Oxford excellence for the Caribbean

Information
Technology
THIRD EDITION
®
CSEC

FOR THE
NEW
SYLLABUS

pa g e s
pl e
Sam
with online support

Glenda Gay
Ronald Blades
Instil confidence and support success in
Information Technology
Oxford Information Technology for CSEC® is the market leading textbook for Information
Technology providing comprehensive coverage of the updated CSEC® syllabus and essential
support for the School-Based Assessment. The third edition focuses on developing students’
problem solving skills through the use of ICT tools, helping them to embrace new technologies
and fully preparing them with the knowledge and expertise to achieve in the exam.

 Up-to-date content with Caribbean examples makes learning more relatable.

 opic discussions, worked examples, and a wide range of questions including exam-style
 T
questions provide extensive support and practice to prepare students for the exam.

 Comprehensive support for the School-Based Assessment with hints and guidance,
and practice questions makes this practical aspect of the qualification more accessible to
students, boosting their confidence.

2.1 Data and information

PTE
HA

2
information retrieval systems such as abstracting
R
C

in an appropriate medium: it should be delivered

◆

and indexing services

◆

using an appropriate communication medium, such as

full text databases and reference materials
whether by printed material or storage device
◆

be encyclopaedias
cost-effective: the value of information should
INFORM ATION PROCE SSING other, less formal, publications such as subject-
◆

more than the cost involved in its collection.

◆
cases may
specialised bulletin boards, which in some
Information as a commodity replace the more traditional journals.
2.1 Data and informat ion An information commodity is an item of
information
online
that can be bought or sold. For example, with Question s
every time
information you may have to pay a charge 1 Explain what is meant when data is
said to be
research,
the publications: hurricane-preparedness tips, that you access that information .
Data is raw, unprocessed facts. For example,
◆
in relevant.
do not daily newspapers, media reports and trends 2 Name two characteristics of data, other
than
numbers 26, 29 and 30 represent data. We The major types of information for sale are:
they could chronic diseases relevance, that would determine if it is useful.
know what the three numbers represent –
mean just about anything – such as the temperature ◆ questionnaires: opinion polls and market
research
◆ databases, especially banking and other financial 3 What is the term given to an item of
information End of topic questions
sports products: labels containing ingredients, quantities, information that give demographic, tracking
and that can be bought or sold?
in degrees Celsius, the dates of interschool
◆

events or even the number of students in three

classes.
numbers can
contents origin and dosage.
of
buying trends encourage students to reflect
Information is processed data. The three The value of information can include the cost
therefore indicate what type of clothing to
wear to keep
the exams are,
production, the cost of distribution and the
value to
the purchaser. The more valuable the information
is to
on what they have read.
cool based on the temperature, how close
class. can charge for
or how many exam papers to print for each the customer, the more the organisation
to get
to obtain it. Also, customers may be willing to pay more
Data processing is the manipulation of data
one of the examples above, information quickly.
information. So, taking
gives an in this
finding the average of the three numbers With the rise of the Internet, two elements
indication of how warm the days have been. value chain have changed. The cost of distributing
for web
any record- information has been reduced dramatically
The term information system is given to additional
systems providers. Also, ‘free’ information may have
keeping system. We come across information graphs 2 Information processing
information value. An online newspaper story may include
all the time. Common examples of manual same
or pictures and links to other stories on the 2.2 Validation and verification
systems are dictionaries and telephone directories. digits in the number. Check digits are included in
delete files the computer may ask ‘Are you sure [y/n]?’
have in common is that data topic. who found the file (in the filing cabinet!) made use of
What these examples barcode numbers.
displayed or it may display a summary of input data and ask for
has been collected (input), processed and Once information is collected, it is often verification of its validity before the data is stored.
it; the other person waited until the first returned the
. wishes to
(output) in order to provide useful information communicated directly to the person who file to the drawer. Computers and networks mean not
must be:
use it. In order for it to be useful, information only that neither person has to search through a drawer
Information is collected for the purposes
of Interpretation of coded data to locate the file, but also that both persons may access
life. In relevant: it must be what the user needs to
know,
culture, leisure, work, research and everyday ◆
Before the responses to questionnaires can be analysed, the data file at the same time. At least, it may appear in
planning
organisations, however, it is mainly used for and be up-to-date Fig 2.2 A barcode showing a check digit they must be edited and coded before the data entry that way. Is this a good way to access data files?
of
and decision making. There are many sources ◆ accurate: it must be as correct as possible process. The person coding these responses should have
information, including, for example: timely: information should be provided for Let us suppose that two teachers were both accessing
◆

problem-solving before a critical stage is

reached Verification no doubt as to what should be entered. This may sound
a data record for the student Amerra Taitt (Fig 2.4).
measurement: sales, productivity output, cash Data verification is the checking for mistakes such
simple, but consider the following case (Fig 2.3).
One teacher wishes to adjust the mark received in IT
and opportunities are lost
◆

receipts of a as transcription errors when data is copied from one

of complete: it must represent a ‘whole’ picture from the original 69% to 96%. The second teacher
formal and informal communication: word
◆
medium or device to another. Verification checks do not wishes to adjust the mark received in Geography from
problem or solution
◆

mouth, meetings, announcements, interviews guarantee that the entered data is correct, it only checks 18% to 81% (typo errors in both subjects!). What
that the data entered matches the source data. Therefore, 41
Fig 2.3 Coding involves assigning a label to each question happens when the records are saved to the main Fig 2.4 What happens if two people want to change data at the
you should be aware that if the original form was same time?
Coding involves assigning a label to each response, such database? Will both changes be accepted?
40 completed incorrectly, then the entered data may pass
as 1 for ‘yes’ and 2 for ‘no’. Sometimes, people will write Data-sharing in this manner can lead to problems of
21/12/2018 09:36
some verification checks despite being incorrect.
843716_CSEC_IT_CH02.indd 41
21/12/2018 09:36 in a response such as ‘can’t remember’ or ‘unsure’, and data accuracy when the data records are saved. The
843716_CSEC_IT_CH02.indd 40
One way to guarantee that the data entered matches you must decide what to do. It could either be ignored, teacher who saves the changes first will have the marks
the source data is a procedure called double (data) or a new code and value could be added to the question. overwritten by the teacher who saves the changes last,
entry. Data is entered twice using a program that which of course will erase the changes made by the
As another example, consider a library database where
checks each second entry against the first. For example, first teacher. How can this problem be avoided? Fig 2.5 A well-structured database will prevent simultaneous access
books are classified as being Fiction, Non-fiction or to the
some applications require users to enter their password same database record
Reference. This information could be stored as text in Good databases avoid this problem by allowing only
twice. The application compares the two passwords to own usernames and passwords for the login process.
a database where the corresponding field length would one user or system to access a data record at a time.
confirm that they are the same. In other applications There are also access privileges depending on the
be 11 to store the longest classification, ‘Non-fiction’. When an attempt is made by a second person to access
where there is more data to be entered, the program user’s level. For example, a student at the school
Alternatively, the classifications could be coded like this: the same record, a message may be provided (Fig 2.5).
produces a list with the pairs of data that do not match will be allowed access to certain software such as
so that the correct values can be re-entered. Classification Code Computer systems that provide shared access to data word processing, perhaps email facilities and limited
Fiction F must have security features in place. This prevents Internet access. A clerk will have access to student
Visual checks Non-fiction N users from gaining access to data which they are records, personnel records, Internet access, email,
Another verification method is to use on-screen Reference R not authorised to view or modify. The users of the and payroll programs. The network administrator
prompts. After a set of data is entered, it is redisplayed computer system should be provided with their will have the highest level of access, including data
Coding information reduces the amount of storage
on the screen. The user is prompted to read it and records of usernames and passwords and the network
space required and speeds up the process of typing the
confirm that it has been entered correctly. If the user Questions administration and security software.
information in. For coding to work properly everyone
has entered any data incorrectly, it is re-entered.
needs to know what the correct codes are. 1 Explain the difference between data validation and
data verification.
This method of verification is not very reliable 2 Give an example of a data-related hardware error.
since many data entry personnel will not read the Problems associated with 3 Copy and complete the table below by giving an
example of valid data for each item:
information that is redisplayed or check it carefully shared data Field name Acceptable values Example of valid data
against the source document. Accidental errors a Opening hours 8 am to 4 pm
In organisations, information is constantly sent and
can also be prevented by verification in asking for b Bulk orders >250
received among various departments. Traditionally, if
confirmation of instructions. For example, if you try to c Standard shipping 3 to 5 days
two people need to use the same file, the first person d Centre number 999999 where 9 represents a digit
44

45
843716_CSEC_IT_CH02.indd 44

21/12/2018 09:36 843716_CSEC_IT_CH02.indd 45

Sample pages from IT for CSEC© 21/12/2018 09:36

Student Book, Unit 2

 Contents

1 Fundamentals of hardware and software 5.4 Reviewing your work 116

1.1 Basic computer components 6 5.5 Combining files and importing data 120
1.2 Input devices and media 8 5.6 Table of contents 122
1.3 Output devices 15 5.7 Mail merge 124
1.4 Primary memory 19 5.8 Printing the document 129
1.5 Secondary storage 21 5.9 Fillable electronic forms 130
1.6 System software 26 End of chapter exam-style questions 136
1.7 Data processing 27
1.8 Application software 29 6 Web page design
1.9 User interfaces 31 6.1 Introduction to web page design 138
1.10 Types of computer systems 34 6.2 Designing a web page 141
1.11 Common computer hardware problems 36 6.3 Creating a web page 147
End of chapter exam-style questions 38 End of chapter exam-style questions 150

2 Information processing 7 Spreadsheets

2.1 Data and information 40 7.1 Introduction to spreadsheets 152
2.2 Validation and verification 42 7.2 Common spreadsheet features 154
2.3 Automated methods of data capture 46 7.3 Developing a simple spreadsheet 160
2.4 File organisation and access 49 7.4 Formatting a spreadsheet 170
2.5 Information processing 54 7.5 Searching for records 172
End of chapter exam-style questions 60 7.6 Charts 180
7.7 Printing a spreadsheet 185
3 Computer networks and web technologies 7.8 Importing files and linking data 186
3.1 Computer networks 62 End of chapter exam-style questions 188
3.2 Web technologies 70
End of chapter exam-style questions 77 8 Databases
8.1 Introduction to database management 191
4 Implications of misuse and cyber security 8.2 Common database management features 193
4.1 Computer vulnerability 79 8.3 Joining multiple database tables 200
4.2 Misuse of information 81 8.4 Capturing and entering data 203
4.3 Data protection 84 8.5 Searching and sorting 209
4.4 Impact of IT in the workplace 89 8.6 Calculated fields 217
4.5 Personnel in computer-related fields 94 8.7 Report formats 220
4.6 Implications of ICT 95 8.8 Importing and linking data 225
End of chapter exam-style questions 101 8.9 Developing database applications 227
End of chapter exam-style questions 228
5 Word processing
5.1 Introduction to word processing 103
9 Problem solving and program design
5.2 Document organisation 110 9.1 Introduction to problem solving 231
5.3 Tables and columns 112 9.2 Algorithm design 233
9.3 Pseudocode 235 Programming with Visual Basic for
12
9.4 Flowcharts 246 Applications
9.5 Arithmetic, relational and logical operators 252 12.1 Introduction to Visual Basic for
9.6 Testing algorithms 256 Applications 283
End of chapter exam-style questions 258 12.2 Writing in VBA 287

10 Program implementation Appendix

10.1 Programming languages 260 1 Information Technology School-Based
10.2 Writing a program 262 Assessment guidelines 292
10.3 Running a program 266 2 Teacher guidelines for the School-Based
10.4 Testing and debugging techniques 268 Assessment 295
10.5 Program documentation 270 3 Guidelines for problem solving and
End of chapter exam-style questions 272 program design 296

11 Programming with Pascal Answers to end of topic questions 298

11.1 Introduction to Pascal 274 Index 305
11.2 Structure of a Pascal program 277
11.3 Formatting the output of Pascal programs 280

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♦ Answers to all End of Chapter Exam-style
Questions in this book.
♦ Additional Exam-style Questions for
each chapter with sample answers and
examiner analysis.
♦ Interactive Paper 1 multiple choice test,
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with advice on online marking, SBA
alternative Paper 3
♦ Answers to all Workbook questions
♦ Comprehensive glossary of terms used in
this book.
www.oxfordsecondary.com/9780198437161
 P
HA TE

R
INFORMATION PROCESSING

2.1 Data and information

Data is raw, unprocessed facts. For example, the ◆ publications: hurricane-preparedness tips, research,
numbers 26, 29 and 30 represent data. We do not daily newspapers, media reports and trends in
know what the three numbers represent – they could chronic diseases
mean just about anything – such as the temperature ◆ questionnaires: opinion polls and market research
in degrees Celsius, the dates of interschool sports ◆ products: labels containing ingredients, quantities,
events or even the number of students in three classes. contents origin and dosage.
Information is processed data. The three numbers can
The value of information can include the cost of
therefore indicate what type of clothing to wear to keep
production, the cost of distribution and the value to
cool based on the temperature, how close the exams are,
the purchaser. The more valuable the information is to
or how many exam papers to print for each class.
the customer, the more the organisation can charge for
Data processing is the manipulation of data to obtain it. Also, customers may be willing to pay more to get
information. So, taking one of the examples above, information quickly.
finding the average of the three numbers gives an
With the rise of the Internet, two elements in this
indication of how warm the days have been.
value chain have changed. The cost of distributing
The term information system is given to any record- information has been reduced dramatically for web
keeping system. We come across information systems providers. Also, ‘free’ information may have additional
all the time. Common examples of manual information value. An online newspaper story may include graphs
systems are dictionaries and telephone directories. or pictures and links to other stories on the same
What these examples have in common is that data topic.
has been collected (input), processed and displayed
Once information is collected, it is often
(output) in order to provide useful information.
communicated directly to the person who wishes to
Information is collected for the purposes of use it. In order for it to be useful, information must be:
culture, leisure, work, research and everyday life. In
◆ relevant: it must be what the user needs to know,
organisations, however, it is mainly used for planning
and be up-to-date
and decision making. There are many sources of
◆ accurate: it must be as correct as possible
information, including, for example:
◆ timely: information should be provided for
◆ measurement: sales, productivity output, cash problem-solving before a critical stage is reached
receipts and opportunities are lost
◆ formal and informal communication: word of ◆ complete: it must represent a ‘whole’ picture of a
mouth, meetings, announcements, interviews problem or solution

40
 2.1 Data and information

◆ in an appropriate medium: it should be delivered ◆ information retrieval systems such as abstracting

using an appropriate communication medium, and indexing services
whether by printed material or storage device ◆ full text databases and reference materials such as
◆ cost-effective: the value of information should be encyclopaedias
more than the cost involved in its collection. ◆ other, less formal, publications such as subject-
specialised bulletin boards, which in some cases may
Information as a commodity replace the more traditional journals.
An information commodity is an item of information
that can be bought or sold. For example, with online
Questions
information you may have to pay a charge every time
that you access that information. 1 Explain what is meant when data is said to be
relevant.
The major types of information for sale are: 2 Name two characteristics of data, other than
relevance, that would determine if it is useful.
◆ databases, especially banking and other financial
3 What is the term given to an item of information
information that give demographic, tracking and
that can be bought or sold?
buying trends

41
 2.2
2.2 Validation
Validationand
andverification
verification

AAcommon
commonproblem
problemwith withmanually
manuallyentering enteringdata data Software
Softwareand
andhardware
hardwareerrors
errors
into
intoa computer
a computersystem
systemis isthat
thatit itis isvery
veryeasy
easytotoinput
input There
Therearearetwo
twotypes
typesofoferror
errorhere.
here. Software
Softwaremight
might
incorrect
incorrectdata.
data.
Examples
Examplesinclude
includeusers usersmistyping
mistypinga a malfunction,
malfunction, erasing
erasingororcorrupting
corruptingpreviously
previously
name
nameororaddress
addressinina database
a databasesosothat thatletters
lettersarearesent
sent entered
entereddata.
data.Hardware
Hardwaremay maydevelop
developa fault
a fault(often
(often
totothe
thewrong
wrongperson.
person. However,
However, it itis isalso
alsopossible
possibleforfora a intermittent)
intermittent)thatthatcorrupts
corruptsdata.
data. Examples
Examplesinclude
includebad
bad
device
devicetotomisread
misreada barcode
a barcodeand andtherefore
thereforenot notprovide
provide sectors
sectorsonona hard
a harddisk,disk,
bad
badmemory
memoryorora power a powersurge.
surge.
any
anyinformation
informationtotothe user.
the user. The
Theapplication
applicationmay mayappear
appeartotoacceptacceptdata
datacorrectly
correctlybut
but
when
whenthat
thatdata
datais isretrieved
retrievedit itis iscorrupt.
corrupt.
Errors
Errors
Errors
Errorsoccur
occurininany
anycomputer
computerinformation
informationsystem.
system. Transmission
Transmissionerrors errors
There
Thereareareseveral
severalapproaches
approachestotodealing
dealingwith
withthe
the Transmission
Transmissionerrors errorsoccur
occurwhen whendata
datareceived
receivedis isnot
not
problems
problemsthat thaterrors
errorscause,
cause,specifically
specificallypreventing
preventing thethesamesameasasthat thattransmitted
transmittedbybythe thesender
sender(Fig
(Fig2.1).
2.1).
errors
errors(so(sothat
thatthey
theydodonotnotoccur)
occur)and
anddetecting
detectingwhen
when
errors
errorsdodooccur
occur(so(sothat
thatthey
theycan
canbebecorrected).
corrected).Below
Belowa a
few
fewapproaches
approachesareareconsidered.
considered. FigFig
2.12.1
Illustration
Illustration
of transmission
of transmission
errors
errors

Data
Dataentry
entryerrors
errors Validation
Validation
Sometimes
Sometimesdata datacannot
cannotbebeautomatically
automaticallyscanned
scannedinto into Data
Data validation
validationis isthethecomputerised
computerisedchecking
checkingofof
the
thesystem
systemforforstorage,
storage, sosoa common
a commonway wayis istototype
type input
inputdata
dataforforerrors
errors(data
(datathat
thatmay
maybebeunreasonable
unreasonableoror
the
thedata
datadirectly
directlyinto
intothe
thecomputer
computersystem.
system.DataDataentry
entry incomplete)
incomplete)before
beforeit itis isprocessed.
processed.
ItItdoes
doesnot
notconfirm
confirm
errors,
errors,
such
suchasastransposition
transpositionerrors,
errors,
would
wouldthenthenoccur
occur the
theaccuracy
accuracyofofdata.
data.
There
Therearearedifferent
differentmethods
methodsofof
when
whenananoperator
operatorenters
entersdata
datausing
usinga keyboard
a keyboardand and validation.
validation.
TheThemostmostappropriate
appropriatemethod(s)
method(s)totouseusewill
will
mixes
mixesupupdigits
digitsand/or
and/orletters.
letters.
For
Forexample,
example, thethenumber
number depend
dependupon
uponwhat whatdata
datais isbeing
beingentered.
entered.
3232may
maybebeentered
enteredasas23. 23.Other
Othererrors
errorsoccur
occurwhenwhen
data
dataentry
entryrequirements
requirementsarearenot notclear.
clear.
DoDoyouyouinterpret
interpret Range
Rangecheck
check
07/01/2019
07/01/2019asasJuly July1 12019
2019oror7 7January
January2019?
2019?TheseThese Range
Rangecheck
checkensures
ensuresthat
thatthethedata
dataentered
enteredis iswithin
withina a
data
dataentry
entryerrors
errorscancanbebeeither
eitheraccidental
accidentalorordeliberate.
deliberate. certain
certainrange.
range.
For
Forexample,
example, when
whenyou youenter
entera number
a number
◆ ◆Accidental
Accidentalerrorserrorsoccur
occurunintentionally:
unintentionally:data datais is corresponding
correspondingtotoa month
a monthofofthe theyear,
year,
the
therange
rangeofof
entered
enteredorora command
a commandis isissued
issuedbybymistake,
mistake, iningood
good acceptable
acceptablenumbers
numbersis is1 1toto12.
12.
faith,
faith,but
butininerror.
error.
◆ ◆Deliberate:
Deliberate:if iferrors
errorsarearemade
madedeliberately,
deliberately, then
then
Reasonableness
Reasonablenesscheck
check
thetheuser
userprobably
probablyknows
knowsenough
enoughtotogetgetaround
aroundany any This
Thischeck
checktests
testswhether
whetherthe thedata
dataobeys
obeysspecified
specifiedcriteria.
criteria.
validation
validationchecks.
checks.Examples
Examplesinclude
includea disgruntled
a disgruntled For
Forexample,
example, the
theage
ageofofa child
a childatatpreschool
preschoolcould
couldbebe
employee
employeeentering
enteringfictitious
fictitiousdata
datainto
intoa company’s
a company’s about
about4 4years
yearsold,
old,
but
butnot
not1414years.
years.Reasonableness
Reasonableness
database.
database. Possible
Possiblesolutions
solutionstotothis
thisproblem
probleminclude
include checks
checksarearetherefore
thereforeused
usedtotodetect
detectdoubtful
doubtfuldata.
data.
file
fileaccess
accesspermissions
permissionsimposed
imposedbybythe theoperating
operating
system,
system, better
bettervigilance
vigilanceofofthe
theadministrator
administratorand and Data
Datatype
typecheck
check
thethecross-referencing
cross-referencingofofdata datawith
withother
othersupposedly
supposedly This
Thisis isalso
alsoknown
knownasasa character
a characterororalphanumeric
alphanumeric
reliable
reliablesources.
sources. check.
check. WhenWhena database
a databaseis iscreated,
created,
each
eachfield
fieldwill
will

4242
 2.2 Validation and verification

accept a specific type of data. Whenever data is entered It would be useful to have a consistency check to cross-
into a field the database will check that it is of the check the information in the ‘Are you unemployed?’
correct type, for example alphabetic or numeric. If it is and ‘Unemployment benefits claimed?’ fields, since you
not, then an error message will be displayed, and the should not claim for unemployment benefits if you are
data will have to be re-entered. still working. In this example, therefore, either an error
has been made on input or this is a deliberate attempt
Table 2.1 Examples of valid and invalid data types
to claim benefits while still working. Other examples
Field name Type Valid data Invalid data of consistency checks are:
Date of birth Date 19/10/1994 19/19/94, or 23
Percentage Numeric 56, 99 A+, Pass, 125, –15 ◆ Single mothers with children can claim for
mark childcare allowance. Check that the number of
children is not zero.
Notice that a type check is not a very good validation ◆ Only full-time employees are paid overtime. Check
check. There are many entries you could put in the that these fields correspond.
‘Valid data’ column in Table 2.1 that would pass the
type check but are clearly incorrect. Presence check
The data type check is particularly important if a fixed This type of check ensures that the data is actually
length field is defined to store the data. Any extra entered. It can be used on any field in a database. For
characters that exceed the maximum length would example, every person in a particular database must
be lost. Length checks are usually only performed on be assigned to a department. Therefore, a presence
alphabetic or alphanumeric data. check on each employee’s record could ensure that a
department is entered in the form.
Table 2.2 Examples of valid field lengths
Field name Maximum length Valid data Invalid data Format check
Student ID 6 826025 82–60–45
This check verifies that the data has been entered
Grade 2 B+, C A++, Fail
in the correct format. For example, a national ID
number may have the format 999-9999-X999, where
Consistency check 9 represents a number and X represents an alphabetic
A consistency check compares the contents of two character.
or more fields to make sure that they make sense. It
is also called an inconsistency check, since it mostly Length check
identifies errors and discrepancies in the data. This This check verifies that the data entered is the correct
check compares new data with previously entered length. For example, a password for a credit card may
data. For example, checking that the age entered be four digits long, therefore entering three or five
corresponds to the age calculation from the date of digits may result in an error.
birth. Consider the following employee record:
Check digit
Employment Status Form A check digit is an extra digit added to the end
Are you unemployed? No
of a code. It is used to detect errors arising from
Unemployment benefits claimed? Yes
transcription and also to ensure that codes originally
Number of years working 12
produced by a computer are re-entered into another
Current occupation Foreman
computer correctly. It is calculated from the other

43
2 Information processing

digits in the number. Check digits are included in delete files the computer may ask ‘Are you sure [y/n]?’
barcode numbers. or it may display a summary of input data and ask for
verification of its validity before the data is stored.

Interpretation of coded data

Before the responses to questionnaires can be analysed,
Fig 2.2 A barcode showing a check digit
they must be edited and coded before the data entry
process. The person coding these responses should have
no doubt as to what should be entered. This may sound
Verification simple, but consider the following case (Fig 2.3).
Data verification is the checking for mistakes such
as transcription errors when data is copied from one
medium or device to another. Verification checks do not
guarantee that the entered data is correct, it only checks
Fig 2.3 Coding involves assigning a label to each question
that the data entered matches the source data. Therefore,
you should be aware that if the original form was Coding involves assigning a label to each response, such
completed incorrectly, then the entered data may pass as 1 for ‘yes’ and 2 for ‘no’. Sometimes, people will write
some verification checks despite being incorrect. in a response such as ‘can’t remember’ or ‘unsure’, and
One way to guarantee that the data entered matches you must decide what to do. It could either be ignored,
the source data is a procedure called double (data) or a new code and value could be added to the question.
entry. Data is entered twice using a program that As another example, consider a library database where
checks each second entry against the first. For example, books are classified as being Fiction, Non-fiction or
some applications require users to enter their password Reference. This information could be stored as text in
twice. The application compares the two passwords to a database where the corresponding field length would
confirm that they are the same. In other applications be 11 to store the longest classification, ‘Non-fiction’.
where there is more data to be entered, the program Alternatively, the classifications could be coded like this:
produces a list with the pairs of data that do not match
so that the correct values can be re-entered. Classification Code
Fiction F
Non-fiction N
Visual checks
Reference R
Another verification method is to use on-screen
prompts. After a set of data is entered, it is redisplayed Coding information reduces the amount of storage
on the screen. The user is prompted to read it and space required and speeds up the process of typing the
confirm that it has been entered correctly. If the user information in. For coding to work properly everyone
has entered any data incorrectly, it is re-entered. needs to know what the correct codes are.
This method of verification is not very reliable
since many data entry personnel will not read the Problems associated with
information that is redisplayed or check it carefully shared data
against the source document. Accidental errors In organisations, information is constantly sent and
can also be prevented by verification in asking for received among various departments. Traditionally, if
confirmation of instructions. For example, if you try to two people need to use the same file, the first person

44
 2.2 Validation and verification

who found the file (in the filing cabinet!) made use of
it; the other person waited until the first returned the
file to the drawer. Computers and networks mean not
only that neither person has to search through a drawer
to locate the file, but also that both persons may access
the data file at the same time. At least, it may appear in
that way. Is this a good way to access data files?

Let us suppose that two teachers were both accessing

a data record for the student Amerra Taitt (Fig 2.4).
One teacher wishes to adjust the mark received in IT
from the original 69% to 96%. The second teacher
wishes to adjust the mark received in Geography from
18% to 81% (typo errors in both subjects!). What
happens when the records are saved to the main Fig 2.4 What happens if two people want to change data at the same time?
database? Will both changes be accepted?

Data-sharing in this manner can lead to problems of

data accuracy when the data records are saved. The
teacher who saves the changes first will have the marks
overwritten by the teacher who saves the changes last,
which of course will erase the changes made by the
first teacher. How can this problem be avoided? Fig 2.5 A well-structured database will prevent simultaneous access to the
same database record
Good databases avoid this problem by allowing only own usernames and passwords for the login process.
one user or system to access a data record at a time. There are also access privileges depending on the
When an attempt is made by a second person to access user’s level. For example, a student at the school
the same record, a message may be provided (Fig 2.5). will be allowed access to certain software such as
word processing, perhaps email facilities and limited
Computer systems that provide shared access to data
Internet access. A clerk will have access to student
must have security features in place. This prevents
records, personnel records, Internet access, email,
users from gaining access to data which they are
and payroll programs. The network administrator
not authorised to view or modify. The users of the
will have the highest level of access, including data
computer system should be provided with their
records of usernames and passwords and the network
administration and security software.
Questions
1 Explain the difference between data validation and data verification.
2 Give an example of a data-related hardware error.
3 Copy and complete the table below by giving an example of valid data for each item:
Field name Acceptable values Example of valid data
a Opening hours 8 am to 4 pm
b Bulk orders >250
c Standard shipping 3 to 5 days
d Centre number 999999 where 9 represents a digit

45
 2.3 Automated methods of data capture

Many of the output devices discussed in Chapter 1 Optical mark recognition and optical character
are human-readable, meaning that a hard copy of the recognition are often used together in a turnaround
output is printed as reports, graphs, charts and so on. document. Figure 2.6 shows an example of a
Other devices are machine-readable, meaning that the turnaround document used to record the reading on an
output is in a form that only a computer can process. electricity meter.
An example is output to a monitor. This is called soft-
copy output since it is not printed on paper or other
physical material.

Data-capture forms
These forms must be designed so that their
instructions are clear and concise, leaving no doubt as
to how to enter the data onto the form. For example,
the format for dates could be specified as ‘dd/mm/yyyy’
Fig 2.6 The meter reader has marked the reading as 7618 on this turnaround
so that the format ‘mm/dd/yy’ is not used in error. document

The responses from the forms are called human-

Another example of a turnaround document is
readable since data entry personnel manually enter the
the multiple-choice sheets used in examinations.
responses written on the forms. This method of data
Information such as the candidate number, subject
capture is liable to transcription and other errors when
and school code is printed on the multiple-choice
the data is entered into the computer. One method
answer sheet by the computer. The student takes the
of avoiding transcription errors is double (data) entry,
test and fills in the answer grid by making marks in the
where the data is entered twice by two different people
appropriate boxes using a pencil or ballpoint pen. The
and the computer will only accept the data if the two
form is then returned to the examination council to be
versions are identical.
fed into a special reader.
Turnaround document
A turnaround document is a machine-readable
document that has some information printed on it by
a computer but has more information added to it by a
human. It is then fed back into a computer to transfer
this newly added information. These documents serve
two purposes. They are used to:
◆ verify the accuracy and completeness of information
that has already been entered
◆ update information already entered with additional
data.

Fig 2.7 Multiple-choice exam sheet

46
 2.3 Automated methods of data capture

Optical character recognition (OCR) is used Data logging

to read the student’s pre-printed information
Computers are often used by companies and scientists
from the form, whereas optical mark recognition
to automatically measure and record changes in
(OMR) is used to read the answers that have been
conditions such as the temperature, the speed at which
added. All the information can be read into the
a ball is travelling in sports such as cricket and baseball,
computer automatically. The sheet is marked, and the
the amount of light or oxygen in a room or even the
total mark is printed without any need for human
level of noise being made by vehicular traffic near a
intervention.
hospital.
Turnaround documents allow cheap, fast input of
Data logging is a method of automatic data capture
information into a computer system. Data can also be
where a reading from a sensor is input at regular
printed on turnaround documents in barcode format.
intervals. This data can then be processed to provide
analysis of the environment (Fig 2.9).
Alternatives to turnaround documents
In some industries, turnaround documents are being
replaced by small handheld computers, including
mobile devices. These pocket-sized devices have a
display screen and touchscreen keyboard. For example,
many local utility companies now issue their meter
readers with handheld computers. At the start of the
day the names and addresses of the customers to be
visited are downloaded into the computer. As the meter
reader visits customers’ homes, he or she types the
meter readings into the computer. At the end of the
day the readings can be transferred automatically onto
the main computer to issue bills. Another example
involves courier services that equip drivers with
these devices. As the courier delivers a package, the
recipient uses a stylus to sign the delivery document
on the device. This signature is captured digitally and
uploaded to the database as proof of delivery.

Fig 2.9 This student is checking water quality using a sensor connected to a
data logger. This data can then be processed to provide analysis of chemicals
Fig 2.8 Turnaround documents are being replaced by small handheld in the water
computers

47
2 Information processing

Temperature
sensor
Input Output
connections connections

INTERFACE

Computer
Light
sensor

Fig 2.10 Components of a data logging system

A data logging system consists of sensors connected into small amounts of microfilm or microfiche with
via an interface to a computer and some data no special programming. The drawback of computer
logging software (Fig 2.10). The sensors will take output microfilm or microfiche (COM) is that it takes
measurements and at required intervals the software a special device to print the microfilm and a special
will record the data. The results can then be displayed viewer to read it.
as a graph or a table.

Microfilm Questions
Microfilm is often used as an alternative to the printer. 1 State which of the following output is hard-copy
The output is ‘printed’ on a roll of film (computer output or soft-copy output:
a human-readable
output microfilm) or sheet of film (computer output
b machine-readable.
microfiche) rather than paper. In addition to being
2 Give an example of a document that is machine-
faster, this method also condenses large stacks of paper
readable.

48
 File
Fileorganisation
organisationand access 2.4
andaccess 2.4

File
Fileorganisation
organisationand andaccess
accessrelates
relatestotothe
theuse
useofof ◆ ◆add:
add:put
puta new
a newrecord
recordinto
intothe
themaster
masterfile
file
records,
records,fields
fieldsand
andfiles.
files. ◆ ◆update:
update:change
changethethecontents
contentsofofa record
a recordorora field
a field
that
thatalready
alreadyexists
exists
◆ ◆AAfield
fieldcontains
containsa single
a singledata
dataitem,
item,and
andmany
manyfields
fields
◆ ◆delete:
delete:remove
removea record
a recordfrom
fromthethemaster
masterfile.
file.
comprise
comprisea record.
a record. Each
Eachfield
fieldhashasa name
a nameand andone
oneis is
the
thekeykeyfield
fieldused usedtotoidentify
identifythe therecord.
record. Record
Recordmatching
matching
◆ ◆AA record
recordis isa collection
a collectionofofrelated
relateddatadatafields
fields
AAprimary
primary keykeyis isnormally
normallyused usedtotoidentify
identifythetherecord
record
(possibly
(possiblyofofdifferent
differentdata
datatypes)
types)and andtreated
treatedasasa a
you
youwant
wanttotoupdate
updateorordelete.
delete.ItItis isa field
a fieldininthe
therecord
record
single
singleitem
itemforforprocessing.
processing.
whose
whosevalue
valueis isunique
uniquetotothatthatrecord.
record. For
Forinstance,
instance,inina a
◆ ◆AA data
datafile
fileis isa collection
a collectionofofrecords
recordsholding
holdingthe the
student
studentrecord,
record, the
theStudent
StudentIDIDis isnormally
normallyused usedasasthe
the
same
sametypetypeofofinformation
informationbut butabout
aboutdifferent
differentobjects
objects
key
keyfield.
field.
Without
Withouta key a keyfield
fieldtotoidentify
identifythe therecord
recordyou you
ororindividuals.
individuals.
want
wantyouyoucannot
cannotdeletedeleteororupdate
updaterecords.
records.
AAfile
filehas
hasthree
threeimportant
importantcharacteristics:
characteristics:
ToTodelete
deleteororupdate
updaterecords
recordsinina master
a masterfile,file,
compare
compare
1 1ItItcan
canbebepermanent
permanentorortemporary.
temporary. the
theprimary
primarykey keyininthe
thetransaction
transactionrecord recordwith
withthat that
2 2The
Therecords
recordsofofthe
thefile
filearearespecially
speciallyorganised
organisedonon ininthethemaster
masterfilefilerecord.
record.IfIfthere
thereis isa match,
a match, you youcancan
the
thesecondary
secondarystorage
storagedevice.
device. This
Thisis iscalled
calledfile
file update
updateorordelete
deletethe themaster
masterfilefilerecord.
record. IfIfboth
bothfilesfiles
organisation.
organisation. areareordered
ordered(sorted)
(sorted)ononthe thekey
keyfield,
field, then
thenthis
thisrecord
record
3 3Records
Recordsareareaccessed
accessed(or(orlocated)
located)using
usingdifferent
different matching
matchingoperation
operationfunctions
functionscorrectly,
correctly, butbutif ifeither
either
methods.
methods. the
thetransaction
transactionororthe themaster
masterfilefileis isunordered,
unordered, record
record
matching
matchingcannotcannotwork.work.
Master
Masterand
andtransaction
transactionfiles
files
Many
Manybusinesses
businessesandandorganisations
organisationsregularly
regularlyaccess,
access,
modify
modifyand andstore
storelarge
largeamounts
amountsofoffiles.
files.
These
Thesefiles
filesareare
given
givenspecial
specialnames
namestotoidentify
identifytheir
theirpurpose.
purpose. AAmaster
master
file
fileis isa permanent
a permanentfile filewhich
whichis iskept
keptup-to-date.
up-to-date. ItIt
stores
storesthe themain
maininformation,
information, summary
summarydata dataandandkeykey
fields
fieldsininthe thedata.
data.

The
Themaster
masterfile
filecontains
containstwo
twotypes
typesofofdata:
data:
◆ ◆permanent
permanentdata,data,
such
suchasasemployee
employeepersonal
personaldata,
data,
payroll
payrolldata
dataemployee
employeestatus
statusandandjob
jobtitle
title
◆ ◆temporary
temporarydata,
data,
which
whichis isupdated
updatedonona regular
a regularbasis,
basis,
FigFig
2.11
2.11
Updating
Updating
a master
a master
filefile
withwith
a transaction
a transaction
filefile
such
suchasashours
hoursworked
workedand andtaxes
taxesdeducted.
deducted.
There
Therearearethree
threepossibilities
possibilitieswhen
whenupdating
updatinga master
a master
AAtransaction
transaction file
fileis isa temporary
a temporaryfile filewhich
whichis isused
used
file:
file:
totoupdate
updatethe
themaster
masterfile fileafter
aftera certain
a certaintime
time(at(atthe
the
endendofofeach
eachdaydayororweek,
week, forforexample).
example). The
Thetransaction
transaction 1 1Transaction
Transactionrecord
recordkey
keyis islesslessthan
thanthe
themaster
masterfile
file
file
fileupdates
updatesthe
themaster
masterfile. file.
TheTherecords
recordsininthe
the record
recordkey.
key.
transaction
transactionfilefileareareused
usedtotoperform
performthree
threeimportant
important The
Thetransaction
transactionrecord
recordis isadded
addedtotothe themaster
masterfile.
file.
operations:
operations: Next
Nexttransaction
transactionrecord
recordis isread.
read.

4949
2 Information processing

2 Transaction record key is equal to the master file is, they have not been sorted into any particular order.
record key. Examples of serial files (also called unordered files)
The master record is deleted or updated. include unsorted invoices for customers for the day,
Next transaction record is read. and a typical shopping list. Serial files can be stored
3 Transaction record key is greater than the master on tape, disk or in memory. A serial file is used mainly
record key. for backup purposes. Recording data in the order in
No more transactions for this master record. which transactions are made is also useful if you need
Write master record to new master file. to restore transactions that have been lost from the
Read next master file record. master file through hardware or other problems.

Processing errors Unordered file Ordered file

Record M Record A
Table 2.3 lists some errors or situations which can
Record H Record B
occur during processing.
Record B Record G
Table 2.3 Error messages during file processing Record N Record H
Situation Error
If the master file encounters No data found A sequential file is one in which the records are stored
an ‘end of file’ marker in the in sorted order on one or more key fields. Examples of
transaction file, then there is sequential files include invoices for customers sorted
no data on which to update on customer number, and class registers sorted on last
the master file name. Magnetic tape is sequential by its very nature,
If you are searching for a Record does not exist or just like listening to a cassette tape or watching a
record to update or delete in invalid primary key in the
movie. To access a particular section or continue from
the master file, and it is not transaction record. If you
found reach the end of the master
where you left off, you must start at the beginning and
file before the end of the scan forward until you reach the specific one.
transaction file, then either
you are adding new records Searching for a record
in the transaction file to the To search for a particular record, all the preceding
master file, or you are not
records must be read. The main drawback to inserting,
updating the most current
deleting or amending records in both serial and
master file, or your master file
may be corrupt sequential files is that the entire file must be read and
If you are searching for a Trying to add a record that then the records written to a new file. Since disk access
location to add a record in already exists is slow, computer time is wasted even if only a few
the master file, and you find records are involved. For instance, if 10 records are to
the record be added into a 1000-record file, then 1000 records will
have to be read from the old master file and after the
Serial and sequential file 10 insertions from the transaction file, 1010 records are
written to the new master file. It therefore takes a long
organisation time to insert a new record with serial organisation.
Serial file organisation is the simplest type of file To maximise efficiency of processing, use sequential
organisation. The records are arranged one after organisation, where the records are arranged in order by
another, in the order in which they were added. That the value of the key field common to all records.

50
 2.4 File organisation and access

Summary of reading, writing and sorting the same order improves the efficiency of the updating
for sequential files process.
Read access To amend a record in a sequential file:
◆ Records are read from the beginning of the file until
the desired item is found 1 All the records with a key value less than the record to
◆ If accessing a record, access time is increased to read be amended are read and then written to the new file.
the entire file or many records but decreased if few 2 The record to be updated is read, any changes are
records are to be accessed applied to it and the updated record is written to
Write access the new file.
◆ Adding records to the end of the file is easy (may re- 3 Finally, all the remaining records are written to the
quire sorting). However, it is difficult to add or delete new file.
data in the middle of the file.
Sorting Deleting a record
◆ Sequential files are often sorted on the record key to With both types of files, the only way to delete records
make processing simpler. However, sorting can be is to create a new file which omits the records marked
time consuming for large files. for deletion.

To delete a record in a serial file:

Adding a record
1 Compare each record with a key value of the record
For serial files, you simply add the new record to
to be deleted (since the transaction file is not sorted).
the end of the file. However, the major purpose of
2 If it is not the record to be deleted, then write that
sequential files is to preserve the ordering of the file.
record to the new file.
This means that the record must be inserted into the file
3 When the record to be deleted is encountered it is
in the correct position and not at the end of the file as
not written to the new file.
with serial files. Also, you cannot just insert all changes
4 Finally, all the remaining records are written to the
to records in sequential files into the existing file – you
new file.
must create a new file that contains the inserted records.
To delete a record in a sequential file:
The algorithm for adding a record is:
1 All the records with a key value less than the record
1 All the records with a key value less than the record to
to be deleted are written to the new file.
be inserted are read and then written to the new file.
2 When the record to be deleted is encountered it is
2 The record to be inserted is written to the new file.
not written to the new file.
3 Finally, the remaining records are written to the
3 Finally, all the remaining records are written to the
new file.
new file.
Updating a record
Updates are normally done using magnetic tape in Direct access file organisation
batch mode. All the updates are gathered together into A direct access file, also called a random access file,
a transaction file, and then applied to the master file allows access to a particular record in the file using
together. Updating, therefore, is again accomplished by a key. This makes it much easier to find, read, delete,
creating a new file which contains the updated records. update and insert records. The file is organised like a
Sorting the master file and transaction file records in one-dimensional table on disk where each record is a

51
2 Information processing

part of the table. The record number acts like a table organised in ascending order and stored on disk. The
index to allow you to find the records. primary key in the table is used as an index to the
record. It is just like the index of a book where the key
You can access a record directly or randomly by
value (topic) has a pointer to the storage location (page
calculating its location using a mathematical formula
number) where the information is stored.
and going directly to the record. For example, when
you input an ID number, the mathematical formula Many applications require a mix of sequential and
uses it to produce a value that points to the storage direct processing of records. Consider a file containing
location on disk where the record can be found. customer accounts with three fields: ‘Account Number’,
‘Credit limit’ and ‘Balance’. Every time a customer
Direct access files also support sequential access by
wants to make a purchase, his or her credit limit and
allowing the records to be read one after another.
balance must be checked; this requires individual
The records in a direct access file are not sorted in
access to his or her record. Every month, a statement
ascending or descending order, but are stored in
must be produced for each customer; this requires
random order.
sequential access to the whole file.
With hard disks, direct access is possible. With an
An index is a special file of records with two
audio compact disk, for example, you can play the
attributes: record key and the storage address of the
songs in random order or go directly to the track you
corresponding record in the indexed file. A partial
want to hear. However, not only must the medium
index containing the highest or the lowest key
allow for random access to records, but the file itself
value in each block of records is useful when the
must be organised so that you can go directly to the
index itself is organised sequentially. Ideally, you want
record you want to retrieve. This can be compared to
to have the index in main memory. Then you can
sequential organisation, as on a magnetic tape. You
search the index quickly to obtain the storage address,
have to start at the beginning and run the tape forward
and then retrieve the required record in a single disk
until you get to the song you want to hear.
access.

Summary of direct access file organisation Searching for a record

This organisation is best for: The search key is compared with the index keys to find
◆ files which seldom change in size the highest index key that comes before the one you
◆ files which require frequent updates are searching for. Then a linear search is performed
◆ single record enquiries and updates from there onward, until the search key is matched or
◆ processes which require fast access to records until the record pointed to by the next index entry is
◆ storage of master file records on direct access media reached.
only (such as hard disks) For example, suppose you are in a supermarket where
◆ accessing disk file records sequentially or directly. the items are stored on the shelves in alphabetical
If processed directly, they need not be processed in order. order (Fig 2.12). You wish to find forks. Instead of
walking up and down each aisle, you look up at the
listing (index) of what is in each aisle. This tells you
Index sequential file organisation which aisle to walk down to find the forks. You know
An indexed file is used to speed up the key search to stop looking once you have found forks on the
in a file. You can think of it as a one-column table listing (Fig 2.13).

52
 2.4 File organisation and access

In spite of the double file access (index + data) needed Summary of index sequential access file
by this kind of search, the decrease in access time with organisation
respect to a sequential file is significant. ◆ Instead of having an index entry for each record,
have an entry for each block of records starting
12 Apples from the lowest or highest record.
Index Highest key
13 Bananas ◆ Leave spaces in each block to allow for easy
1 15
15 Cherries insertions.
2 18
Table 2.4 summarises methods of access to a record for
3 24
19 Cups
a variety of file structures.
4 30
21 Forks Table 2.4 Searching for a record can be achieved through
23 Plates various file organisations
File structure Structure Access method
Fig 2.12 Index sequential file access
name details
Serial file Unordered Sequential access
records
Sequential file Ordered Sequential access
records
Partially Ordered Sequential access to index,
indexed file records followed by direct access to
first record in the group, then
sequential access to find the
desired record
Fully indexed Unordered Sequential access to the index,
file records followed by direct access to the
data file
Direct access Unordered A calculation provides the address
file or ordered (location) of a record, followed by
Fig 2.13 Supermarket aisle signs are similar to index sequential searches records direct access to the record

Questions
1 Write the connection between a field, record and file. 4 State the type of file organisation for each of the
2 Why are master and transaction files needed in most following descriptions:
businesses? a records arranged one after another, in the order
3 What is the special name given to the field that in which they were added
normally identifies a record? b records stored in sorted order
c records stored in random order
d records stored with directory-type listings to
denote location.

53
 2.5
2.5 Information
Informationprocessing
processing

The
Theprocessing
processingofofdata dataintointoinformation
informationoccursoccurswhenwhen forforgoods
goodsand
andservices,
services,
communication,
communication, and
andthe
the
a machine
a machineororprocessor
processoracts actsononthe
theinput
inputit itreceives.
receives. exchange
exchangeofofinformation
informationwithwithother
otherpeople
peoplearound
aroundthe
the
AnAnexample
exampleofofthis thisis isananelectric
electrickettle
kettlewhich
whichsenses
senses world.
world.
when
whenthe thewater
watertemperature
temperaturereaches reachesboiling
boilingpoint
pointand
and
Table
Table
2.52.5
Advantages
Advantages
and
and
disadvantages
disadvantages
ofof
information
information
switches
switchesoff.off.
AAcarcarproduction
productionline linecan
cansense
sensewhenwhen processing
processing
a car
a carbody
bodyis isinina certain
a certainposition
positionand andthen
thenactacttoto
Advantages
Advantages Disadvantages
Disadvantages
weld
weldtogether
togetherthe therelevant
relevantpartspartsofofa car.
a car.
Information
Information ◆ ◆Tasks
Taskscan can
bebecompleted
completed ◆ ◆It may It may need
need a high
a highinitial
initial
processing
processingis isonly onlyvaluable
valuableif ifthetheinformation
informationcan canbebe faster
fasterbecause
because data
data investment
investment in in
equipment
equipment
stored
storedandandretrieved
retrievedquickly, accurately
quickly, accuratelyand andefficiently
efficiently andandinformation
information cancanbebe and
and training.
training.
and
andcannot
cannotbebechanged
changedaccidentally.
accidentally. processed
processed at at
amazing
amazing ◆ ◆More
More money
money maymaybebe
speeds.
speeds. needed
needed totoemploy
employ
Setting
Settingupupananinformation
information ◆ ◆Computer
Computer storage
storage devices
devices specialised
specialised staff
staff
toto
processing
processingsystem
system cancanstore
store
enormous
enormous operate
operate andanddesign
design thethe
amounts
amounts ofof
datadataand
and information
information processing
processing
Before
Beforesetting
settingupupananinformation
informationprocessing
processingsystem,
system,
aa information
information forfor
future
futureuse.
use. system.
system.
business
businessshould
shouldconsider
considerthe
thefollowing
followingquestions:
questions: ◆ ◆Automation
Automation cancanbebe ◆ ◆Some
Some jobs
jobsmaymay bebe
introduced.
introduced. That
Thatis,is,
tasks
tasks lost
lost
asas a result
a resultofof
◆ ◆Will
Willcomputerisation
computerisationreally reallysolve
solvethetheparticular
particular cancanbebe completed
completed with
with computerisation,
computerisation, which
which
problem?
problem? little
little
human
human intervention.
intervention. may
may lower
lower thethe
morale
moraleofof
◆ ◆IsIs
it itcost-effective
cost-effectiveininthe thelong
longterm?
term? ◆ ◆Management
Management cancananalyse
analyse staff
staffmembers.
members.
◆ ◆How
Howlarge largeis isthe
theamount
amountofofdata datatotobebehandled?
handled? newnew information
information and
and ◆ ◆Some
Some staff
staff
mustmustbebe
◆ ◆IsIs
high
highprocessing
processingspeed speedreally
reallyimportant?
important? trends
trends more
more quickly.
quickly. trained
trained ororretrained.
retrained.
◆ ◆Can ◆ ◆Data
Data andandinformation
information ◆ ◆Face-to-face
Face-to-face interaction
interaction
Canthe thepresent
presentstaffstaffmanage
managethe thesystem?
system?
cancanbebe shared
shared with
with other
other between
between staff
staff
maymaybebe
◆ ◆Will
Willthe thechanges
changescaused causedbybycomputerisation
computerisationlowerlower
computers.
computers. reduced.
reduced.
the
themorale
moraleofofstaff staff
??
◆ ◆How
Howcan canthetheloss
lossofofjobs
jobsbebehandled
handledproperly?
properly?
◆ ◆What
Whatcan canbebedonedonetotohelphelpstaff
staffadapt
adapttoto Health
Healthcare
care
computerisation?
computerisation? Information
Informationprocessing
processingininhealth
healthcare
caremay
maybebeused
usedto:to:

maintain
maintainpatient
patientrecords
recordsininhospitals
hospitalsandandclinics
clinics
Examples
Examplesofofinformation
information ◆ ◆

◆ ◆monitor
monitorpatients’
patients’
vital
vitalsigns
signsininhospital,
hospital,andandatat
processing
processing home
home
Information
Informationprocessing
processingcan canbebedonedoneininalmost
almostallall ◆ ◆perform
performcomputer-assisted
computer-assistedmedical medicaltests
tests
sectors
sectorsofofbusiness.
business.
ItItis isalso
alsobecoming
becomingincreasingly
increasingly ◆ ◆research
researchand anddiagnose
diagnosemedical
medicalconditions
conditions
popular
popularatathome
homewhere
wherebills billscancanbebepaid
paideither
either ◆ ◆operate
operateimplanted
implanteddevices
devicessuch suchasaspacemakers
pacemakers
bybyphone
phoneororononthe
theInternet.
Internet. Other
Otherpeople
peopleuseuse which
whichallow
allowpatients
patientstotolive livelonger
longer
information
informationprocessing
processingforforresearch
researchand andeducation
education ◆ ◆control
controlsurgical
surgicalinstruments
instrumentsduring duringoperations
operationsthat that
through
throughonline
onlineclasses
classeswherewhereassignments
assignmentsand andreports
reports require
requiregreat
greatprecision,
precision, forforexample
examplelaser
lasereye
eyesurgery
surgery
can
canbebesubmitted
submittedelectronically.
electronically. InInfact,
fact,
anyone
anyone and
andheart
heartsurgery
surgery
can
canuse
usethe
theInternet
Internettotofindfinda wealth
a wealthofofinformation
information ◆ ◆enable
enable‘telemedicine’
‘telemedicine’ through
throughcomputers
computerswith withvideo
video
such
suchasascurrent
currentaffairs
affairsnews,
news, stock
stockprices,
prices,educational
educational conferencing
conferencingcapabilities
capabilities
materials,
materials, online
onlinebanking
bankingand andinvestments,
investments, shopping
shopping ◆ ◆train
trainsurgeons
surgeonsbefore
beforetheytheyperform
performsurgery.
surgery.

5454
 2.5 Information processing

Banking
Computers are used to keep track of all bank
transactions. Customer accounts need to be updated
every time a payment transaction is made whether by
cheque, card or EFT (electronic funds transfer) at the
point of sale (EFTPOS) is useful for customers in a
shop. The bank card is inserted into a reader attached
to the point of sale (POS) terminal. The payment is
then made directly from the customer’s bank account
to that of the shop. The procedure is as follows:
Fig 2.14 Using a bank card in a reader attached to a point of sale terminal
1 The cost of all of the items to be purchased is added
up, usually on a computerised cash register.
Payroll example
2 The customer presents his or her debit or credit card
Input: This may come from a database of employees’
to the shop assistant.
details, such as salaries, pay rates, bonus rates if
3 The card is inserted so the chip can be read or
employees are paid by the hour, then timesheets would
swiped through a magnetic strip reader to input the
be used to input and validate the number of hours
card number and expiry date to a computer.
worked and number of hours overtime, possibly using
4 The card number, payment amount and identity of
OMR or OCR techniques.
the company that has sold the goods are sent to the
bank’s computer using a modem and telephone line. Processing: Using a software application such as a
5 The customer types a four-digit personal spreadsheet or more complex accounting software the
identification number (PIN) on the keypad and computer then needs to calculate the gross amount
presses the enter key to continue the process. earned by each employee, any bonuses, any deductions
6 The bank’s computer looks up the customer’s such as tax, national insurance, etc. and hence the net
account details in an accounts database. amount earned by each employee.
7 If the card is valid and the customer has enough
money in his or her account then the payment is Output: The computer would need to print pay-slips.
approved. Use an impact printer if the pay-slip is required in
8 The money is transferred electronically from the duplicate for the employee’s signature, or a non-impact
customer’s bank account to the company’s bank printer otherwise. Update the employee database using
account. a database integrated with the accounting software.
Output details of payments to a banker’s automated
Sometimes the magnetic strip reader cannot clearing service to pay money directly into employees’
automatically read the card number from the card. If the bank accounts using electronic commerce. Print
magnetic strip has been damaged, then the sales assistant summary reports.
can enter the card number using a small keypad.
Library
Payroll While travelling to a library to borrow books may be a
A payroll system uses an information processing regular activity for many students, libraries have been
system to calculate the wages of each employee, adjusting their collections, services and environments
print out pay-slips and record the information for for the digital world. Most university libraries provide
accounting purposes. online access for their staff and students via an

55
2 Information processing

e-information portal. This allows users to search online a button. In the sitting room, remote-control
databases for e-journals, e-books, and articles in the televisions, video recorders and audio systems have
online, digital or e-library. In some cases, users can also built-in control systems.
search for and request a paper-based version of the ◆ All modern cars have a management system which
article and then travel to collect it if it is available. tells the engine what to do. This can control the flow
of fuel to the engine and stops the engine from going
Library example too fast. Remote-control locks respond to a signal
Input: After logging in to the online library, the user from the key to operate the locks on the doors.
can search for an article in an online database by ◆ Buildings with air conditioning have sensors which
entering information such as a subject, the name of an detect the temperature and humidity inside the
author or the title of a journal or article. buildings and turn the heating or air conditioning on
Processing: The library’s online databases would have or off when needed.
files (tables) containing details about the books,
magazines and journals in the library. The system uses
the key terms entered to conduct the search.

Output: The e-library may show different options to

view the texts. For example, if a book is available for
online reading, then you may be able to download it as
a PDF document or read it in your browser, with special
e-reader software or a Kindle device. Some online
content offers audio features for the visually impaired or
is formatted to deliver book page images. Some online
libraries also provide links to other e-libraries and may
indicate if a hard copy is available. Fig 2.15 Control systems are around us all the time

Control systems In these examples many of the sensors have digital

outputs. In the traffic lights example, the embedded
You are surrounded by computer control systems but
sensor that detects an approaching vehicle needs only
probably do not know it. Here are some examples of
to know whether a vehicle is there or not. So an
control systems.
on/off digital sensor is adequate. A digital temperature
◆ Traffic lights are triggered by movement sensors or sensor would only be able to tell the system that the
the vehicle interacting with the sensor embedded environment is hot or cold. It would not be able to tell
in the road (Fig 2.15). A traffic light control system the system how hot or how cold it is.
would not be very useful or safe if it did not respond The processing of information is usually integrated into
adequately to the oncoming vehicles and stop a control system which has sensors to input information,
the traffic! To do this, there has to be a computer a processing unit (computer) which decides how to
program which is constantly looking at the data respond to the inputs, and output devices which do what
from the sensors and making decisions about what is required. A control system also needs an interface unit
the output device (the traffic lights) should do. between the computer and the input sensors and the
◆ In the kitchen, microwave ovens, washing machines output devices. This unit turns the signals from the sensors
and tumble dryers all have control systems inside into something that the computer can understand, and
them to make them do their job at the press of the signals from the computer into something that will

56
 2.5 Information processing

work the output devices. The purpose of the interface is to The number of people needed in such areas of work
make all parts of the system work with each other. has changed and usually been reduced. The skills the
workers need have also changed. Rather than doing
The processing unit in a control system may be a
the repetitive tasks themselves, they now keep the
computer which has a program built into it. It will
machinery running and monitor activities.
usually not be like the computers that you use, where
you change the program by loading a new program Industry example
from disk. The processing unit has a resident program Input: Sensors take readings at regular time intervals
in its electronic circuits. Such a system is called an and send the readings to the computer. Sensors may be
embedded controller. Embedded controllers have only measuring temperature, pressure, liquid flow rate and
one program in their electronics to do the job they so on.
were designed to do. This makes them much cheaper
to make because they do not need disk storage devices, Processing: The computer analyses the readings and
a keyboard, a mouse or a screen. Once the system has decides whether action needs to be taken.
been tested to make sure that it behaves as it should,
Output: The computer sends output signals to devices
these elements are not needed. The outputs will be the
which manage the process to increase pressure or
things that are being controlled, not a screen.
temperature, for example. Some systems use an
Status display actuator, which is a device that reacts to a computer
Micro processor
board O
signal and operates a simple device such as a tap, motor
I
N
U or switch to regulate liquid flow.
T
P CPU P
U RAM
ON
U Most of these systems use feedback, where the output
T
S
OFF T affects the input.
PAUSE S
ROM
Automatic door
Program stored here Weather forecasting
Sensors to detect approaching Some of the world’s most powerful computers are used
people (inside and outside)
to forecast the weather, which improves the accuracy
Sensor to detect people
between doors
of forecasts. People who rely on these forecasts include
television companies, shipping companies, farmers, the
Door control motor
military and outdoor sports organisations. Computer
Fig 2.16 A typical control system looks like this. Note that it does not have a
screen, disk or keyboard. The program is stored in ROM systems are also used to track hurricanes and tornados,
monitor global warming, and monitor the ocean for
Industry systems of currents such as El Niño. Automatic data
Sometimes, in industry, a whole manufacturing process recording for weather forecasting has several advantages:
is controlled automatically by a computer system. ◆ It is more accurate than manual data collection.
Computer manufacturing systems do many tedious and ◆ Computer data can be collected continuously
repetitive tasks. In electronic circuit production, the whereas humans may get tired, and it can also be
components are automatically put in the right place on collected in situations not safe for humans.
the circuit boards and then automatically soldered into ◆ It is extremely fast. Computers can easily take
position. The speed and accuracy at which these machines thousands of measurements in a second. This means
work are greater than those of skilled workers. The danger that events which could not be measured by a
to the workers from the heat generated by soldering is person can now be recorded for analysis later.
removed by having automatic soldering systems.

57
2 Information processing

Table 2.6 Sensors and their applications

Sensor Quantity measured Application
Temperature sensor How hot/cold it is Monitoring the temperature in an oven
Light sensor How light/dark it is Turning street lights on when it is dark
pH sensor The acidity of a liquid Monitoring water pollution
Proximity sensor Detects how close an object is to Detecting how close a vehicle is when its driver is
another object reversing near to a wall
Pressure pad If a pad is being pressed Detecting cars arriving at traffic lights
Button If the button is being pressed Obtaining a ticket to a paid car park
Light gate Detects an object passing through the gate Measuring the speed or acceleration of objects
Passive infrared (PIR) Detects when a warm object moves into an area Activating a burglar alarm if someone enters a room

Weather forecasting example balloons, aircraft, radar, weather ships and automatic
Input: Millions of pieces of data (observations such weather buoys. All these readings are sent to the
as temperature, pressure, humidity, infrared radiation) respective meteorological office’s computer systems.
are collected from satellites, weather stations, weather

Two-way
Hubble Space communications
Telescope Tracking and data
relay satellite

Two-way
communications
TDRS space
to ground link
Two-way
communications
White Sands
complex
in New Mexico

International
Space Station

Fig 2.17 Data is collected from satellites orbiting the earth

Processing: The data is stored in a large database. The Output: The forecasts are normally produced as global
first task is to perform a quality control check on the and local charts of weather information.
data (validation) and to reject all invalid readings.
Supermarket stock control
The data is formatted to fit in with a numerical model
Most businesses need to hold stocks of goods.
of readings. From this computer model, forecasts can
Shops need to hold stocks of goods they sell, and
be made. The bulk of processing is ‘number-crunching’
manufacturers need to hold stocks of raw materials and
and solving thousands of inter-related equations.

58
 2.5 Information processing

finished goods they make. The task of recording and ◆ Goods must not be overstocked. By keeping stocks
maintaining stock levels is called stock control. to a minimum, a business can limit the amount of
money invested in stock and also reduce the risk of
stock deteriorating before it can be sold. Minimum
stock levels also reduce storage costs such as
warehousing, heating, lighting and security.

A real-time stock control system

Input: The operator at a POS terminal only needs
to pass the barcode on each item past a laser scanner.
The scanner reads the code number stored in the
barcode and sends it directly to a computer. The
computer checks the code and, if it is valid, looks
up the product’s name and price in data files held on
disk. The name and price are sent back to the POS
terminal.

In this way the POS terminal can print out an

itemised receipt. Note that with POS systems,
prices are usually only marked on shelves and not on
individual items, which can cause customer confusion.
Each terminal has a keypad or keyboard that can be
used if a barcode cannot be read.

Processing: As each item is sold, the stock files are

updated so that customer service can be much quicker,
reducing queues. Few mistakes can be made in charging
customers. Prices can be changed easily. A fully itemised
bill can be provided for the customer. No staff are
needed for counting stock on shelves.
Fig 2.18 A point of sale terminal
Output: Orders are printed when stock levels reach a
A stock control system must keep an up-to-date
re-order point. Customer receipts are printed using
record of all the stock held and place orders for fresh
thermal printers.
deliveries if stock runs low. Large shops, supermarkets
and factories use computerised stock control systems.

Stock control is important as: Questions

1 Give an example of the processing required to
◆ Adequate stocks must be maintained to supply determine if a customer’s bill is overdue.
a customer with goods with minimum delay. If 2 Give three examples of data that sensors can be
customers find goods are regularly out of stock they used to measure.
will go elsewhere.

59
 22 End
Endofofchapter
chapterexam-style
exam-stylequestions
questions

Multiple
Multiplechoice
choicequestions
questions 7 7A A__________
__________ filefile
is is
a temporary
a temporary filefile
which
which
is is
used
used
toto
1 1The
Themanipulation
manipulation
ofof
data
data
toto
obtain
obtain
information
information
is is __________data
__________data ininthethe
main
main
file.
file.
called:
called: i itransaction,
transaction,
delete
delete
a a input
input ii iitransaction,
transaction,
update
update
b boutput
output iiiiiimaster,
master,
delete
delete
c c processing
processing ivivmaster,
master,
update.
update.
d dstorage.
storage.
8 8ToTo
find
finda record
a record
inin
a file
a file
using
usinga sequential
a sequential search,
search,
2 2Information
Information that
that
represents
represents
a ‘whole’
a ‘whole’
picture
picture
ofof
aa repeatedly
repeatedly __________
__________ a record
a recorduntil
until
the
the
required
required
problem
problem oror
solution
solutionis:is: record
record is is
found.
found.
a a accurate
accurate a a read
read
b bcomplete
complete b bsavesave
c c relevant
relevant c c write
write
d dtimely.
timely. d dupdate.
update.

3 3A A
__________
__________ check
check
compares
compares the
the
contents
contents
ofof
twotwo 9 9A A
fully
fully
indexed
indexed filefile
contains
contains
the
the
record
record
key
key
and
and
the
the
oror
more
morefields
fields
toto
make
makesure
sure
that
that
they
theymake
makesense.
sense. storage
storage address
address ofof the:
the:
a a consistency
consistency a a average
average key
keyvalue
value
b brange
range b bexact
exact keykeyvalue
value
c c data
data
type
type c c highest
highest keykeyvalue
value
d dformat.
format. d dlowest
lowest keykey
value.
value.

4 4Hardware
Hardware errors
errors
can
can bebe
caused
causedbyby
any
any
ofof
thethe 1010TheThe access
accessmethod
method that
thatcalculates
calculates
the
the
exact
exact
address
address
following,
following,
except:
except: (location)
(location) ofof
a record
a record
is is
most suitable
most suitable
forfor
which
which
type
type
a a bad
bad
sectors
sectors
onon a hard
a hard
disk
disk ofoffilefile
structure?
structure?
b bcorrupt
corruptRAM
RAM a a serialserial
c c power
power surge
surge b bsequential
sequential
d dprogram
program malfunction.
malfunction. c c fully fully
indexed
indexed
d ddirect directaccess.
access.
5 5Which
Which ofof
the
the
following
following
checks
checks
is is
used
used
toto
detect
detect Short
Shortanswer
answerquestions
questions
doubtful
doubtful data?
data? 1111A A
data
data
logging
logging system
system is is
used
used totorecord,
record, atat
specific
specific
a a length
length intervals,
intervals,the
the
temperature
temperature ofof
thethewater
water inin
anan
b brange
range aquarium.
aquarium.
c c data
datatype
type a a State
State one
oneitem
itemofof
hardware
hardware that
thatcancanbebe
used
usedtoto
d dreasonableness.
reasonableness. capture
capture the
thetemperature
temperature readings.
readings.
b bExplain
Explain what
what the
the
logging
logging system
system could
couldoutput
output if if
6 6AnAnarea
area
code
codemust
mustcontain
containthree
three
digits
digits
only.
only.
The
The the
the
temperature
temperature ofofthethewater
water is is
tootoohigh.
high.
following
followingchecks
checks
areare
suitable,
suitable,
except:
except: c c Describe
Describe oneone advantage
advantage ofofmonitoring
monitoring the
the
water
water
a a data
data
type
type using
using this
this
data
datalogging
logging system.
system.
b bformat
format
c c length
length
d drange.
range.

6060
 2 End of chapter exam-style questions

12 Aaron uses a login screen as shown below: d The four statements below show the different
descriptions during the experiment when
completing the sheet. Match each of the
descriptions with the most suitable term from
the list below:
Terms: source document/turnaround document/
machine-readable document/soft copy/hard copy
Statements:
i The blank sheet before the student writes in
results from the experiment.
ii The sheet is scanned and saved as a PDF file.
a Give two types of applications that would require iii Results from the data on the sheet are used to
a user to log on. produce a set of charts which are viewed on a
b Describe two security measures used on the monitor.
screen displayed. iv The completed sheet and charts are printed.
c Explain why the password must be entered twice. e A teacher needs to print 70 copies of the sheet for
d Explain whether re-entering the password twice is the next class.
an example of verification or validation. i Explain which type of printer would be
e Explain two messages that the system could show suitable for this task.
based on the information entered by the user. ii No pages are being printed, even if the
f After Aaron has entered his username and teacher selects the print icon repeatedly.
password, he needs to press one of the two Explain two possible causes of this problem.
buttons on the screen to continue. What type of 14 Consider the following illustration of a supermarket,
screen is Aaron using? where items are placed in aisles:
13 A student enters the following data from an Aisle Locator Item #
experiment on a sheet that contains the headings 1 35 25 – Carrots
and instructions on what to enter: 27 – Cucumber
Results sheet 29 – Lettuce
32 – Sweet pepper
Experiment Start End Temperature
number temperature temperature difference 2 50 38 – Disinfectant
40 – Liquid soap
1 40 50 110
43 – Scrub buds
b 50 65 15 47 – Sponges
3 52 68 Yes
a State the path taken to locate the:
a Three errors were made in the results sheet. i lettuce ii sponges.
Explain these errors. b Suppose you were looking for item #30 (ginger).
b Explain each of the following checks as it relates i State the aisle and locator that you would
to the results sheet above: choose and the item # that would indicate
i data type check whether it is there or not.
ii range check. ii What does the number of the locator
c Describe how the student could confirm that the represent?
data from the table is equivalent to the data on c Explain whether this is an example of direct,
the sheet. sequential or index-sequential file organisation.

61
Reinforce learning with the Workbook

2
What’s on the
Information processing online support?
Data and information l Answers to the End of
1. Consider the following comparison of readings. Chapter Exam-style questions
26°C
29°C 30°C
l Additional Exam-style questions with
sample answers and examiner analysis
l Interactive Paper 1 multiple choice test,
Practice Paper 2, worked SBA Paper 3,
with advice on online marking, SBA
a. What is the general name of the three objects in the figure? alternative Paper 3
b. Explain the difference between data and information.
l Answers to Workbook questions
c. Write two examples of data.
d. Describe a source of data shown in the figure. l Comprehensive glossary of terms
e. Write a statement of information based on the figure.

2. The object shown here is used to represent information about

a product. This barcode data is read and the information is
recorded and interpreted by a device each time a product is
purchased. The manager receives a weekly report on the sales of
the products from the computer system.
a. State the name of the object.
b. Give two examples of products that could have this object on them. Information processing

c. Describe a hardware device used to extract the data from this object. Methods of data capture
1. A student shades certain areas on a sheet to represent his responses to a set of
d. Explain whether the object represents direct data input or manual data input at the questions.
point of sale.

e. State two items of information the object may store.

f. State two items of information that the weekly sales report may contain.

10

9780198437208_Ch02.indd 10 27/12/18 3:00 PM

a. Indicate which of the following terms matches the descriptions:

Additional practice in the human readable document turnaround document source document
machine readable document
Workbook extends the skills
i. A sheet that has not yet been shaded is an example of a
students have learnt in class.
ii. The sheet after the student has marked his responses is an example of a

iii. The sheet with responses marked, submitted to the machine, is an example of a

iv. The machine prints the numbers as a table and plots them on a chart. These
results are examples of a

b. State the input device that is used with this type of sheet.
c. Describe how the student could confirm that the data from the printout is equivalent
to the data on the sheet.

d. Describe an error that the student could have made when shading the answers on
the sheet.

11

9780198437208_Ch02.indd 11 27/12/18 3:00 PM

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