WORLD WAR ONE/FIRST WORLD WAR/GREAT WAR

1. Background
2. Causes of WW1 : Long term causes
Short term causes
3. Course of WW1
4. Results of WW1 : Social Results
Economic Results
Political Results
BACKGROUND
- World War one was a global war centred in Europe which started on 28 July 1914 and
lasted until 11 November 1918.
- It was predominantly called World War One or The Great War from its occurrence
until the start of World War Two in 1939, and the First World War thereafter.
- It involved all the world’s great powers which were assembled in two opposing
alliances: the Allied Powers/ Allies ( based on the Triple Entente of Britain , France
and Russia) and the Central Powers (originally the Triple Alliance of Germany, Italy
and Austria – Hungry.)
- These alliances both re-organized (Italy fought for the Allies) and expanded as more
nations entered the war.
- Ultimately, more than 70 million military personnel, including 60million Europeans,
were mobilized in one of the largest wars in history.
- More than 9 million combatants were killed, mainly because of technological
advancements that led to enormous increases in the lethality of weapons without
corresponding improvements in protection or mobility.
- World War one subsequently paved the way for various political changes, such as
revolutions in many of the nations involved.

Long Term Causes of World War One

- In order to have a full appreciation of the outbreak of the Great War in 1914, it is vital
to briefly examine the existing or prevailing social and political conditions that
created a war situation in the world.

1. First Moroccan Crisis, 1905

- Problems started when Britain recognized French ambitions in Morocco as part of

the Entente Cordiale Agreement of 1904.
- The Entente Cordiale was an agreement between Britain and France in which
Britain recognized French interests in Morocco and France recognized British
interests in Egypt.
- The Entente Cordiale was not a military agreement.
- As soon as the Kaiser gained information of the secret clause on Morocco, which
meant exclusion of German interests in Morocco, strong diplomatic pressure was
brought to bear on France.
- The Kaiser visited Tangier in 1905 and assured the Sultan that Germany would
support the independence of Morocco and did not intend to recognize any other
agreement.
- Kaiser demanded the calling of a European conference on Morocco.
- The conference was held at Algeciras, Spain in 1906.

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2. SECOND MOROCCAN CRISIS/ PANTHER CRISIS OF 1911

- Moroccan tribes rebelled against the Sultan in Morocco.

- In May 1911, claiming that Algeria was endangered by disorder in Morocco;
French troops occupied FEZ which was under attack from nomadic tribes.
- FEZ was the capital of Morocco at that time.
- Germany denounced the French move as illegal according to the Algeciras
conference.
- In July 1911, a German gunboat, the Panther was sent to Agadir (a port in
Morocco), on the grounds that German interests were in danger.
- Germany claimed that she was protecting her interests in Morocco and demanded
all of French Congo as compensation.
- For a time, feelings were so high that war between France and Germany seemed
possible.
- German action excited British opinion as Agadir was close to Gibraltar.
- Britain immediately sided with France in the crisis.
- British fleet was prepared for action.
- This forced Germany to withdraw embarrassed, as it was clearly a French victory.
(A diplomatic defeat for Germany and a diplomatic victory for France.)
 An agreement was reached whereby France was recognized as giving a
protectorate over Morocco but in return the German Cameroons were enlarged by
two substantial slices from the French Middle Congo.

3. BOSNIAN CRISIS OF 1908

- In 1908 there was the Young Turks revolt against the Turkish Sultan.
- Austria- Hungry took advantage of the political instability and annexed Bosnia
and Herzegovina, the two provinces she had been administering since 1818.
- This was a blow to Serbia which was encouraging Slav nationalism and wanted to
acquire the two provinces which had three million Serbs.
- Serbia wanted to create a South Slav State i.e. Yugoslavia.
- Serbia appealed for help from fellow Slavs.
- Serbia mobilized her army against Austria- Hungary.
- Russia called for a European conference and expected support from Britain and
France.
- Russia mobilized in support of Serbia
- Germany declared that she would assist Austria- Hungary military if she was
attacked.
- Russia alone could not fight Austria because she had not fully recovered from the
defeat in the Russo- Japanese war of 1904 to 1905.
- When it became clear that Germany would support Austria, Russia demobilized.
- The crisis increased the tension between Serbia and Austria- Hungary.
- Austria- Hungary kept Bosnia and Herzegovina.
- It humiliated Russia as well.
- The Bosnian Crisis led to the formation of the famous terrorist group, Black
Hand or Union of Death.

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4. ALLIANCE SYSTEMS

- An alliance is an agreement made between two or more countries to give each

other help if it is needed.
- When an alliance is signed, those countries are known as Allies.
- A number of alliances had been signed by countries between 1879 and 1914.
- These were important because they meant that some countries had no option but
to declare war if one of their allies declared war first.
- A number of examples are gives below to explain the concept of alliances.

Dual Alliance of 1879

- Germany and Austria- Hungary made an alliance to protect themselves from
Russia.

Austro-Serbia Alliance of 1881

- Austria- Hungary made alliance with Serbia to stop Russia from gaining control of
Serbia.

1882 Triple Alliance

- Germany and Austria- Hungary made an alliance with Italy to stop Italy from
taking sides with Russia.

Franco-Russian Alliance of 1894

- Russia formed an alliance with France to protect herself against Germany and
Austria- Hungary.

Entente Cordiale of 1904

- This was an agreement but not a formal alliance, between France and Britain.

Triple Entente of 1907

- This was made between Russia, France and Britain to counter the increasing threat
from Germany.

Triple Entente of 1914

- Britain, France and Russia agreed not to sign for peace separately.

- By 1914, Europe had been divided into two antagonistic camps namely the
Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria and Italy and the Triple Entente of Britain,
France and Russia.
- Without the alliances, probably the quarrel between Austria and Serbia would
not have degenerated into a world war due to two possible reasons :
i) Serbia was so small and much weaker than Austria- Hungry that she could
have been crushed.
ii) Serbia could have accepted the whole ultimatum sent by Austria after the
Sarajevo incident and war would have been avoided.

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 - However, this was not possible because each little or small power was in one
way or the other allied to one of the major powers which were in turn members
of either the Triple Alliance or Triple Entente.
- This implied or meant that a conflict between a small power supported by the
Triple Alliance and another small power with the backing of the Triple Entente
would suck in the major powers from the opposite sides.

5. COLONIAL RIVALRY/ COLLISIONS IN AFRICA AND THE FAR EAST/

IMPERIALISM

- Imperialism is when a country takes over new lands or other countries and makes
them subject to their rule.
- By 1900, the British Empire had extended over five continents and France had
control over larger areas of Africa.
- With the rise of industrialism, countries needed new markets.
- The amount of land owned by Britain and France increased the rivalry with
Germany who had entered the scramble to acquire colonies late and only acquired
small areas of Africa.
- Several conflicts between major powers over colonies contributed to the
heightening of international tension as was shown by the following notable
examples.
i) The Russo-Japanese conflicts in China of 1905
ii) The conflict over Morocco between France and Germany (1905 and 1911)
iii) Austria –Hungary clashed with Russia over the Balkans.
- In all the above examples international tension was worsened and therefore
imperialism played a pivotal/ crucial role in causing the outbreak of the First
World War.

6. MILITARY RIVALRY/ MILITARISM

- Military means that military forces are given a high profile by the government OR
military personnel have a high level of influence on ideas of the government or
policies of a country/state.
- For the purpose of power and prestige, and for the defence of nationalism and
imperialism, nations developed large armies and navies.
- The growing European divide had led to an arms race between the main countries.
- The armies of both France and Germany had more than doubled between 1870
and 1914 and there was fierce competition between Britain and Germany for the
control and mastery of the Seas.
- The British had introduced the Dreadnought, an effective battleship, in 1906.
- The Germans soon followed suit introducing their own battleships.
- Germany had emerged from its wars of unification in 1870 with the largest and
strongest army in Europe, and this army was retained not only to defend the new
nation from possible attack, especially from defeated France, but also as a symbol
of German greatness.
- Other countries followed suit and by the start of the 19 th century, European
Nations possessed larger peacetime armies than at any other stage in history.
- Many people across the world were eager to let the rest of the world know how
strong and important their country was.

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 - Compulsory military training was typical of all countries and vast amounts of
money were being spent annually on armaments.
- German, Russian and Italian defence expenditure rose thrice in twenty years
before the war broke out while that of Britain and Austria more than doubled.
- France also increased her expenditure.
- By 1914, there were over three and half a million soldiers in Europe and millions
more were trained reserves.
- As each country tried to ensure its own security by increasing the size of the
army, the nervous tensions grew and the danger/ possibility of war grew
- The Schlieffen plan drawn up by the Germany Army chief of staff, Von
Schlieffen, involved attacking France through Belgium if Russia made an attack
on Germany.
- The plan, first approved in 1905 and modified in 1911 by von Moltek, assumed
that France would automatically join Russia, so that the bulk of German forces
were to be sent through Belgium to knock out France in Six weeks.

THE SCHLIEFFEN PLAN IN DETAIL

- The plan aimed at capturing Paris, the French capital in very short space of time
before returning to Russia after 39 days only.
- The plan of attack was called the Schlieffen plan.
- It was revised in 1905.
- Germany troops were to march through Belgium within twelve days.
- The plan was devised in such a way as to avoid fighting on two fronts.
- The plan aimed at capturing Brussels, the Belgian capital within 19 days.
- Germany soldiers were to occupy channel ports in order to prevent the landing of
British reinforcements.
- It was aimed at preventing the invasion of Alsace – Lorraine.
- The plan was to concentrate an overwhelming proportion of their forces in the
west to knock out France and then turn east to deal with Russia.
- German superiority in numbers, organization, training and equipment carried all
before it.

7. NATIONALISM

- Nationalism means the desire to achieve political independence, especially by a

country under foreign control or by a people with a separate identity and culture
but no state of their own.
- The congress of Vienna, held after Napoleon’s exile, aimed at sorting out
problems in Europe.
- Delegates from Britain, Austria, Prussia and Russia (the winning allies) decided
upon a new Europe that left both Germany and Italy as divided states.
- Strong nationalist elements led to the re-unification of Italy in 1861 and Germany
in 1871.
- The settlement at the end of the Franco – Prussian war left France angry at the
loss of Alsace – Lorraine.
- Large areas of both Austria- Hungary and Serbia were home to different
nationalist groups, all of whom wanted freedom from the states in which they
lived.

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 8. THE NAVAL RACE

- The only country that was not involved in the race to build up armies was Britain
- The British had always relied on their navy to defend their islands from foreign
attack, and ever since Drake had defeated the Spanish Armada some three and half
centuries earlier, the British Navy had been the almost unquestioned “mistress of
the seas.”
- However, the German colonial ambitions required the development and growth of
a strong navy to support them and the growth of the German Navy after 1897
was regarded by Britain as a direct threat to her sea power.
- Believing that, for her safety, her navy needed to be as large as the combined
fleets of any two European powers, Britain embarked on a vast ship building
programme.
- She developed a new type of battleship called the “Dreadnought” with such
strength and firepower that no other ship could come within range of it without
being blown out of water.
- When the Germans began to build a similar type of ship, the naval race developed
in earnest.
- The British believed that the only reason for the greatest military nation in the
world to build a great navy was because it intended to use the army outside
Europe.
- In 1912, to offset the growing German naval threat, Britain agreed to defend the
North Sea while France safeguarded the interests of both countries in the
Mediterranean.
- It was not likely that international competition in the building of navies would in
itself cause a war but as European nations devoted increasing sums of money to
military expenditure and were obviously becoming increasingly more prepared for
war, the actual danger of the war also increased.

SHORT TERM CAUSE(S) OF WORLD WAR ONE

- The First World War began in August 1914.

- It was directly triggered by the assassination of the Austrian Archduke, Francis
Ferdinand who was heir to the Austro- Hungarian throne together with his
pregnant wife, Sophie.
- They had three children.
- Francis Ferdinand was, however, very unpopular because he had made it clear
that once he became Emperor he would make drastic changes to the Empire.
- Austria had annexed Bosnia in 1908, a move that was not popular with Bosnian
people as about 3 million of them were Serbs.
SARAJEVO INCIDENT OF 28 JUNE 1914
- Francis Ferdinand decided to visit Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia and
Herzegovina, to make an inspection of the Austro- Hungarian troops there.
- The inspection was scheduled for 28 June 1914.
- It was planned that Francis Ferdinand and his wife Sophie would be met at the
station and be taken by car to the city Hall where they would have lunch before
going to inspect the troops.

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- A Serbian terrorist group, called the Black Hand or Union of Death, had met and
decided that the Archduke should be assassinated and the planned visit provided
the ideal opportunity.
- Seven young men who had been trained in bomb throwing and marksmanship
were stationed along the route that Francis Ferdinand’s car would follow from the
city Hall to the inspection centre.
- The first two terrorists were unable to throw their grenades because the streets
were too crowded and the car was travelling quite fast
- The third terrorist, a young man called Cadrinovic, threw a grenade which
exploded under the car following that of the Archduke.
- Although the Archduke and his wife were unhurt, some of his attendants were
injured and had to be taken to hospital.
- After lunch, at the city hall, Francis Ferdinand insisted on visiting the injured
attendants in hospital.
- However, on the way to hospital, the driver took a wrong turn.
- Realizing his mistake, he stopped the car and began to reverse and this is when all
hell broke loose.
- Another terrorist named Gavrillo Princip; again a member of Black Hand, an anti-
Austrian organization allegedly sponsored by Serbia, stepped forward and fired
two shots.
- The first shot hit the pregnant Sophia in the stomach, she died almost instantly.
- The second shot hit the Archduke in the neck, and he died a short while later.
- Gavrillo Princip was arrested but was not executed because he was under 20
years.
- He was sentenced to twenty years in prison where he died of tuberculosis (TB) in
1918.
- After the assassination of the Archduke and his wife, Austria sent an ultimatum
(final demand) to Serbia which had three demands namely:
i) Serbia was to suppress all anti- Austrian terrorist organizations including
Black Hand.
ii) Serbian police were to investigate the murder of the Archduke and his
wife.
iii) Austrian officials were to be allowed to enter Serbia to make sure the first
two demands were carried out.
- The Austrian chancellor welcomed the assassination as an excuse for war against
Serbia by claiming that the Serbian government had planned the assassination
though there was no evidence to show involvement of the Serbian government.
- Serbia accepted the first two demands and rejected the third one.
- Serbia offered to take part in an international conference to settle outstanding
differences with Austria hence failing to meet demands of the ultimatum.
- Austria, with the promise of Germany support (blank cheque), declared war on
Serbia on 28 July 1914
- The Russians, anxious not to let Serbia down ordered a general mobilization on 29
July 1914.
- The German government demanded Russia to cancel mobilization on 31 July
1914 and when Russia refused to comply, Germany declared war on Russia on 1
August 1914. France mobilized in support of Russia.
- Germany declared war on France on 3August 1914.

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 - All these declarations of war signalled the start/ beginning of the Great War.
- The war was to have profound effects on the future of the world.
COURSE OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR
Battle Fronts/War Fronts
Battle Front Countries Involved
Western Front Britain, France, Belgium and USA Vs
Germany
Eastern Front Russia Vs Germany and Austria-Hungary
Balkan Front Romania, Serbia, Albania, Montenegro,
Greece, Russia, Britain and France Vs
Bulgaria, Turkey and Austria-Hungary
Gallipoli Britain and France Vs Turkey
Middle East Britain, France and India Vs Jordan and
Turkey

Major Battles
Western Front Eastern Front Other battles
Marne Tannenberg Gallipoli
Ypres Masurian lakes Carporetto
Verdun Brusilov offensive Isonzo
Somme Lemberg
Arras Jutland
Mons
Ludendorff offensive

Weapons Used During First World War

Tanks, Poison gas, Machine guns, U-boats/ Submarines, Zeppelins/aeroplanes, Depth
chargers, Hydrophones, Dreadnoughts, Howitzers, torpedos, grenades /bombs and mines.

Army leaders during the First World War

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 Britain Germany Russia: France: USA
Admiral Jellicoe General General Brusilov General Foch General
Hindenburg Pershing
Admiral General General General Joffre
Craddock Falkenhayen Samsasonov
Admiral Sturdee General General Petain
Ludendorff
Winston General Moltke General Galieni
Churchill
Lord Kitchener General Sanders General Serrail
Douglas Haig Admiral Scheer
(Field Marshal).
Admiral Speer.

The Schlieffen Plan

 It was a war plan designed by German General Chief of Staff by the name Count
Alfred Von Schlieffen.
 The assumptions behind the plan:
(a) In any future war Germany would fight against France and Russia.
(b) Russian mobilization would be slow.
(c) France will be defeated and make peace within 6 weeks.
(d) Germany to face Russia after the capitulation or surrender of France.
(e) Belgium will be overrun or defeated easily.

Aims of the Schlieffen Plan

 To attack France through Belgium and Luxembourg.
 To fight both France and Russia in any future war.
 To avoid a two front war (Western front and Eastern front).
 To capture Paris in 6 weeks.
 To face Russia after the defeat of France.
 To ensure a quick victory in the Western front.
 To occupy channel ports in order to prevent landing of British reinforcements.
 To attack Paris from the west or rear.
 To fight Russia for 6 months in the Eastern front.
 Germany to be offensive or strike France first.

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Design/Frame work of the Schlieffen plan
 Seven divisions or battalions of Germany army would attack or invade France through
Belgium and Luxembourg.
 These forces were to be deployed on the basis of their strength.
 The extreme right wings of the 7th and 6th divisions were to be the strongest.
 The effectiveness of the plan was based on:
(a) Germany’ superiority in numbers, organization, training and equipment.
(b) The effective use of railway lines to move troops.
 A large army of Germany (3 – 7 battalions) would attack France in a pincer or
hammer formation.
 These battalions would make a flanking attack on Paris from the rear.
 Germany commanders in the flanking attack were to keep regular contacts with their
central command.
 The army would receive regular supplies of food and ammunition.
 Germany forces were expected to conquer France in 6 weeks.
 The flanking attacking battalions were expected to establish free zones and deploy
armies of occupation in defeated areas.
 The weaker battalions (1st and 2nd divisions) were to attack France first.
 These battalions were to engage French armies on the Franco-Germany boundary at
the Alps Mountains.
 They were also expected to keep the French armies on that war front engaged until
Germany Flanking battalions attacked them from the rear.

Outbreak of the war and Implementation of the Schlieffen Plan (How the plan was
used)
 The Schlieffen Plan was put to use by Count Helmuth Von Moltke, the successor of
Von Alfred Schlieffen.
 Moltke used the pincer or hammer attacking formation in the Western front offensive.
 Moltke made the following changes to the Schlieffen Plan:
a. He ordered the rightwing forces not to attack neutral Holland.
b. He strengthened the leftwing of German advance instead of the right wing.
c. Moltke withdrew some German divisions from the Schlieffen Plan attack and
redeployed them to the Eastern front.
d. Germany commanders did not make a flanking attack on Paris instead they
directly advanced towards Paris.
e. He assigned 3 instead of 2 divisions to directly engage through France on the
common Franco-Germany boundary.
f. Germany commanders failed to keep regular contact with German High
Command to keep posted or informed of new changes and new strategies.

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Reasons for the failure of the Schlieffen Plan
 The plan failed to anticipate British entry into the war in defense of Belgium.
 The British Expeditionary Force (BEF) landed in France holding up the German
advance at Mons
 Russia mobilised more quickly.
 Belgium put up stiffer resistance.
 Belgians destroyed railway lines
 German forces in Belgium were weakened when some forces were withdrawn to go
and fight Russia.
 British resistance at Mons gave the French more time to prepare.
 Von Kluck Germany commander in France realized that he could not keep to the
Schlieffen Plan.
 He changed the plan of attack.
 The French and the British checked the Germans at the river Marne.
 Germany was forced to retreat.
 British troops checked German forces at Ypres.
 Heat which affected German soldiers.
 Inadequate supply of resources.
 Fighting the war on two fronts.
 The death of Alfred Von Schlieffen.
 The plan was outdated.
 The plan was leaked to France.
 France had a counter plan called Plan 17.

Successes of the Schlieffen Plan

 German forces were able to advance into enemy zones.
 Germany entered France as far as 24 Km from Paris. They could see the Eiffel
Tower from that point.
 Brussels was captured.
 German forces won early battles in both France and Belgium.
 Germany caused heavy casualties on the Allied powers in the early battles.

Failures of the Schlieffen Plan

 The Germans failed to give a quick blow to Belgium as was planned. The Belgian
resistance held the Germans for 2 weeks.
 France was not conquered in 6 weeks as was planned.
 German soldiers failed to capture channel ports as per plan. The Allied powers
successfully defended these ports.
 German commanders in the flanking attack worked as individuals and failed to keep
regular contact with their central command.

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  German forces lost regular supplies of food and reinforcements.
 Germany fought in two fronts against the principles or dictates of the Schlieffen plan.

Battles in the Western Front

Battle of Marne
 The Germans pursued the Schlieffen plan and marched through Belgium. They
invaded Northern France.
 French armies were forced to retreat.
 The Germans advanced to within 32km of Paris.
 The French launched counter attack on the offensive of Germany.
 Private transport (taxis, personal cars and public buses) was used by the French to
support the war effort.
 French troops under General Joffre and Gallieni stopped the Germans at River Marne
and this was the beginning of the Battle of Marne.
 Business was stopped and schools were closed as the French defended their capital.
 The Germans suffered heavy casualties in this battle.
 The Germans were defeated.
 The Germans were pushed back (about 100km) to River Aisne.
 Moltke resigned.
 Marne battle ended in September 1914.
 The Germans did not surrender instead they dug trenches along the whole Western
Front.

The Trench Warfare

 Trenches were defensive positions dug by Germany and Allied forces.
 They were introduced by the Germans at the end of battle of Marne as a way of
avoiding surrender and continuous retreat against French counter attack.
 Trenches covered the whole of Western Front (stretched from Nieuport through
Ypres, Arras, Sissions and Reins to Verdun).
 Soldiers fought from these trenches.
 Barbed wire was erected on the side facing the enemy.
 The territory between the two trenches was called ‘no man’s land.’
 Trenches resulted in stalemates as neither side could advance.
 Trenches protected soldiers from gunfire explosions of artillery shells.
 Soldiers fought for days and months in order to get a small piece of land.
 Attack and counter attack became the order of the day.
 A gain of a few hundred yards resulted in heavy casualties for the side attempting to
move forward.
 Trenches became soldiers’ ‘homes’ or ‘prisons’.
 Trench warfare lasted for the whole duration of the war.

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  The trenches had the following effects or results:
 Soldiers suffered from trench foot in winter because of standing in water for
days.
 Cavalry tactics (soldiers on horsebacks) were replaced by infantry tactics.
 Many people were killed.
 Many soldiers were injured.
 Food shortages were experienced.
 Soldiers were also affected by frost bite.
 Trenches were hot and dusty in summer.
 Loss of morale as soldiers spent too much time in trenches.
 Trenches were smelly due to rotting corpses, sewage and unwashed bodies.
 War of position replaced war of movement.
 Trenches were infested with lice and rats (‘fat corpse rats’).
 They delayed the war.
 They also caused stalemates (no winner).
 Introduction of new weapons like poisonous gases, war planes and tanks.
 Trenches generated a sense of comradeship or unity among soldiers as they
shared the dangers of war and unpleasant conditions.

Battle of Ypres, 1915

 Germany offensive in Belgium against the Allied Powers.
 Germany wanted to capture the Channel Ports.
 Germany attack did not yield any breakthrough to the Channel Ports.
 British losses were heavy.
 Germany Zeppelins bombed London and Yarmouth.
 As Zeppelins proved easy to shoot down, the Germans started using aeroplanes in
aerial raids over England
 Germany introduced poisonous gas.
 Trenches were introduced at Ypres and stalemate continued in the Western Front.

Battle of Verdun, 1916

 This was an attack or offensive carried out by the Germans in February on France’s
stronghold or fortress of Verdun.
 German offensive was led by Falkenhayn and Moltke.
 The Germans had the following objectives or aims:
a. To release pressure on Marne.
b. To weaken Britain by conquering France.
c. To force France to withdraw her strongest armies from other battle fronts so as
to defend Verdun their military centre.

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 d. To conquer the strongest French armies at Verdun and force her into
surrender.
 The Germans believed that successful drive on Paris lay with the capture of Verdun.
 19 Germany divisions heavily armed with artillery were directed to Verdun by
General Moltke.
 A heavy artillery bombardment of Verdun was started followed by Germany
Infantry.
 The French responded with artillery bombardment.
 Britain rushed to the assistance of France.
 Allied powers (Britain, Russia and Italy) launched new attacks on Germany in order
to reduce pressure on Verdun.
 The French Marshal Petain strongly and successfully defended Verdun.
 The French slogan was ‘we did it at Marne, they shall not pass’.
 The Germans upon realisation that they could not conquer Verdun withdrew their
soldiers from Verdun in June 1916.
 Both sides lost many soldiers.
Battle of Somme (May 1916)
 This was an Allied offensive against Germany on Somme.
 These were a series of attacks by the British on the Germans at Somme.
 These battles were planned and led by the British army under Field Marshal Douglas
Haig.
 Haig conscripted volunteer armies in May 1916.
 This was more of a British undertaking because the French were tied up at Verdun.
 The British had the following aims:
a. To reduce pressure on Verdun.
b. To prevent Germany from sending reinforcements to the Eastern Front.
c. To divide German attention in order to weaken her attack on Verdun.
d. To keep Germany busy so as to tier her and weaken her.
 Germany pumped sewage downhill into the British trenches.
 Somme battles were suicidal because most of them were open field fights. Soldiers
fought mainly on open spaces like valleys and plains.
 Germany lost most of her trained men.
 Britain introduced tanks for the first time.
 Tanks were sent to France disguised as water tankers in order to keep the secret from
Germany.
 Tanks advanced ahead of the infantry, crushing barbed wire defenses and spraying the
enemy with machine gun fire.
 However, tanks had short training before the Somme, some tanks broke down before
reaching the battlefield and others were bogged in mud.
 Tanks were immediately successful but not enough were used to break the deadlock
of the trenches.

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  Somme battles were ended in November 1916.
 Haig stopped these attacks because he was heavily criticized for his volunteer
schemes which caused heavy losses.
 No side claimed victory but the casualties (death and injuries) were high on both
sides.
Battle of Arras, 1917
 The heaviest offensive undertaken by Britain.
 Germany army suffered serious damage.
 The British captured Vimy Ridge which was part of the Hindenburg line.
 Germany was able to hold on and only a few miles were gained by the attackers.
 The French under Neville launched a plan of capturing the immensely fortified
heights to the north of River Aisne (Hindenburg line).
 The French offensive succeeded in capturing most of the heights.
 However, the casualties were so enormous that that the offensive was brought to a
halt.
 Neville offensive was followed by mutinies in the French army.
 Petain who replaced Neville used firing squads to suppress the mutineers.
Eastern Front
 Fighting involved Russia against Austria Hungary and Germany.
 In August 1914 Russia scored early successes in East Prussia and Galacia against
Germany and Austria Hungary respectively.
 The Serbs even managed to recapture their capital Belgrade from the Austrians.
 Germany recalled Hindenburg from retirement and withdrew part of her forces in the
Western Front and redeployed them to the Eastern Front to help Austria Hungary.
 Germans under Hindenburg and Ludendorff defeated the Russians at the battles of
Tanneberg and Masurian Lakes in 1914.
 The Germans followed up these successes by driving the Russian armies out of
Galacia, Lithuania, Colourland and Poland.
 Warsaw, the Polish capital fell to the Germans in August 1915.
 Despite of all these military campaigns, there was a deadlock/stalemate (no winner) in
the Eastern Front because:
a. Russian army was ill equipped and poorly led to break through.
b. Austrian army was inefficient as a result it failed to defeat Serbia to make a
break through.
c. Austria directed most of its troops to fight the Italians.
d. Most of Germany soldiers were fighting in the Western Front.
 In June 1916 the Russians launched the Brusilov offensive.
 The offensive which was led by Brusilov broke the Austrian Front and captured 4000
prisoners and weapons.
 The Brusilov offensive contributed to the collapse of the Austro - Hungarian Empire.
 The Russian success persuaded Romania to join the Allied powers.

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  Rumania attacked Austria.
 Germany intervened and occupied the whole of Romania and seized her wheat and oil
supplies.
 The Socialist Revolution of 1917 in Russia brought a Communist government into
power. This new government ended the war with Germany by a treaty known as
Brest-Litovsk.
 Russia under Brest Litovsk lost her industries and the following territories Estonia,
Latvia, Poland, Lithuania, Ukraine, Georgia and Finland to Germany.

Gallipoli Campaign, 1915

 This was an Allied attack to conquer Turkey.
 The aim was to attack the Central powers from their weakest points (i.e. Turkey &
Austria Hungary) which they called ‘soft underbelly’ of the Central Powers.
 Lloyd George described the campaign as, ‘knocking out the props from under
Germany’.
 Winston Churchill the head of the Royal Navy and Lord Kitchener the commander of
the war effort persuaded the government to attempt an attack on the Dardanelles.
 The Royal Navy was expected to go through the Dardanelles, attack Constantinople
and drive Turkey out of the war.
 The aims of Gallipoli campaign were to:
a. Open a sea route to the Russian Front in order to get supplies to the
Russians.
b. Establish a new front so that the Allied troops could march through the
Balkans and attack Austria Hungary.
c. Reduce pressure on the Russian Front.
 Warships began their assault in March 1915.
 They bombarded the strong forts that lined the straits and made their advance.
 The British and French ships hit mines and were attacked by shells from the forts on
the shore as they entered the straits.
 Three battle cruisers were sunk and others were damaged.
 Allied naval attack on the Dardanelles failed.
 The Allied forces containing Australians and New Zealanders (ANZAC) landed on
the Gallipoli peninsula in April.
 The Allied forces occupied some beaches but some were fiercely defended by the
Turks.
 Both sides lost many soldiers.
 Allied powers failed to capture Constantinople and withdrew from Gallipoli in 1916.
 The failure of this campaign resulted in Bulgaria joining the Central Powers.
 A combined force of Germany, Austria Hungary and Bulgaria defeated Serbia and
Montenegro.
 Allied Powers lost control of the Balkans.

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Problems faced by the Allied Powers on Gallipoli Campaign
 The straits had steep cliffs. This made it difficult to land troops.
 The coasts were bare and windswept with few bays.
 The water ways were mined.
 The land was well defended by troops under Germany command. General Sanders
was in charge of Turkish defense.
 Lack of support from Land based troops/ground forces.
 The Turks had advantage of high ground.
The Balkan campaign
 Allied powers landed in Salonika in Greece in October 1915.
 Their aim was to help Serbia defeat Austria and Bulgaria and then create a new front
against Germany.
 The campaign had the following problems: Russia was not comfortable working with
the Greeks because of their rivalry in the Balkans and Greece was neutral and wanted
to stay out of the war.
 Bulgarian resistance held Allied troops.
 A stalemate developed here again.
 Troops were affected by malaria and dysentery.
 The stalemate was broken in September 1918.
 The Bulgarians were defeated.
War at Sea or Naval Warfare
 This was the fighting in water (Seas & Oceans).
 It was mainly contested by Britain and Germany.
 U.S.A and Japan also took part in naval warfare.
 Some of the naval battles involved:
a. Battle of Falkland Islands.
b. Allied naval blockade.
c. Submarine warfare or German U-boat campaign.
d. Battle of Jutland
 Naval warfare started when Admiral Spee of German Pacific fleet sank and destroyed
a small British Far Eastern Squadron under Admiral Craddock of the Coast of Chile.
 The Royal Navy responded by sending part of its Grand Royal fleet to the Falkan
Islands to revenge the sinking of Far Eastern Squadron by the Germans.
Falkland Island Battle, 1914
 This was part of war at sea fought between Britain and Germany.
 It was planned by the British as a way of revenge for the sinking of British Far
Eastern Squadron by Germany.
 Admiral Sturdee was given the responsibility of carrying out this revenge mission.
 Sturdee took 2 new battle ships and 5 cruisers to Falkland Islands.

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  The Royal Navy used a fake radio signal to trick and lure a Germany fleet to
Falkland Islands.
 Germany Navy under Von Spee arrived to attack the British on the Falkland
Islands.
 The Germans found Falkand Islands fortified by British battleships.
 German fleet turned away and sped off.
 The British pursued them and sank 4 German ships.
 The Germans lost many sailors including Spee.
 Britain later introduced Allied Blockade on Germany.
Allied Blockade or Allied Naval Blockade
 It was the blocking of ships from leaving and entering areas of Central Powers.
 Ships of Central Powers were prevented from leaving Europe and other ships were
prevented from entering the Central Powers.
 It was introduced by the British.
 The aims of Allied Blockade were to:
i. Prevent goods from leaving and entering Central Powers.
ii. Starve the Central Powers.
iii. Enable the Allied powers to get supplies of the war.
iv. Transport British troops to war zones.
v. Keep British troops deployed in France and Belgium well supplied via channel
ports.
 The Royal Navy officials patrolled high seas and regulated ship movements.
 They stopped and inspected all vessels they encountered.
 They captured ships and goods meant for their enemies.
 The British Navy stopped and searched all neutral, military, civilian and cargo ships
which they suspected to be destined for enemy hands.
 Central Powers were deprived of raw materials, war resources and their international
trade was affected.
 Germany responded to this Blockade by introducing Submarine warfare.
Battle of Jutland
 It was a naval clash between Britain and Germany in 1916.
 It happened on Jutland Peninsula in Northern Denmark.
 It was launched by Admiral Von Scheer of Germany.
 He tried to trick the British Grand Fleet to get out of their base.
 He sent Admiral Hipper’s battle cruiser squadron ahead into Jutland Peninsula as bait
on the British Grand Fleet. His assumption was that only a few vessels would come
out at a time.
 Admiral Jellicoe did not buy this trick instead he sent a large number of battle cruisers
to attack the Germans.
 The two sides continuously shelled each other.
 Germany lost 11 ships and 2500 sailors while Britain lost 14 ships and 6000 sailors.
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  The German fleet slipped away to its base at night.
 The fleet remained there until the end of the war.
 Both sides claimed victory.
 Allied blockade continued.
Submarine Warfare or German U-boat Campaign
 It was part of war at sea.
 It was initiated by Admiral Scheer of Germany.
 Germany wanted to cut of British supply lines or to starve Britain by sinking her
merchant ships.
 Germany adopted unrestricted submarine warfare.
 The Germans declared that the seas around the British Isles were a war zone in which
enemy ships would be sunk.
 Germany sunk the British ship Lusitania which was carrying Americans and British
civilian citizens.
 USA protested against German barbarism.
 Germany temporarily stopped the U-boat attacks.
 Germany resumed the unrestricted U-boat campaign in 1916.
 The Germans sank another British ship the Sussex which was carrying American
civilians.
 The Campaign was successful initially as many British ships were sunk.
 The submarine warfare caused food shortages in Britain (Britain was left with only 6
weeks supply of food).
 Consequently, Britain introduced food rationing of the following commodities sugar,
meat, butter, jam, marmalade, tea, coffee and chocolate biscuits.
 Britain used counter methods like use of
i. Convoy system (merchant ships were protected by war ships)
ii. Radar
iii. Depth chargers
iv. Hydrophones
 Britain survived because of an expansion of ship building, American entry and
Japanese naval assistance.
Why USA did joined the war in 1917?
USA joined the war because of the following reasons:
 The sinking of Lusitania and Sussex by Germany.
 Germany resumed unrestricted submarine warfare and sank many American ships.
 American sympathy to the Allied powers.
 The attempts by Germany to seek Mexican help in the fight against USA
In the Zimmermann telegram, Germany persuaded Mexico to declare war on USA so
that on winning the World War 1 Mexico would get Arizona, Texas and New Texas.
 The alleged sabotage of US communication system by German agents in USA.

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  Allied debts to USA. It was feared that if Germany won the war the debts may not be
repaid.
 The Americans condemned Germany as the aggressor and disliked the invasion of
Belgium.
 German militarism was regarded as a threat to democracy.
Ludendorff Offensive, 1918
 It was Germany’s last offensive in the Western Front which was led by General
Ludendorff.
 He wanted to break through the Allied lines before the arrival of American
reinforcements.
 The offensive started with the attack of British lines at Arras.
 Ludendorff started with huge bombardment and gas attacks.
 He followed up with attacks by smaller bands of specially trained and lightly
equipped soldiers.
 He took advantage of the heavy fog along the entire front line.
 The first stages of the onslaught were successful.
 German troops crossed the River Aisne and once again reached the Marne.
 Ludendorff broke through Allied lines in many places.
 German troops were now within 64km of Paris.
 Paris was in the range of gunfire.
 Many of the planned advances were held up as Germans stopped to loot food and
supplies from the captured trenches and villages.
 However, by the time Ludendorff reached Marne he had lost over 50 000 soldiers.
 Problems encountered by Ludendorff included:
(a) Undisciplined army.
(b) Lost many soldiers.
(c) Lost his experienced soldiers.
(d) Food shortages.
(e) Flue epidemic.
(f) Demoralized army.
(g) Lacked reserves or reinforcements.
(h) Mutinies.
 The Allied forces retreated allowing the Germans to stretch themselves and giving
time for the arrival of Americans.
 General Foch was the Allied commander.
 The arrival of 700 000 American troops boosted the Allied forces’ morale and
provided the most valuable reserves.
 The well fed Allied army was supported by tanks, aircraft and improved artillery.
 The big guns with improved accuracy provided smokescreen/cover for attackers.
 The Allied forces pushed the Germans back.
 Germany lost her earlier gains.

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  Germany resistance became hopeless following the defeat of Bulgaria, Austria and
Turkey.
 Mutinies broke out in Germany Navy.
 The Kaiser fled to neutral Holland.
 Germany agreed to an armistice which was signed in November of 1918.

End of the war

Reasons for the defeat of Germany

Germany was defeated because of the following reasons:
1. Failure of the Schlieffen plan

France was not conquered in 6 weeks as was planned. The Belgians put up a stiffer
resistance and delayed the Germans. Russia mobilized more quickly and Germany
was forced to fight on two fronts. Above all, the coming in of Britain to the aid of
Belgium was not envisaged (considered) in the plan. These developments weakened
German attack.

2. Allied Powers were more in numbers

This meant more weapons, food, soldiers and war ideas.

3. A joint Allied High command

The Allied powers joined their troops under one command in 1918. This gave them a
unified strategy and improved the discipline of the troops. Their defense and offense
was synchronized.

4. Failure of U-boat campaign

The unrestricted submarine warfare failed to destroy Britain and instead it brought
USA into the war. The anti-submarine devices and the convoy system effectively
protected Allied shipping.

5. The entry of USA into the war in 1917

The USA helped to effect naval blockade on Germany.
It brought loans, food, weapons and fresh soldiers to the Allied powers. This gave
them a morale boost.
USA boosted the resources of the Allied powers at a time when the German
resources were almost exhausted.

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 6. The Allied Blockade
The Allied Powers successfully blocked ships from Central Powers from leaving and
entering Central Powers. This caused food shortages and lack of war supplies and
raw-materials to the Central Powers while the Allied Powers were fully supplied. As
a result, Germany lost her international markets and her army was weakened.

7. Weak Allies
Germany was constantly called to the aid of her allies. This reduced her impact
against her enemies in the Western front and Eastern front.

8. Collapse of Turkish Empire

 Turkey directed her attention to fighting her own subjects and this denied Germany
maximum support.

9. Collapse of Austria- Hungarian Empire

This deprived Germany of manpower and resources.

10. Failure of Ludendorff Offensive

Germans abandoned the trenches and stretched their manpower. Many experienced
soldiers were lost by Germany in this campaign.

11. The defeat of Germany allies

Austria-Hungary, Turkey and Bulgaria were all defeated in 1918 and this weakened
Germany’s fighting spirit

12. Naval mutiny in 1918

German naval mutiny spread to other military groups and this weakened the morale
of the army.

13. Social unrest in Germany, 1918

There was a revolution in Germany and this weakened the war effort.

14. Germany fought on many fronts

Germany and her allies fought the war on many fronts and this strained and
overstretched their resources.

15. Competence of Allied war time leaders.

The Allied war time leaders (Lloyd George & George Clemenceau) were good
leaders whose speeches and guidance inspired their nations to victory while the
erratic Kaiser caused a mutiny.

16. Abdication of the Kaiser

This killed the morale of the army. The new government was prepared to negotiate
for peace.

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 Results of the First World War
Social Results
The First World War had the following social results:

- Many people lost their lives.

- Many people were wounded.
- Some people were declared missing.
- Number of orphans increased.
- Increase in single parent headed families.
- Many soldiers and war victims suffered from stress.
- Shortage of basic commodities like bread, cooking oil e.t.c.
- Strikes and demonstrations in Germany and Italy.
- Homelessness.
- Breakdown of the family system.
- Recognition of women’s rights i.e. voting and admission into professions.
- Change of attitudes towards women (gained men’s respect).
- Advance in medicine for example new drugs and new surgery methods were
introduced.
- Starvation and diseases.
- War eroded class barriers. Different classes fought alongside each other and
developed oneness.

Political Results
The political results of the First World War included the following:

- Defeat of the central powers

- Collapse of four empires and their monarchies
Empire Monarch/Dynasty
Russia Romanov
Germany Hohenzollern
Turkey Ottoman
Austria Hapsburg

- Signing of peace treaties with defeated powers

- Creation of new states e.g. Poland, Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, Lithuania, Estonia,
Finland and Latvia.
- Rise of extremist parties e.g. Nazis in Germany, Fascists in Italy and Communists in
Russia.
- Development of new ideologies e.g. Communism in Russia, Fascism in Italy, Nazism
in Germany e.t.c.
- Creation of League of Nations.

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 - Abdication of the Kaizer of Germany.
- Establishment of democratic governments in Germany and Austria i.e. the fall of
monarchism.
- Rise of banditry especially by demobilised soldiers.
- Emergence of USA as a super power.
- Growth of republican governments (democratic governments) e.g. in Italy, Germany,
Czechoslovakia & Yugoslavia.
- Growth of dictators in Italy and Germany.
- Spread of nationalism outside Europe e.g. in India, Middle East and Africa.

Economic Results
The First World War had the following economic results or effects:

- War gave commercial advantage to the industrialised nations outside Europe e.g.
Japan and USA.
- America got a large share of world trade and became greatest creditor nation.
- European countries had a huge war debt.
- High taxation on Europeans.
- Destruction of infrastructure i.e. industries, bridges, roads.
- High inflation in Germany and Italy.
- Boom in the USA.
- Technological advancement e.g. internal combustion engines and electric lights were
introduced.
- Communication improved through the use of cars, buses, telephones, aeroplanes and
radios. BBC was established in 1922.
- Mass production of goods.
- Food shortages.
- Payment of reparations by defeated powers.
- Bankruptcy among European countries.
- Countries like India began to build factories of their own instead of depending
European countries.
- Widespread unemployment in Europe soon after the war.

Positive Results Of The War

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The world benefited the following from the war:

- Advances in medicine.
- Mass production of many goods.
- Liberation of women (i.e. right to vote, equal opportunities, family planning became
accessible and gained men’s respect).
- Created employment for soldiers in industries which manufactured armaments.
- War speeded up technological advancements.
- Made people realise the need to maintain peace and use diplomacy and negotiations to
get over crises.
- Creation of the League of Nations.
- Self-determination (independence) was given to minority groups e.g. Yugoslavia,
Czechoslovakia, and Finland.
- Improved communication.
- Eroded class barriers.

Negative Results Of The First World War

The First World War created the following problems:

- Many people died.

- Many people were either wounded or missing.
- Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) among the soldiers and war victims.
- Starvation and diseases.
- Europe became poor.
- Destruction of infrastructure.
- Reparations ruined economies of defeated powers.
- Demobilisation created unemployment and a high rate of criminals.
- Homelessness.
- Orphans increased.
- Strike and demonstrations.
- Rise of dictators.
- Left most European countries bankrupt.
- A lot of wealth was wasted.

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