An Introduction to TRIZ

The Russian Theory of

Inventive Problem Solving

Stan Kaplan

www.ideationtriz.com
Ideation International Inc.
Northwestern Hwy, Suite 145
Farmington Hills, Michigan,
48334

© 1996, 2016 by Ideation International Inc. All rights reserved.

ISBN: 1-928747-0-00
Editor’s Preface
Stan Kaplan’s Introduction to TRIZ was one of the first books on the Theory of Inventive
Problem Solving to appear in the U.S. It quickly became known as the best TRIZ primer
available in English—a distinction that it maintains today, nine years after it was first
published.

Dr. Kaplan’s straightforward explanation of the basic elements of TRIZ theory, and his
description of the tools that emerged from the first three decades of TRIZ development, are
relevant for experienced engineers and novices alike. His analogy between the search for an
inventive solution and the process of solving a quadratic equation is both simple and profound,
and makes the TRIZ problem-solving approach comprehensible to anyone with a knowledge
of basic algebra.

Although TRIZ continues to evolve, its foundation remains intact—and is essential study for
those pursuing a thorough understanding of this powerful methodology.

Victoria Roza
Ideation International Inc.
 Contents

Abstract .......................................................................................................v
1. Introduction ..............................................................................................1
2. History of TRIZ ..........................................................................................2
3. An Early Result — Levels of Inventive Solutions..........................................3
4. Regularities in the Evolution of Technological Systems...............................5
5. How Does TRIZ Work? .............................................................................10
6. Technical Contradictions and the Contradiction Matrix.............................13
7. Centrifugal Governor Example.................................................................16
8. Summary of the Technical Contradiction Method......................................17
9. Physical Contradictions...........................................................................18
10. Separation Principles ............................................................................19
11. Relation Between Physical and Technical Contradictions .......................21
12. Levels of Abstraction — Heat Conduction Example.................................22
13. Su-Field Theory .....................................................................................24
14. Su-Field Examples .................................................................................26
15. SUH Method ..........................................................................................28
16. Moving Down the Ladder of Abstraction .................................................30
17. Nickel Production Example ....................................................................35
18. Conclusion ............................................................................................37
Bibliography ...............................................................................................38
APPENDIX 1 — 40 Inventive Principles.........................................................39
APPENDIX 2 — Contradiction Matrix ............................................................49
Abstract
The work on the Russian theory TRIZ, begun by Genrich Altshuller in 1946 and continued
since then by his students and followers, has grown into a very impressive and useful body of
work. This work includes, in addition to the inventive methodology itself, databases of
physical phenomena, and numerous examples of inventive problems and their solutions over a
wide range of applications. When put to use, TRIZ not only helps one solve specific current
problems but, over time, it serves to enlarge the user’s repertoire of thought patterns in much
the same way that studying calculus does. It makes the mind more flexible and, yes, more
creative.

Until recently this theory has been largely unknown in the Western world, mainly because the
literature of the theory has been almost entirely in Russian. Within the last decade, two of
Altshuller’s books have been translated, and a number of papers, articles and training materials
in English have begun to appear. At the same time, the theory has continued to evolve,
expanding vastly in application, improving in methodology, and becoming easier to
understand and use.

This book is intended to be a contribution to this movement. Because TRIZ is potentially of

great importance to the technology of the West, and of great personal value to those who study
it, this book attempts to provide a point of entry to the theory for English-speaking audiences.
For this purpose, it sketches the historical evolution of the theory, and casts over this a
conceptual framework, or point of view, from which many (though not all) of the principles
and techniques developed during this evolution can be seen as parts of a coherent whole.

The key idea in this framework is what we shall call the Principle of Abstraction. This familiar
principle is used extensively in engineering, mathematics, medicine, and other problem-
solving fields. It consists essentially of establishing a system of classification for problems in
the field, and a system of operators that map the problem categories into corresponding
solution categories. Altshuller’s inspiration was to see that this same principle could be
applied to the domain of inventive problems. This book explains how this application was
made.

v
1. Introduction
We begin with the question: What is TRIZ?

The letters T, R, I, Z are the English acronym for the Cyrillic words which, pronounced
phonetically, are Teoriya Resheniya Izobretatelskikh Zadatch, and which, translated, mean
Theory of the Solution of Inventive Problems.

This title by itself brings up a second question: Can such a theory exist? After all, isn’t
invention a creative process? And isn’t it therefore mysterious, capricious, random, and highly
dependent on the individual in whom it occurs? The answer given by Genrich Altshuller
constitutes the fundamental premise of TRIZ (figure 1).

Inventive problems can be

codified, classified, and solved
methodically, just like other
engineering problems.

Figure 1

We next give a brief review of the history behind this rather surprising answer.

1
2. History of TRIZ
The creator of TRIZ, Genrich Altshuller, was born in Russia in 1926, made his first invention
at age 14, and was later educated as a mechanical engineer. At the time he started working on
TRIZ, in 1946, he was employed in the patent department of the Soviet navy, assisting
inventors in filing their patents. While there he became intrigued by the question of how an
invention happens. Is it a matter of luck? The result of a mental “light bulb” turning on, as in
the comics? Or can inventions be seen as the result of systematic patterns of inventive
thinking?

Altshuller adopted an empirical approach to answering this question. He studied thousands of

patents, looking for commonalities, repetitive patterns, and principles of inventive thought. As
he found them he codified and documented them. His results, when eventually published,
attracted many enthusiasts who continued and expanded the work over the years, reviewing
what is now estimated to be more than two million patents worldwide. As a result of this work,
hundreds of technical papers and many books on TRIZ have been published, including 14
books by Altshuller himself. A professional TRIZ society has been formed, courses have been
developed, and an estimated 50,000 Soviet engineers have been trained in or exposed to the
subject.

2
3. An Early Result — Levels of Inventive Solutions
One of the first things Altshuller noticed as he sifted through the many patents was that they
represented technical solutions which were vastly different in their degree of inventiveness. To
provide language with which to describe this, he set forth a semi-quantitative, somewhat
loosely defined but, nevertheless, useful scale of inventiveness as shown in figure 2.

SOLUTION LEVELS

LEVEL 1: Standard
– Solutions by methods well known within the specialty

LEVEL 2: Improvement
– Improvement of an existing system, usually with some
compromise
– Methods from the same industry

LEVEL 3: Invention inside paradigm

– Essential improvement of an existing system
– Methods from other fields

LEVEL 4: Invention outside paradigm

– Creating a new generation of a system
– Solution “not in technology but in science”

LEVEL 5: Discovery
– Pioneer invention of an essentially new system
– Usually based on major discovery, new science

Figure 2

Altshuller defined Level 1 on this scale to represent solutions to routine-type design problems,
obtained using methods well known within the particular specialty. In solutions at this level
the existing system is not changed, although particular features may be enhanced or
strengthened. An example of such a solution is an increase in the thickness of insulation
around a pipe carrying liquid oxygen into a furnace.

Level 2 solutions were defined as those which, while basically leaving the existing system
unchanged, yield new features and lead to definite improvements. An example of a Level 2
solution is the inclusion of a mirror in a welder’s mask to focus the light of the arc on areas
where improved visibility is needed. Inventions at this level are achieved by methods well
known within the same industry.

3
Altshuller defined Level 3 solutions as those that constitute an essential improvement of an
existing system. An example of this is the automatic transmission. Level 3 inventions usually
involve technology known in other industries but not widely known within the industry in
which the inventive problem arose. Solutions to Level 3 problems thus create paradigm shifts
within their industries; they are found outside the range of accepted ideas and principles of that
industry.

Level 4 inventions are characterized by solutions found, in Altshuller’s words, “not in

technology but in science,” i.e., through the utilization of previously little-known physical
effects and phenomena. Examples are the use of materials with thermal memory (shape
memory metals), and the use of the magneto-hydraulic effect in a nautical jet engine.

Level 5 inventive problems are usually beyond the limits of contemporary scientific
knowledge. A solution at this level requires the discovery of some new phenomenon which is
then applied to the inventive problem. Level 5 inventions usually lead to the creation of
wholly new systems and industries. Lasers, aircraft, and computers are good examples here.

4
4. Regularities in the Evolution of Technological Systems
In his examination of many thousands of patents, Altshuller also noticed consistent patterns or
“regularities” in the way technological systems evolved over time. He articulated these
patterns ([1], pp. 223-231) in the form of eight Laws of Evolution of Technological Systems
(figure 3), as follows:

Laws of Evolution of Technological Systems

1. Law of Completeness of Parts of a System

2. Law of Energy Conductivity in a System
3. Law of Harmonization of Rhythms
4. Law of Increasing Ideality
5. Law of Uneven Development of Parts
6. Law of Transition to a Super-System
7. Law of Transition from Macro- to Micro-Level
8. Law of Increasing Substance-Field Involvement

Figure 3

1. Law of Completeness of Parts of a System

A technical system arises as the result of a synthesis of previously separate parts into a single
whole. In order to “live” and be viable the system must include four basic parts: an engine,
i.e., a source of energy; a working organ that performs the function of the system; a
transmission that conveys the energy from the engine to the working organ; and a control
organ through which the system is controlled or steered. If any one of these parts is missing or
insufficient, the system is incapable of surviving and prevailing against its competition.

2. Law of Energy Conductivity in a System

A technical system evolves in the direction of increasing efficiency in the transfer of energy
from the engine to the working organ. This transfer can take place through a substance, e.g., a
shaft, gears, etc.; through a field such as a magnetic field; or through a substance-field
combination, e.g., a stream of charged particles. The selection of the form of this transfer is at
the heart of many inventive problems. As an example, Altshuller cites the problem of heating a
substance inside a moving centrifuge and maintaining it at a specific temperature. The solution
was to deliver heat through an electromagnetic field, which does not hinder the motion of the
centrifuge. Inside the centrifuge the electromagnetic energy is converted to heat by a
ferromagnetic disc with a Curie point at the desired temperature.

5
3. Law of Harmonization of Rhythms
A system evolves in the direction of increasing harmony of the rhythms and natural
frequencies of its parts. As an example of this Altshuller describes a patent for improving the
mining of coal by drilling a bore hole into the seam, filling it with water, and transmitting
pressure pulses through it to break up the coal. Seven years later, another patent improved the
process by applying the impulses at a frequency equal to the natural frequency of the coal
mass. Altshuller points out that, had the inventors been aware of the Law of Harmonization of
Rhythms, the seven-year delay could have been avoided.

4. Law of Increasing Ideality

A technical system evolves in such a direction as to increase its degree of ideality. Ideality is
defined as the quotient of the sum of the system’s useful effects, Ui, divided by the sum of its
harmful effects, Hj.

Σ Ui
Ideality = I =
Σ Hj

Useful effects include all the valuable results of the system’s functioning. Harmful effects
include the system’s cost, the space it occupies, the fuel it uses, the noise it makes, effluents,
etc. Thus, this law states that as the system evolves, the sum of the Ui trend upward and the
sum of the Hj trend downward.

Taking this trend to its limit, Altshuller introduced the notion that the Ideal Final Result (IFR)
of a line of inventive evolution is obtained when the Ui are large and the Hj are zero. Stated
another way, an ideal machine has all the desired useful outputs but no harmful effects,
including no cost or usage of space. Thus the IFR can be stated as follows:

The function of the machine exists, but the machine itself does not.

5. Law of Uneven Development of Parts

This law states that although the system as a whole improves monotonically, the individual
parts of the system do not improve synchronously but rather individually, in fits and starts.
Altshuller cites the example of cargo ships, whose carrying capacity and engine power have
increased rapidly, but whose braking system has not kept pace (this is why, for example, a
modern oil tanker takes many miles to stop).

6. Law of Transition to a Super-System

When a system has reached the limit of its own development, it can continue evolving by
becoming a subsystem of a more general system. In this way the original system is raised to a
qualitatively new level.

6
As an example, Altshuller cites one of his own early inventions – a heat-resistant suit worn by
mining rescue teams. The problem was to design a suit that would protect a man for two hours
in an outside temperature of 100o C. The suit was required to weigh less than 10 kg, as the
man was already carrying a breathing apparatus (12 kg) and instruments (7 kg). Altshuller’s
approach was not to create a refrigerating suit under 10 kg, which was impossible, but rather
to create a higher-level super-system in which liquid oxygen served as a refrigerating
substance. Upon absorbing the heat, the liquid oxygen evaporated and was then used for
breathing. With this new system, Altshuller calculated that a man could work for an hour in a
temperature of 500o C.

7. Law of Transition from the Macro- to Micro-Level

This law states that the development of working organs proceeds first on a macro- and then on
a micro-level. An obvious example of this can be seen in the electronics industry, where in
less than a lifetime we have seen a transition from rooms full of vacuum tubes, to transistors,
to super large-scale integrated circuits.

The glass industry provides another example: in the past, glass plates were manufactured by
rolling hot glass onto a conveyor. During this process the glass tended to sag slightly between
the rollers of the conveyor, resulting, when the glass cooled, in a slight waviness or non-
planarity of the plates. To reduce this waviness, one could use rollers of smaller diameter
spaced closer together, but this would lead to increased cost and complication. Thus we have
here a contradiction between cost and waviness.

The solution, patented by an English company, was to roll the glass out on a bath of liquid tin.
This constituted a transition from macro-rollers to micro-rollers (i.e., atoms of tin).

8. Law of Increasing Substance-Field Involvement

As we will describe below, Altshuller developed a way of modeling systems in which he
viewed a technical system as composed of two substances interacting through a field. He
called this model the Su-Field triangle. The meaning of this eighth law is that systems that do
not represent complete Su-Field triangles evolve toward such completeness. Also, the nature
of the field tends to evolve from mechanical or thermal to electrical or magnetic.

Although in [1] Altshuller identified only the above eight as Laws of Evolution, there are many
other concepts and principles throughout his work which can be viewed as additional laws of
this type. For example:

Law of Increasing Dynamism

As a technical system evolves, parts which were originally fixed become moveable or
adjustable.

7
For example, in the evolution of aircraft, landing gear became retractable, the aerodynamic
profile of wings became adjustable, wings with variable sweep angles were introduced, and
engines were put on swivels to produce vertical thrust.

Principle of Psychological Inertia

This principle states the well-known tendency of human beings to resist change, to get “stuck
in a rut,” to be unable to see or think “outside the box,” etc. One corollary of this principle is
that when technological change does occur, or when new ideas are tried out, it often tends to
happen hesitantly and in small increments. A striking example seen in the pictures of early
automobiles, upon which papier-mâché horse heads were attached. Another example is given
in figure 4, which shows the evolution of sea craft from single to multiple oars, to oared
vessels with sail assist, to sail vessels with oar assist, to sail only, to sail with engine assist, to
engine with sail assist, and finally to engine only.

Figure 4

Another example of psychological inertia occurred during the design of the Soviet lunar
exploration module. The designers wanted to include a light on this module so that TV images
could be transmitted to Earth when the module was on the dark side of the moon. But a
problem was encountered with the light bulbs which, under the vibration of flight, tended to

8
fail where the bulb joined the metal socket. The module designers were unable to find or build
a reliable bulb. This problem remained for months, threatening the schedule of the module,
until someone asked the question: “What is the purpose of the glass bulb?”

Comment:
At this point let us call attention to an interesting subtlety. The above regularities, or “laws”
as we have called them, have been presented here as purely empirical in nature. Thus they are
laws in the same sense that Darwin’s laws were simply summary descriptions of his
observations of biological species.

In the case of technical systems, however, the above laws can be given another, more
prescriptive “thou shalt” type of meaning, in the sense of the “law of the land.” Thus, if we
want to improve a particular technological system and stay ahead of our competition, build
patent fences, etc., the above laws tell us that we should think about ways to improve the
energy conductivity, the harmonization, the transition to a micro-level, etc. Viewed this way,
these laws become powerful guides for forecasting and accelerating the evolution of a
technical system.

9
5. How Does TRIZ Work?
Accepting the assertions of the Russian scientists that a theory of inventive problem solving
has in fact been developed and productively applied to a wide range of problems in the Soviet
Union, Finland, Israel, and other countries, and for the past decade in the United States as
well, we now turn our attention to the question of understanding how such a theory works. For
this purpose let us recall how we were taught to solve quadratic equations.

5.1 Solving Quadratic Equations

Let us suppose we are asked to solve the following equation, i.e., find the values of x for
which the following equation is satisfied:
3x2 + 5x + 2 = 0
If we know nothing about algebra we would proceed using the trial-and-error method,
guessing and trying values of x. If we have studied algebra we can proceed in a much more
powerful way as shown in figure 5. In this case, our first step is to recognize that our equation,
shown in the lower-left box, is a special case of the equation in the upper-left box. Our algebra
book now tells us that every equation having the form of the equation in the upper-left box has
two solutions of the form shown in the upper-right box. This form, of course, is the familiar
quadratic formula. All that remains is to plug into this formula our specific values, a=3, b=5,
and c=2, and we obtain the specific solutions to our problem, as shown in the lower-right box.

Figure 5

10
5.2 Reflections on the Solution Process
What we have just done, though simple and familiar, is also very important and far reaching.
Therefore, let us pause to reflect on it and view it in a more general context. The upper-left
equation in figure 5 shows the general form of a quadratic equation. We could say that it
abstracts or lifts out that form from the specific equation shown to the lower left. Thus we
could also call it the “abstract form,” the “abstract equation,” or the “abstract problem.”

Note also that this abstract equation can be thought of as defining a set of quadratic equations
as we let the parameters a, b, and c vary over their ranges. So when we say that our equation in
the lower left is a special case of the abstract equation, it is equivalent to saying that our
specific equation is one member of the set of equations defined by the abstract equation.

Thus we see that the step of abstracting the form from our specific problem is equivalent to
defining a whole class of problems, of which our specific problem is one member.

Now, what is the class of solutions to this class of problems? A solution to a quadratic
equation is, in general, a complex number. Therefore, we could say that the set or “space” of
solutions to a quadratic equation is the space of complex numbers. The quadratic formula in
the upper right box can be thought of as an operator in the mathematical sense. That is, it
describes a “mapping” or correspondence from the space of problems to the space of solutions.
Therefore, to obtain the solutions to our specific equation, we simply need to specialize this
mapping to that equation.

5.3 The Principal of Solution by Abstraction

This process we have just used in solving our quadratic equation is an example of a
fundamental and immensely powerful process that we call the Principle of Solution by
Abstraction. The basic idea, once again, is to abstract the forms or, equivalently, to identify
categories of problems within the given subject. Then, for each category, we work out the
general solutions, i.e., the operators. The set of categories and operators thus identified can be
thought of as constituting a “theory” of the solution of problems within this subject.

Once this theory has been documented, to solve a specific problem within the subject, the user
of the theory needs only to identify into which category his problem falls, look up the
operators for that category, and specialize them to his particular case.

If we think about it, this process is used not only in mathematics and engineering but in, for
example, medicine, and in all problem-solving subjects. Altshuller’s inspiration was to
recognize that this same familiar process could also apply to the solution of inventive
problems. This is the basic idea behind TRIZ.

11
5.4 Application to Inventive Problems
To develop a theory for the solution of inventive problems, then, what needs to be done, and
what Altshuller has done, is the same thing that has been done for algebraic and medical
problems, etc.; namely, to establish one or more classification systems for inventive problems,
and for each category of problems thus established, to identify one or more operators that lead
to solutions.

This done, the process of solving an inventive problem would follow the schema shown in
figure 6. Beginning at the lower left with a specific inventive problem, we abstract its form
and thus recognize it as a member of a category of inventive problems shown at the upper left.
We then look up, in the books of the theory, the operator(s) applicable to this category. This
gives us one or more solutions in abstract form, represented by the upper-right box. So, having
gone up and over, it remains only to specialize the abstract solution and thus move down to the
particular solution of our specific problem.

Figure 6

Of course, solving an inventive problem using this process is not quite as simple as solving an
algebraic problem. The space of inventive problems is much larger and more varied than the
space of algebraic problems. A specific inventive problem may fall into several different
abstract categories; a given category may have many different operators; a particular operator
acting on a specific problem may lead to a whole class of solutions rather than a single
solution; and finally, the step of specializing the abstract solution to a particular one still
requires creativity, though not nearly as much as if we had tried to solve the problem by the
usual trial-and-error method.

12
6. Technical Contradictions and the Contradiction Matrix:
Altshuller’s First Solution System
Figure 6 is all well and good as a general schema, but how does one actually do it? How does
one go about defining categories of inventive problems and identifying the operators for each?
A good way to begin is by studying the existing patent literature. This is what Altshuller and
his followers have been doing since 1946.

6.1 Technical Contradictions

The first big breakthrough came when Altshuller observed that all inventive problems
involved what he called a technical contradiction. A technical contradiction exists when, in
attempting to improve one parameter (say, parameter A) of a technological system, another
parameter (B) deteriorates. Thus if we attempt to make a product stronger by making it
thicker, it also gets heavier. If we use stronger materials, the cost increases, and so on (see
figure 7).

TECHNICAL CONTRADICTION
A↑ B↓

Parameter A improves
Parameter B deteriorates
Examples: strength vs. weight, reliability vs. cost

Common engineering approach: design compromise.

Not considered an invention in TRIZ

Invention surmounts the contradiction, achieving both

A↑ and B↓

Figure 7

The typical engineering approach to dealing with such contradictions is to “trade off,” i.e., to
compromise. In TRIZ, such a compromise is not considered an invention. An invention is an
idea that surmounts the contradiction, moving both parameters in a favorable direction.

13
6.2 The Technical Contradiction Matrix and the Inventive Principles
Altshuller used his observation about technical contradictions to develop his first classification
system for inventive problems. As he studied each patent he identified the underlying
technical contradiction resolved by the patent, as well as the principle, i.e., the operator, used
to resolve the contradiction. By amassing these results for many patents, he was able to
identify 39 engineering parameters (such as speed, force, strength, etc.) and 40 operators,
which he called Inventive Principles. The parameters are listed in figure 8 and the inventive
principles in Appendix 1. Altshuller then created a 39x39 table with these parameters as the
row and column headings, as shown in figure 9. (The full table is given in Appendix 2.) We
shall call this table, now of mainly historical interest, the Contradiction Matrix.

ALTSHULLER’S PARAMETERS

1. Weight of moving object 21. Power

2. Weight of stationary object 22. Waste of energy
3. Length of moving object 23. Waste of substance
4. Length of stationary object 24. Loss of information
5. Area of moving object 25. Waste of time
6. Area of stationary object 26. Amount of substance
7. Volume of moving object 27. Reliability
8. Volume of stationary object 28. Measurement accuracy
9. Speed 29. Manufacturing accuracy
10. Force 30. Harmful factors acting on an
11. Tension, pressure object
12. Shape 31. Harmful side effects
13. Stability of object 32. Manufacturability
14. Strength 33. Convenience of use
15. Durability of moving object 34. Repairability
16. Durability of stationary object 35. Adaptability
17. Temperature 36. Device complexity
18. Brightness 37. Complexity of control
19. Energy spent by moving object 38. Level of automation
20. Energy spent by stationary 39. Productivity
object

Figure 8

14
Consider the box in this matrix formed by the intersection of row i and column j. This box
represents a category of inventive problems, namely, the category of all problems in which the
ith parameter and the jth parameter form a contradiction. The set of boxes, i.e., the table itself,
therefore constitutes a categorization schema for inventive problems.

In box i,j Altshuller listed the identification numbers of the inventive principles that inventors
had used to resolve problems in the i,j category. Therefore, the table containing these
identification numbers (Appendix 2) along with the corresponding set of operators (Appendix
1) constitutes a solution system according to the schema of figure 6.

6.3 Using the Solution System

To use this solution system to solve a given problem we follow the procedure illustrated in
figure 9. We begin by identifying the technical contradiction present in that problem. We then
locate the appropriate box in the table and find there the identification numbers for the
operators that other inventors have used to resolve technical contradictions of that type. By
looking in Appendix 1 we find the descriptions of these operators. We then think about how
each operator might be applied to our specific problem. This may lead to a number of
inventive ideas out of which at least one, hopefully, will yield a satisfactory solution.

Figure 9

15
7. Centrifugal Governor Example
As an example, consider the problem of a centrifugal governor (figure 10) used in early
helicopters to control the speed of blade rotation. Since weight is always an important factor in
aircraft, it is desirable to reduce the mass, m, of the rotating balls. If we do this, however, the
centrifugal force decreases as well, impairing the effectiveness of the governor. Thus we have
a technical contradiction between the weight of the moving object and its resultant force.
Referring to row 1, column 10 of the contradiction matrix, we find as the first recommendation
inventive principle (operator) 8. Looking this up in Appendix 1, we obtain:

8. Counterweight Principle
a. Compensate for the object’s weight by joining with another object that has a lifting
force.

b. Compensate for the weight of an object by interaction with an environment providing

aerodynamic or hydrodynamic forces.

Item b prompts the idea of replacing the rotating balls by airfoils which provide a lifting force
proportional to the angular velocity. Thus we can reduce the weight without diminishing the
governing action, and the contradiction is surmounted.

Centrifugal Governor

Figure 10

16
8. Summary of the Technical Contradiction Method
The technical contradiction method is our first concrete example of the schema of figure 6. Let
us trace the centrifugal governor through this schema. We began with our specific problem in
the box at the lower left in figure 6. By identifying the technical contradiction, we moved to
the upper-left box; that is, we put our centrifugal governor in the category of inventive
problems in which the weight of a moving object is in contradiction to its force. The upper-
right box in figure 6 now represents the abstract set of all solutions to this category of
inventive problems.

We then entered the contradiction matrix and found there, in box (1,10), the identifiers of four
operators used by previous inventors to solve problems in this category. The first of these,
operator 8b, suggested a solution to our specific problem, bringing us down to the lower-right
box in figure 6.

17
9. Physical Contradictions
In section 6.1 we defined a technical contradiction as a situation wherein if we increase
parameter A, representing a favorable change, then parameter B decreases, representing a
deterioration. Now suppose that we had a single parameter, C, which for some reason we want
to increase and for another reason we want to decrease. Altshuller called this situation, where a
parameter is in contradiction to itself, a physical contradiction.

For example, consider again our centrifugal governor problem. The weight of the balls should
be high to generate centrifugal force, and it should be small to increase the payload of the
aircraft. This is a physical contradiction. Again, the typical engineering approach is to
compromise, but that approach does not lead to an invention. An invention surmounts the
contradiction.

It turns out, as we will show, that from every technical contradiction can be identified at least
one physical contradiction. In terms of our schema of figure 6, identifying the physical
contradiction in a problem is a way of moving to the upper-left box, i.e., a way of abstracting
the form of the problem. For problems abstracted in this way, in terms of physical
contradictions, Altshuller has identified a set of particularly powerful operators known as the
separation principles.

18
10. Separation Principles
The three most important separation principles are given in figure 11: separation in time,
separation in space, and separation in scale, i.e., between parts and the whole.

10.1 Separation in Time — Siberian Pile Driving Example

This problem arose during construction of large
buildings upon permanently frozen ground,
Separation Principles where piles were being driven to form the
foundation. It was desirable that the piles be
1. Separation in TIME pointed at the bottom so that they were easier to
2. Separation in SPACE drive into the ground (figure 12). On the other
hand, for maximum load bearing capacity and for
3. Separation in SCALE resistance to settling, it was desirable that the
piles be blunt. Hence a physical contradiction:
the piles should be pointed and the piles should
Figure 11
be blunt.

A solution to this problem was obtained by including a hollow chamber in the pointed pile and
filling it with wire, concrete rubble, and an explosive charge. After the pile was driven to its
final position the charge was detonated, forming a blunt footing (figure 13). Thus we have an
instance of separation in time: the pile was pointed while being driven, and blunt when
carrying load.

Pile

Concrete,
wire, and
dynamite

Frozen soil

Figure 12 Figure 13

10.2 Separation in Space — Metal Coating Example

Metal parts are coated by being immersed in a bath of coating solution. The coating proceeds
more quickly if the temperature of the solution is high, but the solution tends to decompose

19
and precipitate out at such a temperature. Hence the physical contradiction: the temperature of
the bath should be high for production rate, and it should be low for stability of the solution.

The inventive solution was to raise the temperature of the metal part by passing current
through it. Thus the temperature of the bath in the vicinity of the part was high but through its
bulk it was low, hence a separation in space.

10.3 Separation Between a Whole System and its Parts — Bicycle Chain
Example
A bicycle chain must be flexible to traverse a loop and rigid to accept high loads from the
pedals. The solution, a chain of links, is rigid on the small scale but flexible on the large scale.

20
11. Relation Between Physical and Technical
Contradictions
The physical contradiction and the separation principles together constitute Altshuller’s
second actualization of the schema of figure 6 (the technical contradiction matrix and the
inventive principles constituted the first). To discuss the relationship between these two, let us
first observe, as was noted at the end of section 9, that from every technical contradiction can
be identified at least one physical contradiction.

This observation is explained in figure 14. In order to improve property or parameter A of our
system we must change some other parameter. Let’s refer to this other parameter as the
control parameter, C. Thus to improve the strength, A, of our system we can increase its
thickness. Thickness is thus the control parameter. When we increase C, however, the weight,
parameter B, deteriorates. Thus we want C to be high to provide strength, and we want C to be
low to keep the weight down: a physical contradiction.

In this way we see that for every

inventive problem in which we have
identified a technical contradiction, we
can further identify a specific physical
contradiction in terms of the control
parameter. In making this identification
we place our specific problem into the
abstract set of all inventive problems
having physical contradictions. Having
placed our problem into this set, we now
have available to us the known operators
acting on this set.

In this case the operators are the

separation principles, and they have
particularly great heuristic power (i.e.,
power to stimulate inventive ideas),
much more so than the inventive princi-
ple operators acting at the level of Figure 14
technical contradictions. The source of
this greater power lies in the fact that the space of physical contradictions is a higher level
abstraction than the spaces represented by the boxes in the technical contradiction matrix.

This notion of levels of abstraction pervades all of TRIZ. To illustrate what we mean by this
notion we next consider an example from the mathematics of heat conduction.

21
12. Levels of Abstraction — Heat Conduction Example
In connection with the general schema of figure 6, we now observe that when abstracting, it is
possible to go to various levels of abstraction. As an example of this, consider the one-
dimensional heat conduction problem shown at the bottom left in figure 15. We seek to
determine the steady-state temperature distribution, T(x), in a cylindrical bar having internal
heat generation. Our specific problem, defined by the length, b, the conductivity, k, and the
heat generation function, Q(x), is represented by the lower-left box.

Figure 15

To attempt to solve the problem directly by trial and error would be very awkward. To solve it
by abstraction at the first level, we would write the one-dimensional heat conduction equation
shown at level 1 on the left. At this level the solution operator is known, and is written in the
box at level 1 on the right. To specialize this to our specific problem we need only enter k, b,
and Q, and then perform the quadrature.

We can abstract to a higher level by writing the general three-dimensional heat conduction
equation shown at level 2 on the left. At this level the solution operator is expressed by the
integral on the right involving the Green’s function G(r,r′). To obtain our particular solution

22
we must again carry out the quadrature. We can do this in steps by first specializing the
Green’s function to its one-dimensional form. This moves us back down the ladder of
abstraction to the box at level 1 on the right.

We can abstract to a still higher level by recognizing that our three-dimensional heat
conduction equation is a special case of the more general class of equations known as Linear
Operator Equations. These are shown in the top box on the left, with L representing the linear
operator. The solution to this equation is written in terms of the inverse operator L-1, as shown
in the top box on the right.

The level of abstraction here is so high that no information about L-1 is given other than that it
is also a linear operator. But this fact alone is sufficient to allow us to move back down the
ladder of abstraction, specializing first to the Green’s function integral at level 2, then to the
one-dimensional form, and finally to the particular solution represented at the bottom right.

In the same way, we can think of the boxes in the technical contradiction matrix as being a
first-level abstraction, and the inventive principles as the operators at this level. The set of
inventive problems having physical contradictions is a much higher abstraction. Indeed, it may
be the highest possible level of abstraction, since one can argue that all inventive problems
have physical contradictions.

The separation principles are operators at this high level. In what follows, we shall give
examples of other operators, other levels, and other ways of abstracting inventive problems.*

* It is interesting also to observe in figure 15 that the form of the operators gets drastically simpler as we move up
the ladder of abstraction. We see a similar effect in the simplicity of Separation Principles as compared with the
40 Inventive Principles. This increasing simplicity is inherent in the abstraction process itself which, by
definition, drops out the complications of complications of the specific details as it lifts out the basic essence.

23
13. Su-Field Theory
Altshuller gave us a third system for classifying inventive problems and operators. He called
this Substance and Field Theory, or “Su-Field” for short. The basic ideas of this theory are as
follows:

1) In every technological system one

can discern two objects or
substances, S1 and S2. These
Su-Field Triangle
could be, for example:
Field
a) Two parts of the system
b) The system itself and its
product, i.e., what it acts upon
c) The system and its
environment Substance 1 Substance 2

2) These substances interact or com-

municate through a field, F. Desired effect
Examples of the various types of Insufficient desired effect
fields are: Harmful effect
a) Mechanical
b) Acoustic
⇒ Operator

c) Thermal Field Types: Mechanical Magnetic

Thermal Optical
d) Chemical Chemical Etc.
e) Electric Electrical

f) Magnetic
Figure 16
and so on.

3) The relationship between the field and the two substances can be expressed in a Su-
Field triangle, as shown in figure 16.

4) This triangle diagram may be thought of as a model of the technological system. It is of

course a very simple (i.e., abstract) model. More detailed models can be made by
adding more nodes, linking triangles together, etc.

5) These diagrams can be made more informative by introducing different line symbols
for the connections between nodes, as shown in figure 16. Thus a solid line indicates a
desired effect, a dashed line indicates a desired but insufficient effect, and a wavy line
indicates an undesired effect. Arrowheads can be added to the links to indicate
directionality, i.e., one node having an effect on another.

24
 6) If a Su-Field diagram contains dashed or wavy lines, then the system it represents
needs improvement. Such a diagram therefore represents an inventive problem.

7) The solution to this inventive problem may also be represented by a Su-Field diagram,
which would be a modification of the original diagram.

8) The connection between the original diagram and the solution diagram is denoted by a
double arrow, as shown in figures 17a and 17b.

9) This connection may be regarded as an operator in the sense of figure 6. Thus, the Su-
Field diagram representing the problem is an abstraction representing the whole set of
inventive problems having the structure shown in that diagram. This set corresponds to
the upper left box in figure 6. Similarly, the Su-Field diagram representing the solution
corresponds to the upper-right box in figure 6. It expresses the structure of the solution
in exactly the same way that the quadratic formula does in figure 5. The connection or
correspondence between the two sets is, by definition, an operator.

In the next section we illustrate these ideas with examples.

25
14. Su-Field Examples
Figure 17a shows a Su-Field operator applicable to inventive problems in which the desired
interaction between the two substances is present but insufficient. To strengthen the
interaction, the operator suggests the addition to S2 of a third substance, S3, and possibly
changing the field. The following examples demonstrate the use of this operator and suggest
the wide range of its applicability.

14.1 Finding Refrigerant Leaks

A maintenance worker attempting to find a small leak in a refrigeration system is hindered by
poor lighting. Figure 17a shows a Su-Field diagram for this situation. S1 represents the
maintenance worker, S2 the leak, and F1 the light (an optical field). As the dashed line shows,
the interaction between the
leak and the maintenance
worker is insufficient. The
suggested solution is to add a
small amount of a fluorescent
substance, S3, to the refriger-
ant, and to look for it using
ultraviolet light, F2.
Figure 17a
14.2 Ink Eraser
A Japanese patent describes an ink eraser made by mixing small capsules of ink solvent into
the rubber. The mechanical action of rubbing breaks the capsules, releasing the solvent. S1 rep-
resents the ink, S2 the rubber, S3 the capsules, and F1 = F2 is the mechanical field of rubbing.

14.3 Polymer Hardening

When making large items out of
polymers it is often desirable to
measure the degree of hardening of
the polymer mass. For this purpose
iron filings are added to the polymer
mix. As the polymer hardens, the
mobility of the filings, and thus the
magnetic permeability of the polymer
mass, changes. This change can be
measured non-destructively. Figure 17b
In figure 17b, the interaction between S1 and S2 is harmful. In this case, the operator suggests
interposing a third substance between them. This operator works especially well if the third
substance is a modified form of S1 or S2. The following are two examples of the use of this
operator.

26
14.4 Preventing the Hardening of Slag Clinker
As a byproduct of making steel, large amounts of molten slag, S2, are produced. The slag is
towed in large cauldrons to slag piles where it is dumped. During this transport, air, S1, cools
the surface of the slag. If the journey is too long or the air too cold, the surface of the slag
freezes solid, preventing the vats from emptying. In accord with figure 17b, the problem is
solved by creating a slag foam on the surface, which insulates the hot slag from the cold air.

14.5 Protecting Pipes from Steel Shot

In a steel shot factory, the shot is transported pneumatically through pipes. Where a pipe
bends, the shot impinges on and erodes the pipe metal, necessitating frequent repair. In accord
with figure 17b, the problem is solved by applying magnetism to the outside of the pipe at the
bend. This creates a static layer of shot on the inside of the pipe, which shields the pipe wall
from the impact of the moving shot.

Many additional operators have been identified in terms of Su-Field theory. We shall leave
this subject for now, however, and proceed to a fourth way of realizing the schema of figure 6.

27
15. SUH Method
What we call here the SUH method is the author’s interpretation, in light of the abstrcation
principle, of what is now known as the Modern TRIZ, or Ideation Methodology, was
developed by Alla Zusman and Boris Zlotin. This method is yet another entirely different and
more comprehensive approach to defining categories of inventive problems, and to identifying
operators acting on those categories. In terms of figure 15, this approach might be thought of
as a “top down” approach in the sense that it starts at the top level of abstraction and moves
down the pyramid.

The SUH method begins with the

observation that every engineering
system, S, has useful output, U, and SUH Modeling
harmful output, H. This is expressed in
the diagram of figure 18, which we might
characterize as the ultimate abstraction of
a technological system. Similarly, the U Useful effect
ultimate abstract statement of an inventive
problem would be: “increase the ideality System S
of the system.”
H Harmful effect
For an inventive problem stated in this
way, figure 18 suggests two operators:
Figure 18
(1a) increase U
(1b) decrease H
These are so obvious, however, that they hardly seem to warrant the term “operators.” Recall
that we had a similar situation at the top of figure 15, where the solution operator L-1 seemed
abstract to the point of being trivial. Yet the structure of L-1, simple as it is, is enough (as was
noted in Section 12) to allow us to work down the ladder of abstraction to the specific
solution.

A similar thing is true of the operators 1a and 1b above. They are one level more specific than
the statement “increase ideality,” and to this extent they focus our attention and stimulate our
creativity. Moreover, they set the stage for further stepwise descent along the ladder of
abstraction. For example, the next step down from operators (1a) and (1b), according to the
SUH method, are the operators:
(2a) Given S, find a way to eliminate (or reduce) H
(2b) Find a way to modify S that eliminates H while still yielding U
(2c) Find a way to obtain U without using S
(2d) Find a way to modify S that improves U without worsening H

28
These operators, as simple as they are, have distinctly greater heuristic power than operators
(1a) and (1b). They cause us to focus and perhaps think differently about the problem, thus
helping us to break our psychological inertia and think “outside the box.” Indeed, when one
uses these operators frequently, they become a mental habit. The neural networks in the brain
become flexible and accustomed to thinking about a problem from many different angles. This
is what creativity is, and it is learnable. TRIZ shows how.

29
16. Moving Down the Ladder of Abstraction
From the operators (2a) through (2d), one may now work downward to operators of greater
specificity. Indeed, Zusman, Zlotin and their associates (hereafter ZZA), have written a
computer software system in which, along with the problem formulator, they have organized
over 400 operators into a branching structure that works from very abstract universal
operators down through general operators and on to very specialized operators.

16.1 Detailing H
For example, starting with (2a), we might take a further step towards specificity by asking
“What kind of H do we have?”

ZZA suggest we distinguish two types of H:

Undesired Action

High Expense Attribute

Suppose our H is of the High Expense Attribute type. We can detail this further by indicating
the type of attribute. For example, ZZA identify the following types of attributes:

TABLE 1
Types of High Expense Attribute
Weight
Overall dimensions
Energy required
Energy wasted
Time wasted
System complexity
Monetary cost

and give operators for each.

Alternately, suppose our H is of the Undesired Action type. ZZA then suggest a number of
operators, among which are:

30
 TABLE 2
Operators for Eliminating Indesired Action

Eliminate the cause of the undesired action

Exclude the source of the undesired action
Make use of the culprit of the undesired action
Substitute by using a model
Eliminate obstacles
Impact on the undesired action
Isolate the undesired action
Counteraction (compensation)
Parallel restoration
Anti-action
Vaccination
Use of feedback

In the ZZA software, each of these operators is explained, and a number of examples are
given. The operator counteraction (compensation), for example, is illustrated by a description
of the tactic “fighting fire with fire,” well known among those who fight forest fires. The
operator make use of the culprit is illustrated by the steel shot example of Section 14.5.

As a matter of principle, every operator can be broken down into sub-operators. Thus,
continuing down the ladder, the operators of Table 2 can be further broken down into more
specific operators. For example, the operator impact on the undesired action contains the
following sub operators:

TABLE 3
Sub-operators of “Impact on the Undesired Action”

Drawing off the undesired action

Changing direction of the undesired action
Switching off the undesired action
Hyper-enforcement of the undesired action
Local slackening of the undesired action
Prolonging the undesired action

31
As an example of the operator drawing off the undesired action, ZZA discuss the case of
larvae of the potato nematode, who spend the winter underground in cocoons which protect
them from chemicals and other eradication methods. In the spring, after potatoes are sown, the
larvae perceive the potato smell. They then emerge and migrate to the tubers, drawn by the
smell. If even a small percentage of the larvae reach the tubers the harvest will be destroyed.

The inventive solution suggested was to introduce an extract containing potato “smell” (water
in which rotten potatoes had been stored) into the soil a few weeks before sowing. This caused
the larvae to emerge and, being unable to find food, die in two to three days, leaving the soil
clear for sowing.

16.2 Detailing U
In the same way as, in Section 16.1, we started from operator (2a) and detailed H, we can start
from (2d) and detail U. For this purpose we ask “What aspect or characteristic of U do we
want to improve?” ZZA offer the following list:

TABLE 4
Aspects of Characteristics of U

Reliability
Longevity
Mechanical strength
Speed of action
Stability of composition
Convenience
Productivity
Accuracy
Form
Universality
Degree of automation
Degree of adaptation

Again, these can be further broken down and operators identified. For example, under
accuracy is the sub-characteristic dosage accuracy, for which the operator form
transformation is identified. Illustrating this is the solution to the problem of slicing eggs for
sandwiches, where the diameter of the slices varies. The solution given was a machine that
breaks the eggs, separates the whites and yolks, and puts the egg whites into a rotating metal
cylinder. By centrifugal force, the whites become evenly spread over the surface of the
cylinder, which is then heated, causing the whites to solidify. The yolks are then poured into
the center and the assembly heated again, producing a sausage-shaped egg which can be cut
into uniform slices.

32
16.3 Using the Substructures of H, U, and S
Another approach to moving down the ladder is to use the substructures of H, U, and S. For
example, figure 19 shows a case in which the harmful effect, labeled Hn, emerges as the end
result of a chain of effects, H1, H2, etc. Hn can be eliminated by interdicting the chain at any
point; that is, by eliminating either H1, H2, etc.

System Model When H is a Chain System Model When U is a Chain

U
U1 U2 … Un

S
S
H1 H2 … Hn
H

Figure 19 Figure 20

Similarly, in figure 20, the desired effect Un emerges as the result of a chain of intermediate
effects Ui. Enhancing any of the intermediate effects will result in the enhancement of Un.

In figure 21, the substructure of S is

Modifying the Substructure examined to identify the particular part of
of S to Eliminate H the system which leads to the harmful (or
useful) effect. This part can then be
U modified to diminish H or enhance U.

H
Adding Corrective Systems

U0

S0
Figure 21
H0

16.4 Adding Corrective Systems S1

Figure 22 shows the typical engineering H1

approach to eliminating a harmful effect (H0),
S2
which is to add to the basic system S0 another
H2
system S1 whose useful output U1 is the negation
of H0 (negation is indicated by a barred arrow). etc.
Usually, however, perhaps inevitably, this new
system also has a harmful output (H1), as shown. Figure 22
Still another system, S2, can then be added to
negate H1, and so on.

33
An example of this approach arose in a manufacturing operation in which angular copper
contacts were silvered. In the original system the contacts were simply immersed in a silver
bath. This had the harmful outcome of wasting silver, since only a part of each contact
required silvering. Therefore, a lid with slits was added to the system as shown in figure 23a,
so that only the desired portions of the contacts were immersed. This additional system,
however, also had an undesired effect – the level of the silver bath fluctuated with time. Thus
another system was added to detect and control these fluctuations; the harmful outcome of this
was the cost and complication of the control system.

Silvering of Contacts

Figure 23a

Figure 23b

The TRIZ solution was to float the lid on the silver bath itself as shown in figure 23b, so that
the contacts maintained a fixed distance from the silver solution even though its level
fluctuated.

34
17. Nickel Production Example
To pull together some of the preceding ideas we present one more example:

Refined and processed nickel is typically supplied in the form of small granules or pellets. To
produce these, drops of molten nickel are poured into water from a substantial height. As they
fall toward the water, the drops are cooled by the air and solidify, while remaining hot. Upon
entering the water they are cooled further and become the final granular product.

As designed, this system worked well. In an attempt to increase production, however, the rate
at which the drops were released into the cooling tower was increased, resulting in a harmful
side effect: the increased density of the drops heated the air, reducing the heat transfer from
the drops. As a result, the drops entered the water at a higher temperature, causing thermal
shock, damage, and disintegration of many of the granules. This in turn led to the production
of a substantial amount of nickel powder, which then had to be recovered.

17.1 Applying the SUH Approach. Solution 1

Applying the SUH approach to this problem, we produce the model shown in figure 24. The
basic system, S0, in which drops of nickel fall through air into water, produces the useful
outcome of the desired nickel granules. When the system is modified by increasing the rate of
nickel feed (shown as S1), the useful outcome of high production rate is added.

There is now a chain of harmful effects, however. The drops are overcooled by the water,
resulting in thermal shock, disintegration of the granules, and production of nickel powder.

To eliminate the powder, system S2 was added, which recovered the nickel powder and fed it
into the furnace for remelting. This produced the harmful effect H4, however, as a large
fraction of the powder burned upon entering the furnace and went up the stack.

To counteract this burning, a system (S3) was proposed whereby the powder was placed into a
box before feeding it into the furnace. This also had an undesirable side effect: the material of
which the box was constructed would pollute the melt.

At this point TRIZ was applied. Having identified H5 as an undesired action of the kind
“pollution,” the specialized TRIZ operator masking a substance was applied. This operator
suggests combining the powder with a substance which, after performing its function,
becomes indistinct from the material already present in the furnace. Three possibilities then
became immediately apparent: nickel, ore and slag. Producing boxes from nickel was
considered too costly. The powder could be mixed with the incoming ore, but it was not
certain if this would prevent it from burning. However, mixing the powder with slag and then
solidifying it and feeding it back into the furnace proved to be an acceptable solution.

35
 Nickel Production Example

Figure 24

17.2 Solution 2
Although finding a way to reintroduce the powder was a good solution, a better solution would
be to eliminate the production of powder, H3, in the first place. For this purpose, the operator
drawing off the undesired action, (listed in Table 3) was used. Continuing down the
abstraction ladder, this operator contains the sub-operator introduce a mediating substance,
which in turn contains the sub-operator application of void or foam. This suggests the solution
that was finally implemented, namely, to add soap to the water and bubble air through the
mixture. These, together with the churning of the falling drops, produced a foam layer which
cooled the drops before they entered the water, thus reducing thermal shock sufficiently to
eliminate the production of powder.

36
18. Conclusion
We began this book by stating that our purpose was to present a point of view from which at
least a large portion of the TRIZ theory could be apprehended by an English-speaking
audience. We believe we have accomplished this, but we must hasten to add that, as large a
portion as this is, it is only a small part of what TRIZ has become. TRIZ is a system for
creative thought which has grown to include applications to management sciences, education,
business, marketing, social and political issues, pure science, biology, etc. It includes methods
for forecasting the future development of technologies, building patent fences, uncovering the
causes of past disasters as well as identifying and eliminating potential causes for would-be
disasters. We hope we have given the reader enough to convey the enormous value of TRIZ,
and we invite him/her to look further.

37
Bibliography

Books
1. Altshuller, G. S. Creativity as an Exact Science. Transl. Anthony Williams. New York:
Gordon and Breach Science Publishers, 1984.

2. Altshuller, G. S. And Suddenly the Inventor Appeared. Transl. Lev Shulyak. Worchester,
Massachusetts: Technical Innovation Center, 1996.

Other References
1. Ideation Methodology course material. Southfield, Mich: Ideation International Inc., 1993.

2. Fey, V. R., E. I. Rivin, I. M. Vertkin. Application of the Theory of Inventive Problem

Solving to Design & Manufacturing Systems. CIRP Annals, 43, 1994.

3. Arciszewski, Tomasz. ARIZ 77, An Innovative Design Method; Design Methods &
Theories 22.2, 1988.

38
APPENDIX 1 — 40 Inventive Principles

1. Segmentation
a. Divide an object into independent parts.
b. Make an object sectional.
c. Increase a degree of an object’s segmentation.
Examples:
1. Sectional furniture, modular computer components, folding wooden ruler.
2. Garden hoses can be joined together to form any length needed.

2. Extraction
a. Extract (remove or separate) a “disturbing” part or property, from an object, or
b. Extract the only necessary part or property.
Example:
To scare birds from the airport, reproduce the sound known to excite birds using a tape
recorder. The sound was separated from birds.

3. Local Quality
a. Transition from a homogeneous structure of an object or outside environment (outside
action) to a heterogeneous structure.
b. Have different parts of the object carry out different functions.
c. Place each part of the object under conditions most favorable for its operation.
Examples:
1. To combat dust in coal mines, a fine mist of water in a conical form is applied to
working parts of the drilling and loading machinery. The smaller the droplets, the
greater an effect in combating dust, but fine mist hinders the work. The solution is
to develop a layer of coarse mist around the cone of fine mist.
2. A pencil and an eraser in one unit.

4. Asymmetry
a. Replace a symmetrical form with an asymmetrical form of the object.
b. If an object is already asymmetrical, increase the degree of asymmetry.
Examples:
1. One side of the tire is stronger than the other to withstand impact with the curb.

39 Appendix 1
 2. While discharging wet sand through a symmetrical funnel the sand forms an arch
above the opening, causing irregular flow. A funnel of asymmetrical shape
completely eliminates the arching effect.

5. Combining
a. Combine in space homogeneous objects or objects destined for contiguous operations.
b. Combine in time homogeneous or contiguous operations.
Example:
The working element of a rotary excavator has special steam nozzles to defrost and
soften the frozen ground in a single step.

6. Universality
a. Have the object perform multiple functions, thereby eliminating the need for some
other objects.
Examples:
1. Sofa which converts from a sofa in the daytime to a bed at night.
2. Minivan seat which adjusts to accommodate seating, sleeping or carrying cargo.

7. Nesting
a. Contain the object inside another which in turn is placed inside a third object.
b. An object passes through a cavity of another object.
Examples:
1. Telescoping antenna.
2. Stacking chairs (on top of each other for storage).
3. Mechanical pencil with lead stored inside.

8. Counterweight
a. Compensate for the object’s weight by joining with another object that has a lifting
force.
b. Compensate for the weight of an object by interaction with an environment providing
aerodynamic or hydrodynamic forces.
Examples:
1. Boat with hydrofoils.
2. A rear wing in racing cars to increase the pressure from the car to the ground.

40 Appendix 1
9. Prior counter-action
a. If it is necessary to carry out some action, consider a counter-action in advance.
b. If by the problem statement an object has to have a tension, provide anti-tension in
advance.
Examples:
1. Reinforced concrete column or floor.
2. Reinforced shaft – in order to make a shaft is stronger the shaft made out of several
pipes that have been previously twisted to a calculated angle.

10. Prior action

a. Carry out the required action in advance in full, or at least in part.
b. Arrange objects so they can go into action without time loss waiting for action (and
from the most convenient position).
Examples:
1. Utility knife blade made with a groove allowing the dull part of the blade to be
broken off, restoring sharpness.
2. Rubber cement in a bottle is difficult to apply neatly and uniformly. Instead, it is
formed into a tape so that the proper amount can be more easily applied.

11. Cushion in advance

Compensate for the relatively low reliability of an object by countermeasures taken in
advance.
Example:
To prevent shoplifting the owner of the store attaches a special tag containing a
magnetized plate. In order for the customer to carry out the merchandise, the plate is
demagnetized by the cashier.

12. Equipotentiality
Change the condition of work so that an object need not be raised or lowered.
Example:
Automobile engine oil is changed by workers in a pit (so that expensive lifting
equipment is not needed).

13. Inversion
a. Instead of an action dictated by the specifications of the problem, implement an
opposite action.
b. Make a moving part of the object or the outside environment immovable and the non
moving part moveable.
c. Turning the object upside down.

41 Appendix 1
 Example:
Abrasively cleaning parts by vibrating the parts instead of the abrasive.

14. Spheroidality
a. Replace linear parts or flat surfaces with curved ones, cubical shapes with spherical
shapes.
b. Use rollers, balls, spirals.
c. Replace a linear motion with rotating movement, utilize a centrifugal force.
Example:
Computer mouse utilizes ball construction to transfer linear two axis motion of into
vector.

15. Dynamicity
a. Make characteristics of an object, or outside environment automatically adjust for
optimal performance at each stage of operation.
b. Divide an object into elements able to change position relative to each other.
c. If an object is immovable, make it movable or interchangeable.
Examples:
1. A flashlight with a flexible gooseneck between the body and the lamp head.
2. A transport vessel with the body of a cylindrical shape. To reduce the draft of a
vessel under full load the body, comprised of two hinged half-cylindrical parts that
can be opened.

16. Partial or overdone action

a. If it is difficult to obtain 100% of a desired effect, achieve somewhat more or less to
greatly simplify the problem.
Examples:
1. A cylinder is painted by dipping into paint, but contains more paint than desired.
Excess paint is then removed by rapidly rotating the cylinder.
2. To obtain uniform discharge of a metallic powder from a bin, the hopper has a
special internal funnel which is continually overfilled to provide nearly constant
pressure.

17. Moving to a new dimension

a. Remove problems in moving an object in a line are by two dimensional movement
(along a plane). Similarly, problems with moving an object in a plane are removed if
the object can be changed to allow three-dimensional space.
b. Use a multilayer assembly of objects instead of a single layer.
c. Incline the object or turning it “on its side.”

42 Appendix 1
 d. Project images onto neighboring areas or onto the reverse side of the object.
Example:
A greenhouse which has a concave reflector on the northern part of the house to im-
prove illumination of that part of the house by reflecting the sun light during the day.

18. Mechanical vibration

a. Set an object into oscillation.
b. If oscillation exists, increase its frequency, even as far as ultrasonic.
c. Use the frequency of resonance.
d. Instead of mechanical vibrations, use piezovibrators.
e. Use ultrasonic vibrations in conjunction with an electromagnetic field.
Examples:
1. To remove a cast from the body without skin injury, a conventional hand saw was
replaced with a vibrating knife.
2. Vibrate a casting mold while it is being filled to improve flow and structural
properties.

19. Periodic action

a. Replace a continuous action with a periodic one, or impulse.
b. If an action is already periodic, change its frequency.
c. Use pauses between impulses to provide additional action.
Examples:
1. An impact wrench loosens corroded nuts using impulses rather than a continuous
force.
2. A warning lamp flashes so that it is even more noticeable than if continuously lit.

20. Continuity of useful action

a. Carry out an action without a break – all parts of an object should be constantly
operating at full capacity.
b. Remove an idle and intermediate motions.
Example:
A drill with cutting edges which permit cutting process in forward and reverse
directions.

43 Appendix 1
21. Rushing through
a. Perform harmful or hazardous operations at very high speed.
Example:
A cutter for thin wall plastic tubes prevents tube deformation during cutting by running
at a very high speed (cuts before the tube has a chance to deform).

22. Convert harm into benefit

a. Utilize a harmful factors or harmful effect of an environment to obtain a positive
effect.
b. Remove a harmful factor by adding it with another harmful factor.
c. Increase the amount of harmful action until it ceases to be harmful.
Examples:
1. Sand or gravel freezes solid when transported through cold climates. Over freezing
(using liquid nitrogen) embrittles the ice, permitting pouring.
2. When using high frequency current to heat metal, only the outer layer was heated.
This negative effect was later used for surface heat treating.

23. Feedback
a. Introduce feedback.
b. If feedback already exists, reverse it.
Examples:
1. Water pressure from a well is maintained by sensing output pressure and turning on
a pump if pressure is too low.
2. Ice and water are measured separately but must be combined to an exact total
weight. Because it is difficult to precisely dispense the ice, it is measured first and
the weight is fed to the water control, which precisely dispenses the needed
amount.
3. Noise canceling devices sample noise signals, phase shift them and feed them back
to cancel the effect of the noise source.

24. Mediator
a. Use an intermediary object to transfer or carry out an action.
b. Temporarily connect an object to another one that is easy to remove.
Example:
To reduce energy loss when applying current to a liquid metal, cooled electrodes and
intermediate liquid metal with a lower melting temperature used.

44 Appendix 1
25. Self-service
a. Make the object service itself and carry out supplementary and repair operations.
b. Make use out of waste of material and energy.
Examples:
1. To distribute an abrasive material evenly on the face of crushing rollers and to
prevent feeder from wearing, its surface made out of the same abrasive material.
2. In an electric welding gun, the rod is advanced by a special device. To simplify the
system, the rod is advanced by a solenoid controlled by the welding current.

26. Copying
a. Use simple and inexpensive copy instead of an object which is complex, expensive,
fragile or inconvenient to operate.
b. Replace an object or a system of objects by their optical copy, optical image. A scale
can be use to reduce or enlarge the image.
c. If visible optical copies are used, replace them with infrared or ultraviolet copies.
Example:
The height of tall objects can be determined by measuring their shadows.

27. Use an inexpensive short-lived object instead of an expensive,

durable one
Replace an expensive object by a collection of inexpensive ones, compromising other
properties (longevity, for instance).
Examples:
1. Disposable diapers.
2. A single usage mousetrap consisting of a plastic tube with bait. A mouse enters the
trap through a cone-shaped opening; the walls of the opening are angled and do not
allow the mouse to get out.

28. Replacement of a mechanical system

a. Replace a mechanical system by an optical, acoustical or odor system.
b. Use an electrical, magnetic or electromagnetic field for interaction with the object.
c. Replace fields:
1. Stationary fields with moving fields
2. Fixed to those changing in time
3. From random to structured
d. Use a field in conjunction with ferromagnetic particles.

45 Appendix 1
 Example:
To increase a bond of metal coating to a thermoplastic material the process is carried
out inside an electromagnetic field to apply force to the metal.

29. Use a pneumatic or hydraulic construction

Replace solid parts of an object by gas or liquid – these parts can use air or water for
inflation or use air or hydrostatic cushions.
Examples:
1. To increase the draft of an industrial chimney a spiral pipe with nozzles was
installed. When the air starts flowing through the nozzles, it creates an air like wall,
reducing drag.
2. For shipping fragile products air bubble envelopes or foam like materials are used.

30. Flexible film or thin membranes

a. Replace customary constructions with flexible membranes and thin film.
b. Isolate an object from outside environment with thin film or fine membranes.
Example:
To prevent the loss of water evaporating from the leaves of plants, polyethylene spray
was applied. After a while the polyethylene hardened and plant growth much improved
because the polyethylene film passes oxygen better than water vapor.

31. Use of porous material

a. Make an object porous or use additional porous elements (inserts, covers etc.).
b. If an object is already porous fill the pores in advance with some substance.
Example:
To avoid pumping coolant to a machine, some of the parts of the machine are filled
with porous material (porous powdered steel) soaked in coolant liquid which
evaporates when the machine is working, providing short-term uniform cooling.

32. Changing the color

a. Change the color of an object or its surroundings.
b. Change the degree of translucency of an object or surroundings.
c. Use colored additives to observe objects or processes which are difficult to see.
d. If such additives are already used, employ luminescent traces or tracer elements.
Examples:
1. A transparent bandage enabling a wound to be inspected without the dressing being
removed.
2. In steel mills a water curtain was designed to protect workers from overheating.
But this curtain only protects from infrared rays, so the bright light from the melted

46 Appendix 1
 steel can easy get through the curtain. A coloring was added to the water to create a
filter effect while remaining transparent.

33. Homogeneity
Make objects interacting with a primary object out of the same material or material that is
close to it in behavior.
Example:
The surface of a feeder for abrasive grain is made of the same material that runs
through the feeder – allowing to have a continuous restoration of the surface without
being worn out.

34. Rejecting and regenerating parts

a. After it has completed its function or become useless reject or modify (e.g., discard,
dissolve or evaporate) an element of an object.
b. Restore directly any used up parts of an object.
Examples:
1. Bullet casings are ejected after the gun fires.
2. Rocket boosters separate after serving their function.

35. Transformation of physical and chemical states of an object

Change an aggregate state of an object, concentration of density, the degree of flexibility,
the temperature.
Example:
In a system for brittle friable materials, the surface of the spiral feedscrew was made
from an elastic material with two spiral springs. In order to control the process the
pitch of the screw could be changed remotely.

36. Phase transition

Implement an effect developed during the phase transition of a substance. For instance,
during the change of volume, liberation or absorption of heat.
Example:
To control the expansion of ribbed pipes, they are filled with water and cooled to a
freezing temperature.

37. Thermal expansion

a. Use expansion or contraction of material by heat.
b. Use various materials with different coefficients of heat expansion.

47 Appendix 1
 Example:
To control the opening of roof windows in a greenhouse, bimetallic plates are
connected to the windows. With a change of temperature, the plates bend and make the
window open or close.

38. Use strong oxidizers

a. Replace normal air with enriched air.
b. Replace enriched air with oxygen.
c. Treat in air or in oxygen with ionizing radiation.
d. Use ionized oxygen.
Example:
To obtain more heat from a torch, oxygen is fed to the torch instead of atmospheric air.

39. Inert environment

a. Replace the normal environment with an inert one.
b. Carry out the process in a vacuum.
Example:
To prevent cotton from catching fire in a warehouse, it is treated with inert gas during
transport to the storage area.

40. Composite materials

a. Replace a homogeneous material with a composite one.
Example:
Military aircraft wings are made of composites of plastics and carbon fibers for high
strength and low weight.

48 Appendix 1
 APPENDIX 2 — Contradiction Matrix
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Undesired
Result

Stability of object
stationary object

stationary object

stationary object

stationary object
(Conflict)

Area of moving
moving object

moving object

moving object
Volume of

Volume of
Weight of

Weight of

Length of

Length of

pressure
Tension,
Feature

Area of

Speed

Shape
object

Force
to Improve

Weight of moving 15, 8, 29, 17, 29, 2, 2, 8, 8, 10, 10, 36, 10, 14, 1, 35,
1
object 29, 34 38, 34 40, 28 15, 38 18, 37 37, 40 35, 40 19, 39
Weight of 10, 1, 35, 30, 5, 35, 8, 10, 13, 29, 13, 10, 26, 39,
2
stationary object 29, 35 13, 2 14, 2 19, 35 10, 18 29, 14 1, 40
Length of moving 8, 15, 15, 17, 7, 17, 13, 4, 17, 10, 1, 8, 1, 8, 1, 8,
3
object 29, 34 4 4, 35 8 4 35 10, 29 15, 34
Length of 35, 28, 17, 7, 35, 8, 1, 14, 13, 14, 39, 37,
4 28, 10
stationary object 40, 29 10, 40 2, 14 35 15, 7 35
Area of moving 2, 17 14, 15, 7, 14, 29, 30, 19, 30, 10, 15, 5, 34, 11, 2,
5
object 29, 4 18, 4 17, 4 4, 34 35, 2 36, 28 29, 4 13, 39
Area of stationary 30, 2, 26, 7, 1, 18, 10, 15,
6 2, 38
object 14, 18 9, 39 35, 36 36, 37
Volume of moving 2, 26, 1, 7, 1, 7, 29, 4, 15, 35, 6, 35, 1, 15, 28, 10,
7
object 29, 40 4, 35 4, 17 38, 34 36, 37 36, 37 29, 4 1, 39
Volume of 35, 10, 35, 8, 2, 18, 7, 2, 34, 28,
8 19, 14 24, 35
stationary object 19, 14 2, 14 37 35 35, 40
2, 28, 13, 14, 29, 30, 7, 29, 13, 28, 6, 18, 35, 15, 28, 33,
9 Speed
13, 38 8 34 34 15, 19 38, 40 18, 34 1, 18
8, 1, 18, 13, 17, 19, 19, 10, 1, 18, 15, 9, 2, 36, 13, 28, 18, 21, 10, 35, 35, 10,
10 Force 28, 10
37, 18 1, 28 6, 36 15 36, 37 12, 37 18, 37 15, 12 11 40, 34 21
10, 36, 13, 29, 35, 10, 35, 1, 10, 15, 10, 15, 6, 35, 6, 35, 36, 35, 35, 4, 35, 33,
11 Tension, pressure 35, 24
37, 40 10, 18 36 14, 16 36, 25 35, 37 10 36 21 15, 10 2, 40
8, 10, 15, 10, 29, 34, 13, 14, 5, 34, 14, 4, 7, 2, 35, 15, 35, 10, 34, 15, 33, 1,
12 Shape
29, 40 26, 3 5, 4 10, 7 4, 10 15, 22 35 34, 18 37, 40 10, 14 18, 4
21, 35, 26, 39, 13, 15, 2, 11, 28, 10, 34, 28, 33, 15, 10, 35, 2, 35, 22, 1,
13 Stability of object 37 39
2, 39 1, 40 1, 28 13 19, 39 35, 40 28, 18 21, 16 40 18, 4
1, 8, 40, 26, 1, 15, 15, 14, 3, 34, 9, 40, 10, 15, 9, 14, 8, 13, 10, 18, 10, 3, 10, 30, 13, 17,
14 Strength
40, 15 27, 1 8, 35 28, 26 40, 29 28 14, 7 17, 15 26, 14 3, 14 18, 40 35, 40 35
Durability of 19, 5, 2, 19, 3, 17, 10, 2, 3, 35, 19, 2, 19, 3, 14, 26, 13, 3,
15
moving object 34, 31 9 19 19, 30 5 16 27 28, 25 35
Durability of 6, 27, 1, 10, 35, 34, 39, 3,
16
stationary object 19, 16 35 38 35, 23
36, 22, 22, 35, 15, 19, 15, 19, 3, 35, 34, 39, 35, 6, 2, 28, 35, 10, 35, 39, 14, 22, 1, 35,
17 Temperature 35, 38
6, 38 32 9 9 39, 18 40, 18 4 36, 30 3, 21 19, 2 19, 32 32
19, 1, 2, 35, 19, 32,
18 Brightness
32 32 26
Energy spent by 12, 18, 15, 19, 35, 13, 8, 15, 16, 26, 23, 14, 12, 2, 19, 13,
19 12, 28
moving object 28, 31 25 18 35 21, 2 25 29 17, 24
Energy spent by 19, 9, 27, 4,
20 36, 37
stationary object 6, 27 29, 19

49 Appendix 2
 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
Undesired
Result

stationary object

stationary object
Energy spent by

Energy spent by

Waste of energy
(Conflict)

moving object

moving object

Waste of time
Temperature
Durability of

Durability of

information
Brightness

Amount of
substance

substance
Waste of
Strength
Feature

Loss of
Power
to Improve

Weight of moving 28, 27, 5, 34, 6, 20, 19, 1, 35, 12, 12, 36, 6, 2, 5, 35, 10, 24, 10, 35, 3, 26,
1
object 18, 40 31, 35 4, 38 32 34, 31 18, 31 34, 19 3, 31 35 20, 28 18, 31
Weight of 28, 2, 2, 27, 28, 19, 19, 32, 18, 19, 15, 19, 18, 19, 5, 8, 10, 15, 10, 20, 19, 6,
2
stationary object 10, 27 19, 6 32, 22 35 28, 1 18, 22 28, 15 13, 30 35 35, 26 18, 26
Length of moving 8, 35, 10, 15, 8, 35, 7, 2, 4, 29, 15, 2,
3 19 32 1, 35 1, 24 29, 35
object 29, 34 19 24 35, 39 23, 10 29
Length of 15, 14, 1, 40, 3, 35, 10, 28, 30, 29,
4 3, 25 12, 8 6, 28 24, 26
stationary object 28, 26 35 38, 18 24, 35 14
Area of moving 3, 15, 2, 15, 15, 32, 19, 10, 15, 17, 10, 35, 29, 30,
5 6, 3 19, 32 30, 26 26, 4
object 40, 14 16 19, 13 32, 18 30, 26 2, 39 6, 13
Area of stationary 2, 10, 35, 39, 17, 7, 10, 14, 10, 35, 2, 18,
6 40 17, 32 30, 16
object 19, 30 38 30 18, 39 4, 18 40, 4
Volume of moving 9, 14, 6, 35, 34, 39, 2, 13, 35, 6, 7, 15, 36, 39, 2, 6, 29, 30,
7 35 2, 22
object 15, 7 4 10, 18 10 13, 18 13, 16 34, 10 34, 10 7
Volume of 9, 14, 35, 34, 35, 6, 10, 39, 35, 16,
8 30, 6 35, 3
stationary object 17, 15 38 4 35, 34 32, 18
8, 3, 3, 19, 28, 30, 10, 13, 8, 15, 19, 35, 14, 20, 10, 13, 18, 19,
9 Speed 13, 26
26, 14 35, 5 36, 2 19 35, 38 38, 2 19, 35 28, 38 29, 38
35, 10, 35, 10, 19, 17, 1, 16, 19, 35, 8, 35, 10, 37, 14, 29,
10 Force 19, 2 14, 15
14, 27 24 10 36, 37 18, 37 40, 5 36 18, 36
9, 18, 19, 3, 35, 39, 14, 24, 10, 35, 2, 36, 10, 36, 37, 36, 10, 14,
11 Tension, pressure
3, 40 27 19, 2 10, 37 14 25 3, 37 4 36
30, 14, 14, 26, 22, 14, 13, 15, 2, 6, 4, 6, 35, 29, 14, 10,
12 Shape 14 36, 22
10, 40 9, 25 19, 32 32 34, 14 2 3, 5 34, 17
17, 9, 13, 27, 39, 3, 35, 1, 32, 3, 27, 4, 32, 35, 14, 2, 2, 14, 15, 32,
13 Stability of object 13, 19 35, 27
15 10, 35 35, 23 32 27, 15 29, 18 27, 31 39, 6 30, 40 35
27, 3, 30, 10, 19, 35, 10, 26, 35, 28, 29, 3, 29, 10,
14 Strength 35, 19 35 35
26 40 10 35, 28 31, 40 28, 10 27
Durability of 27, 3, 19, 35, 2, 19, 28, 6, 19, 10, 28, 27, 20, 10, 3, 35,
15 10
moving object 10 39 4, 35 35, 18 35, 38 3, 18 28, 18 10, 40
Durability of 19, 18, 27, 16, 28, 20, 3, 35,
16 16 10
stationary object 36, 40 18, 38 10, 16 31
10, 30, 19, 13, 19, 18, 32, 30, 19, 15, 2, 14, 21, 17, 21, 36, 35, 28, 3, 17,
17 Temperature
22, 40 39 36, 40 21, 16 3, 17 17, 25 35, 38 29, 31 21, 18 30, 39
2, 19, 32, 35, 32, 1, 32, 35, 19, 16, 19, 1,
18 Brightness 35, 19 32 13, 1 1, 6 1, 19
6 19 19 1, 15 1, 6 26, 17
Energy spent by 5, 19, 28, 35, 19, 24, 2, 15, 6, 19, 12, 22, 35, 24, 35, 38, 34, 23,
19
moving object 9, 35 6, 18 3, 14 19 37, 18 15, 24 18, 5 19, 18 16, 18
Energy spent by 19, 2, 28, 27, 3, 35,
20 35
stationary object 35, 32 18, 31 31

50 Appendix 2
 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39
Undesired
Result

Manufacturability
acting on object
(Conflict)

Convenience of
Harmful factors
Manufacturing

Complexity of
Measurement

Harmful side

Repairability

Productivity
Adaptability

automation
complexity
Reliability

accuracy

accuracy

Level of
Feature

control
effects

Device
to Improve

use
Weight of moving 3, 11, 28, 27, 28, 35, 22, 21, 22, 35, 27, 28, 35, 3, 2, 27, 29, 5, 26, 30, 28, 29, 26, 35, 35, 3,
1
object 1, 27 35, 26 26, 18 18, 27 31, 39 1, 36 2, 24 28, 11 15, 8 36, 34 26, 32 18, 19 24, 37
Weight of 10, 28, 18, 26, 10, 1, 2, 19, 35, 22, 28, 1, 6, 13, 2, 27, 19, 15, 1, 10, 25, 28, 2, 26, 1, 28,
2
stationary object 8, 3 28 35, 17 22, 37 1, 39 9 1, 32 28, 11 29 26, 39 17, 15 35 15, 35
Length of moving 10, 14, 28, 32, 10, 28, 1, 15, 1, 29, 15, 29, 1, 28, 14, 15, 1, 19, 35, 1, 17, 24, 14, 4,
3 17, 15
object 29, 40 4 29, 37 17, 24 17 35, 4 10 1, 16 26, 24 26, 24 26, 16 28, 29
Length of 15, 29, 32, 28, 2, 32, 15, 17, 30, 14,
4 1, 18 2, 25 3 1, 35 1, 26 26
stationary object 28 3 10 27 7, 26
Area of moving 26, 28, 22, 33, 17, 2, 13, 1, 15, 17, 15, 13, 14, 1, 2, 36, 14, 30, 10, 26,
5 29, 9 2, 32 15, 30
object 32, 3 28, 1 18, 39 26, 24 13, 16 10, 1 13 26, 18 28, 23 34, 2
Area of stationary 32, 35, 26, 28, 2, 29, 27, 2, 22, 1, 1, 18, 2, 35, 10, 15,
6 40, 16 16, 4 16 15, 16 23
object 40, 4 32, 3 18, 36 39, 35 40 36 30, 18 17, 7
Volume of moving 14, 1, 25, 26, 25, 28, 22, 21, 17, 2, 29, 1, 15, 13, 29, 26, 35, 34, 10, 6,
7 10 15, 29 26, 1
object 40, 11 28 2, 16 27, 35 40, 1 40 30, 12 4 16, 24 2, 34
Volume of 2, 35, 35, 10, 34, 39, 30, 18, 2, 17, 35, 37,
8 35 1 1, 31
stationary object 16 25 19, 27 35, 4 26 10, 2
11, 35, 28, 32, 10, 28, 1, 28, 2, 24, 35, 13, 32, 28, 34, 2, 15, 10, 10, 28, 3, 34,
9 Speed 10, 18
27, 28 1, 24 32, 25 35, 23 35, 21 8, 1 13, 12 28, 27 26 4, 34 27, 16
3, 35, 35, 10, 28, 29, 1, 35, 13, 3, 15, 37, 1, 28, 15, 1, 15, 17, 26, 35, 36, 37, 3, 28,
10 Force 2, 35
13, 21 23, 24 37, 36 40, 18 36, 24 18, 1 3, 25 11 18, 20 10, 18 10, 19 35, 37
10, 13, 6, 28, 22, 2, 2, 33, 1, 35, 19, 1, 2, 36, 10, 14,
11 Tension, pressure 3, 35 11 2 35 35, 24
19, 35 25 37 27, 18 16 35 37 35, 37
10, 40, 28, 32, 32, 30, 22, 1, 1, 32, 32, 15, 2, 13, 1, 15, 16, 29, 15, 13, 15, 1, 17, 26,
12 Shape 35, 1
16 1 40 2, 35 17, 28 26 1 29 1, 28 39 32 34, 10
35, 24, 35, 40, 32, 35, 2, 35, 35, 30, 2, 35, 35, 22, 1, 8, 23, 35,
13 Stability of object 13 18 35, 19
30, 18 27, 39 30 10, 16 34, 2 22, 26 39, 23 35 40, 3
3, 27, 18, 35, 15, 35, 11, 3, 32, 40, 27, 11, 15, 3, 2, 13, 27, 3, 29, 35,
14 Strength 11, 3 3, 27 15
16 37, 1 22, 2 10, 32 28, 2 3 32 28 15, 40 10, 14
Durability of 11, 2, 3, 27, 22, 15, 21, 39, 27, 1, 29, 10, 1, 35, 10, 4, 19, 29, 35, 17,
15 3 12, 27 6, 10
moving object 13 16, 40 33, 28 16, 22 4 27 13 29, 15 39, 35 14, 19
Durability of 34, 27, 10, 26, 17, 1, 25, 34, 10, 20,
16 22 35, 10 1 1 2 1
stationary object 6, 40 24 40, 33 6, 35 16, 38
19, 35, 32, 19, 22, 33, 22, 35, 4, 10, 2, 18, 2, 17, 3, 27, 26, 2, 15, 28,
17 Temperature 24 26, 27 26, 27
3, 10 24 35, 2 2, 24 16 27 16 35, 31 19, 16 35
11, 15, 35, 19, 19, 35, 28, 26, 15, 17, 15, 1, 6, 32, 2, 26, 2, 25,
18 Brightness 3, 32 15, 19 32, 15
32 32, 39 28, 26 19 13, 16 1, 19 13 10 16
Energy spent by 19, 21, 3, 1, 1, 35, 2, 35, 28, 26, 1, 15, 15, 17, 2, 29, 12, 28,
19 19, 35 35, 38 32, 2
moving object 11, 27 32 6, 27 6 30 17, 28 13, 16 27, 28 35
Energy spent by 10, 36, 10, 2, 19, 22, 19, 35,
20 1, 4 1, 6
stationary object 23 22, 37 18 16, 25

51 Appendix 2
 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Undesired
Result

Stability of object
stationary object

stationary object

stationary object

stationary object
(Conflict)

Area of moving
moving object

moving object

moving object
Volume of

Volume of
Weight of

Weight of

Length of

Length of

pressure
Tension,
Feature

Area of

Speed

Shape
object

Force
to Improve

8, 36, 19, 26, 1, 10, 17, 32, 35, 6, 30, 6, 15, 35, 26, 2, 22, 10, 29, 14, 35, 32,
21 Power 19, 38
38, 31 17, 27 35, 37 13, 38 38 25 2 36, 35 35 2, 40 15, 31
15, 6, 19, 6, 7, 2, 6, 38, 15, 26, 17, 7, 7, 18, 16, 35, 14, 2,
22 Waste of energy 7 36, 38
19, 28 18, 9 6, 13 7 17, 30 30, 18 23 38 39, 6
Waste of 35, 6, 35, 6, 14, 29, 10, 28, 35, 2, 10, 18, 1, 29, 3, 39, 10, 13, 14, 15, 3, 36, 29, 35, 2, 14,
23
substance 23, 40 22, 32 10, 39 24 10, 31 39, 31 30, 36 18, 31 28, 38 18, 40 37, 10 3, 5 30, 40
Loss of 10, 24, 10, 35,
24 1, 26 26 30, 26 30, 16 2, 22 26, 32
information 35 5
10, 20, 10, 20, 15, 2, 30, 24, 26, 4, 10, 35, 2, 5, 35, 16, 10, 37, 37, 36, 4, 10, 35, 3,
25 Waste of time
37, 35 26, 5 29 14, 5 5, 16 17, 4 34, 10 32, 18 36, 5 4 34, 17 22, 5
Amount of 35, 6, 27, 26, 29, 14, 15, 14, 2, 18, 15, 20, 35, 29, 35, 14, 10, 36, 15, 2,
26 35, 14
substance 18, 31 18, 35 35, 18 29 40, 4 29 34, 28 3 14, 3 17, 40
3, 8, 3, 10, 15, 9, 15, 29, 17, 10, 32, 35, 3, 10, 2, 35, 21, 35, 8, 28, 10, 24, 35, 1,
27 Reliability
10, 40 8, 28 14, 4 28, 11 14, 16 40, 4 14, 24 24 11, 28 10, 3 35, 19 16, 11
Measurement 32, 35, 28, 35, 28, 26, 32, 28, 26, 28, 26, 28, 32, 13, 28, 13, 6, 28, 6, 28, 32, 35,
28 32, 2
accuracy 26, 28, 25, 26 5, 16 3, 16 32, 3 32, 3 6 32, 24 32 32 13
Manufacturing 28, 32, 28, 35, 10, 28, 2, 32, 28, 33, 2, 29, 32, 28, 25, 10, 10, 28, 28, 19, 32, 30,
29 3, 35 30, 18
accuracy 13, 18 27, 9 29, 37 10 29, 32 18, 36 2 35 32 34, 36 40
Harmful factors 22, 21, 2, 22, 17, 1, 22, 1, 27, 2, 22, 23, 34, 39, 21, 22, 13, 35, 22, 2, 22, 1, 35, 24,
30 1, 18
acting on object 27, 39 13, 24 39, 4 33, 28 39, 35 37, 35 19, 27 35, 28 39, 18 37 3, 35 30, 18
Harmful side 19, 22, 35, 22, 17, 15, 17, 2, 22, 1, 17, 2, 30, 18, 35, 28, 35, 28, 2, 33, 35, 40,
31 35, 1
effects 15, 39 1, 39 16, 22 18, 39 40 40 35, 4 3, 23 1, 40 27, 18 27, 39
28, 29, 1, 27, 1, 29, 15, 17, 13, 1, 13, 29, 35, 13, 35, 19, 1, 28, 11, 13,
32 Manufacturability 16, 40 35 35, 12
15, 16 36, 13 13, 17 27 26, 12 1, 40 8, 1 1, 37 13, 27 1
Convenience of 25, 2, 6, 13, 1, 17, 1, 17, 18, 16, 1, 16, 4, 18, 18, 13, 28, 13, 2, 32, 15, 34, 32, 35,
33
use 13, 15 1, 25 13, 12 13, 16 15, 39 35, 15 39, 31 34 35 12 29, 28 30
2, 27, 2, 27, 1, 28, 3, 18, 15, 13, 25, 2, 1, 11, 1, 13,
34 Repairability 16, 25 1 34, 9 13 2, 35
35, 11 35, 11 10, 25 31 32 35, 11 10 2, 4
1, 6, 19, 15, 35, 1, 1, 35, 35, 30, 15, 35, 35, 10, 15, 17, 15, 37, 35, 30,
35 Adaptability 15, 16 35, 16
15, 8 29, 16 29, 2 16 29, 7 29 14 20 1, 8 14
26, 30, 2, 36, 1, 19, 14, 1, 34, 25, 34, 10, 19, 1, 29, 13, 2, 22,
36 Device complexity 26 6, 36 1, 16 26, 16
34, 36 35, 39 26, 24 13, 16 6 28 35 28, 15 17, 19
Complexity of 27, 26, 6, 13, 16, 17, 2, 13, 2, 39, 29, 1, 2, 18, 3, 4, 36, 28, 35, 36, 27, 13, 11, 22,
37 26
control 28, 13 28, 1 26, 24 15, 17 30, 16 4, 16 26, 31 16, 35 40, 19 37, 32 1, 39 39, 30
Level of 28, 26, 28, 26, 14, 13, 17, 14, 35, 13, 15, 32,
38 23 28, 10 2, 35 13, 35 18, 1
automation 18, 35 35, 10 17, 28 13 16 1, 13
35, 26, 28, 27, 18, 4, 30, 7, 10, 26, 10, 35, 2, 6, 35, 37, 28, 15, 10, 37, 14, 10, 35, 3,
39 Productivity
24, 37 15, 3 28, 38 14, 26 34, 31 17, 7 34, 10 10, 2 10, 36 14 34, 40 22, 39

52 Appendix 2
 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
Undesired
Result

stationary object

stationary object
Energy spent by

Energy spent by

Waste of energy
(Conflict)

moving object

moving object

Waste of time
Temperature
Durability of

Durability of

information
Brightness

Amount of
substance

substance
Waste of
Strength

Loss of
Feature

Power
to Improve

26, 10, 19, 35, 2, 14, 16, 6, 16, 6, 10, 35, 28, 27, 35, 20, 4, 34,
21 Power 16 10, 19
28 10, 38 17, 25 19 19, 37 38 18, 38 10, 6 19
19, 38, 1, 13, 35, 27, 10, 18, 7, 18,
22 Waste of energy 26 3, 38 19, 10
7 32, 15 2, 37 32, 7 25
Waste of 35, 28, 28, 27, 27, 16, 21, 36, 1, 6, 35, 18, 28, 27, 28, 27, 35, 27, 15, 18, 6, 3,
23
substance 31, 40 3, 18 18, 38 39, 31 13 24, 5 12, 31 18, 38 2, 31 35, 10 10, 24
Loss of 24, 26, 24, 28,
24 10 10 19 10, 19 10, 19
information 28, 32 35
29, 3, 20, 10, 28, 20, 35, 29, 1, 19, 35, 38, 35, 20, 10, 5, 35, 18, 24, 26, 35, 38,
25 Waste of time 1
28, 18 28, 18 10, 16 21, 18 26, 17 19, 18 10, 6 18, 32 10, 39 28, 32 18, 16
Amount of 14, 35, 3, 35, 3, 35, 3, 17, 34, 29, 3, 35, 7, 18, 6, 3, 24, 28, 35, 38,
26 35
substance 34, 10 10, 40 31 39 16, 18 31 25 10, 24 35 18, 16
2, 35, 34, 27, 3, 35, 11, 32, 21, 11, 21, 11, 10, 11, 10, 35, 10, 30, 21, 28,
27 Reliability 11, 28 36, 23 10, 28
3, 25 6, 40 10 13 27, 19 26, 31 35 29, 39 4 40, 3
Measurement 28, 6, 28, 6, 10, 26, 6, 19, 6, 1, 3, 6, 3, 6, 26, 32, 10, 16, 24, 34, 2, 6,
28
accuracy 32 32 24 28, 24 32 32 32 27 31, 28 28, 32 32
Manufacturing 3, 27, 13, 32, 35, 31, 32, 26,
29 3, 27 19, 26 3, 32 32, 2 32, 2 32, 30
accuracy 40 2 10, 24 28, 18
Harmful factors 18, 35, 22, 15, 17, 1, 22, 33, 1, 19, 1, 24, 10, 2, 19, 22, 21, 22, 33, 22, 22, 10, 35, 18, 35, 33,
30
acting on object 37, 1 33, 28 40, 33 35, 2 32, 13 6, 27 22, 37 31, 2 35, 2 19, 40 2 34 29, 31
Harmful side 15, 35, 15, 22, 21, 39, 22, 35, 19, 24, 2, 35, 19, 22, 2, 35, 21, 35, 10, 1, 10, 21, 3, 24,
31 1, 22
effects 22, 2 33, 31 16, 22 2, 24 39, 32 6 18 18 2, 22 34 29 39, 1
1, 3 27, 1, 27, 26, 28, 24, 28, 26, 27, 1, 15, 34, 32, 24, 35, 28, 35, 23,
32 Manufacturability 35, 16 1, 4 19, 35
10, 32 4 18 27, 1 27, 1 12, 24 33 18, 16 34, 4 1, 24
28, 32,
Convenience of 32, 40, 29, 3, 1, 16, 26, 27, 13, 17, 1, 13, 35, 34, 2, 19, 4, 10, 4, 28,
33 2, 12, 35
use 3, 28 8, 25 25 13 1, 24 24 2, 10 13 27, 22 10, 34
24
11, 1 11, 29, 15, 1, 15, 1, 15, 10, 15, 1, 2, 35, 32, 1, 2, 28,
34 Repairability 1 4, 10
2, 9 28, 27 13 28, 16 32, 2 32, 19 34, 27 10, 25 10, 25
35, 3, 13, 1, 27, 2, 6, 22, 19, 35, 19, 1, 18, 15, 15, 10, 3, 35,
35 Adaptability 2, 16 35, 28
32, 6 35 3, 35 26, 1 29, 13 29 1 2, 13 15
2, 13, 10, 4, 2, 17, 24, 17, 27, 2, 20, 19, 10, 35, 35, 10, 13, 3,
36 Device complexity 6, 29
28 28, 15 13 13 29, 28 30, 34 13, 2 28, 29 27, 10
Complexity of 27, 3, 19, 29, 25, 24, 3, 27, 2, 24, 19, 35, 19, 1, 35, 3, 1, 13, 35, 33, 18, 28, 3, 27,
37 35, 38
control 15, 28 39, 25 6, 35 35, 16 26 16 16, 10 15, 19 10, 24 27, 22 32, 9 29, 18
Level of 26, 2, 8, 32, 2, 32, 28, 2, 35, 10, 24, 28,
38 25, 13 6, 9 23, 28 35, 33 35, 13
automation 19 19 13 27 18, 5 35, 30
29, 28, 35, 10, 20, 10, 35, 21, 26, 17, 35, 10, 35, 20, 28, 10, 28, 10, 13, 15,
39 Productivity 1 35, 38
10, 18 2, 18 16, 38 28, 10 19, 1 38, 19 10 29, 35 35, 23 23

53 Appendix 2
 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39
Undesired
Result

Manufacturability
acting on object

Convenience of
Harmful factors
(Conflict)

Manufacturing

Complexity of
Measurement

Harmful side

Repairability

Productivity
Adaptability

automation
complexity
Reliability

accuracy

accuracy

Level of
control
Feature

effects

Device
to Improve

use
19, 24, 32, 15, 19, 22, 2, 35, 26, 10, 26, 35, 35, 2, 19, 17, 20, 19, 19, 35, 28, 2, 28, 35,
21 Power 32, 2
26, 31 2 31, 2 18 34 10 10, 34 34 30, 34 16 17 34
11, 10, 21, 22, 21, 35, 35, 22, 35, 3, 28, 10,
22 Waste of energy 32 2, 19 7, 23 2
35 35, 2 2, 22 1 15, 23 29, 35
Waste of 10, 29, 16, 34, 35, 10, 33, 22, 10, 1, 15, 34, 32, 28, 2, 35, 15, 10, 35, 10, 35, 18, 35, 10, 28, 35,
23
substance 39, 35 31, 28 24, 31 30, 40 34, 29 33 2, 24 34, 27 2 28, 24 10, 13 18 10, 23
10, 28, 22, 10, 10, 21, 13, 23,
24 Loss of information 32 27, 22 35, 33 35
23 1 22 15
10, 30, 24, 34, 24, 26, 35, 18, 35, 22, 35, 28, 4, 28, 32, 1, 18, 28, 24, 28,
25 Waste of time 35, 28 6, 29
4 28, 32 28, 18 34 18, 39 34, 4 10, 34 10 32, 10 35, 30
Amount of 18, 3, 13, 2, 35, 33, 3, 35, 29, 1, 35, 29, 2, 32, 15, 3, 3, 13, 3, 27, 13, 29,
26 33, 30 8, 35
substance 28, 40 28 29, 31 40, 39 35, 27 25, 10 10, 25 29 27, 10 29, 18 3, 27
32, 3, 11, 32, 27, 35, 35, 2, 27, 17, 13, 35, 13, 35, 27, 40, 11, 13, 1, 35,
27 Reliability 1, 11
11, 23 1 2, 40 40, 26 40 8, 24 1 28 27 29, 38
Measurement 5, 11, 28, 24, 3, 33, 6, 35, 1, 13, 1, 32, 13, 35, 27, 35, 26, 24, 28, 2, 10, 34,
28
accuracy 1, 23 22, 26 39, 10 25, 18 17, 34 13, 11 2 10, 34 32, 28 10, 34 28, 32
Manufacturing 11, 32, 26, 28, 4, 17, 1, 32, 26, 2, 26, 28, 10, 18,
29 25, 10
accuracy 1 10, 36 34, 26 35, 23 18 18, 23 32, 39
Harmful factors 27, 24, 28, 33, 26, 28, 24, 35, 2, 25, 35, 10, 35, 11, 22, 19, 22, 19, 33, 3, 22, 35,
30
acting on object 2, 40 23, 26 10, 18 2 28, 39 2 22, 31 29, 40 29, 40 34 13, 24
Harmful side 24, 2, 3, 33, 4, 17, 19, 1, 2, 21, 22, 35,
31 2
effects 40, 39 26 34, 26 31 27, 1 18, 39
1, 35, 2, 5, 35, 1, 2, 13, 27, 26, 6, 28, 8, 28, 35, 1,
32 Manufacturability 24, 2
12, 18 13, 16 11, 9 15 1 11, 1 1 10, 28
Convenience of 17, 27, 25, 13, 1, 32, 2, 25, 2, 5, 12, 26, 15, 34, 32, 26, 1, 34, 15, 1,
33
use 8, 40 2, 34 35, 23 28, 39 12 1, 32 1, 16 12, 17 12, 3 28
11, 10, 10, 2, 35, 10, 1, 35, 1, 12, 7, 1, 35, 1, 34, 35, 1, 32,
34 Repairability 25, 10
1, 16 13 2, 16 11, 10 26, 15 4, 16 13, 11 7, 13 10
35, 13, 35, 5, 35, 11, 1, 13, 15, 34, 1, 16, 15, 29, 27, 34, 35, 28,
35 Adaptability 1
8, 24 1, 10 32, 31 31 1, 16 7, 4 37, 28 35 6, 37
13, 35, 2, 26, 26, 24, 22, 19, 27, 26, 27, 9, 29, 15, 15, 10, 15, 1, 12, 17,
36 Device complexity 19, 1 1, 13
1 10, 34 32 29, 40 1, 13 26, 24 28, 37 37, 28 24 28
Complexity of 27, 40, 26, 24, 22, 19, 5, 28, 15, 10,
37 2, 21 2, 5 12, 26 1, 15 34, 21 35, 18
control 28, 8 32, 28 29, 28 11, 29 37, 28
Level of 11, 27, 28, 26, 28, 26, 1, 26, 1, 12, 1, 35, 27, 4, 15, 24, 34, 27, 5, 12,
38 2, 33 2
automation 32 10, 34 18, 23 13 34, 3 13 1, 35 10 25 35, 26
1, 35, 1, 10, 18, 10, 22, 35, 32, 22, 35, 28, 1, 28, 1, 32, 1, 35, 12, 17, 35, 18, 5, 12,
39 Productivity
10, 38 34, 28 32, 1 13, 24 18, 39 2, 24 7, 19 10, 25 28, 37 28, 24 27, 2 35, 26

54 Appendix 2
About the Author
Stan Kaplan is one of the early practitioners of the discipline now known as Quantitative Risk
Assessment (QRA), and a major contributor to its theory, language, philosophy and
methodology. His ideas and methods are widely used in the international risk and reliability
community, and in regulatory agencies worldwide. In 1996, he received the Society for Risk
Assessment’s Distinguished Achievement Award.

Dr. Kaplan’s main focus in QRA has been the handling of uncertainty -- how to quantify and
express it. He uses an “evidence-based” approach, which strives to “let the evidence speak, as
opposed to the personalities, positions, opinions, politics and wishful thinking involved.” He
points out that this approach “brings about clarity, communication, decision, and action where
before there was confusion, conflict, waste, delay, and litigation. In other words, it creates
order out of chaos.”

The evidence-based approach is made possible by a mathematical principle called Bayes

Theorem, which Dr. Kaplan describes as “not only the fundamental law of logical inference,
but actually the very definition of logic. It is what we mean by logical, rational thinking.” He
is a founder and chairman of Bayesian Systems, Inc., a Washington, D.C.-based company that
develops diagnostic, decision, simulation, and business management software and applications
based on the Bayes Theorem.

Stan is one of the first American scientists to become interested in the Russian theory of
inventive thinking, TRIZ. In addition to its evident practical value, what attracted him to this
theory was the thought that “just as the structure of logical thinking is the same whatever
we’re thinking about, might it also be true that the structure of creative thinking is the same,
whether one is thinking about engineering inventions, business strategies, political and social
organization, pure science, or even artistic expression? And, if so, could this structure be
identified, abstracted, and taught to people of varied backgrounds and ages, including
children?”

This thought drove him to try to understand “what makes TRIZ work?” An Introduction to
TRIZ is the result. Ideation International Inc. hope you enjoy it, profit from it, and come back
for more.