Introduction to Ethics

MAMERTO L. RAGEL, JR., EdD

 The Human Act

knowingly, freely, wilfully

HUMAN ACTS VS. ACTS OF MAN
Human Acts are actions done intentionally and
freely.
Acts of Man are instinctive, such as
physiological and psychological movements.

Ethics does not study the Acts of Man in

themselves but as factors affecting man’s
judgment and violation.
 ATTRIBUTES: Knowingly, Freely, Willfully
1. Knowingly. When the doer is conscious and
aware of the reason and the consequences of his
actions. Every normal person of age is presumed
to act knowingly, but not children below the age of
reason, the senile and the insane.
2. Freely. When the doer acts by his own initiative
and choice without being forced to do so by other
person or situation. An action done under duress
and against one’s free will is not a voluntary
action.
3. Willfully. When the doer consents to the act,
accepting it as his own, and assumes
accountability for its consequences.
 KINDS OF HUMAN ACTS
A.ELICITED ACTS are those
performed by the Will but are not
bodily externalized.
B.COMMANDED ACTS are the
mental and bodily actions
performed under the command of
the Will. These are either internal or
external actions.
 KINDS OF HUMAN ACTS
A.ELICITED ACTS are the actions
done by will alone.
B.COMMANDED ACTS are those
involving both body and mind.
 EXAMPLE
On his way to taking the final exams, Felix
had decided to sit with Lucy, the class Top
1, in order to cheat. But when he arrived at
the classroom he found out that Lucy was
sick and unable to take the test at that time.
Thus, Felix ended up taking the test
without cheating.
 ELICITED ACTS
1. Wish is the tendency of the Will
towards an object, without considering
whether attainable or not (impossible
or remotely possible).
2. Intention is the tendency of the Will
towards an object which is attainable,
without necessarily committing oneself
to get it.
3. Consent is the acceptance of the Will
to carry out the Intention.
 ELICITED ACTS
4. Election is the selection of the Will of
those means necessary to carry out the
Intention.
5. Use is the command of the Will to
make use of the means elected to carry
out the intention.
6. Fruition is the enjoyment of the Will
due to the attainment of the intention.
 COMMANDED ACTS
1. INTERNAL ACTIONS are those performed
mentally such as reasoning, recalling,
imagining and reflecting.
2. EXTERNAL ACTIONS are those performed
bodily, such as walking, dancing, talking
and writing.
All external actions derive themselves from
the internal acts, since every deliberate act
is first thought of and decided mentally.
Paul Glenn: Being first in intention, but last in
execution.
 MORAL DISTINCTIONS
1. MORAL ACTIONS are those in conformity
with the norms of morality. They are good
and permissible actions such as working,
studying, paying debts, telling the truths, etc.
2. IMMORAL ACTIONS are those which are
not in conformity with the norm of morality.
They are evil and prohibited actions.
3. AMORAL ACTIONS are those stand neutral
or indifferent to the norm of morality. They
neither good or evil, but they may become
evil because of circumstances.
 INTRINSIC vs EXTRINSIC EVIL
IMMORAL ACTS are either intrinsically or
extrinsically evil.
1.An act is intrinsically evil when its
wrongfulness is part of the nature of such act.
Example: Stealing is an intrinsic evil because
you are depriving someone of his property
against his will.
2.An act is extrinsically evil when its
wrongfulness comes from the outside factor.
Example: Alms-giving and other charity acts.
 VOLUNTARINESS
Voluntariness, or VOLITION, (Latin:
voluntas) means the Will. An act is
voluntary because it is done under
the control of the will. It is either
1.Perfect
2.Imperfect
3.Simple
4.Conditional
 VOLUNTARINESS

1. Perfect Voluntariness is possessed by a

person who is acting with full knowledge
and complete freedom. Ex. Eating favourite
food, telling a story to a friend.
2. Imperfect Voluntariness is possessed by
a person who acts without full
understanding of what he is doing, or
without complete freedom. Ex. Performing
an act we dislike
 Imperfect Voluntariness
Actions that occur when there is no
perfect knowledge or consent, or when
either or both of the knowledge or
consent is partial.
Example:
A person who signs away some rights in
a contract without fully realizing what the
consequences of signing away those
rights could be.
 VOLUNTARINESS
3. Simple Voluntariness is the disposition
of a person performing any activity
regardless of his liking or not liking it.
3.1 Positive-requires the performance of
activity like taking a bus, going for a walk.
3.2 Negative-requires omission of activity
like not reciting, not doing an assignment.
 Conditional Voluntariness
It is a disposition of a person who is forced
by circumstances to perform an act that he
would not do under normal conditions.
DIRECTLY & INDIRECTLY VOLUNTARY

The result of an act which is primarily

intended is said to be directly voluntary.
The result of an act which follows or goes
along with the primarily intended act is
indirectly voluntary.
Ex. A student watches a movie to
entertain himself but misses his
classes.
DIRECT VOLUNTARY ACT

when the act is 
intended for its 
own sake, either 
as a means or as 
an end
EXAMPLE
 He  who  intends  to  go 
to  a  party  in  order  to 
drink  with  friends 
wills  both  the  going  to 
the  party  and  the 
drinking  with  friends. 
Both  acts,  therefore, 
are directly voluntary.
INDIRECT VOLUNTARY 
ACT
 an act which is not intended 
for its own sake but with 
merely follows as a regrettable 
consequence of an action 
directly willed.
 Refers to an act which is 
desired not as an end in itself 
but as a foreseen effect or 
consequences of an act.
 Refers to an act which is the 
foreseen consequence of 
another act directly intended.
 EXAMPLES
 Throwing precious cargoes from a sinking 
boat  to  save  lives  of  passengers.  Here  the 
throwing  and  losing  of  the  cargoes  is  not 
desired  or  intended.  It  comes  as  a 
consequence of saving lives of passengers.
 Going to a party to enjoy with friends but 
making  trouble  when  drunk.  The  making 
of  trouble  may  have  been  foreseen  and 
foreknown but it may have been intended; 
in which case, the act of making trouble is 
only indirectly voluntary.
 A person is accountable for
indirectly voluntary acts when:
1. The doer is able to foresee the evil
result or consequence in a general
way.
2. The doer is free to refrain from doing
the action which would result in the
foreseen evil.
3. The doer has the moral obligation
not to do that which would result in
something evil.
ACTS WITH DOUBLE EFFECTS: MORAL
PRINCIPLES by ALFREDO PANIZO
1. A person is held morally responsible
for any evil effect which flows from
the action directly willed and as a
natural consequence of such action,
though such evil effect is not
directly willed nor intended.
2. A human act with double effect,
good and evil, is morally permissible
under 4 conditions:
 ACTS WITH DOUBLE EFFECTS: MORAL
PRINCIPLES by ALFREDO PANIZO
THE 4 conditions:
1. The action which produces double effects
must be good in itself.
2. The good effect must not come from the evil
effect.
3. The purpose of the doer is the attainment of
the good effect.
4. The good effect must overweigh in
importance of the evil result.
THE SIGNIFICANCE OF HUMAN ACTS

Because human acts come from the

intellect and the will, they express the
thoughts and desires of a person,
revealing his moral character. Hence,
people are judged by their actions like
trees by their fruits. We condemn a
person for his evil deeds and we praise
him for doing what is good.
 A woman is pregnant with her three­
month­old  fetus  suffers  from  severe 
cough due to tubercolosis. She knows 
that  if  she  takes  medicine,  her  fetus 
may be aborted. Nevertheless, to free 
herself  from  the  illness,  she  takes  a 
considerable dose of medicines. Is the 
woman  morally  responsible  of  the 
death of the fetus?
 Yes,  because  she  foresees  the  evil 
effect of her intake of medicine.
 Should  a  man  be  restrained  from 
saving  his  honor  because  the 
reputation  of  a  high  government 
official  will  be  destroyed  from 
disclosures  so  he  has  to  make  in  his 
defense?
 Was it morally right to drop the atomic 
bomb which would shorten the war, but 
which  would  destroy  thousands  and 
thousands of innocent lives?
 Is  it  morally  right  to  do  an  act  which 
entails  bad  as  well  as  good 
consequences?
 APPLICATIONS:
 One may not tell a lie even for the purpose of 

saving one’s honor, or in order to win a case, 
etc., without incurring moral guilt, because 
while the end is good the means employed 
(lying) is bad.
 It is not morally justified to shorten the life of 

one dying even with the intention of saving him 
from the prolonged and useless pain and 
suffering.
 It is not morally justified to shorten the life of 

one dying even with the intention of saving him 
from the prolonged and useless pain and 
suffering.
 It is immoral to practice intentional abortion for 

any reason whatsoever.
 MODIFIERS OF HUMAN ACT
1. IGNORANCE. It is the absence of knowledge
which a person ought to posses.
a.Vincible Ignorance. One which can easily
corrected through ordinary diligence. (lessens voluntariness)

b.Invincible Ignorance. One which is not easily

remedied, because the person is either not aware
of his state of ignorance, or aware of it but does
not have the means to rectify such ignorance.
(honest mistake)

c.Affected Ignorance is one which intentionally

kept in an effort to escape responsibility.
(decreases voluntariness but increases accountability)
 MODIFIERS OF HUMAN ACT
2. PASSIONS (Concupiscence) are
psychic responses. They are either
tendencies towards desirable objects
(positive emotions), or tendencies away
from undesirable objects (negative
emotions).
Positive emotions such as love, desire,
delight, hope, bravery, etc.
Negative emotions such as hatred, horror,
sadness, despair, fear, anger, etc.
 MODIFIERS OF HUMAN ACT
PASSIONS are either ANTECEDENT or
CONSEQUENT.
a.Antecedent Passion comes as a natural
reaction to an object or stimulus without being
aroused intentionally. It weakens will power but
not completely blocking it, thus lessens
accountability over an act.
b.Consequent Passion is the result of an act
which causes it to be aroused. Because it is a
direct result of the consenting will, it increases
the accountability.
 MODIFIERS OF HUMAN ACT
3. FEAR is the disturbance of the mind of
a person who is confronted by a danger to
himself or loved ones.
Acting with Fear – actions which are difficult
or dangerous are done like new experiences,
being left in the dark or speaking in front of a
crowd.
Acting out of Fear – when fear causes a
person to act like to jump from the top floor of
a burning building.
 MODIFIERS OF HUMAN ACT
PRINCIPLES OF FEAR
1. Acts done with fear are voluntary and
are accountable.
2. Acts done out of fear, however great,
is simply voluntary, although it is also
conditionally voluntary. Voluntary because
the person remains in control of his
faculties. Conditionally voluntary because
if it were not for the presence of danger,
the person would not have acted.
 MODIFIERS OF HUMAN ACT

4. VIOLENCE. It is any physical force

exerted on a person by a free agent for
the purpose of compelling said person
to act against his will. Insults, torture,
isolation, starvation and humiliation
are examples of violence.
 MODIFIERS OF HUMAN ACT

PRINCIPLES OF VIOLENCE.
1. External or Commanded Acts performed
by a person subjected to violence, to which
reasonable resistance has been offered, are
involuntary and not accountable.
2. Elicited Acts, or those done by the will
alone, are not subject to violence and are
therefor involuntary.
 MODIFIERS OF HUMAN ACT
5. HABITS. These are the readiness,
born of frequently repeated acts, for
acting a certain manner. Habits are
acquired through a repetition of an act
over a period of time. They are either
good or bad, and becomes like a second
nature, moving one to do something with
relative ease without much reflection.
 MODIFIERS OF HUMAN ACT
PRINCIPLES OF HABITS
1.Actions done by force of habit are voluntary in
cause, unless a reasonable effort is made to
counteract the inclination.
2.Habits are voluntary in cause, because they
are a result of previously willed acts done
repeatedly over a period of time. However,
when a person exerts consistent efforts to
counteract the habit, the actions resulting
from such habit are regarded as acts of man,
and therefor, not accountable.
 MODIFIERS OF HUMAN ACT
6. POVERTY. It is never an excuse for
committing a crime just as wealth does not
justify abuses. But there is a correlation
between poverty and crimes. People who are
dirt poor and starving are unlikely to think
about their morals.
Nobody deserves to be a poor. It is a social
evil that must be corrected by the State. It
becomes an act of injustice by the State that
fails to look after the welfare of the people,
neglecting their economic needs.
 ACTION & EMOTION
Man is not a robot devoid of feelings.
Every human act involves a person
emotionally.
Emotions are natural and beneficial. The
positive tendencies of love, kindness,
humility, reverence and justice express
approval of what is good and worthy in
an object. The negative tendencies of
anger, horror and hatred express
disapproval and repudiation of evil.
 REFINEMENT & EMOTION
EMOTIONS, however, need to be
subjugated to reason because unbridled
passions could lead to his perdition. One
must learn to rein his emotions and work
them to his advantage.
Moral perfection comes from within.
Filipinos speak of a good person
possessing “mabuting kalooban,”
“mapagmahal,” “matulungin sa kapwa” at
“may takot sa Diyos.”
 QUIZ (10 pts. each)
1.Why are we accountable for our
actions?
2.How should we manage our
passions?
ASSIGNMENT (10 pts. each)
1.Is it morally permitted to tell a lie in
order to avoid torture?
2.Is helping somebody morally wrong if
we do not enjoy doing it?
The Ends of Human Act
The Ends of Human Act
Man does not act aimlessly. Every
Action is done for a purpose. The
purpose of human act is significant
because it defines the nature of an act
and reveals the moral judgment of the
doer.

The “end” is the purpose or goal of an

act. It is either the end of an act itself or
the end of the doer.
 END OF THE ACT
It is the natural termination or completion of an
activity. Actions are identified by their natural
end.
Identify the ends of the following acts:
1.Eating 6. Stealing
2.Reading 7. Receiving a gift
3.Basketball
4.Buying
5.Selling
 END OF THE DOER
It is the motive or reason why a person
performs an act.
1. A person eats either to
a.Appease hunger
b.Indulge his appetite
2. A housewife saves money because
she wants to
a.Buy an appliance
b.Pay for a vacation
 KINDS OF END
1. PROXIMATE END
The purpose which the doer wishes to
accomplish immediately. REMOTE END is
the purpose which the doer wishes to
accomplish sometime later.
EATING
Proximate end: satisfaction of hunger
Remote end: promotion of one’s health
 KINDS OF END
2. INTERMIDIATE END
That which is sought as a means for obtaining
another thing. ULTIMATE END is that which is
desired for its own sake. The intermediate end
may either lead to another intermediate, or to an
ultimate end. The ultimate end completes an act.
ULTIMATE END: TO GRADUATE
INTERMEDIATE ENDS:
 ACTION & MOTIVATION PRINCIPLES
1. Every action is performed for the
sake of a definite end or purpose.
2. Every action is intended towards
an ultimate end.
3. Every doer moves himself
towards an end which he thinks
suitable to him.
 END AS A GOOD
Man acts in order to obtain
something good to himself. Therefore
the concept of good is synonymous to
that of end or purpose. Man does not
desire evil for its own sake. Only what
is good could be the end or purpose of
an act, either the ultimate of
intermediate end.
GOOD is anything which fits or suits a
function. - ARISTOTLE
 END AS A GOOD
EXAMPLES:
1.Food is good either because it suits
one’s taste, or for nourishment.
2.Clothes are good because it fits the
personality of the user, or they provide
comfort.
3.Actions are good when they fit the moral
integrity of a person.
 Kinds of GOOD
1. ESSENTIAL & ACCIDENTAL.
Essential good justify the need of a
person as a human being. Food,
clothing, shelter, tools, educations are
examples of it. Accidental good is that
which satisfy the wants of a person
because of his particular situation.
 Kinds of GOOD
2. REAL & APPARENT
Real good is anything which has
intrinsic value. Activities, relationship
or persons.
An apparent good is an evil which is
viewed subjectively as something of
value. Cigarettes, prohibited dugs and
other vices.
 Kinds of GOOD
3. PERFECTIVE & NON-PERFECTIVE.
Perfective good is that which contributes
to integral growth or development of a
person, like education, virtues, sports and
medicines. Non-perfective good is
anything which merely contribute to the
external appearance of a person, like
expensive clothes, car, jewelries.
 Kinds of GOOD
4. PERFECT & IMPERFECT
Anything lacking in some qualities
is imperfect. All material things are
imperfect.
A perfect is a real good endowed
with all essential qualities needed
to justify a need.
 THE GREATEST GOOD
SUMMUM BONUM, the Greatest Good, is
that which is perfect in itself and capable
of satisfying all human desires. It is also
the ultimate good, because it is the
absolutely final thing which is sought for its
own sake.
The purpose of human existence is the
attainment of the greatest good. The
greatest good, according to Aristotle, is
happiness.
 HAPPINESS
Happiness is either subjective or objective.
a.Objectively, happiness refers to
something having intrinsic value and
capable of satisfying a human need.
b.Subjectively, it is a psychological state of
feeling contented resulting from the
attainment of that which is good in itself.
The toy (objective) makes the child happy
(subjective).
 HAPPINESS
Happiness contributes to the perfection of
a person. Hence, happiness is not just an
emotion or something of the value but a
state of being. It is the state of perfection
arising from the possession of what is
good.
Now, which is the greatest good that
would completely fill up all of man’s
longing and desires?
 WHAT PEOPLE DESIRES
1. Some people regard money or the acquisition
of wealth as the ultimate aim of their life.
2. Some people regard health and physical
beauty as foremost in importance.
3. Some people indulge themselves in worldly
pleasures.
4. Some people seek fame and power.
5. Some people dedicated themselves to the
cultivation of science and arts.
6. Some people would consecrate themselves to
the religious life.
 NATURAL & SUPERNATURAL HAPPINESS
1.NATURAL HAPPINESS is that
which is attainable by man
through the use of his natural
powers.
2.SUPERNATURAL HAPPINESS is
that which attainable by man
through his own powers aided by
the infusion of grace from God.
END OF MIDTERM