Math 450/550 Introduction to Topology

Summer 2011

Richard Blecksmith
 Contents

Chapter 1. Introduction 1
1. Goals of the Course 1
2. Rules of the Course 2

Chapter 2. Distance 3
1. Intuitive Notions 3
2. Distance in the plane 3
3. General Definition of Distance 4

Chapter 3. Metric Space Topology 7

1. Set Theory 7
2. Open and Closed Sets 8
3. Connectedness 11
4. Topology of the real numbers 12
5. Compactness 13
6. Functions 13
7. Continuity 14
8. Arcwise connected 14
9. Topological Equivalence 15

Chapter 4. General Topology 17

1. Introduction 17
2. Definitions and Examples 17
3. Base for a topology 18
4. Cartesian products and product spaces 19
5. Subspaces 19
6. Neighborhood, Interior, Exterior, and Boundary 20
7. Accumulation points 21
8. Separation axioms and Hausdorff spaces 21
9. Sequences and Convergence 22
10. Continuity and Homeomorphism 22
11. Compactness 23
iii
iv CONTENTS

12. Connectedness 24
13. Continuum 26
14. Number Theory and Topology 27
 CHAPTER 1

Introduction

1. Goals of the Course

Since mathematics is a useful tool in everyday life and in many academic fields, it is taught
in elementary courses in terms of its applications. Indeed most people think that mathematics is
synonymous with applications of mathematics, such as balancing a check book, finding the area
of a field, computing the stress on a beam, or determining the orbit of a satellite. These are
examples of using mathematics to solve problems in other disciplines. They are not problems in
mathematics itself. The view that applied mathematics is all of mathematics is no more a true
picture of mathematics than it would be to think that commercial art is all of art. What, then, is
mathematics? One of the goals of this course is to provide you with a clearer answer to this question.

A real mathematician is not just a user of mathematics, but is also an inventor of mathematics.
This course will give you a glimpse of the work of a mathematician. You will invent your own
proofs to the many theorems stated in the notes. You will discover your own counter-examples and
solutions to the various questions and problems. This course requires you to actively participate at a
level beyond that assumed in an ordinary course. In a standard course, the homework done outside
of class reinforces the material presented in lectures or in the text. In this class, however, student
generated proofs form the foundation of the course. Just as a music student could not possibly learn
how to play an instrument by listening to someone else play, you cannot become a mathematician
merely by seeing another person’s proofs. To draw another analogy, this time from sports, the only
way to learn to catch a baseball is to put on a glove and play catch. In this course we play ball in a
game called topology, using the rules of logic.

1
2 1. INTRODUCTION

2. Rules of the Course

There are five golden rules:

1. Members of the class will present their own proofs at the board. It is the job of the rest of the
class to spot any errors in the proof being presented. As your instructor—and therefore a member
of the class—I too can give my own proofs. In general, however, I hope to keep the time I spend
in front of the class to a minimum. The more you do on your own, the more you will master this
subject.

2. Other textbooks are forbidden. Proofs to most of the theorems in these notes can be found
in standard textbooks on topology. Please do not give into the temptation to look at them. It will
spoil the problem for you and other students in the class.

3. No outside help. Do not seek answers from faculty members, advanced graduate students, or
other math majors not enrolled in the class. You may talk to me outside of class. Show me what
you’ve done and I might be able to throw you a lifeline.

4. Minimum collaboration. Discussions during class about how to prove the theorems may
naturally continue when class is over. I do not mind limited discussions outside of class, but I do
want you to tackle these problems individually, not as teams.

5. You can leave during a presentation. Suppose you have been working for several days on a
proof, when another student is ready to give a solution in front of the class. If you wish to keep
working on the problem, you may elect to temporarily leave the classroom while the other proof is
presented.
 CHAPTER 2

Distance

1. Intuitive Notions

The concept with which we start the course is distance. Everyone knows what distance is,
however, most people would be hard-pressed to give an adequate definition. Consider the following
examples. The distance from the earth to the moon is 239,000 miles. The distance from San
Francisco to New York is 3025 miles. The distance from Forty-second Street and Broadway to Fifty-
seventh Street and Seventh Avenue in New York City is 11 blocks. We know from geometry class
that the shortest distance between two points is measured along a straight line. Suppose we define
distance to be the shortest distance and consider the previous three examples. In the statement
about the earth and the moon, we certainly mean straight line distance. In the statement about
San Francisco and New York, however, we don’t mean straight line distance, since the straight line
would pass through the earth, making travel along this line unfeasible, to say the least. Distance
between two cities is measured along the earth’s surface. Yet in the statement that it is 11 blocks
from Forty-second and Broadway to Fifty-first and Seventh Avenue, we again don’t mean straight
line distance, nor do we mean the shortest distance on the earth’s surface. We mean instead the
shortest distance if we restrict ourselves to traveling along the network of streets. Thus, in everyday
usage, the meaning of the word distance is not precise, but must be judged from context. Still, the
various meanings of the word distance have certain things in common. The distance from A to B,
for example, is certainly the same as the distance from B to A. The method of the mathematician
is to abstract from the various meanings the essential properties they have in common and then to
take these as the defining properties of distance.

2. Distance in the plane

The usual definition of distance between two points p = (x1 , y1 ) and q = (x2 , y2 ) in the plane is
d1 (p, q) = [(x1 − x2 )2 + (y1 − y2 )2 ]1/2 .

3
4 2. DISTANCE

Questions.

1. What kind of a mathematical entity is distance in the plane?

2. What are some of its important properties?

3. Can you think of some other way of defining distance between two points in the plane besides
the above formula which would satisfy all of the properties you gave in your answer to Question 2?

4. What is the distance between two points p and q in three dimensional space? in n dimensional
space?

5. State some undesirable properties of the following ways of defining “distance” from p = (x1 , y1 )
to q = (x2 , y2 ):

(a) d(p, q) = (x1 , y1 ) (ordered pair)

(b) d(p, q) = (x1 + y1 ) − (x2 + y2 )
(c) d(p, q) = (x1 − x2 ) + (y1 − y2 )
(d) d(p, q) = [(x1 − x2 ) + (y1 − y2 )]2
(e) d(p, q) = the angle in radians between the vectors p and q.

3. General Definition of Distance

Definition 1. Let X be a non-empty set and let R denote the field of real numbers. A function
d : X × X → R is called a distance function or a metric for X if and only if for all a, b, and c in X,
the following properties hold:
(i) d(a, b) ≥ 0
(ii) d(a, b) = 0 if and only if a = b
(iii) d(a, b) = d(b, a) [symmetry]
(iv) d(a, c) ≤ d(a, b) + d(b, c) [triangle inequality].

Notice how general this definition is. It could apply to any non-empty set X, not just to real
numbers or points in the plane. Moreover, different functions d could be be distance functions for the
same set X. For example, instead of the usual definition of distance from p = (x1 , y1 ) to q = (x2 , y2 )
in the plane, we could take
d1 (p, q) = [2(x1 − x2 )2 + 3(y1 − y2 )2 ]1/2 .
 3. GENERAL DEFINITION OF DISTANCE 5

Exercises.

1. Show that the function d1 above is a distance formula.

2. If X = R, the set of real numbers, determine whether or not each of the following functions is a
distance function. Here a and b are real numbers.

(a) d(a, b) = a2 + b2
(b) d(a, b) = |a − b|
(c) d(a, b) = min(|b − a|, 1)
(d) d(a, b) = |a2 − b2 |
(e) d(a, b) = 0 for all a, b.

In each case, find d(−1, 2) and determine the set {a : d(a, 0) = 1}.

3. If X = R2 , the plane, determine whether or not each of the following functions is a distance
function. Here a = (x1 , y1 ) and b = (x2 , y2 ).

(a) d(a, b) = |x1 − x2 | + |y1 − y2 |

(b) d(a, b) = |(x21 + x22 ) − (y12 + y22 )|
(c) d(a, b) = max(|x1 − x2 |, |y1 − y2 |)
(d) d(a, b) = min(|x1 − x2 |, |y1 − y2 |).

In each case, find d((−1, 3), (2, 1)) and determine the set {a : d(a, (0, 0)) = 1}.

4. Determine other metrics for the set of points in the plane.

5. If X is any set, show that the following function is a distance function:

(
0 if a = b
d(a, b) =
1 if a =6 b.
This function is called the discrete metric on X.

6. Let X be the set of continuous functions from the interval [0,1] to the set of real numbers. A
natural way to define the distance d(f, g) between two functions f and g in X is to use the area
between their graphs. Express this area as an integral and show that it satisfies the four properties
of a distance function.

We conclude this chapter with our first

6 2. DISTANCE

Theorem 1. For every a, b, c in X,

|d(a, b) − d(b, c)| ≤ d(a, c).
 CHAPTER 3

Metric Space Topology

If X is any non-empty set and d is a distance function on X, then (X, d), that is, X together
with the function d, is called a metric space. We shall study some of the properties of a metric space
(X, d).

1. Set Theory

The terms “set,” “collection,” and “family” are synonymous. If A is a set, then “x ∈ A” means
that x is an element (or member of A, or that x belongs to A). The notation x 6∈ A indicates x is
not an element of A. Sets A and B are equal, A = B, if and only if they have the same elements.

Curly braces are used for set description. Sets may be specified by listing, for example {1, 2, 3},
{1, 2, 3, . . . }. If P (x) is a proposition about x, {x : P (x)} is the set of exactly those x for which
P (x) is true.

The empty set is denoted by ∅. Generally, we use “set” to mean “nonempty set.”

A set A is a subset of a set B if and only if each element of A is also an element of B. A ⊆ B

means that A is a subset of B.

Sn
Unions of sets are indicated by “∪.” Thus A ∪ B, A ∪ B ∪ C, A1 ∪ A2 ∪ · · · ∪ An , and i=1 Ai
S
denote unions. If A is a family of sets, {A : A ∈ A} is the union of the sets of A:
def
[
{A : A ∈ A} = {x : x ∈ A for some A ∈ A}.
S
The union of a family of sets A is denoted more concisely as A.

Intersections of sets are indicated by “∩,” with usage analogous to those for “∪.” If A is a
family of sets
def
\ \
A= {A : A ∈ A} = {x : x ∈ A for every A ∈ A}.
7
8 3. METRIC SPACE TOPOLOGY

If A and B are sets, A − B = {x : x ∈ A and x 6∈ B}. Thus A − B is a relative difference.

Frequently one speaks of complements of sets. In our discussion, the set X is considered as the
universal set. If A ⊆ X, the complement of A with respect to X is X − A, denoted more simply as
Ac .

Theorem 2 (DeMorgan’s Laws). For any nonempty collection of sets A

(a) (∩A)c = ∪{Ac : A ∈ A}.
(b) (∪A)c = ∩{Ac : A ∈ A}.
Interpret these statements when the collection A consists of two sets A and B.

2. Open and Closed Sets

2.1. -balls.

Definition 2. Let  be a positive real number and let a ∈ X. Then the set
def
B (a) = {x ∈ X : d(a, x) < }

is called an open -ball or just ball about a.

2.2. Interior, Exterior, and Boundary.

Definition 3. Let A be a subset of X. A point a ∈ X is an interior point of A if and only if

there exists an  > 0 such that B (a) ⊆ A. The set of all interior points of A is called the interior
of A and is denoted by Int A.

Definition 4. If A ⊆ X, a point b ∈ X is a boundary point of A if and only if for all  > 0,

B (b) ∩ A 6= ∅ and B (b) ∩ Ac 6= ∅. The set of all boundary points of A is called the boundary of A
and is denoted by Bd A.

Definition 5. If A ⊆ X, a point c ∈ X is an exterior point of A if and only if there exists an

 > 0 such that B (c) ⊆ Ac . The set of all exterior points of A is called the exterior of A and is
denoted by Ext A.

Theorem 3.
(a) Bd A = Bd Ac
(b) Int A = Ext Ac .
 2. OPEN AND CLOSED SETS 9

2.3. Definition of open and closed sets.

Definition 6. A set A ⊆ X is an open set if and only if A ⊆ Int A, that is, every point in A is
an interior point of A.

Definition 7. A set A ⊆ X is a closed set if and only if Bd A ⊆ A, that is, A contains all of
its boundary points.

Problem 4. Give an example of a set A in a metric space X which is neither open nor closed.

Theorem 5. For every set A,

(a) Int A ⊆ A ⊆ A ∪ Bd A.
(b) A is open if and only if A = Int A.
(c) A is closed if and only if A = A ∪ Bd A.

Theorem 6.
(a) ∅ is both open and closed.
(b) X is both open and closed.

Theorem 7. Any -ball B (a) is open.

Question 8.
(a) Must every singleton {a} be a closed set?
(b) Can a singleton {a} ever be an open set?

The collection of all open sets in a space is called the topology for the space.

2.4. Properties of Int, Ext, and Bd.

Theorem 9. Let A be a given set in a metric space X. Then

(a) Int A is an open set.
(b) Ext A is an open set.
(c) Bd A is a closed set.

Theorem 10. Let A be a given set and let b ∈ X.

(a) If b ∈ A, then b is not an exterior point of A.
(b) If b 6∈ A, then b is not an interior point of A.
(c) BdA ∩ IntA = ∅ and BdA ∩ ExtA = ∅.
(d) The point b is either an interior point of A, a boundary point of A, or an exterior point of A.

Theorem 11. X is the disjoint union of Int A ∪ Bd A ∪ Ext A.

10 3. METRIC SPACE TOPOLOGY

2.5. Set Theoretic Properties.

Theorem 12. Let A and B both be open sets. Then A ∩ B is open.

Question 13. How can we use the previous theorem to show that the intersection of finitely
many open sets is open?

Theorem 14. Let A be a collection of open sets in X. Then ∪A = ∪{A : A ∈ A} is open.

Problem 15. If A is a collection of open sets, show that ∩A = ∩{A : A ∈ A} is not necessarily
an open set.

Theorem 16. If A is an open set, then there exists a collection A of -balls in A such that
A = ∪A.

Theorem 17. For any set A, A is open if and only if Ac is closed.

Theorem 18. If A is a collection of closed sets, then ∩A = ∩{A : A ∈ A} is closed.

Theorem 19. If A and B are both closed, then A ∪ B is closed.

Problem 20. If A is a collection of closed sets, show that ∪A is not necessarily closed.

Theorem 21. Let A ⊆ X be a finite set, i.e., A has only finitely many elements. Then Ac is
an open set.

2.6. Closure.

Definition 8. The closure of a set A is A ∪ BdA. It is denoted by A.

Theorem 22.
A = Int A ∪ Bd A = (Ext A)c .

Theorem 23. Let A be a given set.

(a) A is closed.
(b) A = A, i.e., the closure of the closure of A equals the closure of A.
(c) If A is closed and B ⊆ A, then B ⊆ A.
(d) If  > 0, then for any x ∈ X, the set {y : d(x, y) ≤ } is closed.

2.7. Distance Between Sets.

Definition 9. If A and B are non-empty sets, then the distance between A and B is defined
to be
d(A, B) = glb{d(a, b) : a ∈ A and b ∈ B}.
 3. CONNECTEDNESS 11

Here glb means the greatest lower bound.

Definition 10. A set A is bounded if and only if there exists a real number M such that for all
x, y ∈ A, d(x, y) ≤ M . If A is bounded, then the diameter of A is the glb of the set of numbers M
such that d(x, y) ≤ M for all x, y ∈ A.

Theorem 24. If x ∈ X and y ∈ X, then

d({x}, {y}) = d(x, y).

Because of Theorem 24, we can and will use the notation d(x, B) for d({x}, B).

Theorem 25. A set A is closed if and only if for every x ∈ X,

d(x, A) = 0 implies x ∈ A.

3. Connectedness

Definition 11. A set A is disconnected if and only if there exist open sets U and V with the
properties:

(i) A ∩ U 6= ∅ and A ∩ V 6= ∅
(ii) A ⊆ U ∪ V
(iii) U ∩ V = ∅.

A set A is connected if and only if it is not disconnected.

Theorem 26. If A is connected and B is a subset of Bd A, then A ∪ B is connected.

Theorem 27. Let A be a collection of connected sets and let x◦ ∈ X. If for every A ∈ A,
x◦ ∈ A, then ∪A is connected.

Theorem 28. The whole space X is disconnected if and only if there exists a proper subset
B ⊆ X (proper subset means B 6= X and B 6= ∅) such that B is both open and closed.

Definition 12. A component of a set A is a maximal connected set, i.e., a subset B such that
B is connected, but if B ⊆ C ⊆ A and C is connected, then B = C.

Theorem 29. A nonempty set A is connected if and only if A has exactly one component.
12 3. METRIC SPACE TOPOLOGY

4. Topology of the real numbers

4.1. LUB Axiom. By the real numbers we mean the metric space R consisting of the set of
real numbers together with the usual metric
d(a, b) = |a − b|.
We shall need the following axiom for the real numbers:

Axiom . Every nonempty set A ⊆ R which has an upper bound has a least upper bound.

4.2. Connected subsets of R.

Theorem 30. If ∅ =
6 A ⊆ R has an upper bound and x◦ = lub A, then x◦ ∈ Bd A.

Theorem 31. R is connected.

Theorem 32. The space Q of rational numbers is disconnected.

Theorem 33. If b > a, then the interval [a, b] is connected.

Definition 13. A nonempty set A is totally disconnected if and only if for each x ∈ A, {x} is
a component.

Theorem 34. The rational numbers Q form a totally disconnected subset of R.

4.3. Separability.

Definition 14. A subset D is dense in X if and only if every non-empty open set U contains
some element of D.

Definition 15. A metric space X is separable if and only if X has a countable dense subset
D = {a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . }.

Problem 35. Find a countable dense subset for R.

4.4. Nested Sets.

Definition 16. By a nested sequence of sets {An }, we mean an infinite collection of sets
A1 , A2 , A3 , . . . such that for each positive integer n, An+1 ⊆ An .

Theorem 36. Let {An } be a nested sequence of non-empty closed and bounded sets of real
numbers. Then ∩∞
n=1 An is non-empty.

Problem 37. Give an example of a nested sequence of nonempty open sets of real numbers
whose intersection is empty.
 6. FUNCTIONS 13

Problem 38. Give an example of a nested sequence of nonempty closed sets of real numbers
whose intersection is empty.

5. Compactness

Definition 17. A collection A of sets is called a covering of a set B if and only if B ⊆ ∪A. If
each A ∈ A is open, it is called an open covering of B. If A is a finite collection of sets, it is called
a finite covering of B. If A1 ⊆ A is also a covering of B, it is called a subcovering of B.

Definition 18. A set B is compact if and only if every open covering of B has a finite subcov-
ering.

Theorem 39. If A is compact, then A is bounded.

Theorem 40. If A is compact, then A is closed.

Theorem 41. Let A be a non-empty subset of the real numbers. Then A is compact if and
only if A is closed and bounded.

Theorem 42. Let X = Q, the space of rational numbers and let B be the set of rational
numbers x such that 0 ≤ x ≤ 1. Then B is not compact.

6. Functions

If f is a function from X into Y , we write f : X → Y . Here X is the domain of f , Y is the

codomain of f , and we also say that f is from X to Y . Associated with a function f is the graph of
f , a subset of X × Y such that no two distinct ordered pairs of the graph have the same first term.
We sometimes use dom f for the domain of f .

If x ∈ dom f , we denote the value of f at x by f (x). The set {f (x) : x ∈ dom f } is the range
of f . f is onto its range.

If A ⊆ X, then f (A) = {f (x) : x ∈ A}; f (A) is the image or direct image, under f of A. If
B ⊆ Y , then f −1 (B) = {x : x ∈ dom f and f (x) ∈ B}; f −1 (B) is the inverse image, under f , of B.

Theorem 43. Suppose f : X → Y is a function, A is a collection of subsets of Y , and B and

C are subsets of Y . Then
(a) f −1 (∪{A : A ∈ A}) = ∪{f −1 (A) : A ∈ A}.
(b) f −1 (∩{A : A ∈ A}) = ∩{f −1 (A) : A ∈ A}.
14 3. METRIC SPACE TOPOLOGY

(c) f −1 (B − C) = f −1 (B) − f −1 (C).

(d) If B ⊆ C, then f −1 (B) ⊆ f −1 (C).

Theorem 44. Suppose f : X → Y is a function, A is a collection of subsets of X, and B and

C are subsets of X. Then
(a) f (∪{A : A ∈ A}) = ∪{f (A) : A ∈ A}.
(b) f (∩{A : A ∈ A}) ⊆ ∩{f (A) : A ∈ A}.
(c) f (B) − f (C) ⊆ f (B − C).
(d) If B ⊆ C, then f (B) ⊆ f (C).

A function f : X → Y is one-to-one if and only if for each two distinct points x and y of X,
f (x) 6= f (y). If f : X → Y is one-to-one and onto Y , then f −1 , the inverse of f , is the function
f −1 : Y → X obtained by reversing the ordered pairs in the graph of f . If f : X → Y is one-to-
one and not onto Y , then we shall understand f −1 to mean the inverse of f : X → (range f ). If
f : X → Y is one-to-one, x ∈ dom f , and y ∈ range f , then f −1 (f (x)) = x and f (f −1 (y) = y.

7. Continuity

Definition 19. Let (X, d1 ) and (Y, d2 ) be metric spaces. A function f : X → Y is continuous
at a point x◦ ∈ X if and only if for every  > 0, there exists a number δ > 0 such that

x ∈ Bδ (x◦ ) implies f (x) ∈ B (f (x◦ )).

Definition 20. Let A ⊆ X. A function f : X → Y is continuous on A if and only if for each

point x◦ ∈ A, for every  > 0, there exists a number δ > 0 such that

x ∈ Bδ (x◦ ) ∩ A implies f (x) ∈ B (f (x◦ )).

Theorem 45. A function f : X → Y is continuous on X if and only if for every open set V ⊆ Y ,
−1
f (V ) is open.

Theorem 46. Let f be continuous on a connected set X. Then f (X) is connected.

Theorem 47. Let f be continuous on a compact set X. Then f (X) is compact.

8. Arcwise connected

Definition 21. An arc in the plane is the set of images of points in the interval [0,1] under a
continuous function f : [0, 1] → R2 . The points f (0) and f (1) are called the endpoints of the arc.
 9. TOPOLOGICAL EQUIVALENCE 15

Definition 22. A set A in the plane is arcwise connected if and only if for every pair of points
a and b in A, there exists an arc f : [0, 1] → R2 containing a and b as endpoints whose range f ([0, 1])
lies in A.

Theorem 48. If A ⊆ R2 is arcwise connected, then A is connected.

Problem 49. Give an example of a set in R2 which is connected, but not arcwise connected.

Theorem 50. If A is an open, connected subset of the plane, then A is arcwise connected.

9. Topological Equivalence

Definition 23. Let (X, d1 ) and (Y, d2 ) be metric spaces. Sets A ⊆ X and B ⊆ Y are homeomor-
phic or topologically equivalent if and only if there exists a function f : A → B which is continuous,
one-to-one, onto, and whose inverse f −1 is continuous. The function f is called a homeomorphism
of A onto B.

Theorem 51. If f is a homeomorphism from A onto B, the f −1 is a homeomorphism from B

onto A.

Theorem 52. Let A and B be homeomorphic.

(a) If A is connected, then B is connected.
(b) If A is compact, then B is compact.

Theorem 53. Let A ⊆ R. Then A is homeomorphic to the interval [0, 1] if and only if A is a
closed interval [a, b].

Theorem 54. The disk {(x, y) ∈ R2 : x2 + y 2 < 1} is homeomorphic to the square

{(x, y) ∈ R2 : 0 < x < 1 and 0 < y < 1}.

Problem 55. Show that the interval [0, 1] ⊆ R is not homeomorphic to the square
{(x, y) ∈ R2 : 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 and 0 ≤ y ≤ 1}.
 CHAPTER 4

General Topology

1. Introduction

We began our work with metric spaces by abstracting the concept of distance, i.e., by deciding
what are the essential properties of the ordinary concept of distance in the plane and then taking
these as the defining properties of a distance function. We then found that many theorems true in
the plane can be proved for general metric spaces. The real line, the plane, and 3-space became
special cases of metric spaces.

Many of the theorems we have proved involve open sets or closed sets in a metric space. These
concepts were defined in terms of -balls B (x) which made use of the concept of metric. An open set
could be defined as a union of such -balls. We could go one step further in abstraction if we could
decide what are the essential properties of open sets. A closed set will be defined as the complement
of an open set. Metric spaces will then be special cases of these more general spaces.

It turns out that it is not the properties of individual open sets which are important, but rather
their relationship to each other.

2. Definitions and Examples

By a space we mean a set, and by a point we mean an element of a space (or set).

Definition 24. Suppose X is a set. T is a topology on X if and only if T is a collection of

subsets of X, called open sets, such that (1) ∅ and X are open, (2) the union of any number of open
sets is open, and (3) the intersection of finitely many open sets is open.

Definition 25. A topological space is a set X together with a topology on X. Usually we speak
of a “topological space X,” suppressing explicit mention of the associated topology.

Definition 26. A set M in a topological space is closed if and only if M c is open.

17
18 4. GENERAL TOPOLOGY

Example 1. If X is a set, then {∅, X} is a topology on X, the trivial topology on X, and X

with this topology is a trivial space.

Example 2. The set of all subsets of X is a topology, the discrete topology on X, and X with
this topology is a discrete space.

Example 3. For any set X, let T be the set consisting of ∅, X, and every subset of X whose
complement is finite. T is a topology on X, the finite complement topology.

Example 4. If X is a metric space, the family of all open sets (with respect to the metric on
X) is a topology on X, the metric topology on X (or the d-metric topology on X).

3. Base for a topology

If T is a topology, then B is a base for T if and only if B is a subcollection of T such that for
each open set U and each point p of U , there is a set V of B such that p ∈ V and V ⊆ U . An
equivalent condition is as follows: B is a base for T if and only if B ⊆ T and each set of T is a union
of members of B.

Example 5. The set of all singleton subsets of a set X is a base for the discrete topology on X.

Theorem 56. If X is a set and B is a collection of subsets of X, then B is a base for some
topology on X if and only if (1) B covers X and (2) for each two sets U and V of B, and each point
p of U ∩ V , there is a set W of B such that p ∈ W and W ⊆ U ∩ V . (Note that (2) holds if it is
true that for each two sets U and V of B, U ∩ V ∈ B.)

Example 6. If X is a metric space, the family of all -balls is a base for the metric topology
on X.

Example 7. The set of all open intervals (in R) is a base for a topology for R. The resulting
topology is identical with the metric topology obtained using absolute value to compute distance.
R, with this topology, is the real line.

Example 8. Let I denote [0, 1], and let T be the set of all open intervals of the form I ∩ (a, b)
where (a, b) is an open interval in R. Then T is a base for a topology on I.

Example 9. Let B be the family of all half-open intervals in R of the form [a, b). B is a base
for a topology for R; we shall call the resulting space a half-open interval space.
 5. SUBSPACES 19

4. Cartesian products and product spaces

If A and B are sets, their cartesian product (or product) A × B is defined as follows:

A × B = {(a, b) : a ∈ A and b ∈ B}.

For any finite number of sets, A1 , A2 , . . . , An , we may define a cartesian product as follows:

A1 × A2 × · · · × An = {(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) : x1 ∈ A1 , x2 ∈ A2 , · · · , and xn ∈ An }.

Other notations are

n
Y Y
Ai and {Ai : 1 ≤ i ≤ n}.
i=1
Suppose X and Y are topological spaces. We then have open sets in X and open sets in Y . We may
consider the following collection of subsets of X × Y :

W = {U × V : U is open in X and V is open in Y }.

Theorem 57. The set W is a base of a topology on X × Y .

Problem 58. Give an example to show that W is not necessarily a topology on X × Y .

In the notation above, the product topology on X × Y is that having W as a base.

Theorem 59. If X and Y are topological spaces with bases A and B respectively for their
topologies, then {U × V : U ∈ A and V ∈ B} is a base for the product topology on X × Y .

The above results extend to finite cartesian products. Thus if X1 , X2 , . . . , and Xn are topological
spaces, then
{U1 × U2 × · · · × Un : if 1 ≤ i ≤ n, Ui is open in Xi }
is a base for a topology on Xa × X2 × · · · × Xn . The resulting topology is the product topology for
Qn
i=1 Xi .

Example 10. Suppose n is a positive integer. Then Rn denotes R × R × · · · × R (n times). The

set Rn , with the product topology obtained from the real line topology on each factor, is euclidean
n-dimensional space (or euclidean n-space).

5. Subspaces

Theorem 60. If X is a topological space and A ⊆ X, then {U ∩ A : U is open in X} is a

topology on A.
20 4. GENERAL TOPOLOGY

The topology of Theorem 60 is the relative topology on A. A subset A of a topological space X

is a subspace of X if and only if A has the relative topology.

Example 11. Let I be [0,1]. I is a subspace of the real line if and only if I has as its topology
{I ∩ U : U is open in R}.

Theorem 61. If X is a topological space, A ⊆ X, and B is a base for the topology of X, then
{A ∩ V : V ∈ B} is a base for the relative topology on A.

Example 12. Let I be [0,1], and suppose that n is a positive integer. Let I n denote I ×I ×· · ·×I
(n times). Then I n ⊆ Rn , and let I n have the relative topology. I n is an n-dimensional cube.

Example 13. For each positive integer n, let

S n = {x : x ∈ Rn+1 and d(x, 0) = 1}.
S n is the unit n-sphere in Rn+1 centered at 0. We also call S n the standard n-sphere. We regard S n
as a topological space by giving it the relative topology for Rn+1 .

Problem 62. Suppose X and Y are topological spaces, A ⊆ X, and B ⊆ Y . There are two
“natural” ways of getting a topology for A × B. Describe two, and determine their relationship.

6. Neighborhood, Interior, Exterior, and Boundary

If X is a topological space and p ∈ X, then W is a neighborhood of p if and only if W ⊆ X and

W contains an open set containing p. An open neighborhood of p is just an open set containing p.

Definition 27. Let A be a set in a topological space X. A point p in X is an interior point of

A if and only if there exists an open set U ⊆ A such that p ∈ U . Equivalently, p is an interior point
of A if and only if A is a neighborhood of p.

Definition 28. Let A be a set in a topological space X. A point p in X is an exterior point of

A if and only if there exists an open set U ⊆ Ac such that p ∈ U .

Definition 29. Let A be a set in a topological space X. A point p in X is a boundary point of

A if and only for every open set U such that p ∈ U , U ∩ A 6= ∅ and U ∩ Ac 6= ∅. Equivalently, p is a
boundary point of A if and only if each neighborhood of p intersects both A and Ac .

As before, the interior of A, Int A, is the set of all interior points of A; the boundary of A, Bd A,
is the set of all boundary points of A; and the exterior of A, Ext A, is the set of all exterior points
of A.

Theorem 63. A set A is open if and only if every point in A is an interior point.
 8. SEPARATION AXIOMS AND HAUSDORFF SPACES 21

Theorem 64. A set A is closed if and only if Bd A ⊆ A.

Theorem 65. The interior of a subset A of a topological space is the largest open set contained
in A.

The theorems about Int, Ext, and Bd in Chapter 3, Section 2.4 hold for general topological
spaces.

Definition 30. The closure of A, written A, is A ∪ Bd A.

The theorems about closure in Chapter 3, Section 2.6 (except Theorem 22.4) hold for general
topological spaces.

7. Accumulation points

Definition 31. If M is a set in a topological space X and p ∈ X, then p is an accumulation

point of M if and only if each open set containing p contains at least one point of M distinct from
p. An accumulation point is sometimes called a cluster point or limit point.

Theorem 66. A set M in a topological space is closed if and only if each accumulation point
of M belongs to M .

Theorem 67. If M is a set in a topological space and M 0 is the set of all accumulation points
of M , then M = M ∪ M 0 .

Theorem 68. If A and B are subsets of a topological space, then each accumulation point of
A ∪ B is an accumulation point either of A or of B.

Theorem 69. If M is a set in a topological space and K ⊆ M , each accumulation point of K

is also an accumulation point of M .

8. Separation axioms and Hausdorff spaces

Throughout this section, let X be a topological space.

Definition 32. T0 : X is a T0 -space if and only if for any two distinct points of X, there is an
open set containing one but not the other.

Any trivial space with more than one point fails to be T0 .

22 4. GENERAL TOPOLOGY

Example 14. Let R be the family consisting of ∅, R, and all sets (a, ∞) where (a, ∞) = {x :
x ∈ R and x > a}. R is a topology on R. This space is T0 . We shall call it the open ray space.

Definition 33. T1 : X is T1 , or a T1 -space, if and only if for each two distinct points x and y
of X, there is an open set containing x but not y.

The open ray space above is not T1 .

Theorem 70. (a) A space is T1 if and only if each singleton is closed.

(b) In a T1 -space, no finite set has an accumulation point.
(c) Each finite complement space is T1 .

Definition 34. Hausdorff or T2 : X is Hausdorff, or T2 , or a T2 -space, if and only if distinct

points of X belong to disjoint open sets.

Theorem 71. Every metric space is Hausdorff.

9. Sequences and Convergence

In these notes, N shall denote the set of all positive integers. A sequence is a function with
domain N. If s : N → X is a sequence, we say it is in X or into X and the values s(1), s(2), s(3), . . .
are denoted by s1 , s2 , . . . , and called terms of the sequence. (Note that “sequence” is always used
in the sense of “infinite sequence.”)

Suppose X is a topological space, x is a sequence in X, and p ∈ X. Then x converges to p,

x → p, if and only if for each open set U containing p, there is a positive integer k such that if i ∈ N
and i > k, then xi ∈ U . We may formulate this as follows: Each neighborhood of p contains all but
finitely many terms of x.

Example 15. Let Q be the set of all rational numbers and give Q the finite complement topology.
Let f be a one–to–one sequence onto Q. Then if r ∈ Q, f converges to r.

Theorem 72. In a Hausdorff space, convergent sequences have unique limits.

10. Continuity and Homeomorphism

Definition 35. Let X and Y be topological spaces. A function f : X → Y is continuous if and

only if for every open set V ⊆ Y , f −1 (V ) is open in X.
 11. COMPACTNESS 23

Theorem 73. A function f : X → Y is continuous if and only if the inverse image of each
closed set is closed.

Since the definition of homeomorphism depended only on the definition of continuous function,
the same definition can be taken for general topological spaces.

Definition 36. A function h : X → Y is a homeomorphism from X to Y if and only if h

is one-to-one, onto, continuous, and has a continuous inverse h−1 . Note that homeomorphisms are
onto. If h : X → Y is a homeomorphism from X to Y , then h−1 : Y → X is a homeomorphism
from Y to X; in this case, X and Y are homeomorphic, or topologically equivalent.

Example 16. Consider the set of real numbers together with the following six topologies: (1)
the trivial topology, (2) the discrete topology, (3) the finite complement topology, (4) the standard
topology (Example 7), (5) the half-open interval space (Example 9), and (6) the open ray space
(Example 14). No two of these six spaces are homeomorphic.

A property of topological spaces is a topological invariant if and only if when it is possessed by

a space X, it is also possessed by each space homeomorphic to X.

Theorem 74. Let (X, T ) and (Y, S) be homeomorphic topological spaces. If (X, T ) is Hausdorff,
then so is (Y, S).

Definition 37. A topological space X with topology T is metrizable if and only if there is a
metric d for X such that the d-metric topology on X is precisely T .

For example, each discrete space is metrizable (with the discrete metric).

Theorem 75. Let (X, T ) and (Y, S) be homeomorphic topological spaces. If (X, T ) is metriz-
able, then so is (Y, S).

11. Compactness

The previous definition of compactness for metric spaces depended only on the concept of open
set, not on the metric, so we can keep this definition as previously stated.

Definition 38. A set A in a topological space X is compact if and only if every open covering
of A has a finite subcovering.

Theorem 76. Let X be a compact space and let E be an infinite subset of X. Then E has an
accumulation point.
24 4. GENERAL TOPOLOGY

Theorem 77. Each compact subset of a Hausdorff space is closed.

Theorem 78. Each closed subset of a compact space is compact.

Theorem 79. If X and Y are spaces, X is compact, and f : X → Y is continuous, then f (X)
is compact.

Theorem 80. If f is continuous and one-to-one function from a compact space onto a Hausdorff
space, then f −1 is continuous, and hence f is a homeomorphism.

Definition 39. A sequence {An } is called a nested sequence if and only if for every positive
integer n, An+1 ⊆ An .

Definition 40. A set A in a topological space X is countably compact if and only if every
countable open cover {Un }∞
n=1 has a finite subcover.

Theorem 81. A space X is countably compact if and only if every nested sequence of non-empty
closed sets has a non-empty intersection.

Example 17. For any set X, let T be the set consisting of ∅, X, and every subset of X whose
complement is countable. T is a topology on X, the countable complement topology.

It is obvious that every compact space X is countably compact.

Problem 82. Find an example of a countably compact space, which is not compact.

Warning: Theorem 39, which states that a compact metric space is bounded, has no analogue
for general topological spaces, since the concept of boundedness requires that of a metric.

12. Connectedness

As with the definition of compactness, the previous definition of connectedness depended only
on that of open set, not on the metric, so we can keep this definition as it was.

Definition 41. A set A in a topological space X is disconnected if and only if there exist open
sets U and V such that A ∩ U 6= ∅, A ∩ V 6= ∅, A ⊆ U ∪ V , and U ∩ V = ∅. A is connected if and
only if it is not disconnected.

The theorems about connectedness in Chapter 3, Section 3 hold for general topological spaces.

Theorem 83. Let A and B be connected and suppose (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ B) 6= ∅. Then A ∪ B is

connected.
 12. CONNECTEDNESS 25

Examples of connected spaces

1. Each of the spaces R1 , R2 , R3 , . . . is connected.

2. A set M in Rn is convex if and only if for every two points x, y in M , the line segment
between x and y lies entirely in M . In Rn , each convex set is connected.

3. Each sphere S 1 , S 2 , S 3 , . . . is connected.

Exotic examples of connected spaces

1. The Warsaw interval is the space W which is the closure in R2 of {(x, sin x1 ) : 0 ≤ |x| ≤ 1}.
The Warsaw interval is connected.

2. For each positive integer n, let An be a horizontal ray in R2 extending from (−n, 1 − n1 ) to
the right, let Bn be a horizontal ray in R2 extending from (−n, n1 − 1) to the right, let In be the
interval from (−n, 1 − n1 ) to (−n, n1 − 1), and let Xn = An ∪ Bn ∪ In . Let X0 , Y , and Z be horizontal
lines in R2 through (0, 0), (0, 1), and (0, −1), respectively. Let X = X0 ∪ Y ∪ Z ∪ ∪∞


n=1 Xn . X is
connected.

3. Let Σ0 be the “spiral” {(1 − θ1 , θ) : θ ∈ R, θ > 0} (given in polar coordinates for R2 ). Let
Σ = Σ0 ∪ S 1 ; S 1 is the unit circle centered at 0. Σ is connected.

4. In R3 , let X0 be the xy plane and for each positive integer n, let Xn be the horizontal plane
through (0, 0, n1 ). For each such n, let Yn be the interval from (n, n, n1 ) to (n, n, n+1
1
). Let M be
∞


∪n=1 (Xn ∪ Yn ) ∪ X0 . M is connected.

5. In R2 let G be the set of all points with at least one irrational coordinate. G is connected.
26 4. GENERAL TOPOLOGY

13. Continuum

Theorem 84. If M1 , M2 , M3 , . . . is a decreasing nested sequence of compact connected sets in

T∞
a Hausdorff space, then i=1 Mi is connected.

Definition 42. A continuum is a compact connected set in a Hausdorff space.

Example 18. If abc is a triangle in R2 , it bounds a triangular disc ∆. Let x, y, and z be the
midpoints of the sides of abc. The interior of triangle xyz will be called the middle fourth of abc.
Note that ∆ minus its middle fourth is the union of three congruent triangular discs.

Let M1 be a triangular disc in R2 . Let M2 be M1 minus its middle fourth. M2 is the union
of three congruent triangular discs. Let M3 be the set obtained from M2 by removing the middle
fourths of the three triangular discs whose union is M2 . Continue this process.

Let M = ∩∞
i=1 Mi . M is a continuum.

Example 19. Let I 3 be [0, 1]×[0, 1]×[0, 1] in R3 . Divide each face into nine square discs. These
discs corresspond to [0, 13 ] × [0, 13 ], [ 31 , 23 ] × [0, 13 ], [ 23 , 1] × [0, 13 ], etc. The middle ninth is [ 13 , 23 ] × [ 13 , 23 ].
“Punch out” each middle ninth; this means remove the points of the sets ( 13 , 23 ) × ( 13 , 23 ) × [0, 1],
( 13 , 23 ) × [0, 1] × ( 13 , 23 ), and [0, 1] × ( 13 , 23 ) × ( 31 , 23 ).

The remaining set, M1 , is the union of 20 cubes. Repeat the procedure above on each of these,
obtaining M2 . Continue. Let M = ∩∞
i=1 Mi . M is a continuum.

Example 20. Let D be a circular disc in R2 . Let D1 , D2 , D3 , . . . be a sequence of mutually

disjoint circular discs in the interior of D. Let S = D − ∪∞
i=1 Di . S is a continuum.
 14. NUMBER THEORY AND TOPOLOGY 27

14. Number Theory and Topology

Let X = Z be the set of integers. If m > 0 and a are integers, let [a]m denote the equivalence
class {n : n ≡ a (mod m)}. For example, [1]2 is the set of odd integers and [3]5 is the set of all
integers which are congruent to 3 mod 5. Let B = {[a]m : m ∈ Z+ , a ∈ Z}.

Proposition 85. Suppose [a]m ∩ [b]n 6= ∅ and let t lies in the intersection [a]m ∩ [b]n . Then
[a]m ∩ [b]n = [t]lcm(m,n) ,
where lcm(m, n) denotes the least common multiple of m and n.

Proposition 86. B is a base for a topology on Z.

Proposition 87. Each set [a]m is infinite.

Proposition 88. Each nonempty open set is infinite.

Proposition 89. Each set [a]m is both open and closed.

[
Proposition 90. Let M = [0]p , where the union is taken over all prime numbers p. Then
p prime
M c = {1, −1}.

Theorem 91. There exist infinitely many primes.