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Technology in ESP

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Elżbieta Lesiak-Bielawska
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English for Specific Purposes World, ISSN 1682-3257, www.esp-world.info, Issue 48, v.16, 2015

Elżbieta Danuta Lesiak-Bielawska

Fryderyk Chopin University of Music

Chair of Humanities

Technology in ESP Pedagogy

The article aims at giving a brief overview of the use of technology in ESP pedagogy. Its first part
provides a historical perspective on computer-assisted language learning (CALL), its three distinct
phases, and subsequent developments in information technology (IT). The sections that follow focus on
the use of technology as tool for supporting traditional forms of language learning and for creating
1
various contexts for communicating. The article closes with suggestions for further research into the
use of technology in ESP pedagogy, its impact on the multiple roles of the ESP teacher mentioned in
the literature of the subjects, and the resultant implications for specific training programmes for
teaching practitioners.

Key words: ESP, CALL, technology, ESP teacher, ESP teacher training

1. Introduction

English for Specific Purposes (ESP) refers to the teaching and learning of English as a
second/foreign language which, in contrast to other pedagogical approaches, bases the course
contents and objectives on the specific needs of target learners. Thus it is frequently
contended that ESP is an umbrella term which covers a range of diverse teaching contexts.
They are broadly defined as English for Academic Purposes (EAP), English for Occupational

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English for Specific Purposes World, ISSN 1682-3257, www.esp-world.info, Issue 48, v.16, 2015

Purposes (EOP) and English for Professional Purposes (EPP). Since in each area of ESP
teaching, it is customary to distinguish between general and specific purposes, its main
branches are further subdivided. Accordingly, in EAP, it is possible to differentiate between
English for General Academic Purposes (EGAP), e.g. English for academic reading, and
English for Specific Academic Purposes (ESAP), e.g. English for medical studies
(Basturkmen, 2010).

According to Dudley-Evans & St. John (2009), the study of languages for specific purposes is
centuries old. Its modern origins, however, go back to the early 1960s and are associated with
J. M. Swales’ Episodes in ESP. During the early phase of ESP evolution, research focused on
English for Science and Technology (EST) in academic settings (Hutchinson, Waters, 2010)
and involved statistical grammatical counts within written discourse (Johns, 2013).

By the 1980s, new technologies had found their application in ESP research, and
investigations focused on analysis of large corpora. Likewise, ESP pedagogy has been
significantly influenced by the use of technology. Following the example set by B.F. Skinner
(1958) and his teaching machines, computers have been implemented in language teaching
2
since the 1960s. With the development of CD-ROM, more interactive activities and practice
than paper-based materials were offered to language learners. The turn of the 20th century
witnessed further changes in the shape of the foreign language classroom. Since then the
Internet has had an enormous impact on the process of foreign language learning and
teaching, and the development of a range of technological applications has offered tools for
language learning and for creating a communicative space (Bloch, 2013).

The objective of the present article is to give a brief overview of the use of technology in ESP
pedagogy. It consists of two main parts, Introduction briefly depicting the impact of new
technologies on ESP pedagogy, and a section with Conclusions. The first part of the article
provides a historical perspective on computer-assisted language learning (CALL), its three
distinct phases, and subsequent developments in information technology. The sections that
follow focus on the use of technology as tool for supporting traditional forms of language
learning and for creating various contexts for communicating. The article closes with
suggestions for further research into the use of technology in ESP pedagogy, its impact on the
multiple roles of the ESP teacher mentioned in the literature of the subjects, and the resultant
implications for specific training programmes for teaching practitioners.

Elżbieta Danuta Lesiak-Bielawska. Technology in ESP Pedagogy

English for Specific Purposes World, ISSN 1682-3257, www.esp-world.info, Issue 48, v.16, 2015

2. Technology in ESP pedagogy

2.1. Historical overview

Technology has long played an important role in the teaching of ESP and its affordances have
turned out to be extremely useful in ESP pedagogy, given its clearly defined focus on needs
assessment, materials creation/adaptation, ongoing course and/or materials evaluation, and
methodology that draws on target situations and disciplines. As technology entered ESP
classrooms, teaching practitioners made use of interactive multimedia packages, Internet
resources, and various tools designed to create specialized materials with a view to promoting
learners’ engagement with relevant target situations (Arnó-Macía, 2012).

It is contended that the relationship between information technology (IT) and ESP remains
under a strong influence of the evolution of computer-assisted language learning (CALL)
alongside developments in applied linguistics and language teaching (Arnó-Macía, 2012). As
pointed out by Garrett (2009: 719), CALL, which refers to “the full integration of technology
into language learning”, should be based on the interrelation of such elements as pedagogy,
3
theory and technology. Looking at its rapid development from the perspective of underlying
theories and avalaible technology, Warschauer (1996), Warschauer & Healey (1998)
distinguish three distinct phases of CALL.

In the behaviorist phase, conceived in the 1950s and implemented in the 1960s and 1970s, the
computer was used as a vehicle for delivering instructional materials to students by means of
different tutoring systems. The PLATO system, for instance, provided vocabulary drills, brief
grammar explanations and drills, as well as translation tests. In keeping with the then-
prevailing behaviorist theories of language learning, programmes like the PLATO system
entailed repetitive language drills for the sake of practice.

The communicative phase of CALL, frequently distinguished from behaviorist CALL not by
the kind of software used, but by the purpose to which a given computer programme is put
(Warschauer, 1996), was based on the communicative approach to language teaching that
predominated in the 1970s and 1980s. Its basic tenets emphasized the focus on using forms
rather than the forms themselves, implicit grammar teaching, creating a natural environment
for the target language use, etc. (for more details see Underwood, 1984). Accordingly, during

Elżbieta Danuta Lesiak-Bielawska. Technology in ESP Pedagogy

English for Specific Purposes World, ISSN 1682-3257, www.esp-world.info, Issue 48, v.16, 2015

that period several computer programmes were developed and used to provide skill practice in
a non-drill format (which was an extension of the computer as a tutor model), to stimulate
discussion or writing (the computer as a stimulus model used for communicative activities),
and/or to empower learners to use or understand language (the computer as tool model)
(Warschauer, 1996).

Reassessments of the communicative approach and the resultant more integrative teaching of
various aspects of language dovetailed with advances of computer technology. Integrative
approaches to CALL were based on two important technological developments – multimedia
technology allowing access to a wide variety of media (text, graphics, sound, animation and
video) and the Internet, a medium of global communication and a source of innumerable
authentic materials (Warschauer, 1996).

Further developments in IT and language teaching have brought about such concepts as
network-based language teaching (NBLT), which in contrast to CALL, traditionally
associated with self-contained, programmed applications such as tutorials, drills, simulations,
etc, involves human-to-human communication and collaboration (Kern & Warschauer, 2000),
and a second wave of online learning, which expanding its focus beyond language learning, 4
places emphasis on culture (i.e., intercultural competence, cultural learning, cultural literacy)
and social discourses (Kern, Ware and Warschauer, 2004). Observing mobile technology
moving at a dizzying pace, one cannot but agree with Arnó-Macía (2012) that the very
concept of CALL needs to be extended to include the latest mobile devices.

The Internet has given rise to significant changes in language learning. The acronym ALIVE
standing for the concepts of authenticity, literacy, interaction, vitality, and empowerment best
captures the nature of these developments (Warschauer, Shetzer, and Meloni, 2000). These
concepts are of particular importance to ESP learners, who aspire to join target discourse
communities. Owing to limitless Internet resources, they are provided with a wide range of
authentic materials, as well as opportunities to actively interact with members of these
communities through e-mails, forums, blogs, etc. The use of various Web 2.0 applications can
considerably contribute to learners’ empowerment, and help them gain control over their
learning. Also, the ubiquitous presence of IT in our lives makes it necessary for language
teaching to consider computer-mediated communication (CMC) skills in addition to
traditional skills, such as writing and speaking (Chapelle, 2003; Garrett, 2009). This entails
the expansion of traditional notions of literacy and communicative competence by including

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English for Specific Purposes World, ISSN 1682-3257, www.esp-world.info, Issue 48, v.16, 2015

online communication, collaborative writing, and dealing with hypertext and multimedia
(Shetzer and Warschauer, 2000).

2.2. Technology as tool for language learning

Technology has been exploited in ESP pedagogy since the very introduction of stand-alone
computer into the classroom, through the development of local-area networks (LAN), wide-
area networks (WAN), the Internet and World Wide Web to the invention of mobile
technologies. Not only has it made possible to access authentic texts, and analyze them by
means of software designed for such analysis, but has also played an important role in ESP
teaching, being used as a tool for helping with traditional types of language learning (Bloch,
2013). Thus it has been most frequently used as a repository for ESP authentic materials
available in the form of newspapers, magazines, scientific journals, news broadcasts, lectures,
all of which represent different written and oral texts.

Owing to the growth of open-access university courses, ESP teachers have been able to freely
exploit authentic discipline-specific materials in the classroom and thus bring relevant
5
language experiences from outside the classroom. Some news organizations like the British
Broadcasting Company (www.bbc.co.uk) or National Public Radio (www.npr.org) have
offered open access to their programmes stored in the form of podcasts. Also, some
universities like Yale (http://oyc.yale.edu) and The University of California, Berkley
(http://webcast.berkley.edu) have provided both audio and visual copies of lectures that can
be used for language practice in the classroom or by students learning on their own.

Moreover, video-hosting sites, the largest and most popular of which is YouTube, have
provided a wide selection of authentic discipline-specific materials. There are closed
captioning on many of these videos, which gives lower proficiency students a chance to
follow the videos at their own pace and clarify some difficult parts consulting the captions.

With free programmes like Audacity, teachers have been able to create their own podcasts
(Kern, 2013) and encourage students to do so. These can be stored for free online (e.g. at
www.youtube.com), and shared with an unlimited audience. Sites for storing videos are of
great importance for ESP learners. Not only do they expand the audience for students’ work,

Elżbieta Danuta Lesiak-Bielawska. Technology in ESP Pedagogy

English for Specific Purposes World, ISSN 1682-3257, www.esp-world.info, Issue 48, v.16, 2015

but they also make them consider how the relationships between them and their audiences are
affected by their use of language (Bloch, 2013).

Another technology that has enabled ESP teachers to incorporate authentic forms of language
into their lessons is concordancers1 and concordancing sites. The former allow for searches of
the occurrence of particular words or structures or combination of words, and help generate
word frequency lists and key word in context (KWIC) concordance lines. The latter provide
examples of technical vocabulary use and syntactic structures from authentic texts in specific
areas of discourse, and can be used in the classroom with a view to enabling learners to
develop language awareness in addition to structural knowledge of sets of meanings.

As an alternative to ready-made corpora2 that are in the public domain, ESP teachers can as
well develop their own corpora to meet specific needs of their learners resulting from the
narrowly defined teaching objectives, especially when the existing corpora do not
appropriately reflect disciple-specific types of texts (Tribble, 1997). Corpora – whether small
teacher-developed or large like the Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA) (at
http://corpus.byu.edu/coca/) – can be accessed by anyone, at any time, for any purpose,
depending on the use of web-based interfaces, e.g. the VIEW (Variations in English Words 6
and Phrases) in the British National Corpus (BNC) (at http://corpus.byu.edu/bnc/), which
allows the user to search for a word or phrase or patterns including synonyms.

Corpora can also be used to compare expert texts with learner-produced texts to juxtapose the
features used in target texts with the characteristics of learners’ production (i.e. their overuse
of certain structures, inappropriate use of markers, etc). Apart from providing information to
researchers, materials writers and teachers, corpora can be easily incorporated in the
classroom on condition that they are accompanied by appropriate activities (Flowerdew,
1998).

The proliferation of technological resources that support ESP teaching and learning dovetails
with resources for online learning. The latter can facilitate real-life communication and
engagement with genuine situations (Belcher, 2004). Owing to advances of technology,
1
Concordancers are software tools that provide access to any electronic text, i.e. a text available on the computer
or from a CD-ROM based corpus or database or the Internet
2
As defined by Sinclair (2004), a corpus refers to “a collection of pieces of language text in electronic form,
selected according to external criteria to represent, as far as possible, a language or language variety as a source
of data for linguistic research”.

Elżbieta Danuta Lesiak-Bielawska. Technology in ESP Pedagogy

English for Specific Purposes World, ISSN 1682-3257, www.esp-world.info, Issue 48, v.16, 2015

online communication, which constitutes part of everyday communication in academic and

professional settings, has become not only a means for language learning, but also a goal to be
reached by ESP students, who have to learn to cope with various digital genres, or
cybergenres (Shepherd and Watters, 1998 in Arnó-Macía, 2012). This communication can be
asynchronous (“different time, different place”), e.g. email, listservs, blogs, discussion boards,
social networking sites like Twitter or Facebook, where users can interact using any of these
modes of discourse. It can as well include synchronous modes of discourse (“same time,
different place”), such as chats, video conferencing, e-learning systems or virtual learning
environments, where participants interact in the same time frame.

Taking part in online forums, Facebook, Twitter, as well as in other digital media, ESP
learners are provided with an opportunity to engage in authentic discursive practices related to
their areas of study or work. As emphasized in the literature of the subject, students’
motivation increases if they participate in authentic purposeful communication through
meaningful tasks as well as projects that involve simulations of real-life interactions (cf.
Grosse and Voght, 1991; Dudley-Evans and St John, 2009; Hutchinson and Waters, 2010).

With such a proliferation of cybergenres, ESP teachers are confronted with unprecedented 7
challenges related to the integration of these “new digital literacies” (Bloch, 2013: 434) into
classroom activities. Since synchronous and asynchronous modes of communication have
different discourse features (Sotillo, 2000), it is important to take into account various issues
before incorporating a particular technology in the classroom. The variables most often
include the character of the cybergenre,and the type of authorship that is best supported by a
particular technology (Bloch, 2013). Synchronous modes of CMC tend to produce short forms
of informal discourse. Depending on the target audience, the language of email can be either
formal or informal, with its length being usually related to the communicative goal that is to
be reached by the writer. Owing to the delayed nature of asynchronous modes of
communication, ESP learners required to produce any of this type of digital genres are given
more opportunities to produce syntactically complex language (Sotillo, 2000). Accordingly,
listservs3 and discussion boards can make students use more formal forms of language and

3
The term ‘listserv’ refers to electronic mailing software.

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English for Specific Purposes World, ISSN 1682-3257, www.esp-world.info, Issue 48, v.16, 2015

engage them in in-depth discussions. Blogs4, in turn, can help them express or develop their
ideas alongside various rhetorical strategies (Bloch, 2007). Blogs can as well be integrated
with other forms of discourse to create new forms of multimodal texts (Bloch, 2013). It thus
goes without saying that synchronic and asynchronic modes of communication can be
exploited for different pedagogical purposes. Both can be used as tools to enhance language
learning by encouraging interaction among participants, the formation of electronic
communities of learners, as well as collaborative text creation (as in the case of Wikis 5, blogs
and social bookmarking6) (Sotillo, 2000; Sykes, Oskoz, Thorne, 2008; Bloch, 2013).

The growing importance of working collaboratively, often in different physical spaces, has
given rise to cloud computing, which is defined as a type of computing that relies on sharing
computer resources rather than having local servers or personal devices to handle
applications. Since in cloud computing, the word “cloud” is used metaphorically to refer to
the Internet, cloud computing signifies Internet-based computing, where different services
(servers, storage, applications) can be accessed simultaneously from different locations. Cloud
sites, e.g. Google Docs (at https://www.google.pl/intl/pl/docs/about/) contain a set of
appropriate programmes that facilitate such cooperation when creating a document,
8
spreadsheet, presentation, etc. by means of Web-based software.

Technology also offers various visualization tools that can be used in language learning
(Krajka, 2015). One of them is Mindmup (at https://www.mindmup.com), a free mind
mapping application that enables users to store maps on several cloud storage providers, such
as Google Drive, and collaborate in real time with other users. It is particularly useful in
education owing to anonymous access and the lack of requirement for account signup to use
cloud services. When it comes to ESP pedagogy, it can be employed to visualize content,
topics, as well as the elements of lexis. Another interesting free online service is Tagxedo
(http://www.tagxedo.com/), which allows to turn various texts, e.g. speeches, news articles,

4
Blogs (short for ‘Web logs’) refer to online journals that can be set up and run by anyone. They are
“continuously updated with one’s words, ideas and thoughts, links to websites visited, personal and professional
news, announcements, multimedia, etc.” (Krajka, 2007: 98)
5
Wikis refer to “a freely expandable collection of interlinked webpages, a hypertext system for storing and
modifying information – a database, where each page is easily edited by any user with a forms-capable Web
browser client” (Leuf & Cunningham, 2001: 14).

6
Social bookmarking is an online service which enables users to add, annotate, edit, and share bookmarks of
web documents.

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presentations, reviews, slogans, etc. into visually stunning word clouds, and to display words
appropriately sized, and with the frequencies of their occurrence highlighted within the body
of text or compared texts.

2.3. Technology as a communicative space

Technology has had an enormous impact on ESP pedagogy, not only by expanding ESP
teachers’ ability to design new materials and share them with other Internet users. It has also
given rise to new forms of multimodal discourse combining texts, podcasts, images or video.
The changes brought about by the Internet imply that the technologies discussed above as
tools for language learning can also be used as spaces where students are given various
opportunities to create and disseminate their texts across the Web (Bloch, 2013).

Apart from the already-mentioned forms of digital literacies, there are several alternative
approaches to presenting information online, such as PowerPoint Online extending Microsoft
PowerPoint to the web browser (at https://office.live.com/start/PowerPoint.aspx?omkt=pl-
PL) or Prezi, a cloud-based (SaaS) presentation software and storytelling tool for presenting
9
ideas on a virtual canvas (at www.prezi.com). There are also various meeting platforms that
allow for incorporations of these presentations online.

Technological development has also provided various opportunities for immersion in real-life
situations, which are becoming more and more realistic. In addition to numerous online
simulations7, i.e. goal-directed activities in which learners are required to use the target
language to perform authentic tasks in a communicative setting (Krajka, 2007), ESP teachers
can make use of various ask-an-expert tasks in which learners turn to an expert with a request
to dispel their doubts about a certain issue8 or WebQuests (WQ)9, inquiry-oriented Web-based
activities that involve students in using web-based resources and tools to transform their
learning into meaningful understandings and real-world projects (Dodge, 1995). Also, several

7
One of the best known is a virtual adaptation of a professional simulation “hotel”. Detailed instruction
concerning its realization can be found at http://home.sandiego.edu/~mmagnin/simulation.html.
8
Detailed instruction and a list of useful links can be found at http://eduscapes.com/tap/topic14.htm.

9
Detailed instruction and a list of useful links can be found at Detailed instruction and a list of useful links can
be found at http://eduscapes.com/tap/topic4.htm.

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attempts have been made to produce discipline-specific Web-based ESP materials that
reproduce authentic work and/or study situations. Owing to the collaboration of different
European universities with maritime experts, the Web-based Maritime English Learning Tool
(MarEng) was designed (López de Vergara Méndez, 2006). Addressed to maritime students,
teachers and professionals that may need a thorough command of maritime English, the
objective of MarEng was to produce an on-line high quality, low cost, language learning tool
that might be accessed via the Internet. It is based on nine topic areas, each of which covers
part of the daily situations aboard the virtual ship MS Marina. Another application of IT to
ESP teaching includes two interactive online workshops designed by Hussin (2006) in
Australia – one aimed at developing the communicative skills of ESL Nursing students, and
the other one focusing on academic writing of ESL Business students. Still another example
of ESP Web-based materials includes the online game It’s a Deal, which was created as a
learning tool for the teaching of intercultural business communication between Spaniards and
Britons in business settings in which English is used as the lingua franca (Guillén-Nieto,
2009).

The environments designed to recreate real-life situations have been classified into three
10
distinct types of 3-dimentional virtual environments, such as open social virtualities (e.g.
Second Life and There), massively multiplayer online games (MMOGs) (e.g., World of
Warcraft, Everquest), and synthetic immersive environments (SIEs, i.e., “visually rendered
spaces which combine aspects of open social virtualities with goal-directed gaming models to
address specific learning objectives”) (Sykes et al., 2008: 528). As pointed out by Thorne et
al. (2009), these environments for language learning provide students with the opportunities
for socialization and real communication practice. Owing to their immersive, multimodal, and
realistic nature, they increase language learning benefits by positively affecting learners’
motivation, their participation in real-life tasks, collaboration, negotiation of meaning,
intercultural and pragmatic competence, as well as the development of speaking skills. Sykes
et al. (2008: 534) contend that different types of visually rendered virtual spaces present
“distinct possibilities for language development based on the affordances, constraints, and
unique interactional opportunities of the space itself”. SIEs, for instance, combine many of the
benefits of online gaming to produce “explicit, educationally related outcomes in simulated,
relevant interactional contexts” (Sykes et al., 2008: 536). Thus they have great potential for
language learning as they allow their designers to target specific skills and educational

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objectives, creating at the same time “a meaningful collaborative space in which learners
themselves are at the center of their own learning” (Sykes et al., 2008: 536).

The development of programmes and materials for distance learning has been accompanied
by the design of online ESP courses incorporating discipline specific materials and tasks.
Online courses – whether in a distance or blended learning formula – appear to be particularly
well-suited for ESP. Not only do they help overcome distance and time constraints, but also
allow for the customization of learning, and provision of discipline-specific materials and
tasks. The tradition to develop online ESP courses is quite long (Luzón, 2009), and most
probably results from the need to design materials adapted to specific needs of ESP learners,
which also include their time and place constraints (Arnó-Macía, 2012). The most frequently
selected is the blended learning formula, which is a logical consequence of the eclectic
approach to language teaching (Claypole, 2003) as instruction is provided both in class and
online. Since the term was first used in 2003 (Claypole, 2003), several ESP courses based on
the formula have been designed. As characterized by Allen and Seaman (2010), this format of
learning represents the best of both worlds, i.e. it provides the learner with all the
conveniences of online learning, maintaining at the same time an important face-to-face (F2F)
11
link related to the classroom experience. The selected studies depicted below illustrate a range
of ESP teaching contexts to which blended learning approach has been applied.

Thus Mungra (2009) developed a blended learning course for medical students in Italy, which
was aimed at developing writing skills related to simulated practice that provided relevant
context for meaningful work. Beagle and Davies (2013) describe two blended learning ESP
courses developed by RMIT English Worldwide (REW), an English language centre owned
by RMIT University in Melbourne, Australia – one for pilots and the other for air traffic
controllers. Referred to as Beyond Level 4 (BL4), the courses were targeted at practising
aviation professionals working in international airspace, and focused on extending English
language speaking and listening skills in aviation contexts. Whittaker (2013) describes
blended learning ESP courses that were developed and managed by the British Council’s
Military English Support Project (MESP) that formed part of the wider Peacekeeping English
Project. The courses provided English language training to military personnel (mainly
officers) in the armed forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina (AFBiH) primarily to enable them to
partake in peace support operations. Lesiak-Bielawska (2014) developed a blended learning
course for instrumentalists that focused on English language speaking and listening skills
required by learners in three distinct situations: the conductor-orchestra interactions during
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rehearsals, interactions between the members of small ensembles (e.g. quartets, quintets)
during rehearsals, and instrument teacher-learner interactions in class.

The affordances of technology also offer various computer-based testing tools, which can be
extremely useful in the process of needs analysis and/or course evaluation. To define target
learners’ expectations and/or preferences, as well as their opinions about the course, ESP
teachers can make use of generally accessible solutions to conduct appropriate surveys, such
as SurveyMonkey (at https://www.surveymonkey.com/) or GoogleForms (at
https://www.google.pl/intl/pl/forms/about/), and select the kind of tool that best matches their
teaching and/or research objectives, i.e. either a tool with a simple interface or with the
possibility of importing the collected data to statistical software, such as IBM SPSS Statistics.

With regard to test development, there is a variety of course management and test
development software. Different e-learning platforms, such as Moodle or Blackboard Learn,
offer tools for assessing the effects of teaching, e.g. the quiz and the test manager modules in
Moodle and Blackboard Learn, respectively. Such tools allow teachers to design tests that can
be based on questions of various kinds, both open and closed. Tests created by means of these
tools can be either homogenous or heterogeneous, i.e. consist of one form of testing or a 12
variety of forms, such as sentence/phrase/word completion, multiple-choice, short answer,
selecting the right picture, etc.; the questions can as well be supported by various multimedia
elements .(Krajka, 2015). Worthy of note is also QuestionMark (at
https://www.questionmark.com/) that specializes in developing, supplying and supporting an
assessment platform, software, systems and services for computerizing education and
training-related assessments. Its assessment tools enable institutions to measure knowledge,
skills and attitudes. They are claimed to empower learning and testing professionals with
collaborative authoring instruments, accommodate participant needs with blended and
multilingual delivery, and inform stakeholders about test results through meaningful
analytics.

Attention should also be paid to various ways of test assessment accessible to ESP teachers
using e-learning platforms, such as sum of grades, mean of grades, weighted mean of grades,
mean of grades with extra credits, lowest/highest grade in Moodle, etc. Last but not least is
alternative forms of testing available online, such as computerized adaptive testing (CAT), or
tailored testing, in which computer software adapts the choice of successive questions
depending on what is known about the testee from previous questions for the purpose of

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English for Specific Purposes World, ISSN 1682-3257, www.esp-world.info, Issue 48, v.16, 2015

maximizing the precision of the exam or test. As an option to traditional testing, it gives a test
taker an opportunity to only deal with challenging questions appropriately adapted to the
individual proficiency level (Krajka, 2015). One of the platforms allowing for adaptive
testing is WebClass (at http://webclass.co/), a distance education and assessment system
designed by Malec (2013; 2014).

Despite access to a range of course management and test development software, it has been
noted that currently available assessment testing tools can be employed to develop fairly basic
multiple-choice and blank-filling tasks, which allow for the incorporation of video, audio, and
graphics as part of their input. As such, they sometimes seem to fail to satisfy the needs of
ESP testers for highly authentic assignments, which require more sophisticated input and
response features (Douglas, 2013). As for test delivery, technology offers language test
developers a series of options for enhancing the authenticity of test input and test response
alike. They include full motion video, coordination of text and sound, and colour graphics that
provide multimodal opportunities for context-rich tests (Chapelle & Douglas, 2006). Thus the
use computers and the Internet allows for more realistic simulations of different workplace,
professional and academic situations than paper-based tests. However, as pointed out by
13
Douglas (2013), mere delivery of tests by computer does not automatically guarantee
authenticity since in some situations paper-based input is a medium that replicates the target
language use situations best.

3. Conclusions

It has been pointed out that research into the uses of technology for pedagogical purposes is
both inconsistent (Bloch, 2013) and scarce (Blake, 2013). On the one hand, there are studies
reporting large gaps between the usefulness with which technology was perceived and its
actual usage in the classroom (Jarvis, 2004) or describing the use of technology with language
learners as ‘thin” (Lee & Swales, 2006). On the other, some research findings point to the
success in applying technology to ESP instruction (Lesiak-Bielawska, 2013; 2014). In view of
such contradictory research findings, it is difficult to draw an unequivocal conclusion related
to the beneficial use of technology in the ESP classroom. All the more so that since some of
the research was published, technologies and their availability have evolved and some of the
earlier findings may no longer apply. Also, little research has been conducted to determine

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English for Specific Purposes World, ISSN 1682-3257, www.esp-world.info, Issue 48, v.16, 2015

whether all students equally benefit from online learning (Blake, 2013), and almost none into
the impact of personality and various cognitive factors on student outcomes in an online
learning environment.

These questions need to be addressed by future investigations into the impact of technologies
on ESP instruction. Another major problem that has to be researched more is how to
implement new technologies that are constantly being introduced (Bloch, 2013). As shown
above, technology can no doubt be found useful when determining the specific needs of
learners. However, the choice of the most appropriate technology in the ESP classroom
depends on many different factors, the most important of them being the problem the teacher
wants to address, and/or the learning goal that needs to be reached, which in many cases
involves a recognition that learning to use the technology itself can fulfil the needs of the
learner (Bloch, 2013).

Advances in technology and the development of the knowledge economy have put great
emphasis on the ability to use new technologies. However, as pointed out by Bloch (2013),
the explosion in new technologies raises several questions. The first one pertains to the
sustainability of these technologies, many of which (e.g. email or blogging) are being 14
gradually superseded by new ones (e.g. Twitter or Facebook). As new technological tools are
being continually released, ESP teachers are provided with more and more opportunities for
classroom use. They may as well be often confused by a vast range of resources available,
which – given the fact that many of them consider themselves to be digital immigrants, i.e.
newcomers to the latest technologies (Prensky, 2001), – can make the choice even more
difficult.

As shown above, the choice of technology, either as a tool or communicative space, is never
neutral, and the technology-conversant ESP teacher needs to consider various issues before
making a final decision about the use of the appropriate tool. As pointed out by Bloch (2013),
they relate to the kinds of language being produced, the kinds of social relationships being
affected by the tool, and the value attached to certain tools in a given educational context,
and/or a particular society. There are also various issues pertaining to the economic nature of
technology that have to be considered like the once-free technology begins to charge high fees
or the push for more mobile forms of computing or cloud computing.

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English for Specific Purposes World, ISSN 1682-3257, www.esp-world.info, Issue 48, v.16, 2015

The application of IT in ESP pedagogy has transformed the multiple roles of the ESP teacher
mentioned in the literature of the subject (cf. Dudley-Evans & St John, 2009). Accordingly,
the scope of ESP practice has been expanded beyond the traditional ESP classroom to
incorporate various affordances of technology (Arnó-Macía, 2012; Gajewska & Sowa, 2014;
Lesiak-Bielawska, 2015). As a needs analyst, the ESP teacher is not only provided with
instruments to analyze linguistic data, but also with various online tools to investigate
learners’ subjective needs. Many ESP teachers will certainly find the use of technology useful
at the stage of course design since it enables them to overcome learner-and/or-sponsor
imposed limitations related to the content, time and place of the course. As shown above, IT
and the Internet are of great significance when selecting authentic materials, i.e. samples of
professional discourse, and deciding on the right tool and/or space to encourage online
communication. ESP teacher might as well make use of various IT tools, i.e. special
programmes like Hot Potatoes, Mindmup, etc., to create and/or adapt appropriate learning
activities. Technology considerably aids the ESP practitioner in the process of course and
materials evaluation since it provides appropriate tools and space for conducting
questionnaires, surveys, as well as various forms of testing. Also, the ESP teacher’s research
work is inseparable from the use of technology, both at the phase of needs analysis and when 15
assessing the effectiveness of the course. Last but not least is the role of the ESP teacher as a
collaborator, which is crucial in such a multidisciplinary field like ESP (Dudley-Evans & St
John, 2009; Arnó-Macía, 2012). According to Arnó et al. (2006), collaboration among
language teachers and between teachers and subject specialists is one of the driving forces for
the integration of IT in ESP in order to advance and adapt to a changing context.

To perform these roles, ESP teachers need to competently integrate various skills – in the
technological, pedagogical, organizational, and affective dimensions. This very fact implies
that more research is needed in the area of ESP teacher needs (Basturkmen, 2014), with
implications for specific training programmes (cf. Compton, 2009; Murphy, Shelley and
Baumnann, 2010; Arnó-Macía, 2012). In many cases, this kind of training has been restricted
to various, sometimes ad hoc organized, in-house sessions. With the development of the
Internet, ESP teachers have also been given an opportunity to participate in global networks
of teachers and draw on each other’s experiences. Irrespective of the value of the experience
of other teachers, it seems that the overreliance on online discussions pertaining to the use of
technology for continual training is not enough. Since the success or failure of a technology in
the ESP classroom is largely dependent on the degree of training the teacher has received, not

Elżbieta Danuta Lesiak-Bielawska. Technology in ESP Pedagogy

English for Specific Purposes World, ISSN 1682-3257, www.esp-world.info, Issue 48, v.16, 2015

on the technology itself (Bloch, 2013), it appears extremely important that ESP teachers are
given a chance to participate in specific training programmes preparing them to respond to
continual advances in technology. This kind of teacher training programmes will undoubtedly
help many of them adopt a perspective of a “critical, technologically-informed pragmatism”
(Chapelle, 2003: 9) to the use of technology in the classroom. They might as well enable
many technophobe teachers (Arnó et al., 2006) to keep pace with all the dizzying changes, as
well as a new generation of digital natives (Prensky, 2001), i.e. individuals surrounded by
technology which is fully integrated in their everyday lives.

Websites referred to in the text

www.bbc.co.uk

www.npr.org

http://oyc.yale.edu
16
http://webcast.berkley.edu

www.youtube.com

http://corpus.byu.edu/coca/

http://corpus.byu.edu/bnc/

https://www.google.pl/intl/pl/docs/about/

https://www.mindmup.com

http://www.tagxedo.com/

https://office.live.com/start/PowerPoint.aspx?omkt=pl-PL

www.prezi.com

http://home.sandiego.edu/~mmagnin/simulation.html

http://eduscapes.com/tap/topic14.htm.

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English for Specific Purposes World, ISSN 1682-3257, www.esp-world.info, Issue 48, v.16, 2015

http://eduscapes.com/tap/topic4.htm.

https://www.surveymonkey.com/

https://www.google.pl/intl/pl/forms/about/

https://www.questionmark.com/

http://webclass.co/

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