INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL ENGINEERING

CLASSIFICATION AND SELECTION OF INSTRUMENTS

I. INTRODUCTION

In the physical sciences, process engineering and that most of them are a potential source of noise and
product quality assurance, measurement is the activity of cause pollution of silence.
obtaining and comparing physical quantities of real-world Mechanical instruments are simple in design and
objects and events. Established standard objects and application. They are more durable and relatively
events are used as units, and the process of measurement cheaper. No external power source is required for the
gives a number relating the item under study and the operation of mechanical instruments. They are quite
referenced unit of measurement. Measurement generally reliable and accurate for measurements under stable
involves using an instrument as a physical means of conditions.
determining a quantity or variable. The instrument serves Example: Vernier Caliper and Screw Gauge
as an extension of human faculties and enables the man to
determine the value of an unknown quantity which unaided
human faculties cannot measure. An instrument may be
defined as a device for determining the value or magnitude
of a quantity or variable.

The instruments may be classified as follows:

i) Mechanical, Electrical and Electronic
Instruments II. B. Electrical Instruments
ii) Absolute and Secondary Instruments
Electrical methods of indicating and transmitting
iii) Manual and Automatic Instruments
the output are faster than the respective mechanical
iv) Analogue and Digital Instruments
methods. However, an electrical system normally depends
v) Self- operated and Power Operated
upon a mechanical pointer movement as an indicating
Instruments
device. Thus owing to the inertial of mechanical
vi) Self- contained and Remote Indicating
movements these instruments have a limited time and
Instruments
frequency response. For example, some electrical
recorders can give full scale response in 0.2 seconds;
II. DISCUSSION while the majority of industrial recorders have response
time of 0.5 to 24 seconds.
II. A. Mechanical Instruments
Electrical instruments are light and compact.
The first instruments were mechanical in nature Amplification produced is greater than that produced by
and the principles on which these instruments worked are mechanical means. They provide greater flexibility and are
even in vogue today. The earliest scientific instruments lighter in construction. These instruments consume less
used the same three essential elements as our modern power and hence cause lesser load on the system.
instruments do. These elements are a detector, an
intermediate transfer device and an indicator, recorder or a Example: Wattmeter, Ammeter, Voltmeter
storage device.
II. C. Electronic Instruments
These instruments are very reliable for static and
Majority of the modern scientific and industrial
stable conditions. There is a large number of possibilities
measurements require very rapid responses. The
of mechanical instruments.  It could be calipers,
mechanical and electrical instruments and systems cannot
micrometers, scales, measuring tapes, lasers, etc. for
fulfil these requirements. These instruments involved
measuring distances, a pressure gauge for measuring
vacuum tubes or semi-conductor devices.
pressure, strain gauges for measure how much a part is
stretched or compressed when a load is applied, Electronic instruments are steadily becoming more
tachometer for measuring the rotational reliable on account of improvements in design and
speed, multimeter for measuring electrical voltages and manufacturing processes of semi-conductor devices.
currents. Another advantage of using electronic devices is that very
The mechanical instruments suffer from a weak signals can be detected by using pre-amplifiers and
disadvantage that they are unable to respond rapidly to amplifiers. The foremost importance of the electronic
measurements of dynamic and transient conditions. instruments is the power amplification provided by the
These instruments have several moving parts that are electronic amplifiers. 
rigid, heavy and bulky and consequently have a large
mass. Another disadvantage of mechanical instruments is Electrical and electronic instruments are
particularly useful in the intermediate signal modifying
 INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL ENGINEERING

stage. Electronic instruments are light compact and have a

high degree of reliability. Their power consumption is very
low.

Example: Hall Effect Current Sensor

 
II. D. Absolute/ Primary and Secondary Instruments
2. Recording Instruments
Electrical measurements of different parameters Are those which give a continuous
like current, voltage, power, energy, etc. are most record of variations of the measured
essential in any industry. These are among the oldest of variable over a selected period of time.
all measurements. The various electrical instruments may The moving system of the instrument
be broadly divided into two categories: carries an inked pen which rests tightly on
a graph chart. These instruments will go
a. Absolute/ Primary Instruments on recording on a graph sheet fixed on the
Absolute/primary instruments are those instrument all the variations of the quantity
which give the value of electrical quantity to be in the time it is connected in the circuit.
measured in terms of the constants of the Normally these recordings will be for one
instruments and their deflection only e.g. day and the recorded sheets are kept as a
tangent galvanometer. These instruments are record of variation of the quantity with
rarely used except in standard laboratories, time.
especially for calibration of secondary Example: Seismograph and
instruments. Electrocardiogram
Example: Tangent Galvanometer

b. Secondary Instruments 3. Integrating Instruments

Secondary instruments are those in which These are the instruments which
the values of electrical quantity to be will add up the quantity as the time passes
measured can be determined from the or in other words will give a total account
deflection of the instruments only when they of quantity spent in a given time for which
have been pre-calibrated by comparison with it is connected in a circuit. For example,
an absolute instrument. Without calibration, an electric meter measure and register, by
the deflection of such instruments is a set of dials and pointers, either the total
meaningless. quantity of electricity (in ampere-hours) or
Example: Ammeter, Wattmeter, Voltmeter the total amount of electrical energy (in
watt-hours or kilowatt-hours) supplied to a
Secondary type of measuring instruments has circuit over a period of time and are known
been classified in the following categories: as  ampere-hour meters, watt hour
1. Indicating Instruments meters, energy meters, etc. Another
Are those which indicate the example is house hold water meter.
instantaneous value of the variables being
measured, at the time at which it is being
measured. Their indications are given by
pointers moving over calibrated dials or
scales, e.g., ammeter, voltmeter and
wattmeter. This movement of pointer or
the deflection is not constant but depends
on the quantity it measures. As the needle
deflects and indicates the amount of
II. E. Manual and Automatic Instruments
current, voltage or any quantity, these are
called deflection type of instruments. Manual require the services of an operator, where
as in automatic instruments the operator is not required.
 INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL ENGINEERING

For example, measurement of rotational speed by a hand a. Analog/ Analogue Signal

operated tachometer an operator is required to make the Are those which vary in a continuous
contact of the instrument with the rotating shaft. For fashion and take on infinity of values in any
measurement of temperature by a resistance thermometer given range. The devices which produce these
by Wheat stone bridge in its circuit an operator is required signals are called analog devices. Analog is
to indicate the temperature being measured. Whereas, in usually thought of in an electrical context;
measurement of temperature by mercury-in-glass however, mechanical, pneumatic, hydraulic,
thermometer, no operator is required. and other systems may also convey analog
signals. An analog signal uses some property
II. F. Self- operated and Power Operated of the medium to convey the signal's
information. For example, an aneroid
A self- operated instrument does not require any
barometer uses rotary position as the signal to
external power source for its operation. In such
convey pressure information. Electrically, the
instruments the output energy is supplied by the input
property most commonly used is voltage
signal e.g. a dial indicator or mercury-in-glass type
followed closely by frequency, current, and
thermometer.
charge. The devices that produce such signals
In power operated instruments some auxiliary are called analog devices.
power source is required for its operation. This external
power source could be electricity, compressed air etc. In
such cases the input signal supplies only the insignificant
portion of the output power e.g. an electromechanical
measurement system.

II. G. Self- contained and Remote Indicating

Instruments
b. Digital Signal
A self- contained instrument has all the physical In contrast with the analog signals which
elements in one assembly e.g. an analog ammeter or a vary in a continuous fashion and take on
mercury-in-glass thermometer etc. Whereas, in a remote infinity of values in any given range, the digital
indicating instrument has primary sensory element and the signals vary in discrete steps and thus take up
secondary indicating element are located at two different only finite different values in a given range.
locations linked by transmitting element. These locations The devices that produce such signals are
could be long distance apart. In modern instrumentation called digital devices.
technology such type of arrangement is quite necessary
and vogue.

II. H. Contact Type and Non- Contact Type Instruments

In contact type instruments the sensing element of

the instrument contacts the control medium for the
measurements, for example mercury-in- glass
thermometer. Where as in non-contact type instruments
the sensor does not contact the control medium. The non- c. Analog/ Analogue vs. Digital Modes
contact type measurement includes optical, radioactive or An analog signal is one where at each
radiation measurements. Such as, radiation or optical point in time the value of the signal is
pyrometer, non-touch tachometer etc.  significant, where as a digital signal is one
where at each point in time, the value of the
II.I. Analog/ Analogue and Digital Modes of Operation signal must be above or below some discrete
threshold. The display of the quantity to be
Introduction measured in analog instruments is in terms of
deflection of a pointer, where as digital
Working with absolute instruments for routine work
instruments indicate the value to be measured
is time consuming since every time a measurement is
in terms of decimal number. The main
made, it takes a lot of time to compute the magnitude of
advantage of the analog signal is its fine
the quantity under measurement. It is the secondary
definition which has the potential for an infinite
instruments which are most generally used in everyday
amount of signal resolution. Compared to
work, the use of the absolute instruments being merely
digital signals, analog signals are of higher
confined within laboratories as standardizing instruments.
density.
Secondary instruments work in two modes, the Analog
mode and the Digital mode.
 INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL ENGINEERING

1. Classification of Analog
Instruments
Broadly, the analog instruments
(and for that matter digital instruments)
d. Analog/ Analogue vs. Digital may be classified according to the quantity
they measure. For example, an instrument
Varies continuously Discrete and vary in
meant for measurement of current is
equal steps
Display of the quantity Indicate the values to classified as an Ammeter while an
being measured is in be measured in terms instrument that measures voltage is
terms of deflection of of decimal number classified as a Voltmeter. Thus we have
a pointer wattmeters, power factor meters,
Less costly and Expensive compared frequency meters, etc. Electrical
simple in design to analog instruments may also be categorized as
counterparts and
per the kind of current that can be
more complex design
measured by them, such as, direct current
Much higher density More flexible because
and can present more of DSP operations (d.c.), alternating current (a.c.), and direct
refined information and alternating current (d.c. / a.c.). As
Subject to noise and Convey information discussed earlier, there are three
distortion with less noise, categories of instruments; on the same
distortion and pattern analog instruments could also be
interference classified as indicating, recording,
Long distances may Can be transmitted
integrating type.
result in undesirable over long distances
signal disturbances On the basis of method used for
Easier to process Digital systems and comparing the unknown quantity
processing are (measured) with the unit of measurement
typically more the analog instruments may also be
complex grouped into two categories of
instruments: (a) Direct Measuring
e. Analog/ Analogue Measuring Device Instruments (b) Comparison Instruments
An analog device is one in which the
output or display is a continuous function of
time and bears a constant relation to its input.
The analog instruments find extensive use in
present day applications although digital f. Digital Measuring Device
instruments are increasing in number and A digital measuring device is that in which
applications. The areas of application which the value of the measured physical quantity is
are common to both analog and digital automatically represented by a number on a
instruments are fairly limited at present. digital display or by a code, that is, a set of
Hence, it can safely be predicted that the discrete signals. Digital measuring devices can
analog instruments will remain in extensive be divided into digital measuring instruments
use for a number of years and are not likely to and digital measuring transducers. Digital
be completely replaced by digital instruments measuring instruments are self-contained
for certain applications. devices that automatically present the value of
the measured quantity on a digital display.
Digital measuring transducers lack a digital
display; and the measurement results are
converted into a digital code for subsequent
transmission and processing in measuring
systems. The most common types of digital
measuring devices are those used to measure
 INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL ENGINEERING

electrical quantities, such as current, voltage, 6. Published literature is of considerable

and frequency. help in the choice of suitable
instrument for a particular
measurement situation. It is important
to keep abreast of latest
developments through appropriate
technical publications.
g. Analog to Digital (A/D) Conversion 7. Select suitable instrument makes and
The majority of present day instruments types for each measurement option
are analogue type. The importance of digital from the “List of Selected Instrument
instruments is increasing, mainly because of
Vendors” as prepared for each project.
the increasing use of digital computers in both
data reduction and automatic control systems. The types of instruments already
Since digital computer works only with digital installed at the Principal's site should
signals, any information supplied to it must be be taken into consideration, for the
in digital form. The computer’s output is also in sake of variety control.
digital form. Thus working with a digital b. Choice Between Different Types of
computer at either the input or the output, we Instruments
must use digital signals.
a. Pressure Sensors
Choice between the various types
of instruments available for measuring
mid-range pressure (1.013-7000bar) is
usually strongly influenced by the
intended application.

Manometer are commonly used when just

II. J. Instrument Selection Criteria and Installation a visual indication of low pressure level is
Procedures required.
The availability of several types of sophisticated
instruments and automatic process control techniques has
greatly helped in improving not only the product quality in
the food processing industries but also in achieving the
reduction in cost of processing. Automation has become
the essential component of technological and industrial
development.  A large number of specialized instruments
have been developed to measure the variety of process
variables. They generally give a range of measurement Bourdon Tube for medium pressure or
accuracy and sensitivity and vary vastly in cost factor. vacuum sensing a Bourdon tube type
Choice between the various types of instruments is pressure gauge is used.
available and several alternatives are there with the
entrepreneur.

a. Instrument Selection Criteria

Following are the points that should be
considered while choosing the instrument for
particular application:
1. Identify all operating cases.
Bellows- Bellows-types instruments are
2. Collect all relevant process data for
also sometimes used for this purpose, but
each operating case.
much less frequently.
3. Specify the environmental conditions
that the instrument will be subjected
to.
4. The extent to which the measuring
system will be disturbed during the
measuring process is another
important factor in instrument choice.
5. Consideration of durability, Diaphragm Pressure Gauge- when an
maintainability and consistency of electrical form of output is required, the
performance are also very important choice is usually any one of the diaphragm
during selecting the appropriate type sensor with strain gauge, capacitive
instrument. or fiber optics are used.
 INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL ENGINEERING

meter for a particular application is

very large. These include the
temperature and pressure of the fluid,
its density, viscosity, chemical
properties and abrasiveness, whether
it contains particle, whether it is liquid
or gas, etc. This narrows the field to a
If very high measurement accuracy is subset of instruments that are
required, the resonant-wire devices are physically capable of making the
popular choice. measurement. Next, the required
performance factors of accuracy,
range ability, acceptable pressure
drop, output signal characteristics,
reliability and service life must be
considered. Accuracy requirements
vary widely across different
applications and range from 0.5% to
5%. Finally, the economic viability
must be assessed and this must take
account not only of purchase cost, but
also of reliability, installation
difficulties, maintenance requirements
and service life.

Deadweight gauges, because of their

superior accuracy, are used in calibration
procedures of other pressure measuring
devices.

II. K.  Installation Requirements of Instruments

b. Temperature Sensors
Choice between the various types Every instruments manufacture provides a set of
of temperature measuring instruments instrument manufacturer’s instructions for installation of
for a given situation depends mainly that equipment. It is mandatory to comply with such
on the type of medium to be instructions. It is to be ensured that the instruments that
measured.  A good contact is are flow direction sensitive e.g. Control Valves, Regulators,
essential between the medium and the Vortex meters, Magnetic Flow meters, Orifice Plates,
sensor transducer. If the medium is Corrosion Coupons, Pitot Tubes, Venturi Tubes etc. are
solid this choice is restricted to checked with marking on instruments before installation.
thermocouples, thermopiles, Ensure that dummy holes on instruments supplied with
resistance thermometers, temporary protection for transportation etc (e.g. extra taps
and thermistors. For the fluid on venture tube supplied with plastic plugs etc.) are
temperatures can be measured by any blocked with properly rated valves, plugs or blinds  
of the instruments with the exception
of radiation thermometers.
c. Flow Sensors
The number of relevant factors to
be considered when specifying a flow
 INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL ENGINEERING

sensor at least 10 m from high-voltage power lines

and transformers.

II. L. Pressure Instruments

II. N. Flow Instruments
Pressure gauges should have a high quality block
valve, followed by a bleed valve and then followed by the The flow meter must be installed according to the
gauge. If the instrument is located at a significant distance manufactures written instructions. The flow meter must be
from the process piping location, the pressure take-offs installed in the correct direction to flow. It must be ensured
installations should have a double block and bleed that there are no air pockets in the section of the pipe and
arrangement between the process piping and the the pipe runs full of water or fluid. A meter approved for
instrument. The bleed valve shall be so located that it may operation in full flowing pipes shall be installed so that it is
act as the vent valve if the instrument impulse line must be completely filled with fluid under all conditions during
flushed or filled with a sealing fluid like glycol or a purging operation. If it is likely that air will become entrapped near
fluid. The block valve immediately upstream of the the meter, an air valve must be installed upstream of the
instrument should be part of a manifold assembly to meter.
facilitate mounting the instrument. When a sealing fluid is
required, a drain valve downstream of the instrument is
needed to be installed to allow flushing the tubing or filling
the tubing with the isolating fluid.

III. SUMMARY
 Measurement is the activity of obtaining and
comparing physical quantities of real-world objects
and events.
 An instrument may be defined as a device for
determining the value or magnitude of a quantity
or variable.
 The instrument serves as an extension of human
faculties and enables the man to determine the
value of an unknown quantity which unaided
human faculties cannot measure.
II. M. Temperature Instruments  The instruments may be classified as follows:
i) Mechanical, Electrical and Electronic
The sensor should be located at a place where it Instruments
will have limited exposure to direct or reflected ii) Absolute and Secondary Instruments
sunlight and open night sky. It should be placed at iii) Manual and Automatic Instruments
least 2 metres from man-made sources of heat iv) Analogue and Digital Instruments
because the heat from this surface may affect air v) Self- operated and Power Operated
temperature readings in the vicinity. Instruments
Keep the sensor away from AC power lines. vi) Self- contained and Remote Indicating
Sensor and most of the cable should be at least 3m Instruments
from 220 V A.C.  50 Hz power supply. Do not run the
sensor cable parallel to house wiring. Mount the
 INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL ENGINEERING

 MECHANICAL INSTRUMENTS.These  Different types of instruments include pressure

instruments are very reliable for static and stable sensor, temperature sensor and flow sensor.
conditions. The mechanical instruments suffer  Every instruments manufacture provides a set of
from a disadvantage that they are unable to instrument manufacturer’s instructions for
respond rapidly to measurements of dynamic and installation of that equipment. It is mandatory to
transient conditions. comply with such instructions.
 ELECTRICAL INSTRUMENTS. Electrical instruments o Pressure gauges should have a
are light and compact. Amplification produced is high quality block valve, followed by a
greater than that produced by mechanical means. bleed valve and then followed by the
They provide greater flexibility and are lighter in gauge.
construction. These instruments consume less o Temperature sensors should be located at
power and hence cause lesser load on the system. a place where it will have limited exposure
 ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTS. Electronic to direct or reflected sunlight and open
instruments are steadily becoming more reliable night sky
on account of improvements in design and o The flow meter must be installed in the
manufacturing processes of semi-conductor correct direction to flow.
devices. The foremost importance of the electronic
instruments is the power amplification provided by IV. REFERENCES
the electronic amplifiers. 
 Absolute/ Primary Instruments are those which http://ecoursesonline.iasri.res.in/mod/r
give the value of electrical quantity to be measured esource/view.php?id=147074
in terms of the constants of the instruments and
their deflection only. http://ecoursesonline.iasri.res.in/mod/r
 Secondary instruments are those in which the esource/view.php?id=147078
values of electrical quantity to be measured can be
determined from the deflection of the instruments http://ecoursesonline.iasri.res.in/mod/r
only when they have been pre-calibrated by esource/view.php?id=147076
comparison with an absolute instrument. The
categories of secondary instruments are
indicating, recording and integrating.
 Manual instruments require the services of an
operator, where as in automatic instruments the
operator is not required.
 A self- operated instrument does not require any
external power source for its operation. In such
instruments the output energy is supplied by the
input signal. In power operated instruments
some auxiliary power source is required for its
operation. This external power source could be
electricity, compressed air etc.
 ANALOG SIGNAL are those which vary in a
continuous fashion and take on infinity of values in
any given range. DIGITAL SIGNAL varies in
discrete steps and thus take up only finite different
values in a given range.
 An analog measuring device is one in which the
output or display is a continuous function of time
and bears a constant relation to its input. A digital
measuring devivce is that in which the value of
the measured physical quantity is automatically
represented by a number on a digital display or by
a code, that is, a set of discrete signals.
 The availability of several types of sophisticated
instruments and automatic process control
techniques has greatly helped in improving not
only the product quality in the food processing
industries but also in achieving the reduction in
cost of processing.