fixed to one predetermined value formulated in the submarine’s design (Fig 2). The DR mode
is not common, it has the same features and faults as found in DD and is only found in a few older submarines.
4-3-3-1 Fig 2 Diesel Reduction Mode Submarine
6. Diesel Electric Mode. Diesel electric is the mode used by most modern diesel submarines. An electric motor is mounted in
the hull near to the propeller, with a consequently short shaft. The diesel engine, together with the generator, can be mounted on
vibration free mountings some distance away from the motor. Between these two assemblies is the submarine main battery,
which operates the drive motor and is in turn charged by the engine driven generator (Fig 3). There is no mechanical connection
from the engine to the propeller, consequently this system is inherently quieter due to the short length of the shafts used and the
resilient mounting of the engine. For submerged operation it is only necessary to shut down the engine, the battery and motor
being permanently connected to the propulsion system.
4-3-3-1 Fig 3 Diesel Electric Mode Submarine
7. Battery Mode. All diesel submarines are able to operate in the battery mode for submerged operation, which is the quietest
mode of operation due to lack of engine noise. They do, however, have limited range in this mode depending on the state of
charge in their batteries. It is necessary to run the engines periodically to recharge the batteries and during recharging they offer
a greater detection opportunity.
8. The Snorkel. The snorkel or “snort” mast is a large bore pipe with an automatic shut off valve to prevent the ingress of
water. The snort mast is raised through the conning tower above the surface and allows fresh air into the submarine’s living
areas as well as to the engines. The engine exhaust gasses are fed to an outlet at the back of the conning tower. The small size
of the mast ensures that radar detection of a snorting submarine is much more difficult than that of a fully surfaced submarine.
To reduce the likelihood of radar and acoustic detection, submarines usually snort for short periods only, and at irregular
intervals. On occasions, submarines may carry out long transits submerged by running their diesels while constantly snorting.
This situation gives the acoustic operator the best chance for detection of this class of submarine.
9. Snorting Precautions. Before a snort cycle is commenced and while it is running, the submarine commander will employ a
number of sensors to ensure that there are no hostile forces in his vicinity. Sensors that may be used are:
a. Passive Sonar.
b. Electronic Support Measures (ESM).
c. Periscopes, both search and attack.
d. Radar - very unlikely except in extreme emergency.
4-3-3-1 Fig 4 Nuclear Powered Submarine
Nuclear Powered Submarines

10. A nuclear submarine is powered by a nuclear reactor which provides the heat source to produce steam to drive a turbine.
Heat is transferred from the nuclear reactor to the heat exchanger by means of a liquid coolant. The heat is used to produce
steam in the main steam circuit (secondary coolant loop). The steam is fed to the main propulsion turbines which are rotated at
very high speed. The turbine output is geared down to drive the propeller shaft. In addition to the main propulsion turbine there
are usually two or more turbines which drive generators to provide power for the boat’s electrical system. These are known as
Ship’s Services Turbo Generators (SSTGs). The normal coupling from the main propulsion turbine to the propeller shaft is via
gearing, this is called the turbo reduction mode. Electric drive can be achieved by de-clutching the main turbine and driving an
electric motor from the batteries. This is called Turbo Electric mode and is normally used for slow speed operation, allowing the
turbines to be run at normal high speed, while the submarine is manoeuvred at low speed.
Nuclear-Diesel Comparisons
11. Nuclear submarines have virtually unlimited range and endurance, they do not need to surface and can operate continuously
at high speed. Their main disadvantage is that they are a constant source of sound leaving them vulnerable to detection by ASW
forces. On the other hand, the diesel powered submarine has limited range and endurance due to refuelling requirements, and
has to expose the snort mast to charge its batteries. Because it has to rely on batteries for submerged operation it also has limited
underwater range. The diesel submarine’s greatest advantage is that when submerged it is extremely quiet and provides only
limited detection opportunities for opposing ASW forces.
12. A submarine which comes to the surface or to periscope depth presents a detection opportunity to a searching aircraft.
Submarines come to periscope depth for various reasons. In the case of a diesel, it must come to periscope depth to snort and
charge its batteries at regular intervals. A tactical missile firing submarine may need to come to periscope depth to refine its
firing solution. A torpedo firing submarine may come to periscope depth to select a particular target from a force or convoy.
Submarines also come to periscope depth to enable them to receive broadcast information from their operating authority. On all
occasions the submarine maintains a constant ESM watch, detection of hostile radar transmissions at close range could cause the
submarine to dive. The ASW operator must remain alert to take full advantage of any opportunities for detection.

Chapter 2 - Aircraft Acoustic Systems
Introduction
1. A Maritime Patrol Aircraft equipped with a modern acoustic processing system is a formidable opponent to any submarine.
Modern systems must be able to process information from all types of advanced buoys such as BARRA (Beam ARRAy), a
passive broadband sonobuoy which gives range and directional information and CAMBS (Command Activated Multiple Beam
Sonobuoy), as well as the more common types. The information must be presented in such a way that the operator can use it to
the best advantage against a submarine commander who is trying to avoid detection.
System Requirements
2. To achieve successful submarine detection the system must fulfil three main requirements:
a. The system must have penetration and sensitivity. Penetration in the active mode must be sufficient to detect a
submerged target. Sensitivity in the passive mode ensures that the system will be able to detect underwater targets which
constantly strive to become quieter to avoid detection.
b. The system must have a high degree of resolution to enable it to detect a wanted target from environmental noise and
other targets.
c. The system must have a high data rate so that it is capable of continuously updating information on the target and its
parameters.
LOFAR Principles
3. The basic, and probably the most important mode of operation of an Acoustic Detection System is the LOFAR Mode, it is
purely passive and uses the simplest type of sonobuoy, the LOFAR buoy.
4. LOFAR is the acronym for Low Frequency Analysis and Recording. Ships and submarines produce broadband and discrete
frequency noise in the low frequency sound spectrum. It is mainly the discrete components which are used in LOFAR. These
components are produced mainly by rotating machinery such as the propulsion system (turbines and diesels) and auxiliary
machinery (pumps and generators). These sources produce vibrations which are radiated by the vessels' structure, causing the
hull to vibrate. The frequency of the pressure waves caused by the vibrations is dependent upon the frequency of the vibration
of the source. When a sonobuoy is dropped within acoustic range of a submarine, the sonobuoy hydrophone converts the
pressure waves into electrical signals which are then transmitted to the LOFAR equipment via the sonobuoy VHF radio link.
5. In the aircraft the acoustic system equipment carries out a continuous analysis of the incoming signals and displays the
result.
System Components
6. The modern airborne acoustics detection system consists of a number of typical features:
a. Compact expendable sonobuoys.
b. Sensitive aircraft receiving and amplifying equipment.
c. Computer controlled acoustics processor and display.
d. Clear and easily interpreted displays.
e. Comprehensive recording equipment for post flight analysis and mission reconstruction.
7. Basic Airborne System. Fig 1 shows the three main stages in a typical aircraft processing system:
a. Reception.
b. Processing and Analysis.
c. Display.
8. The received VHF signal is passed through the reception chain where it is amplified and demodulated from the carrier. The
acoustic signal is then passed to the main processing system where it is conditioned by a sub-system which prepares the data
according to type for analysis. The processing system enhances target data relative to background sea noise and carries out
analysis to make the signal suitable for display purposes.
9. Display Devices. The processed signal can be presented to the operator in different ways, the two most common types are:
a. Hard Copy Unit (HCU). In the HCU display the acoustic information is printed on electro-sensitive paper by means of a
high voltage stylus.
b. Acoustic Display Unit (ADU). The ADU displays similar information to that recorded on the HCU. The information is
produced on a Cathode ray tube using a "waterfall" type of display.
10. Both ADU and HCU present their information in the same three dimensional format of frequency against time, where the
discrete acoustic signals are shown at different intensities. This type of display is known as a LOFARGRAM.
11. In addition to the two types of visual display, the operator can also select the audio output from any receiver, this
information can be used to assist in the analysis and classification of a target.
4-3-3-2 Fig 1 Basic Airborne System
Acoustic System Capabilities

12. The versatility of the modern airborne acoustic system enables it to provide the operator with a wide range of information.
This information reflects the capability of the system and consists of:
a. Target blade fit.
b. Target propulsion type and mode.
c. Target classification.
d. Target speed.
e. Target range.
f. Target bearing.
g. Target depth.
h. Bathythermal information.
i. Ambient noise measurement.
Typical Airborne Acoustic System

13. The block diagram in Fig 1 outlined the basic system required for an airborne acoustic system. In a typical system, as fitted
to a Maritime Patrol Aircraft, there would be various additions and refinements to increase the versatility of each operator
station, eg :
a. Control of eight receiver channels enabling the monitoring and analyses of up to eight buoys simultaneously.
b. Two hard copy units fitted at each operator station, each unit having four separate charts giving the operator the option
of analysing and recording information from up to eight different sonobuoys.
c. Each station having two ADUs fitted, which can be used to gather and display up to eight channels simultaneously. The
operator determines which display will carry which information by use of a roller ball and a keyboard.
14. A typical aircraft fit would contain two complete systems as described above. The systems would be linked together by
computer to gain the maximum operator flexibility and would integrate into the aircraft Central Tactical System Computer to
facilitate the speedy exchange of data with other systems in the aircraft.
15. Allied to the acoustic system would be the transmitter to activate the CAMBS buoy and a VHF sonobuoy homer to enable
the crew to home to and overfly any given buoy and identify its position.
16. The above is a simple description of what can be a very complex system. New techniques ensure that the Maritime Patrol
Aircraft can be considered a formidable weapon in the battle for Anti Submarine Warfare supremacy.

Chapter 3 - Sonobuoys
Introduction
1. The inventory of sonobuoy types held by NATO is considerable, with a number of countries producing their own versions
of the common types. Buoy specifications have been standardized and it is possible for any NATO aircraft fitted with modern
processing equipment to monitor the sonobuoys dropped by another NATO maritime aircraft.
Primary Functions
2. For information to be of use to an aircraft operator, a sonobuoy must carry out two primary functions; under the water it
must receive acoustic signals, on the surface it must relay these signals to the aircraft for processing and analysis.
3. The underwater function has two modes of operation, passive and active. The choice of mode will be determined by the
operational requirements of the mission.
4. In the passive mode the sonobuoy acts purely as a listening device, picking up sound from the surrounding ocean by means
of a hydrophone. Detection ranges can be considerable depending on the water conditions and the level of sound radiated by the
target. Due to the passive nature of the sonobuoy, it is possible to detect a submarine and consequently track it without alerting
the submarine crew to the presence of the tracking aircraft.
5. Active sonar works on the principle of transmitting a pulse of sound energy from an “active” sonobuoy and listening for a
returning echo. The time taken from the pulse being radiated and the echo returning, can be measured accurately, and can then
be processed by the aircraft equipment to calculate the range from the sonobuoy to the target. If the active sonobuoy also has
directional facilities then the submarine’s position can be accurately determined in relation to the buoy. Subsequent fixes will
determine the submarine’s track.
6. Because of the low sonar power available from a sonobuoy, active tracking ranges are generally short, but the sonobuoy
sound pulse can easily be detected by a submarine which may then take evasive action. Active sonobuoys are not therefore
generally used for acoustic search or as long term tracking devices, but they may be dropped to upgrade information from
another sensor, such as radar, to determine the position and track of a submerged submarine. They are also used for localization
of a submarine prior to the aircraft making an attack.
Physical Construction
7. Sonobuoys used by Maritime Patrol Aircraft are disposable, in that they are used only once. This does not detract from the
fact that as they are dropped from considerable altitude they must be robust and reliable.
8. Sonobuoys use various means to slow their rate of descent, some have a small parachute, while others have para-vanes
which erect in the slipstream when the buoy leaves the aircraft. These devices not only reduce the rate of descent, they also
stabilize the buoy during the descent ensuring that it hits the water vertically with the base striking the sea first.
9. A typical ‘A’ size Low Frequency Analysis and Recording (LOFAR) sonobuoy is shown in Fig 1 to illustrate its main
component parts. When the buoy enters the sea, a base plate is forced upwards releasing an internal mechanism. The
mechanism initiates the following:
a. A parachute or vane is ejected from the buoy.
b. The base plate falls away and allows the terminal mass and cable assembly to descend to the pre-determined depth.
c. The telescopic mast deploys allowing the antenna and the ground plane to deploy.
10. The battery is activated by the sea water and the transmitter starts to operate. Extra inflatable equipment is used in some
buoys to assist flotation. When the terminal unit reaches its correct depth the buoy will be operational. The damping cylinder,
along with the flexible suspension system, allows the terminal assembly to remain at constant depth while the flotation unit rises
and falls on waves and swell. At the end of its operating life, the battery runs down and the buoy stops transmitting, a soluble
plug in the flotation unit dissolves, and the buoy sinks.
Sonobuoy Frequency Band

11. Sonobuoys used by NATO forces transmit information to the aircraft using VHF frequencies. In most buoys the signals are
Frequency Modulated. The waveband is divided into 99 channels each identified by a number which is usually printed on the
casing of the buoy.
Sonobuoy Size
12. Early sonobuoys were packed in a standard sized casing known as ‘A’ size. Miniaturization has made it possible for some
of the simpler buoys to be contained in packages of about one third of the length of ‘A’ size buoys. The more complex buoys
with their larger internal arrays still use the ‘A’ size casing. The dimensions of current case sizes are:
Size Length Diameter

A 914mm 124mm
G 419mm 124mm
F 305mm 124mm
Buoy diameter has remained unchanged to allow maximum use of existing aircraft buoy launching systems.
4-3-3-3 Fig 1 Typical LOFAR Sonobuoy
Sonobuoy Settings
13. To increase the versatility of various buoys, some types can have certain parameters altered by the crew before the buoy is
launched. The two common variables are life and depth settings.
14. Life Settings. Typical life settings for a sonobuoy are 1, 4 or 8 hours. The type of search being carried out determines
which setting to use. For a barrier search across a possible submarine transit, a buoy setting of 4 or 8 hours would probably be
used. If however the submarine was being tracked and localized, the one hour life buoys would be used, because the movement
of the submarine renders the buoy position redundant. After one hour transmissions cease and the RF channel for that buoy
becomes available for re-use.
15. Depth Setting. Many sonobuoys are able to be set at depths determined by oceanographic factors in the operating area.
Usually the settings available are a shallow setting of 18 or 30 metres and a deep setting of 90 or 140 metres, but this can vary
depending on the buoy type. Settings are preset by the crew before release of the buoy after a study has been made of the
bathythermal and other oceanographic conditions.
16. Determining Factors. The three main factors determining the depth to set the hydrophone are:
a. Depth of water. In shallow water short cables are used to keep the hydrophone away from the bottom because
reverberations and other losses could mask a weak target.
b. Position of the Thermocline. It is undesirable to position the hydrophone in the sharp, negative gradient of the
thermocline, because reduced ranges are experienced where the sound waves are sharply refracted downwards.
c. Sea State. If the sea state is high, the breaking waves create loud surface noise which reduces detection range. A long
cable would be used in this case to place the hydrophone as far as possible from the source of noise.
Sonobuoy Types and Function

17. All sonobuoys send their information to the aircraft over a 99 channel VHF link. Buoys of the LOFAR type, which are
normally used in considerable numbers, have a large number of RF channels available. Other types, such as active buoys where
only a small number will be used per incident, have fewer channels available.
18. LOFAR Sonobuoy. This is the basic passive omnidirectional sonobuoy of which there are a number of slightly differing
types. Although originally supplied in ‘A’ size cases, a typical LOFAR buoy will now be supplied in an ‘F’ size case. Up to 99
channels are available with life settings of 1, 4 and 6 hours and various combinations of depth, 18 or 140 metres being typical for
this type.
19. DIFAR Sonobuoy. The Directional Frequency Analysis Recording Sonobuoy (DIFAR) is a fully automatic directional
passive acoustic buoy which provides directional compass orientated bearing information, as well as normal LOFAR signals. A
typical DIFAR buoy can be found in either ‘A’ or ‘G’ size casings with up to 99 RF channels available, depth settings of 30,
140, or 300 metres and life settings of 1, 3, or 6 hours.
20. BARRA Sonobuoy. The BARRA buoy is a passive broadband directional sonobuoy, which is available in 50 RF channels.
This buoy is invariably found in the ‘A’ size casing because of the large size of its transducer array. The BARRA buoy differs
from other buoys, in that instead of Frequency Modulation as the mode of transmission, it uses Frequency Shift Keying to pass
information to the aircraft. The BARRA Buoy has both range and life settings of 0.5, 1, 2, 4.5, 6 and 9 hours and 25 or 130
metre depth settings.
21. Ranger Sonobuoy. The ranger buoy is an ‘A’ sized omnidirectional active sonobuoy. The buoy only provides range
information so consequently if no directional information is available from another source such as DIFAR, it is necessary to use
ranges from 3 or more Ranger buoys to obtain an unambiguous fix. To avoid mutual interference when dropping a pattern of
buoys, there are six different acoustic frequencies used, all transmitting on different RF channels. This sequence is repeated
giving a total of 12 RF channels in all. Depth can be set to 18 or 240 m while life is set at 30 minutes.
22. CAMBS Sonobuoy. A Command Activated Multiple Beam Sonobuoy differs from other buoys in that the operator can send
commands to the buoy instructing it to carry out various functions. The CAMBS buoy is in an ‘A’ size casing, and has 31 RF
channels with a life depending on the method of employment but generally about 30 minutes at 10 second ping intervals. There
are depth settings of 20, 120 or 200 metres. The buoy can be operated in the passive mode until it is decided to go active, so the
target is not alerted until the operator selects the active function. The operator has the following commands at his disposal:
a. Go active - causes buoy to go to active mode.
b. Go active - causes buoy to go to active mode.
c. Go Deeper - Hydrophone array goes to lower depth settings.
d. Go Passive - Buoy reverts to passive mode.
e. Scuttle - Allows buoy to sink.
23. Bathythermal Sonobuoy. A bathythermal buoy can be dropped in an operating area to provide the crew with a
temperature/depth profile of the sea at that location. The buoy consists of a thermal probe which is lowered at a constant
velocity (1.5m/sec) to a depth of 300 metres. A signal from the probe is used to modulate the transmitter with temperature
information. This information can be recorded in the aircraft where it is used to determine the sound velocity profile and update
the forecast information if necessary. Bathythermal buoys are manufactured in ‘A’ and ‘F’ sizes, and there are three RF
channels available.
24. References. The above details of sonobuoys are of necessity only general in their scope. The reader who requires more
detailed information regarding type numbers and other information of individual buoys should consult the “Sonobuoy Reference
Card” produced by the Joint Acoustic and Anti-Submarine Warfare Centre. This publication contains details of all current
NATO sonobuoys and is updated at regular intervals.
Chapter 4 - Fixing Techniques
Introduction
1. In the description of sonobuoy types in Chap 3, there are sonobuoys such as DIFAR, CAMBS, BARRA and Ranger which
are designed and used primarily to obtain positional information from a submerged target. However, it is possible in certain
circumstances to obtain information with regards to the target’s position, purely from information obtained from LOFAR buoys.
Passive Fixing
2. A Passive fix may be obtained using one of the following methods:
a. Two passive directional sonobuoys
b. Doppler techniques
c. Hyfix techniques
3. Doppler Fix. The doppler effect is fully described in AP 3456 Vol 8, Pt 2, Sect 3, Chap 1. Stated briefly, when a sound
source is moving with respect to a receiver there is an apparent change in the source frequency (F) due to the relative motion
between the source and the receiver. In Fig 1, when the submarine is at point A it is heading towards the sonobuoy,
consequently the source frequency will be higher than the centre frequency. When the submarine passes point B the source
frequency is low compared with the centre frequency. At point C the submarine is at the closest point of approach (CPA) to the
buoy and the frequency will be the centre frequency of the source. The operator can measure the change in frequency and the
time it takes to change. With this information the range from the buoy and the speed of the submarine can be calculated.
4-3-3-4 Fig 1 The Doppler Effect
4. Hyfix. A hyperbolic fix or Hyfix can be obtained when a dynamic event occurs on three or more LOFAR buoys spaced
some distance from each other. The time taken for the event to reach the different buoys is measured and compared. This
information can be plotted to give a fix of the submarine position.
Lloyd’s Mirror
5. Although not a fixing technique, Lloyd’s mirror effect gives the operator information about when a CPA occurs and can be
used to measure target depth at the time of the CPA. Lloyd’s mirror is the effect of constructive and destructive interference in
the sound field. It occurs when direct sound from the source meets with reflected sound at the hydrophone. This sound can be
reflected either from the surface or the bottom. In both cases an interference pattern is set up in the sound field due to the sound
energy arriving at the hydrophone by two different paths, the signals being constantly in and out of phase with each other. When
the signals are in phase they will add together, with an enhancement of the received signal. If however they arrive at the
hydrophone out of phase then a reduction of the received signal will result, with a complete cancellation of the signal if they
arrive 180 degrees out of phase. This constantly changing effect causes a curved regular interference pattern to show on the
LOFARGRAM over an interval of time. When the curve reaches its lowest frequency and starts to increase in frequency again
this indicates the time of the CPA at that buoy. The operator can use the information from the interference pattern to calculate
the depth of the submarine but not the range from the buoy.
Lobing
6. Due to the position of various pieces of machinery within a submarine hull, the sound radiated by the hull will be greater in
some directions than in others. Consequently if the sound pattern for that piece of machinery were plotted it would take on an
irregular shape with a number of lobes being apparent on the diagram, as shown in Fig 2. The lobes, which can be long in some
cases, represent an enhancement of the radiated sound and because of their length can cause confusion and give ranges much in
excess of the forecast range of the target.
4-3-3-4 Fig 2 Typical Submarine Lobe Pattern
Median Detection Range

7. Median Detection Range (MDR) is the range at which there is a 50% probability of target detection by a single sonobuoy (ie
the number of targets detected outside the MDR equals those missed inside MDR). It is used when planning buoy spacings for
an acoustic search.

Chapter 5 - Magnetic Anomaly Detection Systems
Introduction
1. Magnetic Anomaly Detection (MAD) is a system which locates large metal objects, such as submarines, by detecting the
changes that their individual magnetic fields can cause to the Earth’s magnetic field. MAD is a short range underwater
localization device, carried on Maritime Patrol Aircraft and Anti-Submarine Helicopters.
2. The theory of magnetism and the Earth’s magnetic field is covered in AP 3456, Vol 9. Suffice to say that over a given area
of the Earth’s surface, the intensity of the magnetic field can be considered to be uniform in nature with the lines of force parallel
to each other. When an external field such as that surrounding a submarine or other large metallic object is introduced into the
Earth’s magnetic field, it will have the effect of bending or distorting the field, causing a magnetic anomaly to occur. It is the
function of MAD to detect this anomaly and present the information to the MAD operator.
Simple MAD System

3. In its simplest form a MAD system comprises detection, processing and display sections (Fig 1). The function of the system
is to monitor the Earth’s magnetic field, detect any anomalies in the field, amplify this information and present it to the operator
by means of a trace on a pen recorder. The equipment is designed to minimize or cancel the effect of external magnetic fields
and to maintain the detecting head at optimum angles for detection. The detection head includes detection and orientor
magnetometers.
4. Detector Magnetometer. The detector magnetometer consists of two saturable core magnetometers in a bridge assembly.
Each magnetometer has a coil winding, the coils being wound in opposite directions. The magnetometer should be kept parallel
to the Earth’s magnetic field at all times. An anomaly produces an imbalance in the bridge. The imbalance will be biased to the
side of the bridge whose coil is in phase with the anomaly, the value of the imbalance will be proportional to the anomaly
strength and the side of the imbalance will indicate the polarity. The detector is designed to have a very high sensitivity. The
output from the magnetometer is amplified and detected before eventually being presented at the pen recorder as a “MAD
MARK” on the moving paper trace.
4-3-3-5 Fig 1 Simple MAD System
5. Detector Orientation. To ensure that the detector magnetometer is positioned parallel to the Earth’s magnetic field, it is
mounted on a three axis platform with gimbals arranged to keep the magnetometer level in the pitching and rolling planes.
Additional magnetometers called Orientor Magnetometers are arranged in pairs to form a bridge circuit which will be in balance
when the gimbal is parallel to the Earth’s magnetic field. Deviations caused by aircraft attitude, cause an imbalance to occur in
the bridge assembly, which is amplified and fed to a motor which drives the gimbal back to its level position so causing the
bridge to balance. The orientor magnetometers are mounted at 90 degrees to the detector magnetometer and consequently at 90
degrees to the Earth’s magnetic field.
Anomalies
6. Anomalies are not only caused by submarines, there are many sources of anomalies external to the aircraft that can cause the
system to indicate that contact has been gained. Any large metal object in the water can cause an anomaly, such as a surface
vessel, wreck or geological deposits, while sun spot activity due to solar flares can cause the MAD system to give spurious
responses. The operator is not able to compensate for these false detections, but should be aware of their possible presence
whilst continuing the search.
Magnetic Problems
7. The detector magnetometer is sensitive to magnetic fields generated internally by the aircraft as well as by external sources.
Any surges in electrical power in the aircraft such as switching on or off a piece of equipment can create a magnetic field which
may influence the MAD, switching should therefore be kept to a minimum when MAD tracking is in progress. However the
most significant noise sources are those caused by the magnetic fields of the airframe. These fields are generated when the
aircraft manoeuvres within the Earth’s field and are called manoeuvre noise.
8. Compensation. There are a number of interference fields caused by manoeuvre noise which originate from the permanent,
induced and eddy current fields of the aircraft. Each field has three components, or TERMS, originating from the vertical,
horizontal and transverse components of these fields. Compensation is applied to the system to cancel these fields; the MAD
equipment will detect the fields and measure the overall value, the operator can then feed a signal into the system which
compensates for field value and cancels the unwanted signal. This ensures that noise in the system is kept to a minimum and
that the MAD equipment responds only to the Earth’s field and the variations in it. Although there are a large number of terms
in an aircraft’s field, generally only the nine major ones are compensated for, the rest being considered insignificant or mutually
cancelling. To reduce the effects of the aircraft’s interfering fields it is usual to mount the detecting head as far away from the
aircraft’s main systems as possible, which is achieved by mounting the detector assembly at the end of a non-magnetic boom
extending from the tail of the aircraft.
MAD Performance
9. Various factors determine the performance of MAD installations.
a. Water Depth. Shallow water can cause an increase in noise displayed on the trace due to geological factors.
b. Target Construction. Some materials produce stronger magnetic fields than others, which may then be modified by the
quality of construction and degaussing.
c. Target Size. Large targets give greater anomalies than small ones of similar materials and construction.
d. Aircraft Heading. The heading of the aircraft with respect to the target is important, it is assumed that an east-west
heading increases the probability of detection.
e. Aircraft Height. The inverse cube law states that by doubling the distance between detecting platform and target, the
received signal is reduced to one eighth of previous intensity. The area covered by MAD runs, is termed swept path width
and is inversely proportional to aircraft height.
f. Electrical Switching and Aircraft Manoeuvre. The switching of electrical equipment and unnecessary aircraft
manoeuvre should be kept to a minimum to reduce spurious MAD marks on the trace. Although some of these factors are
outside the control of the aircrew, some can be influenced by the aircrew and when this is the case the crew should
co-ordinate their actions during MAD tracking to ensure minimum interference.
MAD Improvements
10. Like all electronic systems, MAD is subject to constant improvement and upgrading. Modern systems have improvements
in detection efficiency and reduction in operator work load. The use of a computer within the system enhances results and
makes system operation, especially compensation, much more user friendly.
11. Improved Features of MAD. Advances in magnetometer design have resulted in the development of the “Caesium Gas
Cell” optically pumped magnetometer. This gives a great increase in sensitivity over the saturable core magnetometer of the
basic system, giving the equipment greater range and the ability to detect weaker contacts. Orientation of the magnetometer
assembly is similar to the basic system, keeping the magnetometer aligned with the Earth’s magnetic field. It is in the area of
compensation that the advanced system has a great advantage over the basic system. The MAD computer is used to monitor the
TERMS from the aircraft’s manoeuvres and compensates for them automatically after an initial procedure has been carried out.
The equipment feeds the same paper recorder as the basic system, but has audible and visual alert facilities and an estimated
indication of slant range to the contact.

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What are some of the different types of communications and navigation systems discussed in the document?

What are some of the different types of communications and navigation systems discussed in the document?

What are some of the different types of sensors mentioned and what do they measure?

What are some of the different types of sensors mentioned and what do they measure?

DO NOT DISTRIBUTE AP 3456

PAR SEC CHA TITLE

Page 1 : Wed Jan 02 02:31:14 2002 Volume 4 4- 0- 0- 0

2 Electronic Support Measures

Page 2 : Wed Jan 02 02:31:14 2002 Volume 4 4- 0- 0- 0

COMMUNICATIONS AND ELECTRONIC WARFARE

4-1-1-1 Fig 1 Typical HF Installation

Page 3 : Wed Jan 02 02:31:15 2002 Communications 4- 1- 1- 1

a. Upper Sideband (USB).

b. Lower Sideband (LSB).

c. Double Sideband (DSB).

d. Continuous Wave (CW).

e. Data Transmission (DATA) (eg RATT).

Page 4 : Wed Jan 02 02:31:15 2002 Communications 4- 1- 1- 1

The Uses of Medium and Low Frequencies

Page 5 : Wed Jan 02 02:31:15 2002 Communications 4- 1- 1- 2

4-1-1-2 Fig 1 V/UHF Installation

4-1-1-2 Fig 2 Block Schematic Diagram of a Typical V/UHF Installation

Page 6 : Wed Jan 02 02:31:15 2002 Communications 4- 1- 1- 2

There are also controls for volume and lighting dimmer.

Page 7 : Wed Jan 02 02:31:16 2002 Communications 4- 1- 1- 3

4-1-1-3 Fig 1 Block Diagram of a Typical UHF Homing System

Page 8 : Wed Jan 02 02:31:16 2002 Communications 4- 1- 1- 3

Page 9 : Wed Jan 02 02:31:16 2002 Communications 4- 1- 1- 4

a. Range. Only the range frequency of 1020 Hz is acceptable by the unit.

4-1-1-4 Fig 1 Dual Crew CCS Configuration- Block Diagram

4-1-1-4 Fig 2 Typical Intercom Station Box

Page 10 : Wed Jan 02 02:31:17 2002 Communications 4- 1- 1- 4

Page 11 : Wed Jan 02 02:31:17 2002 Communications 4- 1- 1- 5

Equipment and Operation

6. The RATT can operate in the HF, UHF, and LF bands:

4-1-1-5 Fig 1 RATT System - Schematic

Page 12 : Wed Jan 02 02:31:17 2002 Communications 4- 1- 1- 6

4-1-1-6 Fig 1 CVR Control Panel

4-1-1-6 Fig 2 Cassette Location

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4-1-1-7 Fig 1 Circular and Elliptical Orbits

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c. Telemetry and Command.

d. Attitude and Orbit Control.

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4-1-1-7 Fig 3 Worldwide Earth Coverage

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4-1-1-8 Fig 1 Data Link Transmission Chain - Schematic

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Digital Data Link Systems

4-1-1-8 Fig 2 Typical JTIDS Display

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Sub-divisions of Electronic Warfare

a. Electronic Warfare Support Measures (ESM).

b. Electronic Countermeasures (ECM).

c. Electronic Protective Measures (EPM).