LONDON

APPLIED BEHAVIOUR
ANALYSIS & AUTISM:
AN INTRODUCTION

Suzanne M. Buchanan
Psy.D., BCBA-D

Mary Jane Weiss

Ph.D., BCBA-D

PUBLISHED WITH PERMISSION

First Bridge Centre is a fresh start for ABA in the UK. We promise a new beginning for
families who live with early years ASD without a clear sense of choice of treatment.
Led by the science, our team helps families to better understand autism and follow
evidence-based practice to improve outcomes for each child.

Our vision

Every child born with autism should benefit from urgent attention, dedicated
intensive therapy and the chance to grow and live their best life. Every family should
know what’s possible with early evidence-based treatment.

Published in the UK with permission. Copyright 2020 First Bridge Centre

 Contents
Forward 1
Introduction: Why ABA? 3
What is ABA? 7
How Behavior Analysts Approach Teaching 9
ABCs of Behavior 10
What Principles and Methods Comprise ABA? 11
12 Motivation
14 Reinforcement
16 Shaping
17 Prompts
18 Modeling (Imitation Training)
20 Discrete Trial Instruction
23 Verbal Behavior
25 Natural Environment Training
26 Picture Exchange Communication System
27 Incidental Teaching
28 Pivotal Response Training
30 Task Analysis and Chaining
32 Token Economy
33 Activity Schedules
34 Precision Teaching with Rate-Building
36 Functional Assessment and Analysis
39 Antecedent-Based Interventions
41 Positive Behavior Support
43 Generalization and Maintenance
Evaluation of ABA Programs 45
45 Data collection and analysis
46 Demonstrating a functional relation
Running an Intensive ABA Program 47
ABA and the Family 49
51 Siblings
52 Running a Home-Based ABA Program
ABA as a Profession 55
Myths & Facts 57
Summary 61
Resource Section 63
References 64
Give Us Your Feedback 69
 Forward
Both authors have been profoundly touched by many individuals with autism and
their families. We have partnered with parents to teach their children and learned
from the challenges and joys they experienced while raising a child with autism.
Many of these parents consistently requested a written overview that defined and
described methods used within Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) programming.
Parents wanted this information during their initial search to better understand
this treatment approach, and during their journey to increase their knowledge and
abilities. Unfortunately, only a few such publications have met this need and they
cover slightly different topics.

This book is intended for those parents and professionals who want an overview of
Applied Behavior Analysis and the meaningful changes it can make in the lives of
people with autism. The book is divided into brief segments that focus on specific
topics. Within each section, readers can expect a description or definition of the
topic, examples from everyday settings, and references for further information.
References are largely drawn from the professional literature with an emphasis on
those that have a high degree of scientific validity. We hope this book is helpful to you
and we welcome your feedback for future revisions.

It is important to emphasize that this book is an overview and the resources listed
in each section and at the end should be referred to for a more comprehensive
understanding of the discussed topics.

The authors gratefully acknowledge the peer review of Dr. Sandra Harris and the
contributions of Tamara Bannon, Jenna Miller, Rebecca Hernandez, and Chigusa
Weekley to this manuscript.

Suggested citation: Buchanan, S. M., & Weiss, M. J. (2010). Applied behavior

analysis and autism: An introduction. Robbinsville, NJ: Autism New Jersey.
 Introduction
Why ABA?

There are many autism treatments available, ABA programming for young children
and most of them claim promising results. with autism. The results of these studies
How do you know if these claims are true? Is challenged previous notions that people with
there concrete evidence that the treatment autism could not be educated or that they
works? Choosing the right treatment is in could not lead meaningful and independent
the best interest of your child and should be lives. The children who participated in early
worth the commitment and resources. So the and intensive ABA programming learned
question is: why ABA? many new skills and substantially reduced
Glossary
their problematic behavior. Some of these
There are many anecdotes that appear to children learned so much that today it is hard
support numerous treatments. ABA stands to tell them apart from typically developing
out because its foundation is the collection children.
and review of direct observational data.
There have been hundreds of well-controlled While there is still much to learn about
studies published in the professional how early behavioral intervention affects
literature documenting ABA’s effectiveness young children with autism, there are
with learners with autism (Matson et al., some powerful messages from the studies
1996). Most of these studies have focused conducted so far (Green, 1996). Several
on one or two specific behaviors that state and federal agencies have heard these
required intensive teaching or treatment. powerful messages and agree that there is
Some have focused on the learners’ behavior solid evidence that early and intensive ABA
as well as the therapists’ and the parents’ intervention can produce comprehensive
behavior during academic and social and meaningful improvements for a large
interactions. Approximately ten studies have proportion of children with autism (for
explored the long-term effects of intensive example, Maine Administrators of Services

3
 for Children with Disabilities (MADSEC) of this study showed that children in an
Autism Taskforce, 1999; New York intensive ABA program produced significant
State Department of Health, 1999; U.S. improvement across all four areas compared
Department of Health and Human Services, to the children who received eclectic and
1999). non-intensive treatments. The study even
found that the children who received
Additionally, the United States Congress non-intensive early intervention showed a
commissioned a panel of autism experts to regression.
publish a state of the research on autism and
provide recommendations for public policy What about children with autism who enter
and future research (National Research treatment at a later age? There is some
Council, 2001). While they recognized the evidence that these children also benefit
contribution of a behavior-based approach in substantially from ABA instruction when
autism treatment, they pointed out the lack compared to children who participated
of comparison studies of among this and in other interventions of similar intensity
other popular treatments. The results from (Eikeseth, Smith, Jahr, & Eldevik, 2002).
this type of study would shed more definitive The researchers examined the progress
light on the question of which treatment was of 25 4-7 year olds who received either
the best. They stressed the importance of intensive behavioral treatment or intensive
conducting studies that directly compared eclectic treatment in public school settings.
interventions so that educators and parents The results indicated that children who
could select the most effective treatment for participated in intensive behavioral treatment
an individual with autism. Since then, two made large improvements across all
comparison studies have been published in measured skill areas (i.e., cognitive, visual-
peer-reviewed journals. While there are limits spatial, language, and adaptive behavior
to how much information can be gleaned skills) as compared to those children who
from only two studies (described below), the received intensive eclectic treatment.
results tells us more about the effectiveness
of ABA. The same is likely to be true for adults with
autism. While there are well-documented
How does ABA compare to other treatments? effects of behavioral assessment and
Howard, Sparkman, Cohen, Green, & intervention strategies on improved
Stainslaw (2005) published a study on functioning for adults with autism
the effects of three different treatment (McClannahan, MacDuff, & Krantz, 2002),
approaches used within early intervention. there are limited long-term data on intensive
Sixty-one young children with autism programs for adults. However, it is clear that
spectrum disorders received one of three many adults experience real and substantial
treatment procedures: a) intensive behavior gains come from ABA intervention. Thus, it
analytic intervention, b) intensive eclectic stands to reason that ABA remains a central
intervention which was a combination and effective component of services for
of popular methods, or c) non-intensive individuals of all ages with autism.
public early intervention. The children were
an average of 34 months old when they Early and intensive ABA programming is
entered the study. The study measured each cost effective and potentially life changing
child’s skills before and after a 14-month for individuals and their families (Jacobson,
intervention in the areas of: a) cognitive, Mulick, & Green, 1998). Why not turn to
b) non-verbal, c) receptive/expressive science and get the best available treatment?
language, and d) adaptive skills. The results When you review the results of the research,
you will find ABA.

4 Introduction
Resources
Celiberti, D. A., Buchanan, S. M., Bleeker, Matson, J. L., Benavidez, D. A.,
F. N., Kreiss, D. S., & Rosenfeld, D. (2004). Compton, L. S., Paclawskyj, T., & Baglio,
The road less traveled: Charting a clear C. (1996). Behavioral treatment of
course for autism treatment. Autism: autistic persons: A review of research
Basic Information (5th ed., pp. 17-32). from 1980 to the present. Research in
Robbinsville, NJ: Autism New Jersey. Developmental Disabilities, 17, 433-465.

Eikeseth, S., Smith, T., Jahr, E., & Eldevik, McClannahan, L. E., MacDuff, G. S.,
S. (2002). Intensive behavioral treatment & Krantz, P. (2002). Behavior analysis
at school for 4- to 7-year-old children with and intervention for adults with autism.
autism: A 1-year comparison controlled Behavior Modification, 26, 9-26.
study. Behavior Modification, 26, 49-68.
National Research Council (2001).
Green, G. (1996). Early behavioral Educating children with autism.
intervention for autism: What does research Committee on Educational Interventions
tell us? In C. Maurice (Ed), G. Green, & S. for Children with Autism. C. Lord & J.
C. Luce (Co-eds.). Behavioral intervention P. McGee (Eds.) Division of Behavioral
for young children with autism: A manual and Social Sciences and Education.
for parents and professionals (pp. 29-44). Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
Austin, TX: PRO-ED.
New York State Department of Health
Howard, J. S., Sparkman, C. R., Cohen, Early Intervention Program. (1999).
H. G., Green, G., & Stainslaw, H. (2005). Clinical practice guidelines: The guideline
Comparison of intensive behavior analytic technical report – Autism/pervasive
and eclectic treatments for young children developmental disorders, assessment and
with autism. Research in Developmental intervention. Albany, NY: New York State
Disabilities, 26, 359-383. Department of Health.

Jacobson, J. W., Mulick, J. A., & Green, U.S. Department of Health and Human
G. (1998). Cost-benefit estimates for early Services. (1999). Mental health: A report
intensive behavioral intervention for young of the surgeon general. Rockville, MD:
children with autism--general model and U.S. Department of Health and Human
single state case. Behavioral Interventions, Services, Substance Abuse and Mental
13, 201-226. Health Services Administration, Center for
Mental Health Services, National Institutes
MADSEC Autism Taskforce. (1999). of Health, National Institute of Mental
Executive summary. Portland, ME: Health.
Department of Education.

Introduction 5
 What is ABA?

ABA makes meaningful changes in people’s On a more technical note, Cooper, Heron,
lives through the use of procedures that and Heward (1987) define ABA as:
have been demonstrated to work. The
following description of ABA was adapted the science in which procedures
from Green (1996). derived from the principles of behavior
are systematically applied to improve
Behavior analytic treatment for autism socially significant behavior to a
uses reinforcement in structured and meaningful degree and to demonstrate
natural environments to help individuals experimentally that the procedures
learn new skills. Skills ranging from simple employed were responsible for the
to complex are broken down into small, improvement in behavior. (p. 14)
measurable units and systematically
taught. A high-priority goal is making it As we said above, ABA makes meaningful
enjoyable for the learner. Through carefully changes in people’s lives through the use of
planned guidance and reinforcement, the procedures that have been demonstrated to
learner is more likely to exhibit appropriate work.
behavior during and after the teaching
interaction. In contrast, problem behaviors During the last fifty years, Behavior
are not reinforced. Some analysis may be Analysis has been referred to in a number
necessary to determine the function(s) and of different terms, including behavior
reinforcers for these behaviors to develop modification, behavior management,
an effective intervention plan. contingency management, positive
approaches, and operant or Skinnerian

7
 psychology. Most of these terms fail to has two main branches: experimental
fully capture the nature and dimensions and applied. The experimental analysis of
of contemporary behavior analysis, and behavior is a field of study in which animals
bring with them associations that are either and humans participate in experiments
inaccurate or misleading. Here is some and researchers observe how they behave
accurate information. Behavior Analysis and learn in different situations. The results
of these studies are then used to inform
Applied Behavior Analysis, ABA, which is
the service part of the discipline. In other
words, this type of behavior analyst works
with people to improve their behavior and
quality of life.

ABA programs are based on empirical

research, include the direct observation
and measurement of behavior, and
utilize antecedent stimuli, positive
reinforcement, and other consequences
to produce behavior change. ABA is a
well-developed discipline among the
human service professions. It has a
Resources mature body of knowledge, established
standards for practice, distinct methods
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward,
W. L. (2007). Applied behavior analysis
of service, recognized experience and
(2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: educational requirements for practice, and
Prentice Hall. identified sources of requisite education in
universities.
Green, G. (1996). Early behavioral
intervention for autism: What does
research tell us? In C. Maurice (Ed.), G. Additional Resources
Green, & S. Luce (Co-eds.). Behavioral These two resources describe the
intervention for young children with characteristics of Applied Behavior Analysis.
autism: A manual for parents and While they do not contain information specific
professionals (pp. 29-44). Austin, TX:
PRO-ED.
to autism, they are quite relevant and provide
an accurate and thorough picture of the
Newman, B. (1999). When everybody concepts that guide the field.
cares: Case studies of ABA with people
with autism. NY: Dove and Orca. Baer, D. M., Wolf, M. M., & Risley, T. R.
Newman, B., Reeve, K. F., Reeve, S. A., (1968). Some dimensions of applied behavior
& Ryan, C. S. (2003). Behaviorspeak: analysis. Journal of Applied Behavior
Glossary of terms in applied behavior Analysis, 1, 91-97.
analysis (ABA). NY: Dove & Orca.

Newman, B., Reinicke, D., & Newman,

Baer, D. M., Wolf, M. M., & Risley, T. R.
L. (2000). Words from those who care: (1987). Some still-current dimensions of
Further case studies of ABA with people applied behavior analysis. Journal of Applied
with autism. NY: Dove and Orca. Behavior Analysis, 20, 313-327.

8 What is ABA?
 How Behavior Analysts
Approach Teaching

The behavioral teaching approach takes history of experiences, this source

into account a few factors, such as the may yield only limited and insufficient
student’s current level of performance, the information about how to increase a
skill acquisition and behavior reduction person’s behavioral skills.
goals, and some assumptions about what
3. Immediate environment – the events
causes behavior (performance) to occur.
that are happening during every
ABA views the immediate present as the
moment of our lives. This includes the
key to comprehending current behavior,
setting, other people present and their
and uses information about the past
behavior, objects, activities, routines,
cautiously (for example, to understand how
resources, etc. Behavior analysts see
a behavioral pattern developed over time).
the immediate environment as the
major cause of behavior. They collect
Causes of Behavior
very specific information about what
1. Genetic explanations - With the human happens before and after a behavior.
genome project complete, we now They then use this information to
know more about how genes affect make appropriate behavior more
behavior. Unfortunately, this information likely and inappropriate behavior less
is not yet helpful in producing a likely. Parents and teachers can have
medical treatment or cure for autism. a tremendous impact on behavior
because they are such a large part of
2. Past experiences (sometimes called
the child’s immediate environment. So,
reinforcement history or learning
the more you know about maximizing
history) – Behavior analysts study how
learning, the more you can change a
behaviors are acquired and maintained
person’s behavior.
through reinforcement. While it is
important to understand a person’s
9
 ABCs of Behavior
Let’s look more closely at how behavior Both the antecedent (the instruction) and
analysts study the interaction between the the consequence (eating lunch) influence
immediate environment and behavior. whether the behavior will happen again.

One of the main things that behavior Example: Challenging Behavior

A
analysts do is examine the ABCs: Teacher says, “Let’s clean up. It is time for
Antecedents, Behavior, and circle.” (Antecedent)
Consequences.
Student throws blocks, lies on floor, and
Antecedent: what comes before a screams. (Behavior)

B
specific behavior Teacher says, “We need to
Behavior: the behavior itself
clean up our toys,” and helps
Consequence: what happens after a
child to put blocks in the box.
specific behavior
(Consequence)

C
This analysis helps to pinpoint Both the antecedent (the
what may trigger a behavior instruction) and the consequence (not
and assists in identifying what allowed to continue playing) influence
consequences keep a behavior whether the behavior will happen again.
going.

In real situations, other factors such as the

Example: Teaching Exchange learner’s motivation and setting events are
taken into account. These simple examples
Teacher says, “Get your lunchbox. It’s time
are presented for illustration purposes of
to eat.” (Antecedent)
the ABC analysis.
Student walks to cubby, gets lunchbox,
walks to seat at table, and sits down. What does this mean for me?
(Behavior) We can understand how and when
Teacher says, “Terrific work, Johnny. You behaviors occur by examining antecedents
got your lunchbox. You’re ready to eat.” and consequences. We often can change
(Consequence) behaviors by changing what we do
immediately before and immediately after
behavior.

10
What Principles and Methods
Comprise ABA?
 Motivation

Motivation is the heart and soul of ABA. a learner engages in a certain behavior,
Behavior analysts want to know what a and is very relevant to understanding
person is motivated by, what interests challenging behaviors. When we
her, and what she experiences as fun. understand what a person is motivated
The old cliché is true: different strokes for to obtain (attention, a desired object, a
different folks. Perhaps you enjoy a good break from instructional demands), we
meal of Italian food while another person can reorganize the environment. We can
prefers a backyard barbeque. The same provide motivating things in the absence of
is true for learners with autism. Motivation challenging behavior and teach the learner
is individually determined and best ways to appropriately request them.
understood by observing the person and
his/her choices. It also is important to keep Technically speaking, motivation is often
in mind that motivation can change on a called an “establishing operations” (EO) or
moment-to-moment basis. Even though a “motivational operation” (MO). They are
you like a good barbeque, you probably events with to properties:
wouldn’t want one every night of the week.
1. a reinforcer-establishing effect that
Here’s another example: sometimes you
establishes what is reinforcing in the
prefer to listen to calm music and other
moment
times to loud, upbeat music. To maximize
2. an evocative effect that evokes a
the learner’s fun and performance,
particular response
behavior analysts encourage him/her
to make choices and incorporate these
In simple terms, an EO determines what is
preferences into the teaching interaction.
wanted and influences what the individual
does to get the desired item. Here’s an
This moment-to-moment analysis of the
example with an adolescent with autism.
learner’s motivation can seem like a lot
of hard work, which goes above and
beyond the standard curriculum and
Jason has been outside on a hot day.
typical teaching strategies. So, why is this
He gets thirsty and desires water (the
important and worthwhile? When equipped
reinforcer-establishing effect). We now have
with this information, behavior analysts can
established water as a potential reinforcer.
offer fun activities, interesting objects, and
The second property, called an evocative
desirable items to the learner. The learner
effect, is demonstrated when Jason does
then associates the instructor with those
something to obtain that reinforcer (water).
fun and desirable items and activities.
He might take his teacher’s hand and
This often is called pairing yourself
lead her to the water fountain. He also
with reinforcement. It is the essence of
might give her a picture of a glass of water.
making learning fun and of building a
Thus, the same reinforcer could evoke
positive association with the instructor.
different response at different times or for
The instructor becomes the source of fun
different people. Responses that have been
and desirable items, the person who gives
successful in the past are more likely to
squishy balls, teddy grahams, hugs, high
occur than other responses.
fives, trips to the playground, and giggles.

Motivation alsoABA
is about understanding why
12 Principles & Methods
 Motivation

Here’s another example. A child sees a

popular toy from a favorite movie in the
toy store. She may want it. This is the
reinforcer-establishing effect. Once in the
toy store, she may request the toy because
such requests have been honored in
the past. This is the evocative effect. If
requests have led to obtaining desired
things, the likelihood of requesting is high
in these situations.

This is true for both appropriate and

inappropriate behaviors used to request
desired items. Therefore, this concept also
can be used to understand how challenging
behaviors emerge. ABA instructors are
very interested in EOs, and in maximizing
motivation in general. Understanding
EOs significantly increases the success of
instruction.

A student is new to the learning

environment. The teacher puts out an
array of enticing toys and foods. She
samples some and plays with some, and
waits for the learner to indicate an interest.
As the learner reaches for an item, she Resources
immediately grants access to the item. She
also offers praise, hugs and attention while Delmolino, L., & Harris, S. L. (2004).
the learner eats the snacks and plays with Incentives for change: Motivating people
the toys. She is pairing herself with rewards with autism spectrum disorders to learn
and working to identify EOs. She wants to and gain independence. Bethesda, MD:
Woodbine House.
know what the learner wants. Eventually,
she will ask the learner to engage in a brief Michael, J. (2000). Implications and
task before granting access to the desired refinements of the establishing operation
item. concept. Journal of Applied Behavior
Analysis, 33, 401-410.

Sundberg, M. L., & Partington, J. W.

(1998). Teaching language to children
with autism or other developmental
disabilities. Pleasant Hill, CA: Behavior
Analysts, Inc.

ABA Principles & Methods 13

 Reinforcement

Behavior analysts knowingly use reinforcement involves 1) the systematic and immediate
to increase behavior. However, we all use delivery of a consequence (following a behavior)
reinforcement every day, in our dealings with and 2) an increased likelihood that the behavior
other people. We may not call it reinforcement, will happen again. In fact, we can only know
but it is happening all the time! Reinforcement that something is a reinforcer after we watch its
effect on behavior over time. Simply providing a
preferred item contingent upon a behavior will
not necessarily result in an increase in behavior
Type 1 Reinforcement under similar conditions in the future.

Type 1 reinforcement (also referred to

as positive reinforcement) involves the
addition of something desirable, such as Type 2 Reinforcement
praise, hugs, a gummy bear, and stickers.

Example 1 Type 2 reinforcement (also referred to

A teacher is instructing Thomas to point as negative reinforcement) involves the
to objects. She puts a ball, a cup, a removal of something undesirable.
shoe, a spoon, and a hat on the table.
She instructs him to “Touch the shoe.” Example 1
Thomas touches the shoe. The teacher We turn off an alarm clock to stop the
enthusiastically says, “Hooray! You touched loud repetitive sound.
the shoe. Now you get to put on your t
Behavior: touching “off” button on
shoes and go outside.” clock
t
Behavior: following an instruction by t
Consequence: removing
touching an item undesirable alarm sound
t
Consequence: received praise and a t
Future effect: makes “touching-
chance to go outside and play off-button” behavior more likely to
t
Future effect: makes following occur the next time alarm sounds
instructions more likely to occur the
next time someone asks him to do Example 2
something At McDonald’s Playland, a child is
overwhelmed by the loud noises. The
Example 2 child requests to leave, saying “car, car.”
Johnny sees a friend eating a cookie. He The family leaves.
points to the cookie. His mother then gives t
Behavior: requesting to go home
him a cookie. t
Consequence: exiting reduces
t
Behavior: pointing to a desired item exposure to undesired noise
(cookie) to ask for it t
Future effect: makes requesting to
t
Consequence: received a cookie when go home more likely to occur the
(and only when) he asked for it next time child experiences high
t
Future effect: makes pointing to a noise level
desired item (cookie) more likely to
occur the next time he sees something
he wants

14 ABA Principles & Methods

 Reinforcement

Both positive and negative reinforcement t
generalized reinforcers such as tokens and
increase behavior by making the learner’s life money that allow access to a range of other
better. primary and secondary reinforcers.

A note on negative reinforcement: The common Effective programming makes use of both types
definition and the ABA definition of negative of reinforcement to maximize the learner’s
reinforcement are different. As previously progress. The behavior analyst’s goal is to move
mentioned, the ABA definition refers to an toward the type and schedule of reinforcement
increase in behavior when something annoying that will maintain the behavior in typical settings.
is stopped or prevented because of our behavior.
In contrast, the common use of the term is a
synonym for punishment. These terms can
lead to confusion. The important piece to focus
on is the learner’s behavior and what happens
following the behavior. If the learner repeatedly
behaves in ways that result in escape or
avoidance of something undesirable, negative
reinforcement is in effect. Readers are referred
to text books on ABA for further information and
clarification.

It can be tempting to think of preferred items

as reinforcers. Yet, before doing so, it must
be demonstrated that the contingent use of
the preferred item is the reason for a behavior Resources
increase; only then can the item be called a
reinforcer. For learners with autism, some items
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward,
and activities are more likely to be reinforcers W. L. (2007). Applied behavior analysis
than others. Primary reinforcers serve a (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ:
biological function and include food, water, Prentice Hall.
warmth, and sexual stimulation. Initially, learners
Hall, R. V., & Hall, M. L. (1998). How to
with autism may be more responsive to primary select reinforcers (2nd ed.). Austin, TX:
reinforcers. Secondary reinforcers gain their PRO-ED.
potency because they were paired with primary
reinforcers or other established secondary Leaf, R., McEachin, J., & Harsh, J.
D. (Eds.). (1999). A work in progress:
reinforcers.
Behavior management strategies &
a curriculum for intensive behavioral
There are four types of secondary reinforcers: treatment of autism (pp. 23-36). New
York, NY: DRL Books.
t
tangible reinforcers such as trinkets and
toys, Miller, L. K. (1996). Principles of
t
activities-oriented reinforcers such as everyday behavior analysis (3rd
playing a game and going to the movies, ed.). Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole
Publishing Company.
t
social reinforcers such as physical contact
and verbal praise, and
ABA Principles & Methods 15
 Shaping

Shaping is a way to reinforce improvement example, if a child is feeling ill, it is a good

in behavior. Shaping is used to gradually idea to maintain the program and not
teach the learner how to do something require additional effort on this particular
better. Over time, an instructor rewards day. Second, the learner will become skilled
attempts that look more like the desired more quickly when all of his/her teachers
behavior. Thus, the learner is encouraged communicate and agree. This is to say
through reinforcement to exhibit more that consistency across teachers, parents,
appropriate behavior. While shaping and others is an important component of
behavior can be a slow process, it can the shaping process. All instructors must
be quite effective if done correctly. This communicate to understand the current
process requires that the teacher has both teaching plan. When everyone implements
intimate knowledge of the learner and the the same protocol, the learner more
ability to shift gears based on the learner’s efficiently acquires skills. This emphasis
performance. One of the positive effects of on consistency is also valuable for all other
shaping includes decreasing frustration by teaching programs.
providing feedback to the learner that he/
she is on the right track. Learning becomes Behavior analysts often describe their
more rewarding because there are many teaching method as “shaping” a particular
opportunities for reinforcement along the behavior. For example, they may say that
way. they are shaping vocal sounds. At first, a
vocal approximation of a word would be
When shaping behavior, there are several reinforced, for example “ba” for “ball.” As
things to remember. First, shaping is both the child becomes more fluent in making
an art and a science. The teacher has sounds, the teacher reinforces only vocal
to respond to the learner’s performance. approximations that sound like the target
On a moment-to-moment basis, she word. Behavior analysts also shape other
must match the amount of the learner’s behavior, such as compliance, by asking a
effort with the amount of reinforcement. learner to follow one easy instruction. When
On a broader scale, a teacher must set the learner performs that skill well, the
her requirements based on the learner’s teacher expects more. To follow the above
performance throughout the day. For examples, she may ask the child to say,
“want ball,” or to follow two instructions.

Resource
Foxx, R. M. (1982). Increasing
behaviors of persons with severe
retardation and autism. Champaign, IL:
Research Press.

16 ABA Principles & Methods

 Prompts

Prompts are defined as extra cues or hints Generally, we use more obvious prompts
that help the learner to know what to do in when teaching a new skill and more subtle
a particular situation or time. Prompts are prompts when the learner has mastered
things we do to increase the likelihood that a skill but needs a reminder. Types of
learners will make the correct responses. prompts include:
Whenever a learner is being taught t
physical or hand-over-hand assistance
something for the first time or has not yet t
gestural such as pointing
mastered a skill independently, prompting t
modeling or demonstration
should be used to ensure correct responses t
visual such as a picture
and to prevent errors. Even after a learner t
textual such as written checklist
has mastered a skill, he/she may still need t
verbal such as “What do you want?”
prompting to respond within an appropriate
amount of time and in new situations.

Example 1
The instructor says, “Do this,”
while clapping her hands together.
She then reaches over to take
the child’s hands and makes a
clapping motion with them. This
physical prompt ensures that
the learner correctly imitates the
teacher.

Example 2
A mother and a child are in a toy
store. The mother says, “You can
pick out a toy.” The child does not Resources
respond. The mother then shows
him two toys and verbally prompts MacDuff, G. S., Krantz, P. J., &
him, “Do you want Winnie the McClannahan, L. E. (2001). Prompts
and prompt-fading strategies for people
Pooh or Elmo?” The child grabs
with autism. In C. Maurice, G. Green, &
Elmo. The mother notices that the R. M. Foxx (Eds.). Making a difference:
visual and verbal prompts made Behavioral intervention for autism (pp.
his response more likely. 37-50). Austin, TX: PRO-ED.

Van Houten, R. (1998). How to use

prompts to initiate behavior. Austin, TX:
PRO-ED.

ABA Principles & Methods 17

 Modeling (Imitation Training)

When we are presented with a new technique for teaching play skills and
assignment, we are likely to have a lot of some social skills. A learner might watch
questions about how to start the project. videotaped sequences of children playing
You may ask yourself, “What do I need to imaginatively with a dollhouse, and then
do here?” You may feel like you want to practice what was viewed.
see exactly what needs to happen. We all
like to watch others do something when Because of the central importance of
we are learning it for the first time. (Think learning by observation, imitation training
about learning to ride a bike or draw a often is a major focus of early instruction.
happy face. These things are much easier Learners need to be able to imitate very
to do if you have watched someone do it.) simple tasks, sequences of actions,
Typically developing children watch and and novel actions. When a learner has
imitate others all day long. demonstrated the ability to widely imitate
and to imitate novel actions, they often are
A model is any antecedent (before the said to have achieved generalized imitation
behavior) stimulus that is identical in form (see page 45). This is an important goal
to the behavior. A model is a stimulus that for all learners. A child with this ability will
the learner imitates. If we want the child to be able to learn from classmates and other
clap his/her hands, and we clap our hands peers.
while saying, “Do this,” we have provided
a model. As mentioned in the previous Many ABA programs spend a lot of time
section, a model is a type of prompt. during the initial phase of instruction
Models are used in imitation training to teaching learners how to imitate. Later
help learners copy our behavior. Modeling phases of instruction incorporate a variety
is a powerful instructional tool that also can of experiences to help the learner imitate
assist learners to master complex skills. For in more real life situations. Another
example, modeling can be used to teach consideration is that learners with autism
appropriate behavior in social situations. may not be initially motivated to learn
A teacher might instruct a learner to “Do these skills. Instructors should pay careful
what your friends are doing,” when he/she attention to the quality, quantity, and variety
looks lost during a transitional time while of reinforcement provided for progress.
other students are cleaning up materials. Much of children’s learning develops
Peers are a wonderful source of learning by through imitation as they repeat what they
modeling. Peers in a classroom can model hear and do what they see. Imitation is a
appropriate ways to pay attention, complete valuable developmental achievement. The
an assignment, ask for help, and interact in ability to consistently and fluently imitate
all kinds of ways. others offers many benefits in all aspects of
life.
Usually, we think of modeling as the
imitation of people who are physically
present. However, modeling also can be
taught using videotapes. Video modeling
has been shown to be a highly effective

18 ABA Principles & Methods

 Modeling (Imitation Training)

Resources
Buggey, T. (2009). Seeing is believing:
Video self-modeling for people with
autism and other developmental
disabilities. Bethesda, MD: Woodbine
House.

Krantz, P. J., MacDuff, G. S., Wadstrom,

O., McClannahan, L. E., Dowrick, P. W.
(1991). Using video with developmentally
disabled learners. In P. W. Dowrick,
Practical guide to using video in the
behavioral sciences (pp. 256-266).
Indianapolis, IN: John Wiley & Sons.

Leaf, R., McEachin, J., & Harsh, J.

D. (Eds.). (1999). A work in progress:
Behavior management strategies &
a curriculum for intensive behavioral
treatment of autism. New York, NY: DRL
Books.

Striefel, S. (1998). How to teach through

modeling and imitation (2nd ed.).
Austin, TX: PRO-ED.

ABA Principles & Methods 19

 Discrete Trial Instruction/Discrete Trial Teaching

Discrete trial instruction (DTI) or discrete errors. The point here is to minimize the
trial teaching (DTT) has historically been errors that a learner may make.)
the primary instructional method used in
2. Mix in new material with older, known
ABA intervention for children with autism.
material. Technically, this is called task
It is a very systematic and methodical way
interspersal. For interspersal to be
of teaching and is supported by a history of
effective, you must mix in a new item
success in teaching skills across all areas.
with items that learners know very well
This technique is well suited to individuals
(have already mastered). We know that
with autism because it makes instruction
learners learn more rapidly when taught
very clear to the learner. Discrete trials are
in this way. It also is more naturalistic
comprised of several components.
than asking a child to do the same
1. an SD, or a discriminative stimulus (an thing many times in a row.
instruction)
3. Collect data on learning progress.
2. a response (what the child does in This may be done on a trial-by-trial
response to the instruction) basis, or through probe data collection
3. a consequence (feedback to the child techniques (in which the teacher takes
about his/her response) data only on some of the trials).

There has been some research on the most Discrete Trial Instruction is sometimes
effective ways to teach when using discrete described incompletely or inaccurately.
trials. Here is a summary of several of those This is because DTI has been conducted
issues. for many years, and the definition of “best
practice” DTI has changed along with the
1. Teach in an errorless way. We know that evolution of the field of ABA. Therefore,
children with autism have a tendency some people’s views of DTI are only partly
to repeat errors, so it is important to accurate because they do not have the
prevent errors and to interrupt errors most up-to-date information. Here are some
whenever possible. (It is rare that of the most common misconceptions that
anyone could learn a skill without any people may have about DTI.

MYTH (most often 10 times) in a row. While we

DTI is just doing the same thing over and know that repetition helps learning and
over and over again. that children with autism require many
trials of instruction to learn new things, we
FACT also know that learning is more efficient
Historically, people did do DTI as blocks if we vary what we ask the child to do.
of trials, typically working on the same Best practice now dictates that we slowly
target behavior repetitively. Children were intersperse new items with things the child
asked to do the same thing many times knows very well.

20 ABA Principles & Methods

 Discrete Trial Instruction/Discrete Trial Teaching

Behavior analysts are always aware that

MYTH the ultimate goal is for the child to be able
DTI is very slow paced. to perform this skill in a variety of natural
situations. At first, a discrete trial program
FACT may have only a few specific strategies and
Historically, DTI was slower in pace than over time become “looser” as additional
other types of instruction. This is because circumstances are introduced into the
it was usually done with trial-by-trial data teaching interaction. All learners need to
recording, which was noted during the time be taught when to perform and when not
between trials. The number of learning to perform certain behaviors. Discrete trial
opportunities is reduced when several instruction that incorporates strategies to
seconds pass between trials. enhance generalization can be a successful
way to achieve these goals.
How slowly or quickly you provide
instructions, often called pacing, has
become increasingly important in ABA MYTH
intervention. DTI can be done at a rapid DTI doesn’t include child choice because
rate. To maximize learning opportunities, the teacher determines the tasks, items
probe data collection can replace trial-by- used, and rewards.
trial data collection. Other modifications in
data collection also can assist the teacher FACT
in maintaining the pace of instruction. This was historically true of DTI programs.
However, intensive instruction has evolved.
Today, learners are offered many choices
MYTH in instruction. Preferences are considered
DTI doesn’t result in generalization; kids when determining rewards to be offered
don’t transfer their learning into everyday and activities on which to work. In fact,
situations. preferences are continually assessed,
to ensure that the learner is maximally
FACT motivated to participate in instruction.
Discrete trial instruction initially is used to Furthermore, learners often choose the
build basic skills and early discriminations. order of tasks they will work on, location of
(Discrimination means knowing when work, objects to be used for an activity, etc.
to and when not to do something.)
Sometimes, this phase of instruction is very
methodical and does not contain much
programming for generalization. However, MYTH
for some learners, generalization is built Kids who experience a lot of DTI become
into the program from the onset. And for little robots who know how to be compliant
all learners, generalization becomes a focus but not how to be creative.
of instruction within DTI.
FACT
It may be necessary to begin teaching At the beginning of a program, teachers ask
a specific skill under very specific the child for specific responses, and may
circumstances (same instruction, same train in a very specialized way. Thus, the
therapist, and same reinforcer) to make it
easier for the child to first learn the skill.
ABA Principles & Methods 21
 Discrete Trial Instruction/Discrete Trial Teaching

child may behave in specific ways because patterns (monotone voice or scripted
those behaviors have been reinforced. conversation), and social behaviors (one
However, this only represents an early phase track conversation). To varying extents,
of instruction necessary for some learners. this may be a prominent characteristic
that people observe about them. A goal
It always is a priority to naturalize both
of behavioral intervention is to constantly
instruction and the child’s behavior.
expand the skill repertoires of people with
autism. Most importantly, anyone who
Yes, it is true that individuals with autism
knows someone with autism can tell you
exhibit repetitive behaviors in the form of
that he or she is creative in many different
motor mannerisms (hand flapping), object
ways!
manipulations (lining up toy cars), language

MYTH
As long as you have a curriculum, anyone
can effectively conduct DTI.

FACT
A comprehensive curriculum is certainly an
essential component of a child’s education.
However, it is not enough to ensure a
successful academic experience. You
need a great teacher to be a great student.
Everyone knows the value of a good teacher
who can make the material come “alive.”
Teachers who use an ABA approach
are always looking for ways to maximize
the student’s progress by analyzing the
student’s performance and the elements
in the teaching situation (the teacher’s
behavior, other students’ behavior, the
Resources setting, the materials used, etc.). It is this
analysis of the teaching process that is
Leaf, R., McEachin, J., & Harsh, J. most likely to result in the most beneficial
D. (Eds.). (1999). A work in progress: outcome for the student. The analysis tells
Behavior management strategies & the teacher important information so that
a curriculum for intensive behavioral
treatment of autism. New York, NY: he/she can continue effective practices
DRL Books. and discontinue ineffective practices on an
ongoing basis.
Lovaas, O. I. (2002). Teaching
individuals with developmental delays:
Basic intervention techniques. Austin,
TX: PRO-ED.

22 ABA Principles & Methods

 Verbal Behavior

Many people in the autism community have 3. The analysis of verbal behavior
been talking about “Verbal Behavior.” Is it is concerned with the functions
a part of ABA? Different from ABA? Better of language including requests,
than ABA? What is Verbal Behavior? There comments, and conversation. Verbal
sure has been a lot of verbal behavior Behavior is a system of classifying
about Verbal Behavior! To address these language that behavior analysts find
questions, here are some quick answers. very useful, both from a theoretical
perspective (how we think about
1. Given that ABA is the science of language) and from a practical
understanding and improving human perspective (how to teach language).
behavior, ABA includes the analysis of
verbal behavior. The behavioral psychologist, B. F.
Skinner, developed the Verbal Behavior
2. Verbal behavior is synonymous classification system in 1957, and wrote
with communicative behavior. Any about it in his book Verbal Behavior.
interaction in which information is being Skinner was concerned with expressive
conveyed is verbal behavior. Thus, language, which also can be described as
verbal behavior includes both vocal direct communication with others. There
means (saying a word) and non-vocal are several Verbal Behavior categories
means (pointing and gesturing) of especially relevant to teaching learners with
communication. autism. Examples follow each category.

Verbal Behavior Classifications

Echoic - imitating a sound, word, or phrase

t
Instructor says, “Say, ba” as she looks at a ball. Learner says “ba.”

Mand - making a request or demand

t
Learner reaches for a toy train (gesture) and says “choo choo” (speech).

Tact - labeling something in the environment

t
A teacher holds up an eraser, and says, “What is it?” The learner says,
“eraser.”

Intraverbal - back and forth conversational exchange; talking about things or

people not present
t
Joey says, “I saw a movie last night.” Henry says, “What movie did you
see?” Joey says, “Finding Nemo. It’s about a fish.” Henry says, “Cool. I
saw that one, too. It was good.”

ABA Principles & Methods 23

 Verbal Behavior

It is important to recognize that

Verbal Behavior is not an instructional
methodology, but a framework for thinking
about language development. This
classification system is important because
it also identifies different reinforcers for
each type of verbal behavior. For example,
the reinforcer for requesting something
you want should be receiving that item you
requested. This classification of language
has been the framework of several
interventions or teaching methodologies
for learners with autism, including the
Picture Exchange Communication System
(PECS; Bondy & Frost, 2001; see page
28) and Natural Environment Training
(NET; Sundberg & Partington, 1998; see
page 27). The success of both intervention
packages in building communication
skills is impressive, and may be due,
in part, to this attention to categories of
communication.

Resources
Bondy, A. S., & Frost, L. A. (2001). A
picture’s worth: PECS and other visual
communication strategies in autism.
Bethesda, MD: Woodbine House.

Skinner, B. F. (1957). Verbal behavior.

East Norwalk, CT: Appleton-Century-
Crofts.

Sundberg, M. L., & Michael, J. (2001).

The benefits of Skinner’s analysis
of verbal behavior for children with
autism. Behavior Modification, 25,
698-724.

24 ABA Principles & Methods

 Natural Environment Training

Sundberg & Partington (1998) have taken Mand Training

this classification system and created an A child reaches for a bottle of bubbles. The
intervention package to systematically teach instructor says, “What do you want?” The
language. They have added other areas of child says “ba.” The instructor gives the
curricular emphasis and recommended child bubbles.
a variety of instructional methods to be
Tact Training
used along with this classification system.
Their model of intervention is called The instructor holds up train and says,
Natural Environment Training (NET), which “What is it?” The child says “train.” The
has received a great deal of attention in instructor says, “choo, choo” and pretends
recent years. Sometimes intensive ABA to be a train, inviting the child to do so, too.
programming using both the VB classification Intra-Verbal Training (Beginning)
system and elements of NET is referred to as The instructor says, “The cow says…” The
a Verbal Behavior program. child says “moo.” The instructor smiles and
says, “moo” back to the child.
Other components of instruction common in
NET include 1) short inter-trial intervals also Intra-Verbal Training (Advanced)
known as rapid pacing, 2) errorless learning, The instructor asks, “Where did you go on
3) task interspersal, 4) child directed choice vacation?” The child answers, “I went to the
of materials, 5) probe data collection, and beach.” The instructor says, “Ooh, I love
6) sign language as a nonverbal means of the ocean!” The child says, “Me, too! And I
communication training. made a sandcastle with my dad!”

Glossary
Inter-trial intervals – the amount of
time between teaching trials
Errorless learning – using instructions
and prompts that will ensure the learner’s
accuracy
Resources
Task interspersal – mixing known tasks
with new tasks Partington, J. W., & Sundberg, M.
L. (1998). The assessment of basic
Child choice – using the materials
language and learning skills: An
and activities that the child chooses and assessment, curriculum guide, and
desires tracking system for children with autism
Probe data collection – occasional or other developmental disabilities.
Pleasant Hill, CA: Behavior Analysts, Inc.
data collection to obtain an estimate
of how often a behavior is happening; Sundberg, M .L., & Partington, J. W.
also a sample of how well a learner is (1998). Teaching language to children
performing a particular task with autism or other developmental
disabilities. Pleasant Hill, CA: Behavior
Sign language – using gestures to
Analysts, Inc.
communicate

ABA Principles & Methods 25

 Picture Exchange Communication System

The Picture Exchange Communication communication by approaching someone

System (PECS) is a picture-based system when he/she wants or needs something.
that was developed for learners with It is recommended to use two people: a
social communication deficits (Bondy listener and a prompter. When the learner
& Frost, 2001). PECS is an alternative reaches for a desired item, the prompter
communication system in which an guides him/her to pick up the picture with
individual independently uses pictures to whatever assistance is necessary. Some
express his wants and needs. The PECS learners may need a physical prompt;
system utilizes behavioral principles and others may need a gestural prompt. Next,
techniques such as motivation, prompting, the individual reaches toward and places
shaping, differential reinforcement, the picture in the open hand of the listener.
reinforcer assessment, and transfer of During this phase of training, it is important
stimulus control. that the prompter gradually fade the
prompts over several opportunities.
One of the unique characteristics of the
PECS program is that it teaches the learner In phase two of PECS training, more
to initiate an interaction with the listener. naturalistic aspects of communication are
The pictures are kept in a notebook, and introduced, the communicative partner
a learner is taught to create sentences by gradually moves away, and pictures are
selecting pictures and delivering them to further from the learner but still in plain
the communicative partner as a request for sight. The goal is to teach the learner how
a desired item. PECS emphasizes teaching to request items in all situations in which
a learner to request items, respond to something is desired. In phase three,
questions, and make social comments. attention is devoted to teaching picture
Learners with autism often have deficits discriminations.
in these areas and benefit greatly from
programming that targets these social skills. Phases four, five, and six are advanced
lessons within PECS. Phase four
The goal of the first phase of PECS introduces sentence structure within
training is to teach a learner to initiate a the system. Teaching simple sentence
formation using “I want…” or “I see…” is
one way to know if the learner is making a
comment or a request. This new language
structure (a sentence) is taught using the
language function (requesting), which the
learner already knows. Phase five focuses
on answering simple questions starting
Resource with “What do you want?” Phase six
teaches learners how to comment on their
Bondy, A. S., & Frost, L. A. (2001). A experiences. After learners successfully
picture’s worth: PECS and other visual complete all six phases of PECS training,
communication strategies in autism.
Bethesda, MD: Woodbine House. they will have many communication skills to
use spontaneously and respond to others.

26 ABA Principles & Methods

 Incidental Teaching

Incidental teaching is a process to help language, sign language, picture

learners expand their verbal skills. While exchange, gesturing, pointing, or
the term incidental teaching often refers leading.
to everyday activities as opportunities
for learning, incidental teaching in ABA 2. Adult requests an elaboration in the
intervention has a more specific definition form of a
and suggested steps. For our purposes, a. Non-verbal cue, such as shrugging
incidental teaching is defined as waiting shoulders, looking expectantly, or
for the learner to initiate a request or a pointing to the item.
conversation and then responding in ways b. Verbal cue, such as “What do you
that foster more language. want?”
c. Verbal model, such as “Say, I want
The procedure is broken down into the
juice.”
following steps:
3. Child responds with a slightly better
1. Child initiates for an item or activity.
response than the first initiation. For
Initiation could be in the form of verbal
example, attempting to name an object
is better than only pointing to it
4. Adult provides the child with the
Example 1 requested object.
A desired toy train is out of reach (See the resources for suggestions on how
on the child’s dresser. The child to increase the number of correct and
stretches his arm over the dresser elaborated responses.)
but cannot reach the train. The
parent says, “What do you want?
Train?” The child says, “T’ain!”
The parent gives the train to the
child.
Resources
Example 2
A child opens his lunchbox and Fenske, E. C., Krantz, P. J., &
finds that there is no straw for McClannahan, L. E. (2001).
his juicebox. The teacher notices Incidental teaching: A not-discrete-
the student’s predicament and trial teaching procedure. In C.
Maurice, G. Green, & R. M. Foxx.
looks expectantly at him, waiting (Eds.). Making a difference:
for him to ask for help. The child Behavioral intervention for autism
says, “Uh. Oh.” The teacher says, (pp. 75-82). Austin, TX: PRO-ED.
“What do you need?” The child
Hart, B., & Risley, T. R. (1982).
says, “Straw.” The teacher brings
How to use incidental teaching for
him a new straw. elaborating language. Lawrence, KS:
H&H Enterprises.

ABA Principles & Methods 27

 Pivotal Response Training

As you may have guessed from reading Furthermore, PRT targets skills that are
the previous sections, there are many important and useful in many activities.
combinations of antecedent-based For example, PRT can build a set of
interventions and consequence-based behaviors such as imitation, compliance,
interventions that you can use to make and communication.
a behavior more likely to happen.
Parents typically use antecedents such There are seven (7) main points to
as instructions. For example, a parent remember:
says, “Clean up your toys, please.” The The question/instruction/opportunity to
child is more likely to do so following respond should:
the instruction than doing so on his
1. Be clear, uninterrupted, and
own accord. After the child follows the
appropriate to the task
instruction, the parent might offer a
consequence such as praise, “Thanks 2. Be interspersed with maintenance
for listening to Mommy. Now we can tasks (tasks the learner can already do
go outside to the swings!” The clear with ease)
instruction, verbal praise, and access to 3. Be chosen by the child, to a large
a preferred activity all work to increase extent (watch what the child is looking
the child’s compliance. Many intervention at, pointing to, or touching and use
packages do the same thing: they combine those items)
strategies to maximize a learner’s progress.
4. Include multiple components (such as
Behavior analysts who researched various
the ‘blue block’ or the ‘red ball’)
teaching strategies were able to identify
some of the most powerful ones. Then,
Reinforcers should be:
they combined them into a package called
Pivotal Response Training (PRT). 5. Contingent upon the behavior (only
when the behavior is performed
PRT is a set of instructional strategies that and not when the behavior is not
can increase a learner’s motivation and performed)
teach important skills. For learners with 6. Administered following any attempts to
autism, this effect is extremely important. respond (shaping)
Oftentimes, learners with autism are 7. Related to the desired behavior (such
not motivated to participate in social or as giving bubbles when the child
educational interactions. When learners says “open” while twisting the jar of
are motivated, they can learn so much bubbles instead of giving a food item
more. PRT incorporates strategies that as a reward)
help parents and teachers make the
most of the learner’s skills and choices You will find many examples of how to use
in everyday settings. Also, parents can these strategies in How to Teach Pivotal
learn how to use PRT during instructional Behaviors to Children with Autism: A
time and throughout daily activities. Training Manual. Overall, these lessons

28 ABA Principles & Methods

 Pivotal Response Training

are intended to be clear, brief, and fun.

Of course, the specific goals, materials,
and settings will be individualized for the
learner, as with all ABA interventions.
PRT offers a set of strategies to keep
learners paying attention and engaged.
PRT episodes should be incorporated
into planned and natural activities on
a frequent basis (suggested rate is one
episode every two minutes). The training
also encourages learners to initiate their
needs and wants and to respond to others.
By providing the learner with choices of
motivating items, mixing some new tasks
with easy tasks, and rewarding attempts, a
teacher can be both effective and fun.
Resources
(Note: PRT is similar to Incidental
Teaching and Mand Training within
Natural Environment Training in their Koegel, L. K., Koegel, R. L., Shoshan,
focus on choice, reinforcing attempts, and Y., & McNerney, E. (1999). Pivotal
response intervention II: Preliminary
reinforcing contingently.)
long-term outcomes data. Journal
of the Association for Persons with
Severe Handicaps, 24, 186-198.

Koegel, R. L., & Koegel, L. K. (2005).

Pivotal response treatments for autism:
Communication, social, and academic
development. Baltimore, MD: Brookes
Publishing.

Koegel, R. L., & Koegel, L. K. (Eds.)

(1995). Teaching children with
autism: Strategies for initiating positive
interactions and improving learning
opportunities. Baltimore, MD: Brookes
Publishing.

Koegel, R. L., Schreibman, L., Good,

A., Cerniglia, L., Murphy, C., & Koegel,
L. K. (1989). How to teach pivotal
behaviors to children with autism: A
training manual. Santa Barbara, CA:
University of California.
Available at http://www.education.
ucsb.edu/autism/behaviormanuals.

ABA Principles & Methods 29

 Task Analysis & Chaining

When you think about many of the tasks 3. Place napkin on left side of plate
you perform on a daily basis, you realize 4. Place fork on napkin
how many steps are involved in each task. 5. Place knife on right side of plate
You may be even more aware of how many 6. Place spoon on right side of plate
steps there are when you are learning
7. Place cup at top of plate
something new, such as how to program
your VCR. To learn this complex skill, you
This example assumes that all of the
may watch someone else do it and write
necessary items are within the learner’s
down all the steps. Or, you might closely
reach. This task analysis would be
follow the instructions in the manual. But
expanded further to include additional
what if those instructions weren’t clear?
behaviors in order to get each of these
You would need more information and
items from their appropriate places.
more reinforcement for your attempts if you
Similarly, this task analysis could be
wanted to prevent frustration.
expanded to additional items, place
settings, and other mealtime activities.
The same is true for learners with autism.
They also need clear instructions and
It is relatively easy to create a task analysis.
plenty of reinforcement for accomplishing
There are several methods you can use.
some, and eventually all, parts of a task.
One method is to perform the behavior
One of the ways behavior analysts do this
yourself and take note of each step of the
is by creating and using a task analysis. A
behavior. Alternately, you could watch
task analysis involves breaking a complex
another person perform the behavior. If you
skill into smaller, teachable units. In
do this, select a person who can perform
creating a task analysis, an instructor
the skill well. In creating the task analysis,
creates a road map for how to teach a skill,
the steps of the behavior will be linked
step by step. There is ample benefit for the
together to create a behavior chain. Then,
learner; access to reinforcement is much
a task analysis assessment can then be
greater when the task is taught in this
done to evaluate what steps of the chain
manner.
already are performed well by the learner.
This enables the instructor to further
An example of a task analysis is listed
individualize instruction by focusing on the
below. There are many ways to write a
steps that are not yet independent.
task analysis, and the same task could
be described many different ways. A
When taught through chaining, it is
learner’s skill level, preferences, and setting
important that the steps be taught in order.
characteristics can influence exactly how a
At times, chaining is taught using a forward
task analysis is written.
chaining procedure in which the steps are
targeted beginning with the first step. In
Arranging a place setting at the table could
the above example, the student would first
include the following steps:
be taught to put the placemat on the table
1. Put placemat on the table independently. Reinforcement is provided
2. Place plate on placemat for successfully completing this step. The
teacher then assists the learner to put the

30 ABA Principles & Methods

 Task Analysis & Chaining

plate on the placemat and complete the

rest of the steps. When the learner can
perform one step independently on a few
occasions, the teacher requires that two
steps be completed to earn reinforcement.

Chaining also can be taught using a

backward chaining procedure. In this
approach to chaining, the individual is
led through all the steps of the chain
and first learns how to do the last step
independently (placing the cup, in the
above example). Then, the learner would
achieve independence on the final two
steps, and then the final three steps,
and so on until the chain is completed
independently. Backward chaining has
an advantage over forward chaining in
some situations. This advantage is the
immediate availability of natural reinforcers
for completing the last step. In the above
example, after the learner places his cup on
the table, dinner is served. Food and drink
are great reinforcers. Another example is
teaching a child to put on his coat before
going outside to the swings. As soon as he
completes the final step(s) of the backward
chain (zipping the coat), he can run
outside!

This systematic approach offers many

opportunities for the learner to become Resources
familiar with the task, the teacher to
process.
reinforce new skills, and both to enjoy the
Baker, B. L., & Brightman, A. J.
(2003). Steps to independence:
Teaching everyday skills to children
with special needs (4th ed.). Baltimore,
MD: Brookes Publishing.

Foxx, R. M. (1982). Increasing

behaviors of persons with severe
retardation and autism. Champaign, IL:
Research Press.

ABA Principles & Methods 31

 Token Economy

Take a moment to review the two types of sitting. If he earns five of the possible six
reinforcers. Primary reinforcers meet a basic tokens, he can choose an extra snack
human need such as hunger, thirst, and at lunch time or some other appropriate
warmth. Secondary reinforcers are learned reinforcer. In this example, the student earns
over time because of their association with a token for appropriate sitting and learns to
primary reinforcers. Secondary reinforcers sit appropriately for longer amounts of time.
could include smiles from loved ones, Gradually, the teacher would increase the
verbal praise, preferred toys, and money. amount of time during which he had to sit
As an example, a person goes to work appropriately to earn the tokens. A rule of
everyday to earn money. At the end of the thumb is to keep the program achievable and
week, the person looks forward to receiving challenging, meaning that the student should
the paycheck. Why? Because money is a be successful on most occasions as you
powerful secondary (generalized) reinforcer. encourage better performance.
Money can give you access to a wide variety
of both primary (food and shelter) and The token economy can also include a
secondary (leisure time and preferred items) response cost component. A response
reinforcers. Money is one example of a ‘token’ cost means that if the student exhibits a
in a token economy. response there is a cost. Using the above
example, let’s suppose the student was
A token economy makes use of secondary disruptive by throwing his pencil and papers
reinforcers to bridge the gap between a on the floor. After attempting various positive
behavior and access to other reinforcers. interventions, the team decided to add
Token economies can be comprehensive and a response cost component to his token
positive motivational systems. For example, a economy. Every time the student threw his
student is supposed to stay in his seat for an pencil and papers on the floor, a token was
entire thirty-minute class period but he has taken away. It is important to know that a
never done so. One possible intervention is response cost element is not recommended
a token economy in which he earns tokens in the early stages of instruction in a token
for smaller amounts of time in which he economy. As previously mentioned, token
is sitting appropriately. He could earn one economies should be used as purely positive
token for every five minutes of appropriate motivational systems whenever possible. It is
also important to keep in mind other relevant
guidelines for using behavior reduction
procedures when implementing a response
cost component.
Resource
Overall, token economies are a powerful
Ayllon, T. (1999). How to use token and systematic tool to expand reinforcement
economy and point systems (2nd ed.). options and delay the delivery of
Austin, TX: PRO-ED. reinforcement to a more typical schedule. By
doing so, we increase the types of reinforcers
that will motivate learners with autism.
32 ABA Principles & Methods
 Activity Schedules

Learning a new skill or keeping occupied visible and accessible manner. Over time,
during down time can be difficult for the learner will progress from prompted
learners with autism. What can you do to interaction with the materials to spontaneous
help them? An activity schedule is a tool interaction coupled while following the
that they can use to help promote their schedule. As is true for all ABA interventions,
independence during play, leisure, and the goal is to make the learner as
academic time. An activity schedule is a set independent as possible so that he/she can
of pictures or words that cues a sequence complete the activity, ask for assistance when
of activities. Additionally, schedules help to needed, and enjoy his/her new abilities.
promote choice and can set the occasion for
initiations to others. Typical materials for an The five basic steps in the activity schedule
activity schedule include a photo album or process are as follows: turn to a page, point
three-ring binder, stickers, activity photos, to the photograph, obtain the materials,
and a preferred item that will serve as a complete the activity, and put away the
reinforcer for accomplishing the task. materials. The instructor provides and fades
prompts based on the learner’s progress
Learners are likely to be successful with an and delivers rewards on the same basis.
activity schedule when they can consistently Oftentimes, beginning learners need frequent
accomplish the following prerequisite skills: reinforcement to stay motivated and on
t
identify pictures versus background; track. The use of an activity schedule does
t
match identical objects; not have to be limited to playing with toys or
t
match picture to object; completing academic tasks. Some clinicians
t
accept guidance; have had great success teaching children
t
use materials appropriately; and and adults with autism how to socialize with
t
obtain materials from a different location. their peers using an activity schedule in the
initial stages of programming.
When selecting activities, keep in mind that
they must be familiar or mastered by the The ability to follow an activity schedule
learner with autism because you are teaching brings many benefits to the learner such as
how to complete the sequence of the independence and choice. It can also be
activities, not the actual tasks. The activities generalized to many types of daily activities
should be age appropriate and have a clear for learners of all ages.
ending. Toys such as play-do or building
blocks are not recommended at first because
they do not have a clear ending. Initial items
could include puzzles, nesting cups, stacking
rings, etc. The schedule should end with a
snack or a preferred activity (for example, Resource
tickles from a parent).
McClannahan, L. E., & Krantz, P. J.
(2010). Activity schedules for children
Much of the work leading up to a successful with autism: Teaching independent
activity schedule experience is preparation. behavior (2nd ed.). Bethesda, MD:
Behavior analysts prepare the materials, Woodbine House.
rewards, and tokens and organize the
environment to display the materials in a
ABA Principles & Methods 33
 Precision Teaching with Rate Building

Precision Teaching (PT) is an area of ABA that appear quite expert at them. Think about how
has been practiced and researched for many you drive or make a sandwich. You do not
years. In fact, PT is a form of ABA instruction think through every element of those tasks;
that has been widely used with typical and you can perform them easily and with little
learning-challenged populations, with great or no attention to executing each movement.
results. It is only recently, in fact, that PT has Sometimes, learners with autism can exhibit
been significantly extended to learners with skills, but are not fluent at them. If compared to
autism. how others did those tasks, it often looks more
laborious and takes more time to do the tasks
Precision Teaching focuses on building the compared to a fluent and competent peer.
rate at which learners can demonstrate skills,
and focuses on the attainment of fluency. Precision Teaching (sometimes called
Fluency refers to the combination of accuracy Fluency-Based Instruction) is a method
plus speed that characterizes competent of building response rates and developing
performance. When people are fluent in skills, fluency in a variety of skill areas. When PT
they can do them effortlessly and fluidly. They is applied to learners with autism, there is a
focus on the rate of skill demonstration and
use of a specific measuring system to chart
student progress. (This system is known as
the Standard Celeration Chart.) In addition to
addressing issues such as long response times
(often called latency to respond) and rate of
skill demonstration, PT addresses deficits in
Resources component skills which can impede progress
on more complex tasks.
Binder, C. (1996). Behavioral fluency:
Evolution of a new paradigm. The How does Precision Teaching work? Attention
Behavior Analyst, 19, 163-197. is paid to the rate at which the learner can
perform the task. Generally, PT is done in short
Fabrizio, M. (February and March,
sprints, to increase rate of skill performance.
2003). A parent’s introduction to
fluency: Parts I and II. The OARacle. Teaching includes timed practices in which
Alexandria, VA: The Organization for the learner is expected to reach a specific
Autism Research. goal. These goals are often referred to as
Available at performance aims and demonstrate the
http://www.researchautism.org. learner’s fluency with a skill. In addition,
attention is paid to the concept of component
Fabrizio, M. A. & Moors, A. L. (2003).
Evaluating mastery: Measuring
skills, which are building block skills for more
instructional outcomes for children with complex skills. For example, component skills
autism. European Journal of Behavior include reaching, pointing, and grasping, which
Analysis, 4, 23-36. could all impact on skills such as matching or
identifying objects. Often, PT with rate-building
McGreevy, P. (1983). Teaching and focuses on the development of core motor skills
learning in plain English: An introduction
to precision teaching and precision
that assist the learner in performing many other
tutoring (2nd ed.). Kansas City, MO: more complex tasks. Of course, PT with rate
Plain English Publications. building can also be used to teach complex
skills, as long as the foundation skills are
already firmly established.
34 ABA Principles & Methods
 Precision Teaching with Rate Building

There are several ways to determine target

rates. There are some resources available with
Example 1 normed rates, including a set from learners on
A learner working on identifying the autism spectrum, collected by Fabrizio &
pictures could begin a session as Moors. When no target rate is available, typical
follows (Assume the learner already peers can be sampled to determine a target
had sufficient prompting and practice, range.
has the component skills, and is now Examples of skills that might be targeted via
performing independently.) PT with rate-building are motor skills such as
grasping, reaching, placing, and pulling as well
Teacher: “Ok, Sammy. It’s time to do as other skills such as matching pictures and
your pictures. Remember go as fast as answering questions.
you can. Your goal is 15. Ready, set,
go.”

Learner: rapidly labels items on

table. Teacher provides coaching Example 2
encouragement along the way. Alternately, a child might be working on
pointing. (Assume the learner knows how
At the end of the interval the timer goes to point and is now working on pointing
off and the teacher counts 16 correct. more rapidly and independently.)
She says, “Terrific. You met your goal.
Hooray!” Teacher: “Ok, Sally, it is time to do
pointing. Remember go as fast as you
The teacher would then indicate that can. You see your chart? We are trying to
the goal has been met on the chart, and get to the red line. Ready, set, go.”
would make adjustments in instruction
for the next day (e.g., lengthening the Learner: points rapidly in succession.
timing). When the student has met
the goal in the terminal timing length Teacher provides coaching
(e.g., 1 minute) or at an earlier point in encouragement along the way. Teacher
instruction if performance warrants it, (at end of interval notices that the child
the teacher would assess whether the did not meet her goal): “Great try, Sally.
student can demonstrate the skill with Let’s do it again, and I’ll help this time.”
novel materials (application), in the face
of distraction (stability), and for longer The teacher might then perform a guided
periods of time (endurance). If all of practice to help the learner understand
those criteria are met, the skill would the target rate. The maximum number of
not be practiced for about a month, timings conducted on a single day is10
and then a retention check would be (although timings are not successive
conducted. and cease whenever the daily goal is
reached). If success is not achieved,
adjustments are made in instruction to
increase success on the following day.

ABA Principles & Methods 35

 Functional Assessment & Functional Analysis

At a recent support group for parents writing down what happened before and
of children with autism, five mothers after the behavior. Events that occur well
and two fathers spent time discussing before the behavior include a full night’s
their children’s problem behaviors. All of sleep, medication, diet, and interactions
the parents questioned what behaviors with others. These are formally known
were “because of the autism” and what as setting events. It makes sense that
behaviors were typical of children their setting events change the likelihood of
age. These parents shared their stories a behavior occurring. Behavior analysts
about when the behavior occurred, what also write down the antecedents and the
might have set off the problem, and the consequences of the behavior. This is
aftermath. called ABC data because information is
collected on the antecedents (A), behaviors
One parent told of the following episode. (B), and consequences (C). Second, they
Mandy said, “We were at my four-year- review many ABC episodes individually
old nephew’s party and there was so and together to look for a pattern. Third,
much noise. My sister had about twenty they use that pattern to predict when the
kids running all over her house. David behavior is likely and unlikely to happen.
was actually doing pretty well. I thought Next, they take an educated guess about
it was going to be a rough day for him so what is reinforcing or maintaining the
I brought some of his favorite toys. After behavior. This is called the function of
being there for about two hours, it was time the behavior, the purpose the behavior
to sing “Happy Birthday.” Well, David just serves, or how the person communicates
couldn’t hold on any longer. He ran over his wants and needs through this behavior.
to my husband and covered his ears as he Lastly, they use this information to change
screamed at the top of his lungs. People the setting events, antecedents, and
couldn’t really hear him during the song consequences. By doing so, we carefully
but, ooohh, did they get an earful once the encourage and reinforce appropriate
song was over. We had to bring him into behavior more often than the problem
another room to calm him down. We talked behavior. While some of this initially takes
to him softly and reminded him that his more work, the end results are often great.
favorite toys were nearby. I know we gave
him a lot of attention for screaming but we Going back to the birthday party example,
didn’t have too many other options given Mandy noted some things that happened
the situation. Luckily, my sister and her before and after David screamed. With the
friends know David and the party continued guidance of a behavior analyst, she wrote
during our little episode. I wonder how he’s this information down so they could look at
going to do at my friend’s daughter’s party it together.
next month.”
The above information told Mandy a
The great news is that this parent number of things about David’s behavior
remembered so much information about and how she might go about decreasing
the situation. She could use this information it. First, David was provided with attention
to figure out how to make it better for the from one or both parents following all three
next time. First, behavior analysts find out screaming episodes. Second, all episodes
why the problem behavior is happening by of the behavior were very intense. When

36 ABA Principles & Methods

 Functional Assessment & Functional Analysis

David screamed, he was loud and visibly other components that this team could add
distraught. Third, David was often not to David’s treatment plan. It is important
receiving a lot of attention from his parents to note that behaviors that may seem to
before the behavior. When Mandy looked suddenly occur out of the blue or have no
at this information laid out in front of her, connection to the immediate environment,
she was surprised to see these patterns may in fact be related to the immediate
emerged. She knew that she and her
husband were loving parents who gave
David a lot of attention throughout the day.
Why was he screaming when he didn’t have
their attention?
Resources
The behavior analyst pointed out that David
wanted to be around them because they Frea, W. D., Koegel, L. K., & Koegel, R.
were so responsive to his needs, as good L. (1994). Understanding why problem
parents are. They have provided much behaviors occur: A guide for assisting
reinforcement throughout David’s life and parents in assessing causes of behavior
as a result, he highly valued their attention. and designing treatment plans. Santa
The team was well on its way to figuring out Barbara, CA: University of California.
what to do to improve the situation. They Available at http://www.education.ucsb.
knew one of David’s possible reinforcers edu/autism/behaviormanuals.html
was attention from Mom and Dad. The
behavior analyst asked the parents how Glasberg, B. A. (2005). Functional
they could more carefully use their attention behavior assessment for people with
to increase David’s appropriate behavior. autism: Making sense of seemingly
The parents decided to provide David with senseless behavior. Bethesda, MD:
attention when he was acting appropriately: Woodbine House.
perhaps doing so before David was likely
to scream might prevent the behavior O’Neill, R. E., Horner, R. H., Albin,
altogether. The behavior analyst thought R. W., Sprague, J. R., Storey, K., and
this was a great idea and added one more. Newton, J. S. (1997). Functional
The parents could also teach David an assessment and program development
easy way to communicate what he wanted. for problem behavior: A practical
While he could say some words some of the handbook (2nd ed.). Pacific Grove, CA:
time, he often didn’t use his words when he Brooks Publishing Company.
was overwhelmed or frustrated. Providing
him with easy ways, such as hand signals, Romanczyk, R. (1996). Behavioral
to quickly communicate that he wanted to analysis and assessment: The
leave a situation or ask for attention could cornerstone to effectiveness. In C.
also lessen the chance of the screaming Maurice (Ed.), G. Green, & S. C. Luce
behavior happening again. (Co-eds.). Behavioral intervention for
young children with autism: A manual
This example demonstrates the process of for parents and professionals (pp.195-
functional assessment and the beginning 217). Austin, TX: PRO-ED.
phase of intervention planning. There are
ABA Principles & Methods 37
 Functional Assessment & Functional Analysis

Episode 1 2 3
Noisy and crowd- Elmo video playing, Walking around
ed setting with bad night sleep the backyard
Setting
occasional atten-
Event
tion from Mom
and Dad

Singing Happy Mom on the phone Dad turned on

Antecedent
Birthday the lawn mower

Screamed for 3 Screamed for 2 Screamed for

Behavior minutes at a high minutes at a high 4 minutes at a
volume volume high volume

Mom and Dad Mom had to get Mom took him

Consequence took him into a off the phone to inside to calm
quiet room to find out what was him down
calm him down wrong

environment. By analyzing this information behavior analyst systematically changes the

and changing the behavior’s antecedents environment when the learner engages in
and consequences, a person’s response can the problem behavior. Doing so allows the
be greatly improved. team to see when the behavior is likely and
unlikely to happen. Often, this information
Typically, behavior analysts gather functional is sufficient to understand the problem
assessment information in two ways: behavior and begin intervention planning.
interviewing people who know the learner Expertise in conducting functional analyses
and observing actual episodes of the is essential to ensure that the challenging
behavior to collect ABC data. Sometimes, behavior is managed safely and effectively
this information is not enough to hypothesize throughout the assessment process.
a function of the behavior and develop a
treatment plan that is likely to be successful. The take-home message of functional
In these instances, a process known as assessment is that all challenging behavior
functional analysis may be conducted. is seen as communication. The individual
Conducting a functional analysis requires is telling us something. The next time an
a behavior analyst with knowledge and individual engages in challenging behavior,
experience in the implementation of this the information gathering described above
complex process. In this procedure, the will help create a better situation.

38 ABA Principles & Methods

 Antecedent-Based Interventions

As you have learned by reading the for some situations. Third, a thorough
previous sections, behavior analysts assessment of the context can lead to
attempt to change what happens before endless possibilities for intervention.
and after a behavior to make it more Possibilities include offering choices in
or less likely to occur. You have read the types, number, and order of tasks;
about theoretical principles and specific altering the demand by reducing the effort
antecedent and consequence strategies required; mixing easy and hard tasks;
to change behavior. Clearly, modern ABA reducing distractions; increasing visual
encompasses a wide variety of techniques. supports; and incorporating the student’s
While there was a heavy emphasis on preferences.
consequence-based strategies in the
past, researchers and clinicians are
now learning more about how to change
behavior in more sophisticated ways. Let Example 1
us now look more closely at antecedent-
Joey often throws his worksheet
based interventions. halfway through his assignment.
His teacher is perplexed,
This focus on changing the environment especially since he can do the
before a behavior occurs is advantageous work. One day, she notices
for several reasons. First, in the situation that there is no problem when
of challenging behavior, the goal is to a fire drill interrupts them
prevent the behavior. We may achieve halfway through the period.
prevention by using antecedent-based Later that day, Joey finishes
strategies. Second, the search for effective the worksheet without incident.
antecedent-based strategies can improve The teacher decides ask Joey
our understanding of the learner’s to do just a few problems on
experiences. For example, suppose a the worksheet. She gives him a
learner tantrums when transitioning from choice of other activities. Later
in the day, he completes the
one teacher to another. We observe the
worksheet. Breaking the task
teachers’ styles to identify any possible
up reduces the monotony and
differences that would predict tantrum.
increases Joey’s cooperation. In
It is noted that the learner behaves more the future, the teacher will work
appropriately for the teacher who speaks on maintaining Joey’s motivation
at a slower pace. The other teacher then while slowly increasing the
speaks slowly and the learner’s tantrums amount of work she expects.
stop. While not all assessment and
intervention plans will go so smoothly,
this example illustrates that antecedent-
intervention can be more desirable
than consequence-based intervention

ABA Principles & Methods 39

 Antecedent-Based Interventions

While antecedent-based interventions are

crucial to preventing challenging behavior,
Example 2 these strategies can also be helpful when
teaching new skills.
Prior to her teachers using an
antecedent-based strategy,
Melissa screams when she is
randomly paired with Barbara
(another student) to complete Example 3
a task. Melissa verbally and
physically protests throughout Danny, a teenager with autism,
the task. Barbara does not like was not able to tell the difference
listening to Melissa scream. between the men’s and women’s
Barbara says to the teacher, restroom signs. His father tried
“Maybe you should let her pick to teach him this by typing the
her own partner next time.” relevant words and printing
The teacher does just that. them in a large font. After a
The next time Melissa does week of instruction, his father
not protest! The incorporation realized that Danny was not
of choice-making improves independently identifying these
Melissa’s behavior and avoids a two signs. He still needed
problematic scene. his father’s help. His father
incorporated an antecedent-
based strategy: he changed the
teaching materials. This time,
his father used stick figure
drawings commonly used on
restroom doors to depict a
man and a woman. With a few
days of teaching, Danny could
independently identify these
signs.
Resources

Glasberg, B. A. (2008). Stop that

seemingly senseless behavior! FBA-
based interventions for people with
autism. Bethesda, MD: Woodbine
House.

Luiselli, J. K., & Cameron, M. J.

(1998). Antecedent control: Innovative
approaches to behavioral support.
Baltimore, MD: Brookes Publishing.

40 ABA Principles & Methods

 Positive Behavior Support

When a person with a disability is meaningful goals are developed for the
aggressive or self-injurious, it is dangerous individual, to put the individual in more
for the person and those around him or contact with people and experiences they
her. Planning and careful responding are find rewarding, and that increase the
required to safely and effectively reduce positive aspects of their relationships.
the dangerous behavior. Fortunately,
there are many things a team can do Comprehensive multi-component
to 1) understand why the behavior is interventions are another feature of PBS
happening, 2) teach the individual how to plans. They program for success by
act more appropriately, and 3) improve the addressing many related issues and skills.
individual’s quality of life. Positive Behavior Someone who is having difficulty with
Support (PBS) accomplishes these three completing assigned work might have
things by combining well-researched components of a plan that include asking
assessment and intervention strategies for a break, assistance with difficult tasks,
of ABA with the social values of personal choosing the order and location of tasks,
choice, independence, community interspersing solitary work and social
integration, systems change, and quality time, and responding appropriately to
of life. feedback on performance.

Quality of life is embedded into PBS. It PBS often inspires people to make small,
incorporates person-centered planning yet creative and important, shifts in
in all possible aspects of intervention and various aspects of teaching. Perhaps a
is focused on the individual and on his person will learn more effectively if given
or her quality of life. The individual with a peer buddy or allowed to take breaks
autism is included in the intervention from work to go outdoors several times
planning process. Preferences are taken throughout the day. Sometimes, a team
into account in a variety of ways, including can generate some strategic changes
tasks to work on and leisure pursuits. in scheduling, locations, roles, or staff
Choice is of central importance, and every assignments to maximize the success
element of programming is sensitive to and happiness of the individual with
the inclusion of choice wherever possible. autism. The combination of individual and
PBS also includes all stakeholders in systems change can produce effective,
the process by incorporating their input durable, and meaningful outcomes for all
into the development of a plan. Parents’ involved.
input is actively solicited and used to
make an appropriate plan that can There is considerable overlap between
easily be implemented at home and in ABA and PBS. Virtually all applied
the community. Whenever possible, the behavior analysts agree with the social
individual with autism has a voice in the values emphasized in PBS. Similarly,
development of goals and plans. Socially proponents of PBS rely heavily on ABA
methods and research design to improve

ABA Principles & Methods 41

 Positive Behavior Support

their methods. There is some debate in

the field regarding the nature of PBS as
separate from ABA or as an outgrowth of
ABA. For our purposes in this manual,
PBS is a well-researched methodology
that provides effective and comprehensive
measures to help individuals with
challenging behavior and those around
them.

Resources
Carr, E. G., Dunlap, G., Horner, R.
H., Koegel, R. L., Turnbull, A. P.,
Sailor, W., Anderson, J. L., Albin, R.
W., Koegel, L. K., & Fox, L. (2002).
Positive behavior support: Evolution of
an applied science. Journal of Positive
Behavior Interventions, 4, 4-16.

Jackson, L., & Panyan, M. V. (2002).

Positive behavioral support in the
classroom: Principles and practices.
Baltimore, MD: Brookes Publishing.

Koegel, L. K., Koegel, R. L., & Dunlap,

G. (1996). Positive behavioral support:
Including people with difficult behavior
in the community. Baltimore, MD:
Brookes Publishing.

Lucyshyn, J. M., Dunlap, G., & Albin,

R. W. (2002). Families and positive
behavior support: Addressing problem
behavior in family contexts. Baltimore,
MD: Brookes Publishing.

42 ABA Principles & Methods

 Generalization

Generalization occurs when a person When teaching learners with autism, we

learns something in one environment and have to plan for generalization to occur. One
can independently apply it in another. way to convey that is to say, ‘We cannot just
Spontaneous generalization occurs when teach and hope.’ While teaching a new skill
the learner can do so without any additional is certainly the first step, there are likely
training. Learners with autism often have to be many more steps in teaching when
a difficult time generalizing skills to new to do the skill, when not to, and how to
environments. They may need more behave just right in a particular situation.
intensive teaching to learn how to exhibit The learning process is not complete until
new skills outside of the teaching situation. widespread generalization has occurred in
While it may be important to teach new meaningful situations.
skills in a controlled manner, it is also
important to make sure that the person can
use the skill in a functional and meaningful
way.
Stimulus Generalization
There are three main types of
generalization. Stimulus generalization 1. The mailman greets the child,
means that the learner can respond the saying, “Hi. How are you?”
same way with different cues in place. 2. The child says, “Fine.” This
For example, drivers stop at red lights skill has only been taught in
and stop signs. When a driver stops for a Discrete Trial Instruction at
policeman directing traffic, the driver has school.
demonstrated stimulus generalization. The
driver had the same response even though 3. You have taught the child to
the cue (stimulus) was different. Response ask, “Can I have a turn?” when
generalization means that a learner exhibits others have highly preferred
different responses in the same situations. toys at home. At a family
For example, a teacher says good morning gathering at his aunt’s house,
to her student. On Monday, the student he asks a cousin, “Can I have
responds with a wave. On Tuesday, the a turn?”
student acknowledges the teacher’s greeting
with eye contact and a smile. The student
exhibited a different response even though
the situation was the same. The third type
of generalization is generalization over time,
also known as maintenance. This refers
to the ability to demonstrate skills long after
responses are no longer reinforced as they
were in the training setting. Generalization
and maintenance refer to the learner’s
performance for both skill acquisition and
behavior reduction goals.

ABA Principles & Methods 43

 Generalization

Response Generalization Maintenance

4. Repetitive video rewinding has 6. Six months ago, Joey learned

been targeted for reduction. to identify the letters of the
This has been successful. alphabet. On many occasions
Parents report that the throughout the week, he
tendency to increase the demonstrates this skill in
volume when watching tapes natural contexts. He may label
has also declined. letters in an alphabet puzzle,
5. Through DTI, you have taught letters in his name on a
the child to request, “I want bulletin board, letters in signs
banana.” when presented in the community, etc.
with a choice of snacks. (You 7. Jennifer learned how to
start off with banana because use the toilet in the month
the child seems to really like of June. Her parents and
bananas.) The child also teachers still collect data
begins spontaneously saying, during July, August, and
“I want raisins.” September to see if she
maintains her toileting skills
over time.

Resources
Baer, D. M. (1998). How to plan for
generalization (2nd ed.). Austin, TX:
PRO-ED.

Koegel, L. K., Koegel, R. L., & Parks,

D. R. (1992). How to teach self-
management to people with severe
disabilities: A training manual. Santa
Barbara, CA: University of California.
Available at http://www.education.ucsb.
edu/autism/behaviormanuals.html

Stokes, T. F., & Baer, D. M. (1977). An

implicit technology of generalization.
Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis,
10, 349-367.

44 ABA Principles & Methods

 Evaluation of
ABA Programs

Data Collection and Analysis Duration

How long. For example, the length of time
Data are collected within an ABA program for that a preschooler sits appropriately during
multiple purposes. Data inform the decisions circle time - three minutes.
we make about programming. Data are Intensity
taken to document both the acquisition of How severe. For example, a tantrum could
skills and the improvement in challenging range from mild to severe.
behaviors. Here are some of the most
common ways to collect data. As one might imagine, there are some
Frequency behaviors that are better tracked by one
How often, for example, the number of times method than another. For advantages and
a learner requests a toy: five times disadvantages for each type data, please
see the resource section below.
Rate
How often within a certain amount of time.
Data analysis involves graphing the data
For example, the number of times a learner
and analyzing the following elements:
requests a toy within a twenty -minute class
period - five times in twenty minutes equals Level (How much is the behavior
0.25 times per minute. One advantage of happening?).
converting frequency to rate is that you can Trend (Is the behavior increasing,
take data for different amounts of time and decreasing, or maintaining?).
still be able to evenly compare the number of
times a behavior occurred.
45
 Stability (Are the behaviors [data points] data recording. One goal is to collect as
close together or highly variable?). much data as possible without detracting
from the teaching interaction. These data
The level, trend, stability, and other are important when making decisions
information about the behavior are then about what and how to teach. Data guide
used to make decisions about appropriate instructors on a constant basis.
interventions and goals for performance.

Before an intervention begins, behavior Demonstration of a functional

analysts collect information about the relation
behavior. This is called baseline data.
Baseline data are collected on both Another hallmark characteristic of ABA is
challenging behaviors and targeted skills. the demonstration of a systematic relation
Data are then collected during the course of between two variables. For example, if a
an intervention to determine if the learner is learner had a tantrum when and only when
making progress, how much progress, and there was a change in the class schedule,
if modifications to the intervention plan are one might suspect the schedule change
necessary. caused the tantrum. A behavior analyst
would explore this possible connection to
One hallmark characteristic of ABA is determine if these events simply occurred
ongoing data collection. While you can together in time or if one caused the
take data every time a behavior occurs, other. Behavior analysts identify relations
it is not necessary to do so. There are between variables and use this information
many efficient and reliable means of to change the environment and behavior in
collecting “probe” (occasional) data that the most positive and efficient way possible.
do not require continuous “trial by trial”

46 Evaluation of ABA Programs

 Running an
Intensive ABA Program

ABA intervention is a complex and foundation of individualization is the

multi-faceted endeavor. A good ABA assessment process. Initially, a thorough
program is intensive, individualized, and and comprehensive assessment is done
comprehensive. to help understand the learner’s areas of
strengths and deficits. The assessment
Intensive itself will be individualized in terms of
A good ABA program provides intensive the types of instruments used and tested
teaching. Intensity usually means a low skills. A good assessment offers critical
teacher to student ratio (one teacher for information to answer the question: Where
one or two students), a large number of should we start teaching? During the course
instructional hours, and many learning of an intervention, a learner’s progress is
opportunities. People often ask, “How many analyzed in order to support him/her in the
hours?” Most experts recommend 30 to most positive and effective ways possible.
40 hours. (Recall that naturalistic teaching Children with autism are quite different
done throughout activities can be counted from one another; their programs should
as hours if there is a systematic focus on reflect this diversity.
the development of skills at these times.)
Comprehensive
Individualized A good ABA program will incorporate
A good ABA program will be highly several of the instructional methods that
individualized. It will not be a cookbook comprise ABA. For example, a program
or one-size-fits-all approach. The that only utilizes DTI will not allow enough

47
 opportunities for spontaneity. Since
different instructional methods have distinct
advantages, there are reasons to use
multiple methods of instruction to ensure
that a wide range of skills are taught.

Who can put together a comprehensive

ABA program? Credentialed professionals
in Applied Behavior Analysis are in the best
Resources position to provide comprehensive ABA
services. The Autism Special Interest Group
The Autism Special Interest Group of the Association for Behavior Analysis
of the Association for Behavior International (ABAI) provides consumers
Analysis International (ABAI). (2007). with guidelines that can be used to learn
Consumer guidelines for identifying,
more about professional competencies
selecting, and evaluating behavior
analysts working with individuals with in ABA. There are also other resources
autism spectrum disorders. Available available to help make this important
at http://www.abainternational.org/ decision (see to the left).
Special_Interests/AutGuidelines.pdf.

Harris, S. L., & Weiss, M. J. (2007).

Right from the start: Behavioral
intervention for young children with
autism (2nd ed.). Bethesda, MD:
Woodbine House.

Leaf, R., McEachin, J., & Harsh, J.

D. (Eds.). (1999). A work in progress:
Behavior management strategies &
a curriculum for intensive behavioral
treatment of autism. New York, NY:
DRL Books.

Maurice, C., Green, G., & Foxx, R. M.

(Eds.). (2001). Making a difference:
Behavioral intervention for autism.
Austin, TX: PRO-ED.

Maurice, C (Ed.)., Green, G., & Luce,

S. C. (Co-eds.). (1996). Behavioral
intervention for young children with
autism: A manual for parents and
professionals. Austin,
TX: PRO-ED.

Sundberg, M. L., & Partington, J. W.

(1998). Teaching language to children
with autism or other developmental
disabilities. Pleasant Hill, CA: Behavior
Analysts, Inc.

48 Running an Intensive ABA Program

 ABA and the Family

As parents, we teach our children everyday. somewhere in between by having a good

However, given the neurological limitations understanding of ABA, working with the
that autism imposes, parents may need school on specific skills, and implementing
additional skills to effectively teach their consistent ABA strategies at home to
children. ABA methods offer many reinforce appropriate behavior throughout
strategies for assessment and intervention. the day.
It is recommended that parents learn
as much as they can about ABA. While For those parents who want to learn ABA
increasing your “ABA repertoire” will methods, we recommend starting with the
benefit your child and your family, each following: reinforcement, shaping, and
parent has to decide how much they mand training (in the Natural Environment
want to know and do. One parent may be Training section). These strategies are
comfortable knowing the basic terminology likely to increase your child’s appropriate
and a few skills to follow up on what the behavior and motivation.
child is learning in school. Another parent
may read volumes of literature and “live See resources on the next page.
and breathe” ABA. Other parents may fall

49
 Resources

Parents’ perspectives on ABA are

available from the following resources:

Bondy, A. S., & Frost, L. A. (2008).

Autism 24/7: A family guide to learning
at home and in the community.
Bethesda, MD: Woodbine House.

Braxton, E. (1996). Peter’s story. In C.

Maurice (Ed.), G. Green, & S. C. Luce
(Co-eds.). Behavioral intervention for
young children with autism: A manual
for parents and professionals. (pp.377-
382). Austin, TX: PRO-ED.

Harrington, E. (1996), Rebecca’s story.

In C. Maurice (Ed.), G. Green, & S. C.
Luce (Co-eds.). Behavioral intervention
for young children with autism: A
manual for parents and professionals.
(pp.365-372). Austin, TX: PRO-ED.

Harris, M. (1996). In search of

Michael. In C. Maurice (Ed.), G. Green,
& S. C. Luce (Co-eds.). Behavioral
intervention for young children with
autism: A manual for parents and
professionals. (pp.359-364). Austin,
TX: PRO-ED.

Kleinfield-Hayes, C. (1996). Brandon’s

journey. In C. Maurice (Ed.), G. Green,
& S. C. Luce (Co-eds.). Behavioral
intervention for young children with
autism: A manual for parents and
professionals. (pp.373-376). Austin,
TX: PRO-ED.

Maurice, C. (1994). Let me hear your

voice: A family’s triumph over autism.
New York, NY: Ballantine Books.

Richman, S. (2000). Raising a child

with autism: A guide to applied
behavior analysis for parents. London:
Jessica Kingsley Publishers.

50 ABA and the Family

 Siblings

Children with autism present special

challenges and opportunities for their
siblings. These resources offer great
suggestions on how to include siblings in
ABA programming, decrease sibling rivalry,
and help siblings make the most of their
relationship.

Feiges, L. S., & Weiss, M. J. (2004).

Resources
Resources
Autism New Jersey. (2010). Kids
booklet on autism. Robbinsville, NJ:
Author. Available at www.autismnj.org.

Feiges, L. S., & Weiss, M. J. (2004).

Sibling stories: Reflections on life
with a brother or sister on the autism
spectrum. Shawnee Mission, Kansas:
Autism Asperger Publishing.

Harris, S. L., & Glasberg, B. A. (2003).

Siblings of children with autism: A
guide for families (2nd ed.). Bethesda,
MD: Woodbine House.

Luce, S. C., & Dyer, K. (1996).

Answers to commonly asked
questions. In C. Maurice, (Ed.),
G. Green, & S.C. Luce (Co-eds.).
Behavioral intervention for young
children with autism: A manual for
parents and professionals (pp. 345-
356). Austin, TX: PRO-ED.

Meyer, D., J., & Vadasy, P. F. (1994).

Sibshops: Workshops for siblings
of children with special needs.
Baltimore, MD: Brookes Publishing.

ABA and the Family 51

 Running a Home-based ABA Program

This section addresses administrative when the child has beginner-level play and
issues. social skills.

As previously noted, intensive programs There are also factors to consider

for learners with autism can be intense related to the staff of the program. The
experiences for those who are responsible home environment may cause some
for them. This section highlights some of professionals to behave more casually
the common issues parents face when than they would in a classroom. This
maintaining a home program. There are puts some parents at ease, while others
some advantages and disadvantages to find it unprofessional. Parents should
having a child’s education take place be aware of their preferences and make
at home. The issues presented will be them known to their child’s instructors.
helpful in determining if a home program is Perhaps these expectations should be
appropriate for an individual family. included in their performance appraisals.
The Autism Special Interest Group of the
When a child goes to school, there is a Association for Behavior Analysis has
natural separation of home and school life. created guidelines for consumers of ABA
The teacher does not enter the home, or at services. This document may be helpful in
least not on a regular basis. A home-based selecting behavior analysts and reviewing
program presents very differently. Teaching their performance with standard criteria
is taking place where the child and family in mind. The information gathered from
live. If a difficult discussion needs to take both informal and formal sources can be
place with the teacher, it may happen in used in a systematic way to determine
the living room or at the kitchen table. The the feedback, incentives, and raises that
natural separation of home and school that are provided for the child’s instructors.
is inherent in sending a child to a school Some parents welcome this opportunity
evaporates. Everything happens at home. and are very comfortable in the role of
Alternatively, this could be seen as a good employer. Others rise to the occasion with
thing. Communication may be more regular mixed feelings along the way. The program
and thorough, and it may not require a supervisor can largely determine the quality
scheduled meeting. of the home program. He/she sets the
tone for professionalism, communication,
From the child’s perspective, there are collaboration, and the integrity of the ABA
learning opportunities throughout the day. program itself. Service delivery coordination
For young children, this learning would and financial arrangements with state early
occur in the most natural setting – his/her intervention programs, local school districts,
home. The child has plenty of opportunities and state offices for individuals with
to learn, use, and generalize new skills in developmental disabilities are substantial
a functional manner across people and tasks that are beyond the scope of this
settings. Frequently in the home program, book.
opportunities for social development require
more planning than in a school. Arranging There are also implications for siblings
play dates can take on a new meaning when a home-based program is in effect.

52 ABA and the Family

 Running a Home-based ABA Program

Many siblings enjoy the presence of

another caring and fun adult. However,
it is also common for siblings to become
jealous of their brother or sister’s “special
friend.” Often, a sibling’s perspective can
be improved by giving them a comfortable
role (participating in turn taking or a circle
time activity). Letting siblings see what
happens with the instructor can go a long
way to increase their comfort level and
reduce negative feelings. Of course, a
sibling’s participation should be entirely
voluntary. Parents and instructors should
take their lead from the sibling and create
an experience tailored to his or her level of
interest and concerns.

Running a home-based instructional

program is an enormous undertaking.
Parents assume central roles not just in
the instruction of their child, but also in the
management of an educational team.

ABA and the Family 51

 ABA as a
Profession

We have provided a lot of information in this those they supervise. A few basic skills are
book. Yet, this is only a fraction of the ABA worthy of mention in this overview of ABA to
knowledge base. Professionals in this field are foster your identification of the major areas
responsible for knowing how to successfully of competence within behavior analysis.
implement a wide range of assessment,
intervention, and quality assurance methods. A behavior analyst should:
To do so requires extensive training including 1. Spend time with the learner and those
academic coursework, hands-on experience, who play a role in his educational
and supervision. A national certification is programming (parents, teachers, etc.)
well underway to ensure a minimum level of in order to gain an appreciation of the
competence for those who practice ABA. This learner’s preferences and skills and the
certification became available on a national team’s values and goals.
level in 1999 and is a major advancement
for the profession and for consumers of ABA 2. Observe the learner on multiple
services. The criteria for this certification offer occasions to become familiar with what
guidelines for consumers when choosing a the learner can do with and without
behavior analyst. intervention.
3. Conduct objective assessments that
The following resources offer many specific capture a true picture of the behavior.
qualifications for behavior analysts and
55
 4. Implement (or train others to implement)
an intervention that is acceptable to
the team, individualized for the learner,
increases appropriate behavior, and
makes a meaningful difference in the
learner’s life.
5. Collect and analyze data to be able to
describe the learner’s progress and to
ensure service accountability.
6. Overall, act in accordance with the
Behavior Analyst Certification Board®
(BACB) Professional Disciplinary
Standards® and Guidelines for
Responsible Conduct for Behavior
Resources Analysts®.

The skills noted in numbers 1-5 above are

The Autism Special Interest Group
of the Association for Behavior basic level skills. Good behavior analysts
Analysis International (ABAI). (2007). practice within the conduct guidelines
Consumer guidelines for identifying, mentioned in number 6. Please refer to these
selecting, and evaluating behavior guidelines to become familiar with ABA’s
analysts working with individuals with
autism spectrum disorders. Available
professional expectations and standards.
at http://www.abainternational.org/
Special_Interests/AutGuidelines.pdf. While many qualified behavior analysts serve
learners with autism, the demand for ABA
Behavior Analyst Certification Board services far exceeds the supply. Given this
(BACB) (www.bacb.com) Sections
for consumers and professionals low supply and high demand state, many
regarding eligibility requirements, under-qualified or unqualified providers are
examination content, and professional well positioned to offer their services. It is
conduct guidelines. important to mention that all professionals
Scott, J. (1996). Recruiting, selecting,
who utilize ABA methods should comply with
and training teaching assistants. In C. the standards of the profession. For example,
Maurice, (Ed.), G. Green, & S. C. Luce. many people who provide “ABA services”
(Co-eds.). Behavioral intervention for only know how to use a particular curriculum
young children with autism: A manual or training protocol. This professional should
for parents and professionals (pp. 231-
240). Austin, TX: PRO-ED. provide that information to the consumer by
detailing his/her training experiences and by
Shook, G. L., & Favell, J. E. (1996). referring to another professional for services
Identifying qualified professionals in beyond that topic. This professional should
behavior analysis. In C. Maurice (Ed.),
G. Green, & S. C. Luce. (Co-eds.).
not assume that one particular curriculum
Behavioral intervention for young or treatment protocol is appropriate for all
children with autism: A manual for learners nor withhold information about
parents and professionals (pp. 221- more comprehensive programs. For
229). Austin, TX: PRO-ED. more information on the Behavior Analyst
Certification Board (BACB), please visit their
web site: www.bacb.com.
56 ABA as a Profession
 Myths & Facts

Top Ten Misconceptions of ABA FACT

ABA is highly individualized in every way
To complete this overview of ABA, it may Behavior analysts begin by assessing an
be helpful to review some of the popular individual’s skills and develop learning
misconceptions about what ABA is and is objectives. From the goals selected to
not. Often an approach can be minimized, the methods used, ABA is focused on
discounted, or incorrectly described maximizing an individual’s performance.
by people with minimal information or By observing a person’s behavior and
misinformation. When this happens, collecting objective data, behavior analysts
people can get the wrong idea about what are able to monitor progress and adjust
an approach represents, how effective an interventions on a daily basis. ABA teaching
approach is, who an approach is appropriate is a very dynamic process.
for, etc. ABA has been subject to many
misconceptions for a variety of reasons.
Below are some of the misconceptions that
MYTH
parents and professionals are most likely to
ABA increases compliance and some other
hold about ABA.
skills but does not address “higher-level”
skills such as play and social skills.
MYTH
ABA is a one-size-fits-all approach.

57
 FACT MYTH
ABA can be used to build skills in all areas, An intensive ABA program is a guarantee
including abstract thought and social skills. that a child will be able to enter
Common objectives include reciprocal kindergarten without supports.
conversation, joining a game, and problem-
solving skills.
FACT
MYTH There is a range of outcomes for learners in
ABA results in similar outcomes for all intensive ABA intervention. Some children
individuals with autism. enter into inclusive settings part-time and
still receive some specialized instruction in
FACT another setting. Some children continue
Autism is a neurobiological disorder that to need specialized and intensive services
is evident in a person’s behavior. ABA can in a full day program. Other children enter
significantly impact a person’s behavior into full-time kindergarten settings, but
by teaching him new skills, sometimes require supports such as a shadow (an
to the extent that he can become instructional assistant assigned just to them
indistinguishable from his peers. For the or to several children with special needs) or
majority of individuals with autism who do a speech therapist. And some children do
not “recover,” they do make substantial attend full-time regular education without
progress throughout their lives as a result of supports. Most importantly, while it may be
ABA. tempting to equate a child’s educational
placement with success or failure, it often
is more meaningful to look at a child’s
MYTH progress on multiple dimensions.
There is evidence that other approaches
are just as effective as ABA.
MYTH
FACT Intensive ABA is no longer justified when
According to the information available at children are past pre-school age.
this time, ABA is the only approach with
substantial, documented evidence of its FACT
effectiveness for learners with autism. ABA has received tremendous recognition
Behavior analysts have conducted for the impact at the pre-school level.
systematic research and provided However, it remains the best documented
documented, peer-reviewed evidence of and effective approach for older learners
its effectiveness for thousands of people. as well. This is so because it is a science
In addition, the documentation of ABA’s based on the principles of human behavior,
effectiveness covers many types of which span all age and ability ranges.
interventions, age groups, and skill levels.
The proponents of other approaches have
limited or no objective data to demonstrate MYTH
improvement for learners with autism. ABA consists mostly of compliance training,
resulting in children who are resistant to

58 Myths & Facts

learning and tantrum to escape learning privileges. If punishment procedures
situations. are used, they should be done so very
cautiously, with full consent of parents,
FACT and with procedural safeguards to
Historically, compliance training was used ensure benefit to the individual. Using
a great deal in ABA. We now know much behavior reduction procedures without
more about how to motivate behavior, and informed consent and documented
compliance is gained in many positive effectiveness is unacceptable. All
ways. In a good ABA program, children parents should find out how their child’s
are very fond of their instructors, eagerly behavior is addressed and discuss the
anticipate learning, and enjoy their procedures for which you would and
instructional time. would not provide consent. For more
information on guidelines for the use of
behavior reduction procedures, please
MYTH see Autism New Jersey’s Position
ABA uses a lot of punishment. Statement on the Use of Restrictive
Procedures within Comprehensive
FACT Behavior Support Plans (see resource
This is a very serious issue and will be section). This position statement
answered in two parts. advocates for the extinction or limited
a. Punishment is NEVER used as part use of punishment procedures.
of a teaching program. ABA always It outlines extensive procedural
uses items and activities that motivate safeguards for the safe and effective
learners to participate in instruction. use of punishment procedures within
Increasing appropriate behavior is the the contexts of behavior plans and crisis
major focus of all ABA programs. management, should they be deemed
necessary by a treatment team. While
b. When an individual exhibits challenging clinicians and legislators continue to
behaviors that place the individual or discuss the merits of regulating such
others in danger, a treatment team procedures as a component of a plan
must carefully and effectively respond or crisis management, the individual’s
to reduce the behavior. Comprehensive rights and safety are primary concerns.
positive behavioral supports (see
page 41) should be utilized to the
fullest extent to reduce dangerous MYTH
behavior through assessment and ABA is limited to one or a few specific
positive interventions. Most of the time, strategies, such as Discrete Trial
positive approaches sufficiently reduce Instruction.
the dangerous behavior. The use of
punishment procedures is a last resort. FACT
Most punishment procedures are ABA incorporates many strategies to
consistent with techniques that parents improve people’s abilities and quality
use with typically developing children of life. Sometimes these strategies are
such as verbal reprimands and loss of grouped together by practitioners and

Myths & Facts 59

 given a specific name. On a similar note,
the procedures used at particular schools
are sometimes labeled the same name as
the school. Given society’s tendency to put
things into categories, it is important to
keep in mind that every learner with autism
requires an individualized educational
plan. Behavior analysts should use their
knowledge and experience to create and
monitor such a plan. Doing so may require
using a combination of strategies that have
research support. You should proceed with
caution with any professional who knows
only one set of strategies or “brand” of
ABA.

MYTH
All professionals are created equal and all
explain ABA in the same way.

FACT
All professionals do not receive equivalent
training. In fact, there is some variability
in the training of behavior analysts and
even greater variability in the training of
behavioral “consultants.” Be wary of taking
one professional’s perspective. Obtain a
second opinion, if necessary. In terms of
using the same terminology, many behavior
Resources analysts do. However, there are many
examples of similar strategies with different
Association of Professional Behavior names and slightly different components.
Analysts. (2009). The use of restraint Hopefully, this book will make these
and seclusion as interventions for
similarities and differences more clear. (For
dangerous and destructive behaviors.
Available at more information on the qualifications and
www.apbahome.net. credentialing of behavior analysts, please
see chapter 10.)
Autism New Jersey. (2010). Position
statement on the use of restrictive
procedures within comperhensive
behavior support plans. Robbinsville,
NJ: Author. Available at
www.autismnj.org.

60 ABA as a Profession
 Summary

ABA is a powerful teaching technology change over time. Assessment is the

for learners with autism. During the past first step in every ABA endeavor and
several decades, it has become more remains a constant presence in every
sophisticated and more complex. There are program. Assessment is not a one-shot
a wide variety of instructional strategies, deal but instead a regular feature in the
each of which has a distinct purpose and ABA process.
unique advantages. A comprehensive ABA
2. A link between assessment and
program addresses the range of deficits
intervention: Intervention is guided by
that learners exhibit and utilizes a wide
assessment and is individualized to the
array of these instructional strategies. All
learner’s unique needs.
of the strategies discussed in this book are
compatible and can be included together in 3. Data-based decision making: Data are
a comprehensive intervention package. collected and analyzed to evaluate
how a learner is doing on a particular
program. Decisions about what to do
What makes it ABA? next are determined by rate of progress
Regardless of which instructional strategy and other objective indicators of
is being used, the following elements progress, not on someone’s impression
characterize an ABA program. or pre-determined criteria.

1. Assessment: Behavior analysts conduct 4. Dynamic and responsive programming:

a thorough initial assessment and The constant data collection
continual assessment of behavior and analysis allows for dynamic
programming. Learners should not

61
 be distressed, fail to attain skills, or What is the message?
exhibit increasing rates of challenging
behaviors. Such problems signal to The goal of ABA intervention is to
the behavior analyst that a change in build socially significant behaviors in
instruction is warranted. a meaningful way and to a meaningful
degree. The broad array of ABA
5. Social significance: The issues
interventions helps us accomplish this
addressed should be socially
important goal. Generalization and
significant; they should make real
spontaneity are essential components of
differences in the lives of people served
successful intervention. The ultimate goal
and should increase their access to
is the demonstration of skills in natural
rewarding activities. At its core, ABA
contexts leading to richer personal and
is focused on helping people make
social experiences.
meaningful progress.

62 Summary
 Resource Section
Organizations
The Association for Behavior Analysis The Association of Professional Behavior
International (ABAI) Analysts (APBA)
www.abainternational.org www.apbahome.net
t
Autism Special Interest Group
t
Parent-Professional Partnership Special Autism New Jersey
Interest Group www.autismnj.org
t
State, Regional, and International
Chapters of ABA Behavior Analyst Certification Board
(BACB)
The Association for Science in Autism www.bacb.com
Treatment (ASAT)
www.asatonline.org The Cambridge Center for Behavioral
Studies
The Association for Positive Behavior www.behavior.org (Autism link)
Support
www.apbs.org Organization for Autism Research (OAR)
www.researchautism.org

List of Peer-Reviewed Journals

While not an exhaustive list, the following t
Journal of Applied Behavior
journals are well-regarded sources of ABA Analysis
information. Publication in these journals t
Journal of the American Academy
involves a process known as peer review in of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry
which a study is evaluated, critiqued, and t
Journal of Autism and
eventually determined to be scientifically and Developmental Disorders
clinical valuable by a group of experts. t
Journal of the Association for
t
Analysis and Intervention in People with Severe Handicaps
Developmental Disabilities t
Journal of Consulting and Clinical
t
Analysis of Verbal Behavior Psychology
t
Autism t
Journal of Positive Behavior
t
Behavioral Interventions Interventions
t
Behavior Therapy t
Research in Developmental
t
Child and Family Behavior Therapy Disabilities
t
Focus on Autism and Developmental
Disorders

63
 References
Association of Professional Behavior skills to children with special needs (4th ed.).
Analysts. (2009). The use of restraint and Baltimore, MD: Brookes Publishing.
seclusion as interventions for dangerous
and destructive behaviors. Available at Barlow, D. H., & Hersen, M. (1984). Single-
www.apbahome.net. case experimental designs: Strategies for
studying behavior change (2nd ed.). New
Autism New Jersey. (2010). Kids booklet on York, NY: Pergamon.
autism. Robbinsville, NJ: Author. Available at
www.autismnj.org. Binder, C. (1996). Behavioral fluency:
Evolution of a new paradigm. The Behavior
Autism New Jersey. (2010). Position Analyst, 19, 163-197.
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68 Myths & Facts

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