Educación Diferenciada

A Practical Guide to
Tiering Instruction in the

Differentiated Classroom
Sarah Armstrong With Stephanie Haskins
Classroom-Tested Strategies, Management Tools,

Assessment Ideas, and More to Help You Create
Effective Tiered Lessons That Work for Every Learner
New York • Toronto • London • Auckland • Sydney

Mexico City • New Delhi • Hong Kong • Buenos Aires
A Practical Guide to Tiering Instruction in the Differentiated Classroom © 2010 by Sarah Armstrong, Scholastic Professional
Acknowledgements
I would like to give thanks to
Stephanie Haskins, a teacher of teachers, who understands what it is to

practice differentiation with diverse students and effectively communicates
these understandings to colleagues;
My editor, Joanna Davis-Swing who was a consistent advocate and critical

friend throughout the process;
My family and friends who believe it is not if, but when.
Scholastic grants teachers permission to photocopy the reproducible pages from this book for classroom use.
No other part of this publication may be reproduced in whole or in part, or stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted
in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without permission
of the publisher. For information regarding permission, write to Scholastic Inc., 557 Broadway, New York, NY 10012.
Cover design by Jorge J. Namerow

Interior design by Sarah Morrow
Copyright © 2010 by Sarah Armstrong

All rights reserved. Published by Scholastic Inc.
Printed in the U.S.A.
ISBN-13: 978-0-545-11266-6
ISBN-10: 0-545-11266-4
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 40 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10
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Contents
Foreword .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Chapter 1 , Differentiation in Practice: Tiered Instruction.. . . . . . 6

Differentiation at a Glance.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Step by Step: Moving Toward Differentiation.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Why Tiered Instruction?.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Ready to Begin.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Ideas for Reflection .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Chapter 2 , Knowing Your Learners: Assessing and

Scaffolding to Meet Students’ Needs.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Assessing Reading Levels.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
The Role of Assessment in the Differentiated Classroom.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Assessment for Learning .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
A Range of Assessments.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Self-Assessment of Learning.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Tracking Results .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Ongoing Assessment.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Scaffolding: The Link Between Assessment and Instruction.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Assessing by Tuning in to What Students Know and What They Don’t.. . . . . . . . . 26
The Management of Scaffolding.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Taking the Next Step .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Feedback as Part of the Assessment Picture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Summary.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Chapter 3 , Lesson Design With Tiering in Mind.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Activating Prior Knowledge: Strategies for Reeling in Learners.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Providing a Powerful APK Experience.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Using APK: Discussion and Data to Assess Students’ Background Knowledge. . . 42
APK and the Curriculum.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Chunking the Lesson.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Keeping Students Engaged: Movement Keeps Learners on Track .. . . . . . . . . . . 47
A Lesson Planning Template.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Summary.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Chapter 4 , Content Instruction: Tiering to Teach Essential

Skills and Knowledge.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Knowing the What of the Lesson.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
A Tiered Instruction Imperative: Choosing Content Based
on Instructional Reading Levels.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
A Practical Guide to Tiering Instruction in the Differentiated Classroom © 2010 by Sarah Armstrong, Scholastic Professional , 3
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Using Supplemental Nonfiction Books to Tier Content Instruction .. . . . . . . . . . 57
Expanding Beyond the Textbook.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Rewriting to Adapt Texts.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Tiering Vocabulary.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Summary.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Chapter 5 , Process: Strategic Teaching to Tier Instruction.. . 67

Tiering a Lesson: Common Goals Using Different Strategies.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Entry Points.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
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Complex Thinking Is for All Students.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Differentiating With Divergent Questions.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Managing the Process of Tiering .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Strategies for Assigning and Managing Tiered Tasks.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Tiering With Personal Agendas.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Selecting Graphic Organizers for Tiered Instruction.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Adjusting Social Interaction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Summary.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Chapter 6 , Product: Tiering Ways Students Demonstrate

What They Know.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Expanding Perspectives About Assessment.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Authentic Assessments.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Adapting Assessments to Students’ Strengths.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Providing “Look Fors” for Students.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Students as Partners in Assessment.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Creating Self-Assessments .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Rubrics .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Coaching Students With Self-Assessments .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Incorporating Student Choice Into Assessment Design.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Tips for Developing Assessments.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Tiering: Providing Support and Extension.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Grading Tiered Products.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Summary.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
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Ideas for Reflection .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Chapter 7 , Tiered Instruction: How to Get There From Here.. . 124

Growing as Differentiators.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
The Power of Collaboration.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Team Versus Group. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Students as Partners.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Summary .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Ideas for Reflection .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Bibliography .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Appendix .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
4 , A Practical Guide to Tiering Instruction in the Differentiated Classroom © 2010 by Sarah Armstrong, Scholastic Professional
Foreword zz
An educator attending a conference where I presented a couple of summers ago said
to me with some exasperation, “Do you see differentiation connected to everything in
the classroom?” I thought the question was interesting because I’d never considered it
before, so I paused for a second before I gave her the answer she didn’t want to hear.
“That’s a great question, and yes, I think I do see differentiation connected with pretty
much everything in the classroom,” I said. I went on to explain my thinking a bit, but I
don’t think I helped her quandary.
The educator’s discomfort, I believe, was that she wanted someone to make
differentiation simple. She was in search of “differentiation lite.” That’s understandable,
of course. It’s not helpful to feel overwhelmed. We all need a place to start a long
journey, but we also need to understand the nature of the journey on which we might
become a traveler. To grow as educators, we need both a rich topographic map of the
terrain before us and clear directions and guideposts for each leg of the journey.
This book is the rare find on the topic of differentiation that both connects
differentiation with multiple elements in a classroom system and provides detailed
guidance necessary to grow in proficiency with tiering and as a teacher. Sarah
Armstrong shows readers the scope and power of tiering when it is used appropriately.
In the process, she, with numerous contributions of examples, illustrations, and
assessments from Stephanie Haskins, reminds us that effective tiering must adhere
to the principles of “defensible differentiation,” including her insistence that tiering
should be used to “teach up” to the full range of learners, not to “water down” content
for students who may struggle to learn. She shows readers how to incorporate
standards into tiered lessons—and also how to ensure that tiering is a catalyst for
complex thinking for all learners. She makes clear how tiering intersects with content,
process, and product. She reminds us how it is that curriculum, assessment, and
instruction are inextricably interwoven in a strong classroom. She models how effective
record keeping, feedback, and collaboration benefit both teacher and students. She
demonstrates how rubrics and other indicators of quality work support students in
extending their reach. She simply understands that there is no such thing as quality
differentiation except in the context of quality instruction as a whole.
This book is a serious tool for teachers who take their craft seriously. Those teachers
will read the book again and again, mark it up, draw from it, and return each time more
competent and confident in addressing students’ readiness differences—and in what it
means to teach well!
Carol Tomlinson
University of Virginia
z z Chapter 1
Differentiation in Practice:
Tiered Instruction
The phrase “one size fits all” most certainly does not apply to instruction in
today’s diverse classrooms. Each school day a dynamic mix of learners walk
into classrooms, students who differ by performance levels, learning styles,
gender, ethnicity, race, and socioeconomics. If we take into account variables
such as health, disabilities, stressful life incidents, and level of family support
for education, the picture becomes even more complex. Yet each of these
unique children needs to be educated as a citizen of and contributor to the
twenty-first-century world. And it is our job to teach all of them.
Differentiation at a Glance
Differentiated instruction counters the traditional mind-set that all students
can be taught at the same pace, from the same materials, using the same
teaching strategies, in the same groups, day after day.
Differentiation entails planning instruction that recognizes students have
different entry points for learning new content, unique background experiences
that help facilitate learning, and specific interests and learning styles that—
when tapped into—can elevate achievement. Teachers who differentiate pre-
assess to find out what their students already know and use this information to
guide instruction and grouping. Though many aspects of differentiation will be
discussed in this book, what’s of greatest importance is that teachers recognize
the need to differentiate and that they have the heart to do so. The tools and
techniques can be acquired.
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Even committed, well-intentioned teachers struggle with differentiating
instruction. One common challenge is acquiring the repertoire of teaching
strategies and resources that will help teachers implement differentiation.
Though the clock can’t be stopped, I hope to provide a wide range of
tools and ideas that will give you increased confidence and greater facility
in planning for your diverse learners. As you implement these ideas,
differentiation will become an integral part of your teaching. You will soon
acquire a rhythm or establish a system that facilitates the process.
Step by Step: Moving Toward Differentiation

My intention in writing this book is to help you acquire a secure footing as
you seek a balance between meeting the demands of the curriculum and
differentiating instruction for your students. I have narrowed our topic
somewhat, focusing on differentiating through tiered instruction. Carol
Ann Tomlinson, a leader in the field of differentiation, defines tiering as “a
readiness-based instructional approach in which all students work with the
same essential knowledge, understanding, and skill, but at different levels
of difficulty based on their current proficiency with the ideas and skills”
(2006, p. 107). Successful tiered instruction allows a student to work with
the essential content at an appropriate level of challenge. For this to happen,
teachers must design lessons and choose activities that are easily adapted to
various skill levels.
Many of us are working in schools that have a Response to Intervention
(RtI) commitment. The language of RtI frequently refers to tiers 1, 2, and
3, with first-tier services occurring in the general education classroom and
the second- and third-tier services provided by tutors and intervention
specialists in small-group or individualized settings (Fuchs & Fuchs, 2005).
The National Center on Response to Intervention refers to the first level
of intervention as the primary level where students are taught the core
academic curriculum in the classroom, with some adaptations made by the
classroom teacher. The secondary level of intervention refers to students
who are not responsive to the primary level and will benefit from small-
group tutoring, most often provided by trained tutors. The tertiary level
focuses on intense, individualized interventions for students with longer and
more frequent sessions (2008). Although differentiating instruction is a key
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z How Does Tiered Instruction Support
Response to Intervention (RtI)?
Tiered instruction is a teaching strategy that supports the philosophy of success
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for all students, which is in full agreement with the philosophy behind RtI. In
both models, the needs of students and the delivery of instruction to meet these
needs are based on assessment. The recursive nature of monitoring, teaching,
analyzing data, reteaching, and reflecting on the progress of students reveals
the ebb and flow of the instructional process. The RtI model contrasts with
the too frequently used model of teach, test, teach again, test again, and
assign grades. RtI clearly requires differentiation through tiered instruction.
For additional information on RtI specifically, visit the following Web sites:
National Center on Response to Intervention at http://www.rti4success.org/
and the RtI Action Network at http://www.rtinetwork.org/.
component of any RtI framework, the RtI tiers are distinct from the “tiers”
in tiered instruction, which is the focus of this book. To distinguish between
RtI tiers and the clustering or grouping of students for tiered instruction, I
will simply refer to groups formed for a particular tiered lesson or activity by
number: Group 1, Group 2, and so on.
The decision to differentiate often begins with an examination of one’s
personal belief system. Do I recognize the diversity of achievement,
interests, and needs in my classroom? Am I committed to designing
instruction that addresses these differences? If the answer to both these
questions is yes, then differentiation is a goal to pursue, and this book will
provide support, direction, templates, and models to fulfill that commitment.
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Why Tiered Instruction?

When you tier instruction, you acknowledge that the content is appropriate for
all students. You also acknowledge that to reach your learners, both the content
and the methods of teaching must be adapted. Tiered instruction is not the only
component of differentiation, but it is an aspect of differentiation that often
seems unwieldy. One fourth-grade teacher expressed it this way: “I know the
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A Differentiation Parallel:
From Home to School
My daughter asked, “Is it a problem to fix dinner since I’ve become a
vegetarian?” Giving a crooked smile, I responded, “Well think about it. Dad
won’t eat carbohydrates, your brother won’t eat vegetables, and you don’t eat
meat. It does pose a few challenges!”
Reflecting later about this brief conversation, I realized my quandary over
preparing a family dinner parallels the dilemma of a classroom teacher trying
to plan a lesson. My family group was just four in number. What if I had 20 or
even 30 diners with distinct needs? What kind of menu would satisfy everyone?
The first bit of counsel I always give to teachers is not to try to do it all. I have
to confess that on some days, when it comes to dinnertime, I give my daughter an
option of cereal and have let my son bypass the vegetables. For the most part, I
strive for balance so all family members can have a healthy meal, but sometimes
my solutions are less than ideal—and that’s okay, both at the dinner table and in
the classroom.
content I’m expected to teach and I have the pacing Know the Curriculum
guide I’m required to follow to make sure that all of
my students move along at the same rate. Then I add If you are in a school or school
my 24 learners clustered into four different reading system that does not have
levels. Just how am I supposed to differentiate?” established, written curricula,
Tiered instruction is one way to begin the then you can tier instruction
differentiation journey. Knowing the content, based on your individual
sequence of instruction, and proposed pacing
curriculum and lesson goals.
is the first step. Take a moment to think about the
Doing the up-front work of
following advance organizer to activate your prior
determining what students must
knowledge about differentiating through tiered
instruction before we add other components. know and be able to do as well
Each of these statements will be addressed in as having a scope and sequence
numerous ways throughout the book. However, of how you intend to teach the
rather than have you wonder about these assertions, content will be important.
let’s look at them in brief right now.
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z Advance Organizer: Tiering Instruction
,
Directions: Read the statements below and mark whether you think they are true or false.
True False Statement
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In order for tiered instruction to be successful, students
T F
must always work in groups at their achievement levels.
Scaffolding means providing support at the student’s

T F
level of need in order for him or her to progress toward
new understanding.
T F Higher-level, complex thinking can be built into every

tier of instruction.
T F Leveled textbooks and leveled resource materials should

be used by teachers to tier instruction.
T F Assessment of student progress should be made weekly.
In order for tiered instruction to be successful, students must

always work in groups at their achievement levels. False. Many teachers
think differentiation means that you must group students by reading levels or
test grades. However, in order for tiered instruction to be successful, students
do not necessarily have to be grouped with others at the same achievement
level. A number of grouping strategies and scenarios are possible, and they
will be described in subsequent chapters, but for now keep in mind that using
achievement levels is one way to group—but not the only way!
Scaffolding means providing support at the student’s level of need
in order for him or her to progress toward new understanding. True. We
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use the level of need as a starting point, with the goal of encouraging students
to stretch beyond their current independent performance levels. Because a
difference exists between what students can do on their own (independent
level) and what they can do with help (instructional level), effective instruction
requires the teacher to scaffold or adjust the level of support for each learner
in response to the student’s level of performance. Vygotsky’s (1978) zone of
proximal development (ZPD) distinguishes between actual development—
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what students can do on their own—and potential development—what
students can do with help. Learning is scaffolded for students when a teacher
or more competent peer provides hints or prompts to help the learner reach
the edge of his or her ZPD through the graduated intervention of the teacher
(Greenfield, 1984). We will talk about scaffolding in greater detail in Chapter 2.
Higher-level, complex thinking can be built into every tier of
instruction. True. All students should participate in complex thinking tasks
that involve both critical and creative thinking. Complex, higher-level thinking
is not just for the gifted achievers. In fact, relegating struggling students to
rote, lower-level question/answer responses impedes their ability to thrive
and advance as learners. Examples are provided throughout this book that
demonstrate how to probe for thinking at different levels.
Leveled textbooks and leveled resource materials should be used
by teachers to tier instruction. True. Leveled texts are often seen as tools
only to help struggling readers, so you might not think to use them with higher
Ways to Use Leveled Texts in Tiered Instruction

Fiction
• Use a variety of leveled fiction books at easier levels to do quick comparisons of
setting, characters, plots, conflicts, or themes.
• Use a variety of leveled fiction to practice the skills of prediction, identifying cause
and effect, making inferences.
• Use abridged fiction to compare against selected text from the original to analyze the
degree to which content is adjusted or eliminated when detail is reduced, and how
descriptive vocabulary is adapted or adjusted.
Nonfiction
• Use nonfiction picture books in science, asking students to write in the appropriate
text for the picture based on what they have learned in class.
• Use leveled readers to assist students in understanding primary documents, such as
asking middle-school students to find the section in the Bill of Rights described in a
specific elementary-school leveled reader.
• Ask students to use nonfiction leveled readers as additional resources to complete a
study guide on a topic.
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z achievers. However, leveled texts can be meaningful tools for all learners.
In reading, they are especially useful when introducing literary elements or
teaching reading strategies because students can focus on the content of the
lesson without devoting excessive attention to decoding. Similarly, leveled
nonfiction texts frequently offer students a way to absorb content through
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simpler or more succinct language and graphics.
Assessment of student progress should be made weekly. False.
Certainly, weekly is better than every other week or five times a grading period;
however, the bottom line on assessment is that it should ongoing, constant,
never ending—you get the idea!
Ideally assessment informs instruction and helps teachers gain information
about student progress by identifying what students know and don’t know on
various levels. A significant amount of input is gathered automatically, from what
you do intuitively on a daily basis. You watch your learners, noting successes and
frustrations and informally assess them by observing them, asking questions, and
conferencing. You can gather additional insight about student progress through
more formal measures, such as tests, quizzes, performances, and products. These
informal and formal assessment practices supply you with a wealth of information
that helps you design appropriate instruction.
Ready to Begin
Now that you have an overview of the key tenets of tiered instruction, I invite
you to examine your own practice to gain insight about where you are on the
road to creating a differentiated classroom. Don’t worry if you’re still a work in
progress; everyone is!
Evidence of Area of Differentiation

Ideas for Reflection Differentiation to Develop
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1. Create a T-chart. On the left side write “Evidence

of Differentiation.” On the right side write
“Areas of Differentiation to Develop.” Complete
this T-chart on your own by writing four to six
responses in each column. Compare notes with
your colleagues to see if there are similarities or
differences in your perspectives.
2. Reflect on your responses to the advanced
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organizer on page 10. Which questions suggest a challenge to teachers
as you reflect on ways to design differentiated instruction? Are there
areas that are particularly troublesome to you or your colleagues?
3. Use the “10 Tiered Instruction Targets” below as a survey. In what areas are
you most confident? In which areas is the most growth needed?
4. In what ways does your team, grade level, or school embrace differentiation?
5. Write a list of all the ways you assess students to gain greater insight about
how they are achieving.
Self Assessment: Tiering Instruction
,
I’m making I’m trying to
10 Tiered Instruction Targets I’m good move in that
there! progress. direction.
1. I identify the essential understandings that I want students

to know.
2. If you asked the students in my class, they would be able to

tell you the goals of the unit.
3. I pre-assess my students to determine strengths and needs.
4. I plan the final assessment before designing the instruction.
5. I use assessment to help determine student groupings.
6. I arrange my groups flexibly; they may vary daily.
7. I design interesting and relevant lessons to hook and

engage the learner.
8. I create tasks that challenge students and stretch

their thinking.
9. I begin by determining on-level tasks that meet the essential

understandings, then I scaffold up or down appropriately
for students.
10. I adjust the complexity, support, pace, materials, and/or

directions to meet the needs of learners.
z z Chapter 2
Knowing Your Learners:

Assessing and Scaffolding
to Meet Students’ Needs
My friends who are master gardeners tell me that before they turn over any
soil in the garden, they spend time making sure that conditions are optimal
for the plants they’ve selected. Though light, water, and the right nutrients
are essential for a healthy garden, success also depends on knowing how
much sunlight each plant needs, how to space the plants, and at what depth
they should be planted. Advance work includes finding out about blooming
seasons—researching colors, heights, and the spread of each type of plant—
then sketching out a plan to make sure the plants are supported in their natural
environment in complementary groupings.
As they make these preparations, master gardeners also note additional
accommodations to be made along the way such as fertilizing, trimming, and
transplanting. This up-front work and planning helps the garden to thrive. In
much the same way, when we think about tiering instruction to help students
thrive, what is most critical is the right amount of support at the right time in
the right depth, with optimal interaction among peers.
Tiering instruction based on a comprehensive picture of what a teacher
knows about each student’s achievement, performance, and inclination to
learn is akin to a well-thought-out and carefully tended garden. For example,
to nurture our students so they achieve their maximum growth, we must
discern their reading and math levels, and become aware of their interests and
z
z
learning style preferences. The way to gain this information is through the use
of assessments that provide baseline data at selected points during the year,
augmented by frequent and varied assessments. In this chapter, I will discuss
a range of assessments that will help you learn more about your individual
students and assist you as you plan for differentiated instruction.
Though assessment will be discussed in further detail in Chapter 6, some
of the pre-assessments and student self-evaluation tools that inform lesson
planning are discussed here. The practice of differentiating instruction is
founded on the belief that all students can learn and that our job as teachers is
to establish the culture that allows learning to take place. In effect, you are the
master gardener in your classroom, responsible for doing the up-front work so
your students can take root and bloom.
Assessing Reading Levels

When it comes to differentiation using tiered content, it is important to note
that the difficulty of the text is one of the first barriers that struggling learners
encounter in a classroom. Even students who make an effort to get the content
from the textbook will give up if it seems too dense or there are too many
unfamiliar vocabulary words. You’ve seen some of these avoidance techniques:
head on the desk, staring at a book pretending to read, acting-out behaviors
such as talking out, slamming books, hostility toward you or other students,
and declarations such as, This is dumb! Who needs this stuff! When will I
ever use this? I don’t get it. It’s too hard!
Getting a handle on your students’ instructional reading levels is a basic first
step in tiering instruction because we must provide texts and other materials
students can read. I know of a number of elementary and middle schools
where Informal Reading Inventories (IRI) are given to any child suspected of
reading below grade level. Some schools survey students’ reading levels with
other effective reading assessments. Regardless of how students are assessed,
having a fix on the level at which a student reads text independently, as well as
on his or her instructional reading level, will allow you to secure the materials
necessary to differentiate instruction for your particular group.
The following reading assessments are among the many tools available
to teachers as they examine students’ literacy development. Additional
information can be found at the Web sites provided.
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z Reading Assessment
Resources for Reading Assessments
Grades
,
Web Site
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Dynamic Indicators of Basic Pre-K, K–3 https://dibels.uoregon.edu/
Early Literacy Skills, 6th Edition
(DIBELS–6)
Developmental Reading K, 1, 2, 3 http://www.pearsonschool.com/

Assessment, K–3, 2nd Edition
(DRA-2, K–3)
Phonological Awareness Literacy 1, 2, 3 http://pals.virginia.edu/

Screening—1–3 (PALS-1–3)
Analytical Reading Inventory, K, 1, 2, 3, http://www.mypearsonstore.com/bookstore/

8th Edition and higher product.asp?isbn=0131568086
Diagnostic Assessments of K, 1, 2, 3, http://www.riversidepublishing.com/

Reading, 2nd Edition and higher
Qualitative Reading Inventory, K, 1, 2, 3, http://www.directtextbook.com/

4th Edition (QRI-4) and higher 9780205443277/qualitative-reading-
inventory-4-4th-leslie-0205443273
STAR Reading Computer- K, 1, 2, 3, http://www.renlearn.com/

Adaptive Reading Test and higher
Scholastic Reading K–12 http://teacher.scholastic.com/products/

Inventory (SRI) sri_reading_assessment/programoverview.htm
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The Role of Assessment in the

Differentiated Classroom
Once you have a grasp of reading levels, the next step is to think about the
process you go through as you design a lesson and monitor student progress.
As a teacher, you constantly ask yourself, “What do my students need to
know and how do I know if they know it?” This question assumes that
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A Classroom Assessment System
“Today, more teachers are thinking about assessment in their classrooms as a

balanced system of components. One component, summative assessment,
fulfills the traditional role of measuring student progress. Results from tests feed
into an evaluation, like a mark in a grade book or a report card grade. Also
known as assessments of learning, they reflect the level of student learning at a
particular point in time.
Another component, formative assessment, is an ongoing process used to
inform instructional decisions made by the teacher and student. This process can
be extended to encourage and promote further learning. Formative assessments,
linked to the targets of daily instruction, provide continuous information . . .
as opposed to a summative snapshot. Formative assessment happens while
teaching is still under way, helping shape decisions about what needs to
happen next to better prepare students for the summative assessment.
In a balanced classroom assessment system, neither of these two
components is over- or underused; they work together to generate the combined
effects that are greater than the sum of the individual parts. When summative
and formative classroom assessments are high quality and purposefully
planned, they are synergistic parts of the same system and can help form a
more complete and accurate picture of student learning.” (Chappuis & Stiggins,
2008, p. 12)
assessment and teaching are inseparable—and in fact they are. Because of

this interdependence, Wiggins and McTighe (1998) emphasize the importance
of backward design—or what they call “beginning with the end in mind.”
Specifically, a teacher needs to know the knowledge, skills, and understandings
that will be assessed and determine the method of assessment before students
are taught. With backward design, the teacher has clarity about both what
students must learn and how it will be measured. Using this approach, there
should be few surprises for students when it comes to test time.
Assessment for Learning

The difference between didactic teaching to the test and instructional practices
that develop students as learners and thinkers is captured in the distinction
between assessment of learning and assessment for learning. Differentiated
z
z instruction necessitates the second approach to assessment. Rather than
“teaching to the test,” which is called assessment of learning, we strive to support
students as they grow as learners, using assessment for learning to guide our
teaching. Assessment for learning is much richer than traditional assessments,
taking into account the learner as a whole person and influencing not only grades,
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but how we teach and what we ask students to do. Assessment for learning
occurs throughout the entire lesson or unit of study, not just at the end.
Richard Stiggins (2005), lead consultant at the Assessment Training
Institute, highlights five categories of achievement targets that support thinking
about assessment for learning:
• knowledge
• reasoning
• performance skills
• products
• dispositions
Only one of these five achievement types—knowledge—is readily assessed

by multiple-choice tests. Most benchmark tests, end-of-course tests, and year-
end comprehensive assessments measure discrete facts and information that
students have been taught because they are “on the test.” To truly help students
progress as learners, however, teachers must also use assessment tools that
measure reasoning, performance skills, and the quality of student products.
From a student’s point of view, tests that measure knowledge answer a
single question: “Did I pass or did I fail?” As a result, they often find assessment
stressful and frequently unrewarding. Since how students feel about taking a
test can influence the results, we particularly need to pay attention to another
category on Stiggins’s list—dispositions—which includes attitudes, interests,
and motivational intentions of our students. When we assess disposition,
we ask students how they feel about the learning experience and determine
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the degree to which they are motivated by what we are asking them to do.
Assessing disposition keys into how well a student likes or dislikes the subject
and/or instructional approaches. Sometimes students have a reasonable grasp
of content but freeze on certain kinds of tests or in particular testing situations.
Knowing the disposition of the student can help you make the appropriate
accommodations. The surveys on pages 19 and 20 illustrate ways to tap into
students’ dispositions in pre- and post-assessment situations.
Pre-Assessment of Project Preferences
Dear Students:
During this grading period, we will have two projects. Before we get into these assignments,
I would like to know some of your preferences when it comes to completing projects. Your
responses to the following statements will help me. Please check option 1, 2, or 3 for each one.
Thank you.
Statement Option 1 Option 2 Option 3
I prefer completing by myself with one with a

a project: other person small group
When it comes to give me the let me select assign a topic

selecting a topic: guidelines and from several to me.
I would like to options you
select my own. provide.
When it comes I need a written I need a written just tell me when

to organization: timeline and timeline and it is due and give
would like you would like you me the project
to check with to look at my expectations. I
me often along final draft. will have it done.
the way.
I prefer the using SMART incorporating completing a

following method Board and art, mixed written report and
of presentation: PowerPoint media, and oral presentation.
music
When it I have ready I have access to I will need to use

comes to access to a computer but the computer and
finding resources: computer, Internet, can only get on other resources
and library the Internet at at school.
resources on school.
my own.
Post-Instruction Survey
Dear Students:
I want to get your input about how this class has gone for you during this grading period. I
will use your response to help me prepare for the next nine weeks. Please candidly respond
to the prompts below. You will not need to include your name on this survey.
The best part of class during these nine weeks has been:
The content that I found most interesting was:
The content that I am still struggling to understand better is:
If one thing could be changed about this class, I would suggest:
One thing about this class I would not change is:
I would like to have more of the following (check any that apply):
___ cooperative group work ___ self-assessment
___ choices about whom I work with ___ ”Look for” notes that detail what is expected
___ opportunities to use technology ___ independent study
___ resources other than the textbook ___ partner projects
Please feel free to make additional comments on the back of this page.
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“One of the realities is that,
A Range of Assessments
while all students can learn,
Teachers in differentiated classrooms find they will not all start at the
the path easier to negotiate if they embrace a same place, learn at the
broader conception of assessment. The key is to
same rate, or reach the same
include a wide range of assessment tools to help
ultimate level of proficiency.
guide your thinking about student performance
and achievement as you move through a lesson This is because of differences
or unit of study. With ongoing assessment, in academic ability, interests,
you have the information needed to provide and commitments. The
appropriate scaffolding every step of the way. perfect assessment system
As previously noted, when planning lessons it is will accommodate these
important to begin with the end in mind. When
by providing a continuous-
you have the end in mind, you know where you
progress curriculum and then
want to go, and assessments provide the road
map for the journey. by relying on assessment,
Your range of assessment tools should record keeping, and
include specific feedback and self-assessment, communication processes that
which may be delivered as pre-assessments provide accurate information
or as diagnostic assessments along the way. that adjusts to student needs.”
One strategy for pre-assessment is to consider
(Chappuis et al., 2005, p. 29)
the essential understandings for a particular
unit and then develop a way to measure these
understandings. The pre-assessment might double as the final unit assessment.
By designing the assessment before teaching the unit, you are planning with
the end in mind. A pre-assessment should be given in plenty of time to make
adjustments in instructional plans (i.e., at least a week in advance). The value
of pre-assessment becomes clear when we consider the range of information it
provides (McTighe & O’Connor, 2005):
• What to teach: What skill gaps should I address? What material may I
skip because it was previously mastered?
• How to teach: How should I group my students? What are the
students’ preferred learning styles? How can I connect the information
to students’ interests and strengths?
Pre-assessments are essential as teachers make decisions about selecting

text material, arranging learning groups, or determining how students will
demonstrate their knowledge.
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z Self-Assessment of Learning
Students’ self-assessment is valuable for pre-assessment as well as at various
points throughout the lesson or unit you’re teaching. When students have clear
criteria to review and are asked to reflect on the degree to which they think
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they meet stated expectations, they gain a better grasp of the instructional
targets they are moving toward. In many classrooms, indicators framed with
“I can” statements are provided to students as a way to involve them in self-
assessment. The following survey of students with regard to their thinking skills
Sample Self-Assessment
,
Student Name: ____________________________________________ Date: _______________
Self-Assessment on the Build It 3-D Unit

Very Somewhat Still Need
Skills
in Build It 3-D Confident Confident Help
I can use a protractor.
I can find the sum of angles, triangles,

and quadrilaterals.
I can explain when and why shapes are congruent.
I can sort triangles and quadrilaterals.
I can name 2-D figures from drawings.
I can correctly associate a prefix in a name with

a number.
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I can identify lines of symmetry.
I can classify triangles by side lengths and

angle measurements.
I can draw polygons.
I can identify three attributes for any polygon.
Assessment developed by Rosina P. Headley
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is an example of a self-assessment that guides students to consider their own
thinking and provides valuable information to teachers.
Self-assessment can be accomplished using an array of strategies. As noted
in Chapter 1, advance organizers can be used to elicit what students know or
think they know. A more informal approach is to ask students to do a “quick
write” in their journal on everything they can recall about a particular topic.
For example, a teacher beginning a unit on the American Revolution might tell
students that they have two minutes to write down any word, phrase, or piece
of information they can think of that has to do with the American Revolution
and the colonists’ fight for independence. In this case, the strategy serves as a
tool to activate prior knowledge.
A quick write can also be used to review content at the end of a class period.
For instance, after a teacher finishes a lesson on natural, human, and capital
resources, she might tell her students: I am going to ask you to do a two-
minute quick write on the content of today’s lesson. Please write down in
your science journal anything you can recall related to natural, human,
and capital resources—and make sure I can read it!
With continuous assessment, teachers regularly check for understanding at
the end of a lesson—referred to as closure. These closure or exit activities are
used to communicate both what students learned and any questions they might
have about the content. An excellent strategy to get students to self-assess is
illustrated in the following “3, 2, 1” technique.
3, 2, 1 Exit Activity
,
Student: ______________________________________________________
1. Write down three things you learned today.
2. Write down two ways that what you learned today is connected to “real life.”
3. Write down one question you have or one area you would like me to
review tomorrow.
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z Tracking Results
An essential step in maximizing the use of a variety of assessments is to develop
a system to track the results. This may be done in a number of ways, such as a
checklist of standards, a handwritten list of student needs, or a matrix of results.
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Students may also track their own progress by setting a goal, determining tasks to
meet the goal, and examining results. Checklists, rubrics, or a student-plotted line
graph might be ways to encourage students to track progress. The matrix below
identifies student progress on the geometry skills mentioned earlier. A check
means the student has mastered the skill. You will note that this format provides a
helpful at-a-glance record detailing which students need additional support.
Sample Matrix for Tracking Assessment Results
,
Classroom Checklist for Build It 3-D
Student
Mikayla
Hayden
Megan
Mikey
Kelley
Austin
Karie
Emily
Ryan
Faith
John
Luke
Ally
Skills in Build It 3-D
1. Use of protractor 3 3 3 3 3 3
2. Angle sums of triangles and quadrilaterals 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
3. Congruency 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
4. Sorting triangles and quadrilaterals 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
5. Naming 2-D figures from drawings 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
6. Association of a prefix in a name with a number 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

7. Lines of symmetry 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
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8. Classifying triangles by side lengths or angle measurements 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
9. Classifying quadrilaterals through pairs of parallel sides 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
10. Drawing polygons 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
11. Three attributes for any polygon 3 3 3 3 3
12. Regular polygons versus irregular polygons 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
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Ongoing Assessment
A fifth-grade lead teacher presenting formative assessment strategies to her
colleagues calls it the “never-ending story.” She adds, “Wouldn’t it be nice if
teachers could have an assessment checklist, and once something was checked
off, it was done!” The following stages of assessment (adapted from Ainsworth
& Viegut, 2006, p. 25) illustrate the point she was making:
Stage one: Pre-assess —> Analyze results —

> Plan for differentiation
Stage two: Teach —> Monitor/reflect/adjust —> Teach
Stage three: Post-assess
Without a doubt, assessment is cyclical. Examining student performance and

identifying areas of improvement are tasks that teachers do on a daily basis. The
key to differentiation is knowing where to go next following both pre-assessment
and post-assessment. In fact, the ability to diagnose and prescribe where
students need to go next is at the heart of differentiation. This knowledge allows
you to identify and provide the scaffolding students need to move ahead.
Scaffolding: The Link Between Assessment

and Instruction
Most of us have watched young children take their first steps. Practice starts
with Mom, Dad, or big sibling holding both hands, so there is no potential for
falling. When a baby takes those first few steps independently, everything goes
smoothly for two or three steps, and then the baby gets wobbly and plops down
on a well-padded backside.
Scaffolding needs to occur at the place where the learner gets wobbly.
Scaffolding, which is directly tied to Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development,
is described as “what teachers say or do to enable children to complete
complex mental tasks they could not complete without assistance” (Pearson &
Fielding, 1991, as cited in Hogan & Pressley, 1997, p. 41). When a student is no
longer able to progress at a task on his or her own, and assistance or support is
needed, skillful teaching becomes essential. Scaffolding occurs when you listen
to students, assess and acknowledge their individual strengths, and coach and
prod them into a deeper level of understanding.
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z Scaffolding at a Glance
When planning tiered lessons, keep these guidelines for scaffolding in mind:
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• Know the learners and evaluate their particular needs.
• Make independent learning the goal.
• Keep in mind the student’s zone of proximal development (ZPD) by assessing
the point at which a student no longer manages on his or her own and support
is needed.
• Break tasks into smaller, more manageable parts.
• Keep the learner in pursuit of the task while minimizing the learner’s stress level
• Only offer assistance with skills beyond the student’s capability. If students are able
to do the work, insist that they do. Give just enough assistance to overcome the
current obstacle.
• Ensure frequent success, which increases motivation through a positive self-efficacy
• Begin the process of “fading,” gradually removing scaffolding when the student
assumes responsibility.
• Remove scaffolding completely when mastery of the task is demonstrated.
As Hogan and Pressley (1997) note, scaffolding includes “recruiting the student’s
interest, reducing the number of steps so the task is manageable, maintaining student’s
persistence toward the goal, making critical features evident, and controlling frustration
and risk” (p. 47).
Assessing by Tuning In to What Students

Know and What They Don’t
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A key tenet of scaffolding is that teachers must listen for and observe student
responses and questions. Many times these fertile assessment opportunities
are bypassed because a teacher gives the answer or fills in the silence before a
student responds. Following class visits, I often ask teachers, “Who was
doing the work of learning in your classroom, you or the students?” I ask this
question because I want teachers to reflect deeply on the degree to which
responsibility for learning is pushed back onto the student—not as receptacles
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of information, but as participants! For example, while
observing a teacher in a history class on the topic of “Scaffolding is used in
population demographics, a student asked, “What does
a very wide range of
the word dominance mean?” Without even a split-second
situations. Mothers naturally
delay, the teacher defined the word for the student. I
employ this approach as
sighed, because to me that moment was an opportunity
to assess where the student was coming from and get the they teach their children
student—and perhaps the whole class—to think. The how to live in and enjoy
teacher could have made a number of other choices by their world. Teachers, from
turning the question back to the student, involving other pre-K to adult education
students in the response, or setting up a scenario that appreciate the necessity
would provide more information to help clarify the word.
and increased learning
Immediate responses could have been:
afforded by the use of
• Do you have thoughts about what it might mean?
these techniques. Non-
• Are there several of you in class who could give traditional educational
examples—not a definition, but examples—in
settings, such as business-
different contexts?
training scenarios and
• If I said that the choice of pizza has dominance over
athletic teams, also use
chicken nuggets every day in the cafeteria, does that
give you an idea? What comes to mind then? these methods to assure the
success of their employees
When instruction is scaffolded, teachers seldom and/or members.”
provide the answers; rather, they construct the
opportunities for students to retrieve, uncover, discover, —Lipscomb, Swanson,
and arrive at the responses themselves. & West, 2004
The Management of Scaffolding

Teachers agree that scaffolding is necessary to move learners along; however,
figuring out how to scaffold efficiently is often another story. But when you
conduct ongoing assessment and know precisely where your students wobble,
you can be ready to provide the instructional support they need.
A key facilitator in managing scaffolding is organizing students in work
groups to the extent possible (Hogan & Pressley, 1997). This allows you to
scaffold with four or five groups as opposed to 25 individual students. One tool
you can use to help you group students is the Student Scaffolding Readiness
Scale (see example on page 28 and template on page 138), which will help you
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z assess entry levels of students prior to teaching a specific unit of study. The
scale encompasses four key areas that inform you about ways to differentiate
for students:
• Background Knowledge: Making connections between the new and
known is essential. Insufficient background knowledge is a significant
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reason for achievement delays, and students with more limited
vocabularies are disadvantaged in their ability to comprehend and
develop as writers.
• Higher-Order Thinking: Students need to see models and practice
higher-order thinking skills. As students gain facility in tackling
complex thinking and problem solving, their persistence on tasks
improves as well as their comprehension.
• Interaction With Content: In assessing when and how to scaffold,
teachers must make
decisions about
the level of text or Student Scaffolding Readiness Scale
resources to use Student : ____________________________ Teacher: _________________ Grade: ______ Date:____________
and the pace at Category Degree of Readiness
which a student Background Knowledge 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
• Familiarity with the content Unfamiliar Very familiar

can progress.
• Related background knowledge Limited or none Substantial experience
• Degree of • Vocabulary Mostly unfamiliar

Strong grasp of essential
and related vocabulary
Independence: • Reading Level Two or more years below Confidently above level
When a student’s Evidence of Higher-Order Thinking
• Capacity to handle choice with task

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Needs guidance Performs without direction

degree of • Complexity of thinking
Knowing
Understanding
Analyzing
Evaluating
independence and Applying
Initially needs
Creating
Works well with

• Facility with abstract material
confidence increases
concrete, tangible evidence abstract examples
Interaction With Content 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
when tackling new • Skill level

Entry Mastery
learning tasks, he • Ability to handle pacing of lesson

Additional time needed
Content can be compacted
for acceleration
Needs leveled readers and Needs access to

or she is more likely • Scope of resources used
supplemental materials enrichment resources
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• Level of direction needed Step by step Overview only with
ready to scaffold to Degree of Independence

strong support of teacher
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
intermittent checks
9 10
the next level. • The degree to which modeling

is needed
Dependent on teacher Independent
• The degree to which practice Needs built-in practice Can move to

is needed with ongoing feedback enrichment quickly
You can use this tool to • The degree to which rehearsal Must teach/assess/reteach Minimal rehearsal needed
plan activities and group

is needed
students, as we see in the A Practical Guide to Tiering Instruction in the Differentiated Classroom © 2010 by Sarah Armstrong, Scholastic Professional
following examples.
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One Teacher’s Use of the Student
Scaffolding Readiness Scale
Mr. Faber was beginning a new unit of study with his fifth-grade class. He
planned to use nonfiction leveled readers and connect his reading instruction to
his science instruction. The content to be learned pertained to plate tectonics:
• The earth’s heat energy causes movement of material within the earth.
Continent-size blocks (plates) move slowly about the earth’s surface,
driven by that heat.
• Most earthquakes and volcanoes are located at the boundary of the
plates (faults). Plates can move together (convergent boundaries),
apart (divergent boundaries), or slip past each other horizontally
(sliding boundaries, also called strike-slip or transform boundaries).
• Geological features in the oceans (including trenches and mid-ocean
ridges) and on the continents (mountain ranges) are caused by
current and past plate movements. (Source: Virginia DOE, 2003)
Mr. Faber decided to use the readiness scale to determine how to

group his 26 students. Although he had an idea of the spectrum of student
achievement, he thought it would be purposeful at the beginning of a new
grading period to use the scale to reflect on each student. He had asked
students to do a quick-write pre-assessment on plate tectonics and had
reviewed responses in their science notebooks to get some idea of their
background knowledge. After looking at the results of the completed
readiness scales, he determined the following:
• Six students were reading below grade level. Four of the six were students
who needed a great deal of direction and support. These six learners had a
significant lack of background knowledge about plate tectonics.
• Sixteen students had similar responses and a general sense of related
terminology at a basic level. Six of the sixteen were above-grade readers.
Ten of the sixteen were on-grade readers with three students who
did not work well independently and needed significant monitoring
by the teacher.
• Four students had a high level of background knowledge as evidenced
by the extent of the vocabulary and terms cited. They were above-grade
readers, and three of the four were very capable of handling a great deal
of choice and complexity of material.
30
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,
Student Scaffolding Readiness Scale Summary
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(Scores of 1, 2, or 3 are areas to be developed and are noted as “D”; scores of 8, 9, and 10 are areas of strength and are noted as “S”)
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Teacher: __________________________ Grade: ______ Period: _________Date:_____________ Content: Plate Tectonics Unit
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Category
Angie
Brian
Caleb
Carrie
Dawson
Ellie
Fran
Freddie
Gail
Harper
India
Jaleel
Jeremy
Lauren
Montana
Noelle
Paul
Reggie
Robbie
Serena
Stanley
Thomas
Valerie
Will
Yancy
Zeb
Background Knowledge
• F amiliarity with
the content S D D D S D D D S
• R elated background
D D D S D S D D S
knowledge
• Vocabulary S D D D S D S D D S
• Reading level S D D S D S S D S S D S D S
Evidence of Higher-
Order Thinking
• Capacity to handle D D S D D S
choice with task
• C
omplexity of D D S S D S S
thinking
• F acility with S D D S S D D S
abstract material
Interaction With Content
• Skill level S S S S
• Ability to handle
pacing of lesson S D D S S S S
• S
cope of
resources used S S S
• Level of direction
S D D D S S S S
needed
Degree of Independence
• Modeling is needed D D D D D D
• Practice is needed D D D D D
• Rehearsal is needed D D D D D
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Mr. Faber divided his class into four groups, taking into consideration
reading levels and persistence with independent activities. When completing
the summary form, he was particularly interested in the students who were
at the lowest ends of the Readiness Scale with 1, 2, or 3 (noted with a D, for
“Development” needed) and the students at the highest ends with 8, 9, or 10
(noted with an S, for “Strength” in that area). Mr. Faber recognized that these
students likely needed additional support or enrichment. He used a range of
leveled readers in each group and differentiated the assignment based on these
factors. He also created a rubric to assess their performance. Specific examples
of differentiation by these criteria will be provided in later chapters.
Mr. Faber decided to build his groups as follows:
Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Group 4
The emphasis is on connecting The emphasis is on building on The emphasis is on providing The emphasis is on broadening
to background knowledge and existing knowledge of plate numerous resources that access to resources at
clarifying vocabulary terms tectonics. Nonfiction materials at affirm and enhance basic many levels and expanding
using many visual prompts. a range of levels are provided. knowledge. A range of tasks vocabulary and connections.
Numerous nonfiction materials The teacher models thinking and that build connections are Students define and identify
at instructional reading levels sets up tasks that reinforce the provided with student choices real-life topics to be explored
are provided with strong content. The teacher coaches built in. Students may work and work with a partner or
teacher coaching. and monitors progress of independently or with a small group. The teacher
students. partner. The teacher serves serves as a resource.
as a resource.
Caleb Brian Carrie Angie

India Dawson Fran Noelle
Reggie Jaleel Jeremy Serena
Stanley Gail Montana Zeb
Yancy Harper Lauren Thomas
Ellie Paul Robbie
Valerie Freddie
Will
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z Taking the Next Step
After analyzing the levels of students, cluster them into smaller work groups
geared to meeting the learning goals of the unit. Once the results of completed
scales have been examined, you can consider the following questions:
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• What are the likely misunderstandings or errors?
• How can I redirect students if the content is too difficult? Too simple?
• At what point do I think the student will wobble?
• How can I provide the instruction to take students to the next level?
This readiness tool could be used once or twice during a grading period or even
more frequently, serving as the basis for a variety of groupings. For example, with
a classroom of 26 students, a group of 15 might be clustered at the beginning of a
new unit to develop background knowledge and build related vocabulary. Within
that group, some of the students may quickly gain independence and move to
more complex tasks, while others will remain in a smaller group that requires
more support. Conceivably, after two lessons, students may be structured into
three groups: 1) highly independent, 2) somewhat independent with practice
necessary, and 3) dependent with ongoing feedback and support needed. The
Student Scaffolding Readiness Scale can assist in planning for differentiated
groupings and tiered instruction on a variety of fronts.
Insight on Flexible Tiered Groups

• Be flexible. As Wormeli notes, “There won’t always be high, medium, and low
tiers. Respond to the unique characteristics of the students in front of you instead
of imposing a predetermined leveling” (2007, p. 57).
• Many examples illustrate tiering using three groups. However, this is not a
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defined number. Three groups show how you might begin with an engaging
activity and then scaffold up or down based on the needs of students. There
may be times when you will have only two groups—those that are on level and
those that need support. There may be times when you will have more than three
groups—when there are more identified levels or needs within tasks. The key is
to consider what is manageable. It is best to begin small and feel comfortable in
meeting with all groups and providing adequate support.
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Feedback as Part of the Assessment Picture
The purpose of feedback is to inform students about their learning and to
advance them to a new level. W. James Popham, author of Transformative
Assessment (2008), emphasizes the importance of descriptive feedback which
indicates what students can do currently and what they need to do to attain
a target or learning goal. He states, “Empirical research tells us that such
feedback is far more effective in improving student learning than comparative
feedback, in which a student receives only an assessment-based grade or class
ranking” (p. 114).
Feedback is powerful when it encourages students to reflect. “To be
effective, feedback needs to cause thinking. Grades don’t do that. Scores don’t
do that. And comments like ‘good job’ don’t do that either. What does cause
thinking is a comment that addresses what the student needs to do to improve,
linked to rubrics where appropriate” (Leahy, Lyon, Thompson, & William, 2008,
p. 24). Characteristics of quality feedback include four criteria (Wiggins, 1998).
Feedback must be:
• Timely
• Specific
• Understandable to the student
• Communicated in such a way that it guides the student so she or he
can self-adjust
The purpose of effective feedback is to help students see where they

wobbled, facilitate new understanding, and push them to the next level. A
meaningful feedback system helps learners know what they have done well
and what they can do the next time to improve. An essential step in providing
feedback is to also give students the chance to “refine, revise, practice, and
retry” (McTighe & O’Connor, 2005, p. 13). In one school I visited, teachers used
a “glow and grow” system to provide feedback on student work. Each project
or writing task had a glow response, such as “I like the way you use descriptive
adverbs to set the mood of the story.” A grow response for the same paper was,
“Remember to expand your use of verbs. Why don’t you make a list of verbs
that can replace the word ran?” Another teacher’s glow comment for a project
was, “I like the connection you made between the story and your life” while her
grow comment was, “Remember to stick closely to the rubric for guidelines on
how to organize the project.”
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z Think of constructive feedback that you have received. If you have taken
tennis lessons, you listen carefully to the coach’s suggestions for elevating
your game. As a member of a 16-voice a cappella group, I, along with the other
15 singers, regularly receive specific feedback from the director on phrasing,
blend, and dynamics. We listen to the feedback because it results—almost
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immediately—in a higher quality of performance. Without a doubt feedback
guides actions, changes focus, and influences learning. Effective feedback is
critical in the effort to scaffold students to the next level.
Summary
I recently watched a mother coach her young daughter about crossing the
street. She said, “You need to stop, look, and listen. Stop before moving
forward. Look all around you for traffic, and listen for anything coming your
way.” I think this is the crux of assessment. As teachers we stop before we
move ahead instructionally and look at student achievement through a wide
range of assessments. Using these assessments we listen, discerning how to
scaffold students to the next level. In Chapter 3, we transition from assessment
and scaffolding to differentiated lesson design.
Ideas for Reflection

1. Consider the students in your classes. What are their dispositions (attitudes
and feelings) about assessment? To what degree do their dispositions
influence their success in your classes?
2. As a self-assessment, design a survey that would give you feedback from
students indicating how they feel about their success in your classroom.
Ask a colleague to give the survey to his or her classes and discuss the
results. Are there areas that are particularly troublesome to you or
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your colleague?
3. Use the Student Scaffolding Readiness Scale with a class or group of
students. How does it inform your planning for instruction? How will it
influence your grouping? Share your results with a colleague.
4. Reflect on your system of providing powerful feedback to students. Are
there areas in which you feel you provide feedback more effectively (such
as projects, journals) than others?
5. Why is activating prior knowledge (APK) an essential part of a
powerful lesson?
Chapter 3
Lesson Design With Tiering

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in Mind
Now that you have an overview of the connection between differentiation
and assessment, including the importance of knowing the reading levels
and dispositions of the students in your class, it’s time to turn our attention
to designing lessons that will engage and support your learners. Tiered
instruction can energize learning for students across all achievement levels.
However, before elaborating further on tiered instruction, I want to discuss
the components of outstanding lesson design that are the foundation of a
high-quality lesson—tiered or not. In short, a tiered lesson is only valuable if it
reflects best practice in lesson design.
A beginning premise is that you have a clear understanding of the facts
and concepts in the curriculum, including the designated standard or
competency to be taught and the big ideas related to the standard. Many
school districts have a designated curriculum for each grade level that teachers
must follow. The curriculum often comprises specific standards of learning or
competencies that students must meet. Frequently, both the sequence and
pacing of the content are outlined. One place to look for this information is
on the department of education Web site for your state. Some school districts
or schools follow curriculum guides that are developed by grade-level teams,
departments, or individual teachers. Typically, these guides outline the content
and suggest pacing for lesson planning. In other situations, schools may have
specific textbooks that provide a scope and sequence for the course to guide
teacher planning.
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z Once you are clear about the content to be taught, keep these four things in
mind as you plan your lessons:
• Plan how you will assess student progress through multiple measures,
including pre-assessment and student self-assessment; use this
information to adjust your lesson as necessary (as discussed in the
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previous chapter).
• Activate prior knowledge in a way that captures the attention of
the learner.
Reeling in Learners
“I love to fish—from
deep sea to mountain
stream and everything in
between, so let’s see what
fishing might have to show
us about differentiation
based on your students’
needs. Imagine sitting
in a boat on a lake on
a warm day, casting
a fishing pole into the
beautiful sunrise. What
are you fishing for and
what bait are you using? Are you fishing with night crawlers next to a shallow
bank for sunfish or bream? Are you jigging a live minnow on a deeper brush pile
for a school of crappies? Are you resting heavily scented chicken livers on the
bottom for a catfish? Are you casting lures into the grass beds and other structures
for a largemouth bass? Notice how in each of these examples, the bait on the
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hook is different based on the ‘audience.’ In our classrooms, the student audience
is always our first consideration when planning lessons. What will hook your
students; what are their interests and their background understandings? Once
you’ve answered these questions, you are better equipped to capture the attention
of your learners!”
— Stephanie Haskins
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• Organize your lesson in chunks of time so students stay tuned in.
• Use strategies (including guided practice) that will engage learners
in work that is meaningful, authentic, and supportive of the concepts
and facts being taught.
Activating Prior Knowledge: Strategies for

Reeling in Learners
Activating prior knowledge (APK) is an essential component of lesson
design, a fact corroborated by what we know about the brain and learning.
The phrase “neurons that fire together, wire together” explains it best. As
students confront new content, their brains search for existing neurons with
which to connect the new information (firing), in turn reinforcing synaptic
growth and helping to make the learning permanent (wiring). Activating prior
knowledge is crucial because when new information is hooked onto what
students already know, it prepares their brains to learn.
The importance of APK in lesson design is not a recent finding. More
than 25 years ago, Madeline Hunter, distinguished researcher and author
on mastery teaching, highlighted the importance of what she called
anticipatory set. She mentions getting the attention of students with a
hook, and asserts that activation of prior knowledge will set up the organizing
framework for the ideas, concepts, and information that follow (Hunter,
1984). Students will be better able to follow the flow of instruction because
the connections they make during APK primes their brains for the lesson.
Similarly, schema theory informs us that what we remember is influenced by
what we know and that memories are reconstructed by connecting current
experience with prior knowledge. Schemas incorporate both facts that
have been taught and generalizations from personal experience. When new
content is taught, the connections fall into place, influencing expectations
about what is to be learned and helping learners interpret the current input
(Driscoll, 2005). If you don’t help students make these connections, students
give you the “I don’t get it” look. In fact, your learners may have the potential,
but the schema was never activated.
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z Providing a Powerful APK Experience
Taking time for a quality APK activity reaps great rewards. Let’s look at some
of the attributes of activating prior knowledge by examining weak and strong
models of APK. Below are some of the factors to consider.
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Activating prior knowledge is not simply a three-minute process during
which the teacher asks a few questions and a few students respond. When
doing an APK strategy with students, rather than asking them to verbally give
Key Factors in Developing Effective APK Activities
,
With Regard to Weak APK Strong APK
Teacher Role Director: didactic teaching; Facilitator: coaching responses

teacher as expert through questions
Number of A few students, typically the All students

Students Responding first to raise hands
Reflection of Quick response to a “Who Thoughtful response to a

Students can remember?” question prompt with time to
process information
Levels of Thinking Knowledge, Comprehension Application, Analysis,

(Bloom) Evaluation, Synthesis (Bloom)
Modalities Used Scatter questioning— Uses visual prompts, journal

asks the whole class and self-reflection, partner
takes a few responses interaction
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Connections to Some connections by a Purposeful questioning to make

Real Life few respondents content relevant to all learners
Student Some connections by a All students engaged using

Engagement few respondents various modalities and
peer interaction
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back things they know about a topic, get them to discuss not only what but
how they know the information. Discussion and even debate result in greater
conceptual understanding (Guzzetti, Snyder, Glass, & Gamas, 1993). Consider
the following two approaches to activating prior knowledge in fifth-grade social
studies classes and think about which one provides a richer experience and
builds more connections.
Scenario 1 Scenario 2
Teacher: Today we will be starting a Teacher: I want to show you several photographs from cities
unit on the conditions in the and towns that were taken during and right after the
states following the Civil War. Civil War. While I do that I will give you 90 seconds
It was a period of time referred to write down descriptive words or phrases that
to as Reconstruction. What do come to mind when you see the pictures.
you think of when you hear the
Teacher: Now, I want you to share with one or two people
word Reconstruction?
next to you the words you just wrote and see if
Max: It must mean that something you can add new ones to your own list. You have
was torn down because it has 90 seconds.
to be constructed again.
Teacher: Tell me some of the words you came up with, and I
Teacher: Thank you, Max. Who has will write them on this chart.
another thought?
Students: Destruction, ruin, bombed out, death, abandoned,
Sophie: When a tree fell on our lonely, hungry, poor, wounded, broken, destroyed,
house in the storm, we had to help, sad, homeless, hopeful, lost, start over.
reconstruct the garage roof.
Teacher: So . . . here’s my question. Why is the period right
Teacher: Good connection. Can after the Civil War referred to as “Reconstruction”?
someone else give me Using what you know and additional information
an idea? you might have gathered from the pictures, talk to
Reggie: When things are broken, like your neighbor(s) and come up with as many areas
my little brother breaks my toys, as you can that you think needed reconstructing. You
I try to put them back together. have two minutes. (After two minutes) I would like
Isn’t that reconstruction? five ideas from your partner discussion to write on the
board. Who will start?
Teacher: All these ideas tell us some-
thing about Reconstruction. Teacher: Here’s a follow-up question. Have there been times
Turn to page 128 in your in your lives when a period of “reconstruction” has
book and let’s get some existed either personally for you or in our country or
more information. world? You have 30 seconds of think time. (After 30
seconds) Would anyone like to share their thoughts?
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z Let’s talk about the two APK scenarios. In the first one, the teacher asks a few
questions of the whole class and takes several responses from students. If this is
a class of 25 students, the teacher only knows for sure that three students have
some idea about the concept of reconstruction. Others may be aware, but there
is no way to confirm it with the APK format used. The depth of insight in the first
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scenario is also limited. Though the teacher is very sincere, the effort to get all
students to make connections to prior information falls short.
In the second scenario, the teacher designs the experience to engage all
students, not just a few. The visual prompt elicits a wide range of responses
from students. Asking students to write down words that come to mind when
viewing a picture and then to discuss their list with a partner leads to many
more related vocabulary words being shared—in turn forging many more
connections. Both self-reflection and partner interaction are strategies that
increase discussion and feedback. When the teacher gets to the question
about why an era might be called “Reconstruction,” she has set the stage for
the students to construct the rationale, rather than telling them the definition.
Finally, the follow-up question helps students realize a broader definition of
reconstruction at a personal, local, and global level. Although the first APK
experience would take about three minutes and the second one takes nine to
ten minutes, there is no question that students’ readiness to move forward is
enhanced by the teacher in scenario two and is well worth the time spent.
A strong APK is open-ended, seeking to guide learners to an “aha” moment
about the concept or information being taught. Consider the following brief
APK interaction between teacher and students to help them grasp the idea of
continental drift theory:
Teacher: I have five puzzle pieces on the ELMO. If I ask you to fit these
pieces together, what are three or four things you might look
for first?
Kalia: I would look at the shape of the puzzle pieces and see which
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parts push out and which parts are dented in.

Teacher: Can someone add to Kalia’s response and tell us other
thoughts that come to mind?
Shaun: I agree with Kalia. I look at the outline of the piece and where
the edges go in or where they bump out and then I pick two
pieces to see if they work. If they don’t work, I pick up a
different piece to see if I can make a match.
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Teacher: an someone tell me what part of the puzzle piece you look
C
at first?
Rosalinda:
Well, I look at all five pieces. I see which ones have the right
shapes, and then I sort of make a picture in my head to decide
which shapes might fit together.
Teacher: et me ask a question about today’s lesson. We are talking
L
about something called continental drift or continental
movement. If you look at the Atlantic Ocean on the globe or a
map, could you find anything that reminds you of a puzzle?
And the conversation continues.
Additional Strategies for APK

In any content area, techniques to activate prior knowledge can help make
the text or other literacy resources more meaningful to students. In her
book Teaching Reading in Social Studies, Science, and Math, author and
consultant Laura Robb (2003) outlines prereading strategies that she calls
getting-ready-to-learn strategies that prod thinking:
• Brainstorm and Categorize: Students generate a free flow of
ideas and organize them under general headings. (Think of as many
words as you can that might go into a story about winter in
New England.)
• Preview/Analyze/Connect: Students preview aspects of the text,
such as headings, graphs, pictures, and sidebars; analyze the content;
and then make personal connections. The teacher models for them
through think-alouds. (How is the graph on page 82 useful to the
reader? Is there a better way of communicating the information?)
• Fast-Write: Students write about a topic for a few minutes to
retrieve what they know. (Write anything you can recall about
George Washington.)
• Anticipation Guide: The teacher creates statements about a topic to
be taught and asks students to respond as to whether they think the
statement is true or false.
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z Using APK: Discussion and Data to Assess
Students’ Background Knowledge
APK activities also serve as a means of assessing students’ background
knowledge. As such, they are suitable for students at all achievement levels and
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do not need to be tiered. But the information you gather from students during
the activity can help you identify what students know or don’t know about a
topic to be taught. If the APK task in the second scenario outlined on page 39
was being used by a teacher to subsequently tier instruction, she might use the
following indicators to determine how to cluster students:
Reconstruction Era: Teacher Scaffolds Tasks

Based on Prior Knowledge Task
Group 1 Group 2 Group 3
• Used simple • Appropriately descriptive • Used insightful words

descriptive words
• Limited connections to • Made good connections to • Connections extended to
reasons it was called concrete, tangible evidence, social, emotional needs
Reconstruction—rebuilding but didn’t extend beyond the pertaining to Reconstruction
buildings, cities only physically reconstructing
• Struggled with any • Had parallel ideas of • Discussed reconstruction
connection of Reconstruction reconstruction of cities in Iraq of families after crisis,
to today’s world and after Hurricane Katrina reconstruction politically with
new president—more depth
to thinking
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Groupings Based on Observations of Students
Marcus Eric Austin Raymond Ginny Antonio

Clay Kala William Ahmad Anne Jamal
Shannon Dwayne Deandra Pedro
Miguel Beverly Nicole Lakeisha
Justine Hannah Danny
Sam Mark
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Curriculum Content: Reconstruction Era
Essential Questions
• What measures were taken during Reconstruction to reunite a divided country?
Were these actions successful?
• How did conditions in the country during the period of Reconstruction influence
westward expansion?
• What changes took place in the North and South to boost economic growth
following the Civil War?
• How did the rights of African Americans change in the 20 years that followed the
end of the Civil War? Were these changes influenced by geography?
Terms to Know
• Reconstruction: The period following the Civil War in which Congress passed laws
designed to rebuild the country and bring the southern states back into the Union
• Segregation: The separation of people, usually based on race or religion
• Discrimination: An unfair difference in the treatment of people
Problems During Reconstruction

• Millions of freed slaves needed housing, clothing, food, and jobs.
• The South’s economy was in ruins.
• Money had no value.
• Banks were closed.
• Railroads, bridges, plantations, and crops were destroyed.
Measures Taken to Resolve Problems

• The Freedmen’s Bureau was a government agency that provided food, schools, and
medical care for freed slaves and others in the South.
• Sharecropping was a system after the war in which freedmen and poor white farmers
rented land from a landowner by promising to pay the owner with a share of the crop.
• Cities grew with people, businesses, and factories.
• Railroads were a key to the expansion of business, agriculture, and industry. They
facilitated the growth of small towns to cities. Railroad centers stimulated the growth
of factories where clothing, furniture, and other useful items were made.
• The need for more and better roads increased.
(Adapted from the Virginia Department of Education, Social Studies Standards of Learning, 2006)
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z Though tiering instruction according to content will be discussed in detail
in Chapter 4, below are brief examples of how content can be tiered for
each group:
• Group 1: These students will benefit from connecting to the
reconstruction efforts following the Civil War through the eyes of
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people involved. They will review first-person letters and accounts of
life during and after the Civil War to better understand the physical,
economic, social, and emotional costs associated with the war. Then,
using a cause-and-effect format, students will be asked to make
connections between the “costs” and efforts of Reconstruction,
specifically focusing on problems during Reconstruction. A resource
is http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/
• Group 2: These students have a sense of the goals of
Reconstruction; however, they would benefit from understanding
the complexities that come with the effort. A driving question
is: Though Lee surrendered at Appomattox, in what ways
was the war still not over during the time of Reconstruction?
These students will focus on what happened to the rights of
African Americans during and after Reconstruction. The following
Web-based timeline of Reconstruction has resources that could
be examined to respond to this question: http://chnm.gmu.edu/
courses/122/recon/chron.html.
• Group 3: These students have strong insight into a wide range
of perspectives on the role of Reconstruction, with the ability to
apply their insights to what is happening in the world today and to
compare current events with events following the Civil War. Their
focus will be on what actions were taken to encourage economic
growth during Reconstruction and determining if equivalent
conditions have existed and currently exist in the United States and
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other parts of the world. Using the Web sites and several national
and local newspapers, they will be asked to work in two groups and
search out events occurring globally, nationally, and locally that
compare with events during Reconstruction.
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APK and the Curriculum
In considering prior knowledge, it can be helpful to examine the curriculum
for earlier grade levels to take note of what previous exposure students
have had to the content you will be teaching. For example, if you can say to
students, “Remember when you were in third grade and you learned about
the explorers Lewis and Clark?” then you can intentionally draw together
past and new related content that will assist in their recall. As you examine
curriculum vertically, the following questions are important to consider:
• Is this the first time students are being exposed to this content? If
so, how can I find information they already know to connect to what
I am about to teach?
• Is this a standard that is being spiraled throughout the grades? If so
what are key terms and concepts previously taught and how can I
connect with what students might have learned?
• How does this content relate to other subjects being studied at
this grade level? Are there opportunities for cross-curricular
connections?
Since you are prepping students for the content that will be introduced in
later grades, it is also important to think about how you can help bridge to the
next level. When students know that the content learned in previous years
connects to what they are learning in your class and will be expanded upon
as they move through the grades, they will be primed to expect or anticipate
the content. Their thinking expands to become even more integrated and
complex, allowing for easier retrieval of information. In addition, examination
of connections across and among content areas allows you to streamline
delivery of material, enabling you to cluster information into bigger ideas. The
way that we activate the content students have previously learned is another
important consideration in tiering: “Students need to practice, review, and
drill skills, but they should do so only in the spirit of working toward more
complex mastery of those skills” (Jacobs, 1997, p. 19).
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z Chunking the Lesson
The next step in lesson design is deciding how to chunk the lesson to fully
engage students.
Specifically, we need to know how to pace and chunk lessons to
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accommodate learners’ attention spans and their ability to stay focused on
the content. A key to successful brain-compatible lesson design is to take into
consideration the state of the learner. We use the term “state of the learner”
because the phrase conveys the need to shift states of being or awareness in
order to keep students engaged. For example, if students are sitting at a desk
listening to a teacher lecture, their state is one of being a sedentary, hopefully
receptive, listener. If students are in cooperative groups working on an activity,
their learning state will be interactive
with dialogue. When students switch
How Long Can We Keep
from writing in a reflective learning log
Students’ Attention? or journal to a partner discussion, they
“Teachers often wonder how long they can change learning states.
keep the attention of students during an When it comes to lesson design, a rule
instructional task. One suggested guide is of thumb is generally to shift students’
attention states according to the age of
to consider the student’s age, then add or
the learner; see box at left. Frequently
subtract two minutes (Jensen, 1995). Let
the shift is from one task to another,
me share how I explain to middle school but a student’s attention state can shift
teachers why sixth-grade classes are so with activities of shorter duration, as
unwieldy. Sixth graders are 12 years old. well. Think of providing an energizing
Using the age-plus-or-minus–two-minutes interval of two to five minutes, which can
rule, a teacher should shift activities every be accomplished with a content-related
10–14 minutes. Middle school teachers
think-pair-share activity or simply by
having students stand up and stretch. I
have a tendency to think in terms of 20-
know one sixth-grade teacher who, when
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to 25-minute instructional sections, but

she notices students getting lethargic,
these are simply too long for 12-year-old will have a “stop-and-chat” minute, telling
learners, and that’s why their lessons fall students to “Stand up and tell a neighbor
short of keeping most students engaged.” your favorite singer [or sport or food or
—From Teaching Smarter With the Brain what you had for breakfast].” Then she
in Focus (Armstrong, 2008, p. 38) tells them, “Now that you have more
oxygen in your brain, we’re ready to sit
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down and learn.” Below is an example showing how a lesson can be chunked to
change learners’ states of attention.
Chunking a Lesson to Keep Students Engaged
,
Attention State:
Student as . . . Time Transition During Lesson
Listener 8 minutes The teacher uses a PowerPoint presentation to

explain important content from the lesson. The
students are listening to the lecture. No note
taking is required.
Reflector and 4–5 minutes The teacher tells students to write down in
Note Taker their journals the key points they recall from
the mini-lecture.
Collaborator 3 minutes The teacher asks students to talk to their

partners and see if they recalled similar or
different information.
Summarizer 7–10 minutes The teacher combines two sets of partners for
Designer/Artist a group of four students. She gives each group
a piece of chart paper and markers. She asks
students to restate the information using pictures
and images only.
Observer or 3 minutes Each group gives a three-minute presentation

Presenter to the class.
Keeping Students Engaged: Movement

Keeps Learners on Track
A question from the survey at the end of Chapter 1 asks, “Do you design
interesting and relevant lessons to hook and engage your students?” Each
teacher needs to think about how to put together a lesson to maximally engage
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z students. Once you know that the attention of the learner needs to shift focus
based on the learner’s age, the challenge is to make these transitions fluid,
meaningful, and engaging. An engaged learner not only has more investment in
the activity, but has a more active brain.
When students become physically active there is an increase of a substance
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known as brain-derived-neurotrophic factor, or BDNF, in the neuron. BDNF
enhances the infrastructure of the cell and supports learning from three
perspectives: preparing for learning, boosting recall, and increasing attention.
BDNF increases in the neuron with physical activity (Ratey, 2008).
Teachers know that students thrive when they are engaged and active in the
learning process, but with advances in research on the brain and learning we now
know why. Lessons should not only be chunked to keep students attentive, but
physical activity should be interspersed throughout a lesson. Infusing movement
into a lesson can be done in the context of the lesson or simply as a break of a
few minutes to change the learner’s state. Each of the following examples adjusts
the learner’s state, but at the same time stays on topic:
• Changing from brief lecture to a small-group activity, such as moving
from a review of key content in science to a carousel brain-storming
activity where groups of students rotate around a room responding to
review prompts on chart paper.
• Switching from journal writing to a simulation/role play in social
studies on a topic such as immigration through Ellis Island.
• Transitioning from classroom-based math practice to measuring area,
perimeter, and angles of the school’s outdoor courtyard.
Building in breaks solely for physical activity is also purposeful. For

example, students can stand behind desks and stretch, march, and/or do “fast
feet” for a minute. I know one middle school Latin teacher who had students
go out and walk briskly around the track before tests in his afternoon class.
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Several elementary teachers I know use Brain Gym (Dennison & Dennison,
1992) or Smart Moves (Hannaford, 1995) as a focus/refocus strategy. The
bottom line is to remember to keep students’ minds and bodies activated!
In addition to activating prior knowledge and changing attention states, a
high-quality lesson will use instructional strategies that are well researched.
In Classroom Instruction That Works (2001), authors Marzano, Pickering,
and Pollock, leaders in applications of research-based practices to improve
instruction, highlight examples of important tools that support learning.
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Although each of the nine correlates of achievement they describe are important,
the seven in the chart below can readily be translated to lesson design strategies.
Categories of Strategies That Affect

Student Achievement
Identifying similarities and differences: Build in frequent opportunities for

students to compare and contrast during a lesson.
Summarizing and note taking: Ensure that students synthesize new material
in discussion and through systematic note taking, as well as learning logs
and journals.
Nonlinguistic representations: Tap into visual memory systems using pictures,
images, icons, and artifacts to reflect the content being taught.
Cooperative learning: Build in frequent opportunities for social interaction
with both short-term partner and small-group work, as well as longer-term
learning communities.
Generating and testing hypotheses: Teach students skills to identify problems
and propose solutions using data and information at hand, as well as through
action research.
Questions, cues, and advance organizers: Generate thinking and build
connections at all times.
Setting objectives and providing feedback: Identify goals and specific “Look
Fors” in guided practice and assessment that students may use to self-assess,
and teachers may use in providing specific feedback to students.
Some teachers are struck by the obviousness of the need to incorporate

these correlates into lesson design. “Of course, I’ll ask good questions,” they
say, or “I use cooperative learning several times a week.” But the strongest
benefit is derived when teachers are intentional about every aspect of the
lesson—when to direct teach, when to change learners’ states, how to get
students to think, how to provide meaningful feedback. If you’re interested
in further elaboration on these and additional correlates of achievement, see
Robert Marzano’s The Art and Science of Teaching (2007).
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z A Lesson Planning Template
To help you organize your thinking as you
plan differentiated lessons, you may want to
use the lesson planning template provided Standard:
Lesson Planning Template
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in the appendix. You’ll find one with guiding What are the big ideas? How does this big idea connect to the real world?
questions to help you flesh out your ideas, Hook:
along with an example, and a blank template. Tiers Content Process Product
Summary
You can develop your skill and comfort
level with tiering instruction if you have a
strong sense of the brain-compatible lesson
components that comprise an excellent
lesson as well as information about the
Closure:
starting points of your students. With these

insights you are ready to move forward!

1. Select a lesson you have taught recently and analyze it to see the strengths
(and weaknesses) of the lesson design. (Use the 10 Tiered Instruction
Targets at the end of Chapter 1 as criteria for your review.)
2. Design a lesson in which you are introducing new content where prior
knowledge is clearly developed. Assess the degree to which students seem
to grasp the new content. Teach another, similar class without activating
prior knowledge. Reflect on the connections that students make. Ask
students to give you feedback on whether the APK activities were helpful.
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3. Observe a colleague’s class specifically looking at the individual’s and

group’s ability to attend to the lesson based on the age of the learner. Look
at student engagement to see if there is a relationship between shifts of
attention and engagement.
4. Think about a lesson you are about to teach or one that you would like to
teach. Plan for three different ways to differentiate instruction by content.
Chapter 4
Content Instruction:
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Tiering to Teach Essential
Skills and Knowledge
“What, when, and how do I differentiate?” an obviously overwhelmed second-
year teacher asked. She had sat through the faculty workshop on differentiation
and approached me afterward to ask a few more questions. After a brief
conversation, it was clear that what she really wanted was to be reassured that
taking small steps toward differentiation was the way to get started. I assured
her that her willingness to ask questions was a great first step and that moving
forward a bit at a time was often a smart way to go.
What are these first small steps to tiering instruction? Because most schools
and school systems have defined the curriculum content that students are
expected to learn, a good place to start is by addressing the subject matter
being taught. You can find this information by using some of the following
support documents that are likely available to you:
• Pacing guide—a framework of the content standards or objectives and
the order and time frame in which they are expected to be taught.
• Curriculum guide—an overview of information and skills to be taught
in a given subject area with specific emphasis on facts and concepts
that must be covered because they will be on the test.
• Scope and sequence—similar to a pacing guide, this document is
typically included with all commercially published textbooks and
provides information about how the text is organized, including
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z the order in which content is presented (sequence) and the breadth
(scope) of coverage.
If you are tentative about teaching the prescribed curriculum because you
think the learning targets aren’t appropriate for some students, ask yourself,
“Is the designated content too difficult or is it the way I intend to teach it that
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might cause some learners to be left behind?” Most of the time it is not the
content itself that makes the learning targets unattainable; rather, it is the
degree to which the subject matter is undifferentiated and the effectiveness
of strategies selected to teach the targeted goals. Carol Tomlinson and Jay
McTighe (2006) remind us that “desired understandings and questions should
remain a constant target, regardless of differences in students’ background
knowledge, interests, and preferred learning modalities” (p. 33).
Knowing the What of the Lesson

Like peeling back the layers of an onion, unpacking state standards or
instructional learning objectives can reveal various levels of information. Here
are four helpful questions to ask when examining a content standard from the
curriculum or pacing guide:
• What thinking processes are involved? (Check the verbs: analyze,
compare and contrast, investigate, demonstrate, and so on.)
• What key vocabulary must be learned?
• How do the conjunctions and and or in the standard influence what a
student must know and be able to do? Thorough reading of standards
will tell if there are several steps or methods of understanding that
students must demonstrate.
• What kind of support can a student access? For example, can a
calculator be used? Will Internet or primary resources be accessible?
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The math example below illustrates how a standard can be unpacked for
greater clarity.
After examining the verbs in the standard above, a fifth-grade math teacher
knows that students are being asked to analyze and express. Analysis includes
knowing how the structure of numerical and geometric patterns changes or
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Must know both
numerical and
Verbs geometric patterns
Vocabulary
Math 5.20: The student will analyze the structure of numerical and geometric patterns (how
they change or grow) and express the relationship, using words, tables, graphs, or a
mathematical sentence. Concrete materials and calculators will be used.
Must express the

Conjunctions Support
pattern in one of
the formats
grows. Students can show (express) their knowledge using words, tables,
graphs, or a mathematical sentence. Typically, when options for demonstrating
knowledge are provided (as in the example above, where students can use
“words, tables, graphs, or a mathematical sentence”), it means that the end-
of-grade or end-of-course test may have questions using any of the methods
of expression. It is advisable for a teacher to address all concepts where the
conjunction is “or” because any portion of the learning goal may be tested. You
should analyze all standards or learning objectives in this manner to ensure that
your lessons allow students to interact with content in the manner in which it
will be assessed. Please note that I did not say “Teach to the test.” The point
is to be smart about communicating the language of a given standard so that
students know what they might encounter on a test. The Teacher Self-Checklist
for Tiering Lessons on page 54 will guide you as you think about differentiating
instruction with a specific learning standard or objective in mind.
A Tiered Instruction Imperative:

Choosing Content Based on Instructional
Reading Levels
If students have a diet only of books that are too difficult, reading competence
actually decreases (Routman, 2003). Students get frustrated at repeatedly
missing words and give up trying, or students run through the text missing
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z Teacher Self-Checklist for Tiering Lessons Based on Content
Questions to Consider
1. What is the content that I am to teach for this
,
Notes
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lesson or unit?
2. What does the learning target tell me that students
need to know and be able to do?
3. Which information is most essential to the learner?

4. What are the big ideas of this lesson or unit?

5. What does the verb tell me about the level of
thinking that this standard requires?
6. What are the conjunctions? Will I need to have
students demonstrate knowledge in multiple ways?
7. What are the key vocabulary terms that students
must learn?
8. Are the vocabulary terms part of each student’s
existing background knowledge or will I need to
build this understanding for all or a portion of
the class?
9. If a portion, which students will need to have
additional support to acquire content vocabulary?
10. How will I determine what my students already know
so I can build upon and scaffold their learning?
11. How can I make sure that students connect the big
ideas to their world?
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12. Can related content be brought in to expand

thinking and provide enrichment for students who
move ahead quickly?
Additional Questions:
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essential vocabulary, with markedly reduced comprehension. At the same time,
reading lots of easy books is not enough for continued growth because when
students read only at their independent levels, scaffolding up to the next level
of performance does not occur. For these reasons, as discussed in Chapter 2,
matching the reader with an appropriate text is essential, since true learning
occurs when the task difficulty and skill level required are slightly above the
student’s level.
Matching students with texts at their instructional levels seems to be
conventional practice in language arts in the early grades. Around fourth grade,
leveled reading groups in language arts become less frequent, often replaced
by whole-class literature selections. By middle school, reading at instructional
levels is seen as embarrassing to students who are reading below level, and so
the practice is abandoned—abandoning also the hope for many students to
move forward. The bottom line is that students need multiple and sustained
opportunities to read literature and text at their instructional reading level.
This need exists in both English/language arts classes and in content classes.
One way to support students in content classes is to give them access to
nonfiction leveled readers.
Criteria for leveled readers are based on an analysis of published books
that have been officially leveled using the Fountas & Pinnell Reading
Recovery and Lexile leveling criteria, as well as other factors known to affect
text difficulty. An extensive list of criteria and book attributes has been
developed for each level. This list is an excellent resource when planning for
tiered lessons by content.
A few years ago, I worked with a middle school principal to figure out a way
to find the instructional reading levels for his 200 entering students. Though
he received recommendations from fifth-grade teachers from four elementary
schools, he wanted to verify the levels while at the same time build greater
insight on the part of his sixth-grade teachers on using instructional reading
levels to differentiate instruction.
Different assessment tools were employed, according to the reading levels
of students. To ensure reliability of the assessment, we arranged for reading
specialists and instructional coaches from the elementary schools to come to
the middle school for three days in October to administer an Informal Reading
Inventory (IRI) to any sixth grader reading at fourth-grade level or below. The
remaining students took the Star Reading Inventory.
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z
Type of
Reader
Fountas &
Pinnell Level
A
Text Gradient Guide
Lexile Level
,
Basal Level
Readiness
Grade Level
Kindergarten/Grade 1
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Emergent
B Pre-primer 1 Kindergarten/Grade 1
C Pre-primer 1 Kindergarten/Grade 1
D Pre-primer 2 Grade 1
Early E 200–400 L Pre-primer 3 Grade 1
F Primer Grade 1
G Grade 1
H Grade 1 Grades 1/2
I Grades 1/2
140–500 L
Transitional J Grade 2 Grade 2
K Grade 2
L Grades 2/3
M 330–700 L Grades 2/3
N Grade 3 Grade 3
O Grades 3/4
Self-Extending P Grades 3/4
445–810 L
Q Grade 4 Grade 4
R Grade 4
S Grades 4/5
T 565–910 L Grades 4/5
U Grade 5 Grade 5
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V Grades 5/6
Advanced W 665–1000 L Grades 5/6
X Grade 6 Grades 6/7/8
Y 735–1065 L Grade 7 Grades 6/7/8
Z 805–1100 L Grade 8/beyond Grades 7/8
Adapted from Fountas, I., & Pinnell, G. (2006). Leveled Books (K–8): Matching Texts to Readers for Effective Teaching.
Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. http://www.lexile.com
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These assessments were real eye-openers for teachers, who found that
approximately four out of ten students were reading below grade level. As a
result, key English teachers became staunch advocates for placing students in
books at appropriate reading levels. In fact, after forming a new goal that all
students are expected to become readers of a wide range of books and other
materials, the dedicated reading lists were discarded! Instead of the whole
class plodding through a single book that the teacher and students read aloud
together, self-selected books became the norm, with teachers homing in on
strategies by selecting passages from a wide range of books. A single book
might be selected for shared reading to increase vocabulary and build listening
comprehension, but students as readers became a way of life in English
classes overall.
Using Supplemental Nonfiction Books

to Tier Content Instruction
In this middle school, the responsibility for placing students in texts at their
instructional reading levels rested not only with the English teachers. Armed
with information about reading levels and the knowledge that the readabilities
of most textbooks are above the level of intended use, teachers in core subject
areas also became acutely aware of the challenge that nearly four out of
ten students faced when they were asked to read the textbook. Teachers
resolved to add supplemental nonfiction resources to a literacy library at the
middle school. These books did not sit on an individual teacher’s shelf; rather,
they were housed as book sets in a room off the library accessible to
all teachers.
Expanding Beyond the Textbook

Leveled supplemental books that support the established curricula afford
teachers the ability to tier content lessons by reading levels. A number
of publishers, such as Newbridge, Benchmark, Scholastic, and National
Geographic, cluster books by topics at a variety of reading levels and make
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z Books by Genre at a Range of Reading Levels
(Fountas & Pinnell Guided Reading levels shown)
The following examples show that all students can be engaged in a genre or book study
using books that have been appropriately matched with instructional reading levels. In these
examples, the content has been differentiated or tiered by reading level, but the main concept or
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understanding remains the same for all students. Keep in mind that student interest should also be
considered when matching students to texts. Students with an extensive interest in a topic will likely
be able to tackle a text at a higher reading level because of enriched background knowledge or
deep attraction to the subject matter.
Realistic Fiction (Humorous) Fantasy

• Horrible Harry by Suzy Kline (level L) • James and the Giant Peach by Roald Dahl (level Q)
• Freckle Juice by Judy Blume (level M) • Charlotte’s Web by E.B. White (level R)
• Ramona Quimby by Beverly Cleary • Poppy by Avi (level S)
(level O) • The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe
• Beetles, Lightly Toasted by Phyllis by C.S. Lewis (level T)
Reynolds Naylor (Level Q) • Tale of Despereaux by Kate DiCamillo (level U)
• In the Year of the Boar and Jackie Robinson • Harry Potter by J.K. Rowling (level V)
by Bette Bao Lord (level R)
• Wrinkle in Time by Madeleine L’Engle (level W)
• Maniac Magee by Jerry Spinelli (level W)
• Redwall by Brian Jacques (level Z)
Realistic Fiction (Adventurous)
Author Study – Jean Craighead George
• Stone Fox by John Reynolds Gardiner
(level P) • There’s an Owl in the Shower
by Jean Craighead George (level Q)
• Hatchet by Gary Paulsen (level R)
• Cry of the Crow by Jean Craighead George
• Bridge to Terabithia by Katherine Paterson (level S)
(level T)
• My Side of the Mountain by Jean Craighead
Mystery George (level U)
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• Cam Jansen by David A. Adler (level L) Biographical Study – Pocahontas

• Boxcar Children: Mystery in Washington, D.C. • The True Story of Pocahontas by Dr. Linwood
by Gertrude Chandler Warner (level O) “Little Bear” Custalow and Angela L. Daniel
• Encyclopedia Brown by Donald J. Sobol “Silver Star” (level L)
(level P) • Pocahontas and the Strangers by Clyde Robert
• Mystery of the Cupboard by Lynne Reid Banks Bulla (level N)
(level R) • In Their Own Words: Pocahontas
• The Westing Game by Ellen Raskin (level V) by George Sullivan (level R)
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Web Sites for Book Leveling Information
http://registration.beavton.k12.or.us/lbdb/default.htm
http://src.scholastic.com/ecatalog/
these materials available in sets. In some cases, the cover of the text and the
visual representations appear the same, but the readability varies. These
books are typically content-rich while at the same time tailored for readability.
Although some publishers have graduated sets of leveled nonfiction books on
specific topics, many times a teacher will need to search out the content from a
variety of sources.
A common question teachers have when they differentiate by instructional
reading levels is, “How do I incorporate leveled books without making my
struggling readers feel self-conscious?” A particular concern is ensuring that
students don’t feel as if they are in—as they call it—“the baby books.”
I watched a middle school physical science teacher do an exceptional job
in a lesson on magnetism that incorporated leveled readers in stations around
the room. Her strategy was to have a range of nonfiction leveled readers at
each station. Her students were in mixed groups, but each student had an
assignment card. At one point, the highest-achieving students were asked to
compare a particularly well-done visual organizer in a nonfiction book at a
lower readability level with one in a high school text. The task was to analyze
the two graphics to see if the content was effectively represented in both. In
contrast, her lowest-achieving students were asked to look at a picture in the
on-level text and to respond to specific questions based on the picture. In
effect, all students looked at a range of materials. However, when it came to
completing the study guide, the teacher manipulated the actual reading and
response by placing students in materials at their instructional reading levels.
Do students figure out that some of them are in different books at different
levels? Certainly, but you can orchestrate the use of materials in such a way
that students realize that all resources can support learning. A first step is
to create a culture of respect for the different entry points of learners and
make it clear that using a wide variety of resources at a range of levels is the
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z norm. Designing lessons so that all students use leveled materials is important,
as well. A student at a higher reading level might use a nonfiction supplemental
text at a lower level with a question or task that has greater complexity. If you
think about it, you may have enjoyed reading nonfiction text with your own
children at home and found that you learned something new or interesting. In
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this case, the art of developing the questions or tasks come into play.
Examples of Supplemental Books

on a Specific Topic or Standard
3rd Grade: Topic—Civics: The student will recognize why government is necessary in the classroom,
school, and community. The student will explain the importance of the basic principles that form the
foundation of a republican form of government.
Title/Author Publisher Fountas & Pinnell Level

Following Rules, by Robin Nelson Lerner Level I
We Vote, by Cynthia Martin Newbridge Level K
What Is Democracy?, by Julie Haydon Harcourt Level N
If You Were There When They Signed the Constitution, Scholastic Level P
by Elizabeth Levy
Making a Law, by Sarah DeCapra Scholastic Level P
4th Grade: Topic—Weather: The student will investigate and understand how weather conditions
and phenomena occur and can be predicted. Key concepts include weather measurements and
meteorological tools (air pressure: barometer; wind speed: anemometer; rainfall: rain gauge; and
temperature: thermometer) and weather phenomena (fronts, clouds, and storms).

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Looking at Clouds, by S. Ring Newbridge Level L

Stormy Weather, by N. Lunis Benchmark Level N
Weather Words, by Gail Gibbons Scholastic Level R
And Now for the Weather!, by W. O’Byrne Rigby Level S/T
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5th Grade: Topic—Matter: The student will investigate and understand that matter is anything that has
mass, takes up space, and occurs as a solid, liquid, or gas.

What Is Matter?, by Lisa Trumbauer Newbridge Level J
My World of Science: Solids, Liquids, Gases, Heinemann Level L
by Angela Royston
Ranger Rick: The World of Matter, Newbridge Level N
by Ron Cole
Properties of Matter: Blue Planet Diaries, Newbridge Level S
by Lisa Boehm
Science Concepts: Matter, by Alvin Silverstein, Lerner Level Y
Virginia Silverstein, and Laura S. Nunn
6th Grade: Topic—American Revolution: The student will demonstrate knowledge of the causes and
results of the American Revolution by identifying the issues of dissatisfaction that led to the American
Revolution and identifying how political ideas shaped the revolutionary movement.

Sam the Minuteman, by Nathaniel Benchley HarperTrophy Level J
Revolutionary War on Wednesday, Random House Level M
by Mary Pope Osbourne
Redcoats and Petticoats, by Katherine Kirkpatrick Hampton-Brown Level P
If You Lived at the Time of the American Revolution, Scholastic Level Q
by Kay Moore
A Time Line of the American Revolution, Rosen Level R
by Lynn George
The Start of the American Revolutionary War: Rosen Level S
Paul Revere Rides at Midnight, by Allison S. Draper
The American Revolution, by Bruce Bliven, Jr. Random House Level T
George vs. George: The American Revolution National Level U
as Seen From Both Sides, by Rosalyn Schanzer Geographic
Fight for Freedom: The American Revolutionary War, Scholastic Level X
by Benson Bobrick
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z Rewriting to Adapt Texts
As we’ve discussed, to successfully differentiate using tiered content you
must know the reading levels of your students and have resources at both
their independent and instructional levels. If commercial resources are not
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available, you can adapt text yourself to be sure all students have access
to the targeted facts and concepts of the lesson. Certainly, the thought of
rewriting text to teach students the content of the class can be a bit daunting,
but finding the key content and being selective about which text is rewritten
can make it more manageable.
Let’s look at an example. In Pennsylvania, the Northwest Ordinance is
mentioned as a primary document that is taught to sixth-grade students to
illustrate how the early government solved conflict through compromise.
This 1787 document addresses questions of state expansion and designates
Teacher resource of
literacy library book bins
of nonfiction topics
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Literacy Library housing

Leveled Reading Books
for teachers
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slave or free states. (The ordinance text can be found at http://www.
teachingamericanhistory.org/library/index.asp?document=48.) Consider the
original and clarified versions of portions of Articles 5 and 6 shown below.
Take note that the rewritten version takes into account historical context in
that free inhabitants in 1787 did not include women.
The Northwest Ordinance, Articles 5 and 6
original adapted and clarified version
Article 5 excerpt: Article 5 excerpt adapted:

And, whenever any of the said States shall When a new state has 60,000 free men
have sixty thousand free inhabitants therein, (women do not count), its delegates will
such State shall be admitted, by its delegates, be admitted into Congress on an equal
into the Congress of the United States, on footing with delegates from the original
an equal footing with the original States 13 states. The new state can form its
in all respects whatever, and shall be at own permanent constitution and state
liberty to form a permanent constitution and government as long as the state constitution
State government: Provided, the constitution conforms to the principles stated in the
and government so to be formed, shall be Northwest Ordinance.
republican, and in conformity to the principles
contained in these articles.
Article 6: Article 6 adapted:

There shall be neither slavery nor involuntary Slavery or forcing someone to work
servitude in the said territory, otherwise than in against his or her will is not allowed, unless
the punishment of crimes whereof the party shall someone has been lawfully convicted and
have been duly convicted: Provided, always, it is part of the punishment for the crime.
that any person escaping into the same, from But if a person escapes from slavery or
whom labor or service is lawfully claimed in from being a servant in one of the original
any one of the original States, such fugitive states, he or she is considered a fugitive
may be lawfully reclaimed and conveyed to the and can be reclaimed and sent back to the
person claiming his or her labor or service person for whom he or she worked.
as aforesaid.
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z Tiering Vocabulary
As you prepare to tier content, you should also be aware of the ease or
difficulty of the related vocabulary. Since we know that increasing student
exposure to new terms is one way to enrich thinking, vocabulary instruction
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that builds on the APK experience by connecting new words to what students
already know can be highly beneficial. In fact, Robert Marzano points out that
“instruction in words that are specific to the content being taught is associated
with a gain of 33 percentile points” (2004, p. 89).
Tiering vocabulary instruction is illustrated in the following content related
to plate tectonics and the creation of geologic features—a familiar upper
elementary and middle school science standard. These science terms are
commonly found in science texts and curriculum guides that address the topic
of plate tectonics. Because you want to begin with the end in mind and be
aware of key vocabulary on end-of-grade, end-of-course, unit, or end-of-chapter
tests, you should be able to take vocabulary related to the content you will be
teaching and rank it according to how essential it is to the material overall.
The following groupings start with basic vocabulary related to plate tectonics
and include vocabulary that will be on the test in one form or another. The
second group is called basic plus, which includes the essential terms from the
Vocabulary Group 1 Vocabulary Group 2 Vocabulary Group 3

(Basic— (Basic plus) (Expanded)
terms will be on the test)
fault crustal plate movement geophysical processes

fold continental drift trenches—names and
ridge fissure volcanoes locations of
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volcano strike-slip faults collision zones
magma geological features subduction zones
earthquake geologic map reading
plate tectonics
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first group and additional standard vocabulary. The
final group expands on the vocabulary in the first and Tier the Assessment Too!
second groups, adding geologic map–reading terms Remember that you need to
and additional related language. The third group is adjust assessment when you
an example of providing expanded vocabulary to
tier content. Consider the
students who will benefit from enrichment tasks
vocabulary words related to
related to the content
plate tectonics and geologic
After identifying the targeted vocabulary for each
level, the next step in lesson design is to determine features. When testing students
strategies to teach these terms most effectively. All who have learned only the
students should be taught the essential vocabulary basic terminology, you would
that they will encounter on the test; however, in not ask questions about the
a tiered lesson, additional or related terminology expanded vocabulary and
can be taught to students who quickly master
concepts. Regardless of the
the essential vocabulary. Additionally, knowing
format of assessment, tests
the vocabulary from prior standards can help you
work with students who may not have previously need to be modified so that
mastered this content, so meeting with the previous students are held accountable
grade’s teachers to discuss vertical alignment of only for the content they have
vocabulary is a good idea. been taught.
Summary
The following steps should be considered in tiering content:
1. Identify the standard (with attention on the verb, vocabulary, and support
available). The content standard remains the same for all of our learners.
2. Determine the big idea of the standard. This essential understanding
remains the same for all of our learners.
3. Pre-assess to determine students’ readiness levels, interests, or learning
profiles. (See Chapters 2 and 6 for pre-assessment ideas.)
4. Know the reading levels of your students and ensure access to an array of
content resources at different reading levels.
5. Activate prior knowledge as a way to prime the brain and to hook students
into the lesson.
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z 6. Design engaging activities rooted in best practices for on-grade-level
students. Design similar activities for struggling learners with additional
support, materials, and/or instruction, and more-complex activities for
advanced learners.
7. Monitor and adjust as students participate in the instructional activities.
z Ideas for Reflection

1. Select a content lesson you are about to teach. Use the Teacher Self-
Checklist on page 55 and reflect on what you could do to tier the lesson to a
greater extent.
2. Talk to teachers at your grade level or in your learning community. Discuss
the need for leveled texts and/or readers in your grade, content area,
or school. Are resources available to enable you to provide materials at
different levels, but with similar content?
3. Take a particularly challenging area of content that your students are
required to know for the standards test. Rewrite all or a portion of the
content so it can be understood more readily. Discuss with colleagues the
possibility of developing a “library” of materials that can be made available
to teachers.
4. Select a content area where vocabulary is an emphasis. Level the
vocabulary into three or four groups. Decide on strategies that could be
used effectively to support students in learning the vocabulary.
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Chapter 5
Process: Strategic Teaching

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to Tier Instruction
Have you ever played a familiar tune on an electric piano? Even if you haven’t
progressed beyond the one-finger technique, at a push of a button you can
add a trumpet or flute tone to the piece of music. All you have to do is press
another switch to infuse the rhythms of rock and roll, a Latin beat, or rap.
Tiering instruction based on processes of teaching is similar. The basic notes
are the same, but the complexity of the music is intentionally adjusted for
different learners.
Tiering by process—the how of teaching—is an essential consideration for
meeting the needs of diverse learners in your classroom. After you’ve analyzed
the content you teach, the next step is to differentiate through whole-group
instruction, in small groups, or with individual support. You also determine the
best techniques to use to support learning. Consider the questions on page 68,
which prompt thinking about this aspect of differentiation, and examine one
middle-school content-area teacher’s notes on how she’ll tier her lesson.
A blank template is on page 140 in the appendix.
The art of effectively tiering instruction begins with assessing where
students are and analyzing where they should go next, then selecting the
most effective way of teaching each student to meet the learning targets.
This decision about how to teach, referred to as instructional pedagogy, is
defined by one group of prominent researchers as “assisting students through
interaction and activity in the ongoing academic and social events of the
classroom” (Tharp, 2002). In this explanation of pedagogy, teachers must guide
learning while actively engaging students—now that’s what we’re about!
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z 12 Questions to Prompt Decisions About Tiering by Process
How Will I Engage Students?
1. What information about my students have I

,
Notes
Look at the readiness scaffold summary.
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learned from the pre-assessments?
2. What grouping arrangements are optimal at 8 min. whole group

different stages of the lesson? (When do I 5 min. individual
use whole-group, small-group, partner, or 12 min. small group
individual tasks?) Back to whole group
3. What leveled books and resources do I have Newbridge readers, text, Internet
to support learning? Do I need to secure
additional materials?
4. W
hat strategies will I use to make connections A to Z review and inspiration webbing
to what students know already (activate
prior knowledge)?
5. What degree of choice should I offer to students TBD

at each tier?
6. What are entry levels of thinking for students Readiness scale and Independent Reading Inventories
at each tier?
7. What questions can I pose to scaffold or Need to develop

extend thinking?
8. How much complexity in a task or assignment can Look at the readiness scaffold summary.
students, pairs, or groups manage?
9. How quickly or how slowly should tasks advance Keep track of Group 1 to be sure they move along.
for each tier of students?
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10. How much independence will specific students, Group 3 will work in library for last 15 minutes.
pairs, or groups be able to handle and how much
support will I need to provide?
11. What will be the most effective strategies to use to Group 2 is larger. Will use jigsaw technique.
deliver content?
12. How will I measure student progress? Re-administer pre-assessment
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In Chapter 2, we discussed the Student Scaffolding Readiness Scale, which
can help you identify specific students’ readiness for learning (see page 138).
Gaining increased awareness of the strengths and weaknesses of students
allows you to more effectively group students for instruction. When preparing
to differentiate strategies for teaching, critical areas to consider are students’
background knowledge, complexity of thinking, the degree of independence
they can handle, and the amount of time allotted for learning. As indicated
on the chart on page 70, the teacher’s role is one of providing the optimal
support for each student. As you answer the questions about the needs of
your students and identify how they are progressing, you can then move to
the next step by selecting strategies that encourage maximum engagement.
When differentiating by process, it is not necessary to do three entire
lessons from scratch. You will become more adept at developing a core lesson
and adapting it based on your student groups and their areas of need. I offer
several examples on the following pages. Keep in mind as well that there is a
place for whole-group instruction, particularly for the following purposes:
• To provide an overview of a lesson through a mini-lecture that sets
the stage for the tiered instruction to follow.
• To use resources such as a video clips, modeled lessons, guest
presenters, or online sources that address the content and are
suitable for all levels.
• To conduct a task or assignment that is the same, yet differentiated
in the sense that students work on the same task at their own levels.
Examples of these tasks might be having all students complete a
compare-and-contrast graphic organizer on a given topic, do a quick-
write, or complete an interactive notebook entry.
70
z Differentiating by Process: Teacher Role
,
,
Descriptor For students below level, teacher
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For students on level, teacher For students above level, teacher
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• Provides targeted instruction • Activates and develops background information • Applies background knowledge to
• Makes connections with student interests and new information new information in ways that show
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• Builds background before story • Makes connections with student interests interconnectedness of concepts
Background
• Reinforces meaning kinesthetically • Expands vocabulary with connected • Promotes study of advanced vocabulary
Knowledge • Pinpoints essential vocabulary terms/definitions and higher expectations for work
• Uses word walls or vocabulary posters with
words and icons
• Provides audio or video support
• Introduces one concept at a time • Provides instruction that encourages and • Provides students with an advanced level
• Guides students to make connections from known fosters independent thinking of challenge
to new content • Designs questions and activities to activate • Facilitates opportunities for students to frame,
• Creates bridges to help students move from low higher-order thinking analyze, and synthesize information to solve
Thinking to high levels • Uses visual memory systems to support thinking problems and answer questions
• Activates visual memory systems to • Uses divergent questions to extend fluency, • Provides opportunities for divergent and
support thinking flexibility, and confidence in thinking creative thinking in context
• Uses divergent questions to build fluency, • Solicits elaboration, innovation, and originality
flexibility, and confidence in thinking in thinking
• Provides clear expectations • Provides choice for students • Provides choices of tasks or modes
• Models and thinks aloud with students • Incorporates goal-setting for all students of learning
Independence • Provides multiple opportunities for practice • Provides teacher support that advances • Incorporates learning contracts to
• Examines proximity of seating student independence personalize content
• Alters groupings, as needed • Incorporates conferencing with all students • Encourages independent study
• Incorporates use of mentors and tutors
Time for • Provides extended time • Provides age-appropriate pace of instruction • Compacts curriculum or exempts students
Learning • Breaks assignments into shorter segments from work in which they show mastery
or “chunks”
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Don’t Kick Yourself!
One reality of differentiated instruction is that at times you simply are
not able to plan for a tiered lesson and the default lesson becomes
whole-group instruction. Even when a whole-group lesson occurs
because the tiered lesson isn’t pulled together, you can make it
more palatable for students if you keep in mind the lesson-design
reminders from Chapter 2 and remember to keep students engaged
and thinking.
Tiering a Lesson: Common Goals Using

Different Strategies
When planning tiered instruction, find the similarities in what students need
to learn and do, then adapt lessons for each group. These guidelines apply to
each grouping:
• The same learning goal is applied.
• The format of the activity remains the same.
• Tasks are engaging, challenging, and respectful.
• Groups show increasing complexity of thinking in a particular domain.
The example tiered activity below on electricity (typically in a fourth- or

fifth-grade curriculum) has a common learning goal that requires students to
investigate and understand the characteristics of electricity, including the key
concepts of conductors and insulators and basic circuits, as well as open/closed
and parallel/series circuits. The format of the lesson is similar in that students
are working in small groups and recording information on a graphic organizer.
Tasks for each group are interesting and engaging, although student task cards
or response sheets vary according to the group. Group 1 has a slightly less
complex task than Group 2 and Group 3 is somewhat more complex. Different
graphic organizers are used to record work as noted in the examples on pages
73 and 74.
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z Group 1
(Below Level)
Tiering a Science Lesson Topic: Electricity
,
Group 2
(At Level)
Group 3
(Above Level)
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How can we get a light What are multiple ways What is the relationship of
bulb to light in two different that we can get a light bulb resistance, voltage, and
ways, using one light to light, using several light current in series and parallel
bulb, two wires, and two bulbs, wires, and batteries? circuits? Create and view
batteries? Use materials Create examples of parallel multiple examples of parallel
to create a parallel and and series circuits. Create a and series circuits. Create a
series circuit. After you have label for each of the types matrix to show the level of
created your circuits, use of circuits. Then, create a bulb brightness in each. Use
the word cards to label the chart showing which circuits the terms resistance, voltage,
different examples. Then, work, which do not work, and current to describe what
sort the word and picture and why. Be sure to add is causing the differences
cards provided as either an additional battery, wire, in brightness. You’ve just
parallel or series examples. light, etc. to your trials to discovered Ohm’s law!
There are blank cards on test your hypothesis. When
which you can create and is the bulb brighter—series
test your own examples. or parallel?
When is the bulb brighter—
series or parallel?
Entry Points
A student’s entry point is his or her readiness level. This term refers to the
point at which a student can successfully engage with the content. As with
instructional reading levels, entry points are above independent level and
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below frustration level. Before determining entry points, take that first step to
examine the content and identify a progression of skills from prerequisite to
more advanced understandings. Based on a range of formal and informal pre-
assessments, you would first identify where students should be placed on the
continuum. Some curriculum materials are developed with added suggestions for
students who need support and those who need enrichment. These supplemental
resources will often have suggestions for you as you plan for tiered instruction.
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Group 1 example
Group 2 example
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z Group 3 example
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The great thing about tiering is that you can always adjust! If the entry point
proves too easy, move the student forward. If the entry point is too challenging,
adjust the student’s level downward.
To help explain entry points more completely, consider a math concept
that you are trying to teach, for example, division. What are the foundational
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understandings that you want all students to know? Most likely, you want
all students to begin by understanding what it means to divide. What is the
concept of division? Once students have this understanding, there are varying
levels of difficulty within division. For example, if a student had just learned the
concept of division, you certainly wouldn’t have them next divide multiple-digit
numbers with remainders. Instead, you’d follow a continuum that allowed skills
to be naturally scaffolded based on students’ readiness; see example continuum
for division, below. This is where pre-assessments are so beneficial. If you have
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identified specific skills that students should master and have placed them on
a learning continuum, pre-assessments can help you identify what students
already understand and what is an appropriate entry point. Based on pre-
assessments of students’ skill with division, this classroom teacher determined
that students are at three different entry points. Some students are ready
for multiple-digit by multiple-digit division. Others are ready for the more
complex concept of relating fractions and division; however, because this is a
new progression, the teacher would begin developing this relationship by using
“friendly” fractions to help make the connections more visible. The remaining
students have some understanding of the relationship of fractions and decimals
and are ready for problems including some “unfriendly” fractions.
Sample Continuum of Understanding for Division Concepts
,
• R elating an “unfriendly” fraction and More Complex
Entry Point 3
a decimal Concepts
• Relating a “friendly” fraction and a decimal
Entry Point 2
• R epresenting a remainder as a fraction
or decimal
• D
ivision of multiple-digit by multiple-digit
with remainder
• Division of multiple-digit by multiple-digit
Entry Point 1
• D
ivision of single-digit by multiple-digit
with remainder
• Division of single-digit by multiple-digit
• D
ivision of single-digit by single-digit
with remainder
• Concept of remainder
Foundational
• Division of single-digit by single-digit or Basic
• Concept of division Understandings
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z Now, consider the problems that were given to a fifth-grade math class,
based on the varying entry points identified. What do the problems have in
common? How does the complexity vary? The problems have been intentionally
selected to meet the same learning goal of understanding division but at these
varying entry points.
z Entry Point 1
I want to walk long enough

to burn calories from eating
ice cream (225 calories).
Walking burns 25 calories
every 10 minutes. How
many minutes do I need
to walk?
Task
Entry Point 2
I want to ride my bike long

enough to burn calories from
eating potato chips (150
calories). Biking burns 40
calories every 10 minutes.
How many minutes do I need
to ride my bike?
Task
Entry Point 3
I want to run long enough

to burn calories from eating
chocolate cookies (55
calories). Running burns 80
calories every 10 minutes.
How many minutes do I need
to run?
Task
Division with no remainders Division with Division with

(Answer: 90 minutes) “friendly” fractions “unfriendly” fractions
(Answer: 37 ½ minutes) (Answer: 6 7/8 minutes)
Adapted from Alcaru, Alston & Katims (2000)
In the example above, notice that the figures have changed, but the
overall learning goal is the same for all students—understanding the
relationship between fractions and division. However, the questions increase
in mathematical complexity, with the first example using numbers that are
easily divisible, the second example using numbers that involve “friendly”
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fractional increments, and the third example using numbers that involve
“unfriendly” fractional increments. Adjusting tiers based on the complexity of
thinking asked of students requires that you think critically about the content
as well. Ask yourself: What are the prerequisite understandings? What are the
more advanced understandings? Is there a hierarchy to follow in which one
understanding builds upon another?
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As another example, let’s consider fourth grader Alexandra’s level of
readiness when it comes to the reading strategy of making inferences. The
goal is for Alexandra to be able to grasp word meaning, understand characters’
emotions, and make predictions based on inferences from the text. Although
the teacher has been working with Alexandra to help her interact more
with the text, she knows that Alexandra will need extra support in making
inferences. In addition, she will need many opportunities for practice, which
must be kept in mind when pacing instruction. Since Alexandra follows
moderately complex instructions and wants more autonomy in learning,
offering choice and allowing open-ended responses are important ingredients
of her instruction.
As the teacher plans, she creates balanced instructional learning goals for
this student. For example, if Alexandra is “low” in background knowledge
on the content about which she’ll be asked to make inferences, providing
experiences that help build a strong knowledge base is important. Similarly,
Setting Individual Learning Goals
,
Student Name: Alexandra Content: Making Inferences (Reading)
Student Response Teacher Intervention

Characteristics
Low Medium High Low Medium High
Provides experiences
Has background knowledge X to build
knowledge base
Provides models to
Exhibits independence in learning content X scaffold independent
practice
Provides more support
Applies abstract, higher-level thinking X for thinking
Uses more
student-
Displays high level of autonomy X centered
activities
Gives
Follows complex instructions moderately
X complex
instructions
Provides extended
Masters learning at a rapid pace X time
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z since Alexandra is “high” in autonomy, the teacher should ensure that she has
independence and that some activities are self-directed. View the chart on
page 77 to see the balance of student needs with a teacher response.
Alexandra’s teacher realizes that Alexandra, who lives in a housing project in
the city, has a limited understanding of animal habitats. One of the state science
z
objectives asks students to identify organisms that are dependent on one
another in a given ecosystem and define habitat, explaining how a change
in habitat affects an organism (www.pdesas.org, 2010). Before talking about
the habitats of mammals, birds, reptiles, or any other animal, the teacher primed
Alexandra’s thinking with a series of questions connecting the habitats she and
her friends encountered in the city. The paved, fenced-in basketball court at the
end of the block where her older brother hangs out, the church choir she sings
in, and the drug store where she and her friends go to buy drinks and candy were
all used to make connections. The teacher also modeled thinking about making
connections by saying, “I make a connection between habitats and my car. I keep
my car very clean and my habitat for driving includes my music CDs, my spare
umbrella, my car deodorizer, and some bottled water. My husband’s car habitat is
very different. He keeps the empty drink cups and trash on the floor, his tennis
shoes and workout clothes are in the back, newspapers are on the seat, and he
likes the radio on all the time. When I think about the cars, I make a connection
to different habitats of animals. I wonder if my car habitat is more like a
mammal’s habitat and my husband’s car is more like a bird’s habitat.” The teacher
asked Alexandra to look at several nonfiction readers about habitats and work on
her own for a few minutes to find some connections between her environment
and habitats of different animals, using a compare-and-contrast graphic organizer
designed for the task.
The teacher then posed a series of inference questions to probe for thinking:
• What would happen if your brother no longer had a basketball court
close by? How would his life change?
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• What would happen if something significant changed in an animal

habitat, such as a drought or someone coming in and clearing the
woods to build houses?
• When you look at the picture in the book of the environment the
snake lives in, what might occur to threaten its habitat?
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Complex Thinking Is for All Students
A fellow teacher once said to me, “These thinking tasks are good for my regular
and gifted kids, but the struggling students won’t get it.” Think of this: If we
never provide opportunities for struggling learners to engage in complex
thinking, how are they going to learn to make the complex decisions they will
encounter throughout life? As you make decisions about clustering students for
tiered instruction and choosing the strategies that support learning, remember
that critical thinking and problem solving need to be practiced by all students!
The goal is to design instruction so students do the work of thinking.
Support for thinking occurs when you prompt, prod, and guide students to
reflect, extend, and grapple with more complex thinking. Consider the weaving
metaphor below:
The teacher works with each student’s thinking, while weaving other
students into the interchange of ideas. She is the master weaver, holding
threads of important ideas and bringing them back to the surface when
they’re dropped. She has in mind a very general design for the weaving,
which enables her to return to previous ideas in order to move the group’s
thinking along. The details of the design, however, are determined by
students’ input.
(Hogan & Pressley, 1997, p. 91).
While there is general agreement that infusing higher-order thinking

throughout lessons is a worthy goal, observation of classes has shown us that
students are offered only sporadically questions and tasks that require them
to think at higher levels (Redfield & Rousseau, 1981). Building higher-level
thinking into classroom instruction is successful when you design the questions
before you start the lesson. It definitely pays off to put time and effort in the
“up-front” work of crafting quality questions to ensure that all students have
opportunities for complex thinking, regardless of their entry levels. When you
tier instruction, you must be intentional about creating opportunities to stretch
each student’s thinking. In this regard, make it a rule of thumb to give away as
few answers as possible, so that students have the opportunity to work toward
the answers themselves.
z
z Below are several methods to prompt students as thinkers and may be used
with small, tiered groups or the whole class.
Strategies to Prompt Student Thinking
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• Frame a problem or articulate a goal: “It sounds to me that what you’re
talking about relates to the impact of global warming on life forms in
the Arctic.”
• Refocus the discussion: “We seem to agree on the first point. Let’s consider
the second statement and see how it influences our thinking.”
• Invite interaction of ideas: “Who can build on Kala’s ideas and expand
our thinking?”
• Asks for clarification: “Can you tell me your evidence source or find support
in the text for your comment that, ‘Coastal cities will be submerged by rising
sea water?’”
• Ask for Elaboration: “Can you explain a bit more about the comment you
just made?”
(Adapted from Hogan & Pressley,1997, p. 90)
As you plan a lesson, whether you are working with individual students
or the whole class, you have a great deal of control over how you choose to
engage students with higher-order questions. Linda Darling-Hammond (1997),
a researcher and author on teaching and learning, distinguishes between work
that keeps students busy and work that advances learning:
Work that results in deep understanding has at least three features: it

requires the use of higher-order cognitive functions, taking students
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beyond recall, recognition, and reproduction of information to evaluation,

analysis, synthesis, and production of arguments, ideas, and performance.
It asks students to apply these skills and ideas in meaningful contexts,
engaging them in activities they have real reason to want to undertake.
And it builds upon students’ prior learning but presses toward more
disciplined understandings. (p. 109)
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Tiered Instruction:
Adjusting Questioning Strategies
Teacher Marsha Brubaker planned to present the following math problem to three
students at varying levels:
In yesterday’s lesson, I grouped a set of counters so that there were the
same number of counters in each group. I can’t remember how many were
in each group, but I do know there were 12 counters all together. What
might the groups have been?
Before presenting this problem, Marsha reflected on her students’ potential
responses; tiering instruction requires that we consider the complexity of thinking
that students can handle and the kinds of questions we can pose to foster that
thinking. Of the three students Martha planned to engage in this math task,
Sam finds all the answers and can explain his responses quickly, Kate finds one
answer and calls it “done,” and Ryan struggles with a basic understanding of the
problem. For these learners, the process definitely needs to be tiered; therefore,
in anticipation of the students’ responses, Marsha and her team members, Jane
Lobb and Stephanie Haskins, brainstormed and recorded some questions for the
varying levels of response anticipated:
Ryan (Group 3: Struggling with the task):
• What do you know in this problem?
• Can you show me with counters?
• When you listen to the problem, what do you picture in your mind?
• Is there a particular place that is confusing to you?
Kate (Group 2: Meeting the task, but could be expanded):

• Are there any other answers?
• Are there other ways you can show your answer?
• Can you create a similar problem?
Sam (Group 1: Needs expanded task):

• If I had 28 counters, would you solve the problem the same way?
• How would the problem be different?
• If I had 29 counters what occurs?
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z Differentiating With Divergent Questions
To further challenge students’ thinking, it is important to build in opportunities
for them to respond to divergent questions. These open-ended questions
benefit learners because there is no “gotcha” effect, since students aren’t asked
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to provide a single right answer. They are naturally differentiated because each
student’s response is individualized. The following questions focusing on earth
science content provide examples:
• What words or phrases can you think of that might be used to describe
a volcano in its various stages?
• What would happen if the earth’s crust had no faults?
• How is a volcano like a temper tantrum?
• How is an earthquake like a traffic jam?
Open-ended is the operative term when using divergent questions.

Reorganization questions consistently fall into this category. Excellent
strategies include using “forced association” questions, which lead students
to find connections between two things that are generally unalike, as well
as questions that shift point of view in a novel and unusual way. Creative
questions, such as challenging students to think of a familiar object—a
yardstick, for example—and then think of alternate uses for it, are another
type of open-ended question. Divergent questions can be used in whole-class
instruction as well as with individuals and small groups, particularly when
students respond independently and in writing. When you ask questions that
lead students to tap into their ideas as opposed to questions that have one right
answer, you are probing thinking at the student’s level, while at the same time
reducing fear of failure. For example, a fifth-grade teacher explains the task to
his class:
Do you remember our conversation about using off-the-wall

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questions to get your brains to think harder? I called these questions

divergent questions because they make us diverge—or think in
many different directions. We are halfway through our unit on
plate tectonics, and I want to review using some of these divergent
questions. I want each of you to think on your own, so I will ask
you to use the think page scratch paper on your desk. You have 90
seconds to write a response on the think page. You may list responses
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or write them in full sentences. Here is our first
question: How is a volcano like a temper tantrum? Web sites that serve as
[He waits approximately 90 seconds.] Now, before a resource for divergent
we go on to another divergent question, talk to
questions are:
the people in your group and share one of your
thoughts. The next question is a little different. It http://www.virtualsalt.com/
crebook2.htm
is called a reorganization question and gets you to
think about what might happen if something were http://www.mycoted.com/
different than it usually is. You have 90 seconds to Category:Creativity_Techniques
write one or two responses to this question: What
would happen if the earth’s crust had no faults?
Divergent questions help students in each group make important

connections that reinforce understandings of the term or concept. Not
only do students feel that it is safe to respond, but they generally enjoy the
creative twist associated with divergent questions. These questions support
differentiation because students with varied background knowledge or a
range of achievement levels can provide content-rich responses based on the
knowledge they already possess. A key benefit of these questions lies in the fact
that they don’t have one right answer; rather, they ask students to employ skills
of analysis and synthesis to reflect on many possible answers.
Managing the Process of Tiering

Teachers who are newly committed to differentiating for their students
often ask, “Now that I’m a firm believer in the need to tier instruction,
how do I structure my classroom to make it happen?” As previously noted,
incorporating pre-assessment is essential, as is developing a clear grasp of the
content students must learn. An important next step is to develop systems for
efficiently managing the process of tiering. In short, you need to think of ways
to organize your classroom to accommodate groups of students simultaneously
working at different levels.
Materials that support cooperative learning strategies provide excellent
ideas on placing students in like (homogeneous) or mixed (heterogeneous)
work groups. In addition, Response to Intervention (RtI) Web sites, referred to
in Chapter 1, provide ideas about managing tiered instruction.
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z English
Divergent Questions That Promote
Higher-Order Thinking
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• What would happen if books never used quotation marks for dialogue?
• How is reading a newspaper like planting a garden?
• How is Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland like going to a shopping mall?
Social Studies
• You are the Mississippi River. What role have you played in settling
North America?
• How is Martin Luther King, Jr., like an automobile?
• What would happen if Earth stopped rotating?
Science
• If you were the periodic table and nobody thought you were important,
what would you say to convince them?
• How is a cell like a refrigerator?
• How is global warming like eating dinner at a fast food restaurant?
Math
• You are a cylinder. Describe how you have influenced today’s world.
• How is solving an equation like riding the school bus each day?
• What would happen if the only numbers we had were Roman numerals?
Strategies for Assigning and Managing

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Tiered Tasks
Here I’ll share some additional examples for setting up tiered lessons that
teachers have successfully used to differentiate. One idea for communicating
expectations for individual work is to provide specific task cards or folders
that define the work of the day or week. Below are some variations of ways to
communicate tasks to students:
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Tent Cards
Card stock may be folded into varying forms (in half vertically or horizontally or
into thirds to create a bottom). The task can be listed on one side of the card,
and the directions on the other. This might be appropriate if the task does not
involve any materials from the teacher.
Gift Bags
Gift bags can hold both directions and materials students will need to perform
a particular task. This might be appropriate if the teacher needs to provide
some bulky materials. In this case the task is to read a story and construct
a scene in the story using the materials in the bag. Students are involved in
language and spatial tasks with an added kinesthetic, hands-on piece as they
construct the scene.
Tent cards
Gift bags
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z Center Folders
Manila file folders may be designed with a title on the front, directions or task
card on the left inside, and an activity sheet on the right side. This might be
appropriate if the task involves additional handouts from the teacher. The
example below shows three different colored folders which might be given to
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three different tiers.
Pocket Folders
Directions can be typed onto a full or half-sheet of paper. The directions are then
glued to a 6- x 9-inch or 9- x 12-inch manila folder, with materials inserted. This
might be appropriate if the task involves “loose” items, such as sorting cards, but
may also be used for additional handouts. The first example below shows math
task cards of varying colors, with one color representing on-grade-level tasks and
another color representing above-grade-level tasks. The second example shows
how instructions can be described directly on the front of the envelope.
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Center folders Pocket folders
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Tiering With Personal Agendas
Creating “personal agendas” is another efficient way to inform students about
the learning goals you have identified for them. When using a personal agenda,
outline steps of each activity for students. On pages 88–90, you will find examples
of daily agendas developed by Carla VanDevander, a middle-school instructional
coach, who uses this technique to differentiate for eighth-grade students. The
category headings are aligned with several of the nine correlates of achievement
that are discussed in Classroom Instruction That Works by Marzano, Pickering,
and Pollock (2001). These authors cite research suggesting that students achieve
at higher levels when they gain adeptness in these nine areas.
Notice that in these examples the learning goals are the same for all
students, but are tiered to accommodate individual needs.
Supporting Student Learning Using Personal Agendas

Based on the Nine Correlates of Achievement
Instructional Strategy Definition
Setting objectives and Helping students understand the direction for learning and establish personal goals,
providing feedback and providing feedback about how they are progressing toward their goals
Questions, cues, and Helping students retrieve what they know about a topic, using questions that elicit
advanced organizers inferences, cues, or hints about what is to come
Identifying similarities Engaging students in activities that help them examine similarities and differences
and differences among ideas, issues, events, etc. by engaging in mental processes such as comparing,
classifying, creating metaphors, and creating analogies
Cooperative learning Using grouping strategies to help students in their learning
Nonlinguistic Helping students represent and elaborate on knowledge in an imagery form using
representations mental pictures, physical models, graphic organizers, etc.
Note taking/summarizing Helping students distill and/or synthesize information accurately and concisely
Reinforcing effort and Teaching students about the relationship between effort and achievement and
providing recognition recognizing students for the progress they are making
Homework and practice Providing students with opportunities to deepen their understanding of content and their
proficiency and skills
Generating and Engaging students in activities that ask them to apply knowledge by generating and
testing hypotheses testing a hypothesis, such as problem solving, decision making, experimental inquiry,
systems analysis, investigation, projects, etc.
(adapted from Classroom Instruction That Works by Marzano, Pickering, and Pollock, 2001)
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z Daily Agenda Example
Personal Agenda for Student ON Grade Level

Standard: Describe the roles and powers of the executive branch; explain the principles of checks and balances
1. Advance Organizer 2. Generate/Test Hypothesis 3. Nonlinguistic Representations
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Anticipation guide on Brainstorm the role of the president to Symbolize executive power
executive branch determine how our political system would by completing one of the
1. Read the five statements be different if there were no check on the following tasks:
on the anticipation guide. power of the executive branch. Use your 1. Draw a political cartoon that
textbook or other resources to complete illustrates a specific power of
2. In left-hand column under
the following tasks: the president.
“Now” check “T” for true or
“F” for false to check your 1. In a well-written paragraph, 2. Draw a three-panel picture
understanding of the implied explain what you know about the to symbolize three powers of
and explicit powers of the powers of the executive branch.
the president.
office of the president. 2. In a well-written paragraph,
explain the checks on the executive
branch’s powers and who or
what checks them.
Construct a hypothesis to determine what
our country would be like if there were no
limitations on presidential power.
4. Similarities and Differences 5. Summarizing and Note Taking 6. Closure
Compare and contrast our Complete one of the following Revisit the anticipation guide on the
current president’s powers to the assignments to gauge understanding executive branch.
powers of England’s king during of the powers of the executive • In the right-hand column under
Colonial times by completing the branch: “Later” check “T” for true or
following task: 1. Summarize the powers of the “F” for false to see if your
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1. Using a Venn diagram or president by constructing a understanding of the implied

compare-contrast thinking short feature article on the or explicit powers of the office
map, make a list of the implied and explicit powers of the president has changed.
differences and similarities of president.
between the presidency and 2. Create a set of bulleted
the monarchy, based on the notes about the roles and
following points: term in responsibilities of the
office, limits on powers, presidency, both implied
powers, function.
and explicit.
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Daily Agenda Example
Personal Agenda for Student ABOVE Grade Level

Anticipation guide on Brainstorm the role of the president to Symbolize executive power
executive branch determine how our political system would by completing one of the
1. Read the five statements on be different if there were no check on the following tasks:
the anticipation guide. power of the executive branch. Use your 1. Draw a political cartoon that
textbook and other resources to construct illustrates a specific power of
an essay that includes discussion of: the president and include visual
“F” for false to check your 1. implied powers of the presidency commentary on how the power
understanding of the implied 2. the explicit powers of is checked.
and explicit powers of the the presidency 2. Locate and analyze a
office of the president. 3. who or what ensures that the checks published political cartoon
and balances are adhered to about presidential powers and
create a new one that reflects a
Generate a hypothesis that determines
perspective that is in contrast to
what our country would be like if
the cartoon you analyzed.
there were no limitations on
presidential power.
Research a country that has Complete one of the following Revisit the anticipation guide on the
a different leader and power assignments to gauge understanding executive branch.
structure, such as a dictatorship, of the powers of the executive • In the right-hand column under
and complete the following branch: “Later” check “T” for true or
assignment: 1. Summarize the powers of the “F” for false to see if your
• Using a Venn diagram or president by constructing a short understanding of the implied or
format of your choice, list the feature article on the implied explicit powers of the office of
differences and similarities and explicit powers of the the president has changed.
between the presidency and president.
the leadership structure of 2. Design a lesson plan a teacher
another government. Please might use to teach about the
include at least ten indicators powers of the executive branch.
to show your analysis.
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z Daily Agenda Example
Personal Agenda for Student BELOW Grade Level

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Anticipation guide on Brainstorm the role of the president to Symbolize executive power by
executive branch determine how our political system would completing one of the following
1. Read the five statements on be different if there were no check on the tasks:
the anticipation guide. power of the executive branch. Use your 1. Draw a two-panel picture in
trade books and note sheets to complete which one panel illustrates a
the following tasks: specific power of the president
“F” for false to check your 1. List the powers of the and the second panel illustrates
understanding of the implied executive branch. how the power is checked.
and explicit powers of the 2. List checks and balances on the 2. Look at the folder of political
office of the president. executive branch’s powers and cartoons and select two.
who or what checks them. Complete a compare-contrast
3. List the differences that you think thinking map graphic organizer
our country would experience if on how the cartoons are alike
there were no limitations on and how they are different.
presidential power.
Using the fact sheet that outlines Complete one of the following Revisit the anticipation guide
current presidential powers and assignments to gauge understanding on the executive branch
powers belonging to the king of the powers of the executive • In the right-hand column
during Colonial times, compare branch: under Later check “T” for true
and contrast our current president’s 1. Create a set of bulleted or “F” for false to see if your
powers to the powers of notes about the roles understanding of the implied or
England’s king by completing
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and responsibilities of explicit powers of the office of

the following task: the presidency. the president has changed.
• Using a compare-contrast 2. Write a letter to the current
thinking map, make a list of president of the United States
the differences and similarities discussing the powers he now
between the presidency and holds as president.
the monarchy, based on the
following points: term in
office, limits on powers,
powers, function.
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Selecting Graphic Organizers for
Tiered Instruction
Graphic organizers are tools that tap into both verbal and spatial
(nonlinguistic) ways of thinking. When selecting a particular graphic organizer,
it is helpful to consider the organizational strengths of your learners. To what
degree are students able to process and organize information, and which
graphic organizers will support them at their level of need?
Look again at the tiers for the topic of electricity discussed on page 72 to
see how the graphic organizers were adapted. Notice the varying degrees of
complexity in the graphic organizers on pages 73–74. The Group 1 graphic
organizer requires students to organize information into two categories—either
parallel or series circuits. The Group 2 graphic organizer adds complexity by
requiring students to think about whether information worked or didn’t work,
provide reasons why, and classify circuits as parallel or series. Group 3 involves
applying new vocabulary terms—resistance, voltage, and current—since prior
assessment has revealed that students have a strong understanding of parallel
and series circuits. Each of the graphic organizers offers scaffolds for students,
based on levels of achievement.
In addition to graphic organizers specifically designed for a task, providing
generic organizers that support different thinking skills is a good way to
differentiate. You are probably quite familiar
with the Venn diagram (page 92), but you
can add complexity to that organizer by using
a Multi-Venn (page 92) and having students
determine similarities and differences among
three things—for example, analyzing common
and distinct attributes of three different poems.
The Compare-Contrast Thinking Map on page
93 (www.readingquest.org/pdf/compare.pdf)
readily supports a task for students at a lower
entry level because you can provide more
guidance on the desired outcome by filling
in the “With Regard to” section. A completed
Compare-Contrast Thinking Map (at right)
examining warm and cold fronts illustrates its
use. Note the visual images that are included to
assist with recall.
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z Venn Diagram
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Multi-Venn
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Compare-Contrast Thinking Map
How Alike?
How Different?
With Regard To
www.readingquest.org/pdf/compare.pdf
Adjusting Social Interaction

Most learners welcome opportunities to interact and engage with fellow
students. The importance of socialization in the classroom extends to
learning activities in addition to other nonacademic aspects of the school day.
Engaging in tiered instruction leads to varying levels of social interaction in
the classroom. For example, you might shift from whole-class interaction to
small-group interaction and then back again. Students may work individually on
tiered tasks and then might join together in centers or at stations to work on a
task collectively.
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zSocial interaction is
not restricted to the
students. Powerful
differentiated instruction
One way to tier process is through a jigsaw activity (Aronson,
2009). The basis of a jigsaw activity is to involve students in two
groups, “expert” and “home.” Each student in a home group is
assigned an area for which he or she must become an “expert.”
All students designated as “experts” for a particular area work
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can be designed when together to develop their expertise about the topic. Then experts
groups of teachers return to their home group, where they share their knowledge and
work together to tier in learn about other topics from other “experts.” For example, let’s
cross-class grouping revisit the leveled readers mentioned on page 61, which address
based on needs this learning goal: The student will investigate and understand
that matter is anything that has mass, takes up space, and
within a grade level or
occurs as a solid, liquid, or gas. The following leveled readers
department team.
would allow students to work at five different tiers.
Leveled Readers for Tiered Instruction on Matter
Title/Author Publisher Fountas/Pinnell Level
What Is Matter?, by Lisa Trumbauer Newbridge Level J

My World of Science: Solids, Liquids, Gases, Heinemann Level L
by Angela Royston
Ranger Rick: The World of Matter, by Ron Cole Newbridge Level N
Properties of Matter: Blue Planet Diaries, by Lisa Boehm Newbridge Level S
Science Concepts: Matter, by Alvin Silverstein, Lerner Level Y
Virginia Silverstein, and Laura S. Nunn
In a jigsaw activity, small groups of students would be responsible for key

information from their respective texts. Typically, the teacher would have task
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cards or a study guide to support students’ interaction with different books and
to guide thinking. After a designated length of time (no more than the age of
the learner, as discussed in the lesson design chapter) students would do one
of two things:
1. Return to the whole group and take turns debriefing their small-group
responses to the class—either sharing this task or allowing a designated
reporter to speak for the group.
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2. Regroup from expert to home groups and have students share responses to
their respective tasks with each other in small home groups while the teacher
circulates, checking for understanding. In a jigsaw, students are able to read
at varying levels, but remain focused on similar content and objectives. A
strong benefit is the sharing and accountability component, which allows all
students to contribute to the learning community within the classroom.
In the following example on weather, students were given a slip of paper

that provided them with the title of the book that they were to use to help
them complete the task. (These books were previously referenced in Chapter
4.) The example uses a class of 23 students. You will notice that the “reading”
groups (represented by rows) have an unequal number since these are based
on students’ reading levels, which varies. However, the number in each of the
“sharing” groups (represented in columns) is a similar size.
Using Books of a Range of Reading Levels to Jigsaw Content About Weather

,
Looking at Clouds Looking at Clouds Looking at Clouds Looking at Clouds Looking at Clouds =
by Susan Ring by Susan Ring by Susan Ring by Susan Ring 4 students
Stormy Weather Stormy Weather Stormy Weather Stormy Weather Stormy Weather =
by Natalie Lunis by Natalie Lunis by Natalie Lunis by Natalie Lunis 6 students
Stormy Weather Stormy Weather

by Natalie Lunis by Natalie Lunis
Weather Words Weather Words Weather Words Weather Words Weather Words =
by Gail Gibbons by Gail Gibbons by Gail Gibbons by Gail Gibbons 7 students
Weather Words Weather Words Weather Words

by Gail Gibbons by Gail Gibbons by Gail Gibbons
And Now for And Now for And Now for And Now for And Now for
the Weather! the Weather! the Weather! the Weather! the Weather! =
by William O’Byrne by William O’Byrne by William O’Byrne by William O’Byrne 6 students
And Now for And Now for

the Weather! the Weather!
by William O’Byrne by William O’Byrne
6 in each sharing group 6 in each sharing group 6 in each sharing group 5 in each sharing group 23 students total
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z The title was very specific, depending upon the reading level of the
students. However, each slip of paper was also color coded, and students
randomly received one of four colors. Each student joined other students
with the same book title, working within the group to become an “expert”
in explaining the material. After an allotted amount of time, students then
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rejoined with students that had the same colors (home groups). Each student
Task Cards for Expert Groups Studying Weather
,
Group 1 Group 2
You are a meteorologist, a scientist who You are a meteorologist, a scientist
studies the weather and uses what is who studies the weather and uses what
known to predict the weather! Read the is known to predict the weather! Read
book Looking at Clouds. Explain the the book Stormy Weather. Explain the
cause-and-effect relationship between cause-and-effect relationship between
clouds and weather. Create a visual or wind and weather. Create a visual or
other representation to help explain this other representation to help explain this
to your peers. You may use a four-square to your peers. You may use mnemonics
graphic organizer to help you explain and drawings to help explain this
this relationship, if needed. relationship.
Group 3 Group 4
You are a meteorologist, a scientist who You are a meteorologist, a scientist
studies the weather and uses what is who studies the weather and uses what
known to predict the weather! Read is known to predict the weather! Read
the book Weather Words. Explain the the book And Now for the Weather!
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cause-and-effect relationship between Explain the cause-and-effect relationship

temperature and fronts, and weather. between air pressure and weather.
Create a visual or other representation Create a visual or other representation
to help explain this to your peers. You to help explain this to your peers. You
may use mnemonics and drawings to may use mnemonics and drawings to
help explain this relationship. help explain this relationship.
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helped “teach” others within the group about the content. After all students
had shared, students were then held accountable by being asked to document
what they had learned.
Through the jigsaw, each student was able to access the content and reach the
lesson objective. Because of the slightly varying content within the texts, students
were also able to contribute information that was new to their classmates.
Cooperative Learning Resources

to Support Teaching and Learning
Partner or group cooperative learning activities give students opportunities to

work in mixed-tier groups or at the same tier level. Excellent sources for a wide
range of cooperative learning activities include:
The Jigsaw Classroom: Building Cooperation in the Classroom, 2nd
edition (1997) by Elliott Aronson and S. Patnoe, New York: Addison
Wesley Longman.
Cooperation in the Classroom, 7th edition. (1998) by David and Roger
Johnson and Edythe Holubec. Edina, MN: Interaction Book Company.
Kagan Cooperative Learning by Spencer Kagan & Miguel Kagan,
Kagan Publishing.
The Cooperative Learning Network, http://www-acad.sheridanc.on.ca/
scls/coop/cooplrn.htm
The International Association for the Study of Cooperation in Education
(IASCE) http://www.iasce.net/index.html

The Cooperative Learning Center at the University of Minnesota, http://www.co-operation.org
Summary
As a teacher, you have artistic license to create lessons that work effectively
with your students at their level of need. You choose the tools, the medium and
the canvas for each of your students. Through your efforts to differentiate by
process, students will start at different points, use materials specific to their
learning goals, and develop products unique to their achievement levels.
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z Ideas for Reflection
1. Read the questions on page 68 at the beginning of this chapter under the
heading “How Will I Engage Students?” How frequently do you address
these questions when you plan a lesson? Which questions are easiest to
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address? Which are more difficult?
2. Look at the chart “Differentiating by Process: Teacher Role” on page 70.
Use the chart to work on your own or with a colleague to plan a specific
lesson or unit of instruction that is differentiated for students.
3. Consider how you incorporate higher-order thinking questions in your
lessons. Do you consistently probe for thinking—getting students to do
the work of thinking? Do you use divergent questioning strategies to
encourage all students to develop creative and critical thinking skills?
Be intentional over the next few weeks about planning lessons that
encourage thinking.
4. What graphic organizers do you use most frequently? In what ways do they
differentiate for your students while still emphasizing the same content?
5. How have you differentiated the products students are required to produce
to show evidence of what they know? What rubrics or criteria have you
provided so students know the requirements of the project?
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Chapter 6
Product: Tiering Ways Students

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Demonstrate What They Know
Have you ever stepped into a self-serve shoe store with the intention of finding the
perfect shoe for an upcoming special event? First you find the section featuring
your size, because the style doesn’t really matter if the shoe doesn’t fit. Then you
examine the selection of shoes while searching for the pair that works for your
occasion: Cool summer casuals? Dress shoes to match evening wear? Cleats for
the soccer match? Your goal is to find the shoes that are suitable for the event.
Developing tiered assessments can be likened to searching for the perfect pair
of shoes. The teacher’s task is to provide students with assessments that are the
right fit, having an appropriate degree of difficulty while effectively addressing
the content that’s been taught. An essential aim in the process is to design
assessments in which students are able to show what they know and can do,
but which also provide students with sufficient success to feel confident enough
to move forward. There is no one-shoe-fits-all formula for finding this match,
so differentiating the work students produce and the manner in which they are
assessed is essential.
Carol Tomlinson likes to say, “There is nothing so unequal as treating
unequals equally” as a way of highlighting the importance of differentiating by
content, process, and product. It’s not unusual for teachers to do a double take
when they hear Tomlinson’s comment because it implies that it is a good thing to
not make every child do the same thing in the same way. At times teachers argue
the opposing view, saying that it isn’t fair to other students if one child reads an
easier book or has fewer vocabulary words—or is assessed with a different test.
However, if seeing our learners progress is the goal, then providing students with
tiered assessments that fit their needs is entirely appropriate.
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z “Instruction should not
be a Ouija-boardlike
game in which teachers
guess about what to do
Expanding Perspectives
About Assessment
A balance of assessment measures are needed to
effectively inform teaching and guide thinking of
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next. Educating kids is
students. Jay McTighe and Steven Ferrara (1998)
far too important for that
created a “Framework of Assessment Approaches
sort of approach. Rather,
and Methods” that reflect the broad spectrum of
instructing students should possibilities included in both selected-response and
be a carefully conceived constructed-response formats; see chart on page 101.
enterprise in which I discussed assessment in Chapter 2 with an
decisions about what to emphasis on pre-assessment and self-assessment.
do next are predicated Talking about assessment as an end product—that is,
a test or grade—will be addressed here. Assessment
on the best available
options span a wide spectrum. However, the use of
information. And the best
selected response assessments that include multiple
available information choice, true-false, and short-answer responses is
about what to do next predominant in today’s classrooms. These tests—
almost always flows from generally perceived as efficient, easier to grade,
a determination about and more objective—have the potential to confine
what students currently critical thinking, creativity, and relevant application
know and can do.”
of new learning.
Once you understand the broad range of
—W. James Popham,
assessments from which you can draw, selecting a
2008, p. 14
testing format and adapting it to the specific needs
of your students can be accomplished more readily.
At this point decisions must be made regarding differentiating assessment
for different tiers of students. The example below provides a framework for
thinking about offering assessment options for several standards.
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Teachers typically measure what students know by reviewing the products

they generate. These products are derived from tasks children do to practice
or demonstrate understanding of the content: graphic organizers, interactive
journals, study guides, projects, worksheets, oral presentations, group dialogue,
homework, quizzes, tests, and so on. Tomlinson (1999) defines the product
as “a vehicle through which a student shows (and extends) what he or she
has come to understand and can do as a result of a considerable segment of
learning” (p. 43).
Framework of Assessment Approaches and Methods
,
Constructed-Response Format
Selected-
Response
Format Brief Constructed Response Performance-Based Assessment
Product Performance Process-Focused Assessment

• Multiple-choice Fill in the blank
• True-false • word(s)
• Essay • Oral presentation
• Matching • phrase(s) • Oral questioning
• Research paper • Dance/movement
• Enhanced Short answer • Observation “kid watching”
• Story/play • Science lab demonstration
multiple choice • sentence(s) • Interview
• paragraph • Poem • Athletic skills performance
• Conference
Label a diagram • Portfolio • Dramatic reading
• Process description
“Show your work” • Interactive notebook • Enactment
• “Think aloud”
Visual representation • Art exhibit • Debate
• Learning log
• web • Science project • Musical recital
• concept map
• Model • Technology applications
• flow chart
• Video/audiotape • Teach a lesson
• graph/table
• illustration • Spreadsheet
• Lab report
Adapted from McTighe & Ferrara (1998)
,
101
z
z
z What Are the Options for Assessment?
Assessment Methods
,
z Performance
Assessment
Communication
Learning Goal Assessment Options
Constructed
Response
Response
Selected
Personal
U.S. History: The student will Written response or oral interview:
demonstrate knowledge of the
changing role of the United States • What were the reasons for the
from the late nineteenth century
X X Spanish-American War?
through World War I by explaining • What were the results of the Spanish-
the reasons for and results of the American War?
Spanish-American War.
Options for selected response

Reading: The student will identify
work samples:
cause- and-effect relationships.
• Highlight cause (in one color) & effect
X (in another color) within a text.
• Match cause with effect (using paper/
pencil format or kinesthetic sort).
• Answer multiple-choice question.
Geometry: The student will make Pictures of student product/

a model of a three-dimensional checklists/rubrics:
figure from a two-dimensional
X
Use of media for 3-D model may vary.
drawing and make a two-
dimensional representation.
Note that homework, quizzes, and tests are just a portion of the information
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that informs a teacher about student learning. Such assessments are not to
be thought of as a one-time event, but as a process. If you assess and realize
that many of your students did not master the content as you had hoped, your
immediate next step is to plan for reteaching and the next assessment. Since
mastery is the goal, the teach-reteach cycle is continuous.
The key to developing any product or assessment is to be intentional about
how it is developed. Use the checklist on page 103 to reflect on an assessment
you have recently given.
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Is Your Assessment On Target for Students? An Assessment Checklist
Directions: Use the indicators below to evaluate the project, paper, product, or test that you are using to measure what students have learned.
Indicator Yes No What Change Is Needed?
Alignment
Is the assessment authentic, including real-life connections and

big ideas that demonstrate a depth of understanding?
Does the assessment include specific vocabulary related to

the content?
Does the assessment align with the Look Fors or criteria lists that
were provided to students?
Does the method of assessing align with the verb—i.e., compare/

contrast, analyze—as well as the level of thinking implied by the
standard that is being assessed?
Thinking Skills
Does the assessment or product students complete reflect a range

of complexity in thinking?
Am I asking students to demonstrate a progression of thinking, moving

from lower levels (knowledge, comprehension) to higher levels
(analysis, evaluation, synthesis)?
Appropriate Learner “Fit”
Have students been offered choices?
Are assessments tailored to the strengths and needs of my students?
Informative
Does the assessment incorporate self-check and feedback?
Does the assessment inform my instruction? In what way(s)?
Are there areas that I could adapt so the assessment is more

effective for my students?
Overall Test Development
Is the assessment or required product a highly effective way to

measure attainment of learning goals?
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z Authentic Assessments
If learning is enhanced when information is authentic, teachers should model
this goal through their assessments as well. Think about what a professional
reader, writer, mathematician, scientist, or historian would do to show his
z
or her understanding. Most likely he or she would share understanding in a
book or article written to a particular audience, or solve a real mathematical
problem, or summarize the results of an investigation in a report, or illustrate
discovered artifacts in a portfolio or exhibit. We should use this lens to
think about assessment as well. Rarely, if ever, are professionals completing
worksheets to show what they know.
Martha Ratliff, an English teacher in Virginia, designed a performance task
for students that tied to the citizenship ceremony that occurs each Fourth of
July at Monticello, the home of Thomas Jefferson. The students actually lived
in the area and had the opportunity to attend the naturalization ceremony.
The task for students was to prepare art work, written work, and/or a dramatic
presentation that could potentially be displayed in an exhibit at the ceremony,
that communicates stories about the life of immigrants as they pursue the hope
Immigration Project With Authentic Assessment

The “Immigrant and Identity Project” was developed by Martha Ratliff to assess her
students as they immersed themselves in the study of immigration.
Performance Task: The Fourth of July celebration at Monticello in Charlottesville,
Virginia, will include student work and performance concerning the identity and
lives of immigrants. Your English class has been invited to exhibit art work, written
work, and/or perform a dramatic presentation. Your study of characterization,
conflict, and the immigrant identity should reflect ways immigration has influenced
the development of our country. You may pick a time period between 1892 (Ellis
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Island opens) and the present. You may chose from the following:
Visual Art: Create a poster or collage to illustrate the personality of an actual immigrant
you have researched or a fictional one you have read about, reflecting on his or her
life before and after immigration. Use quotations interspersed with your work to give
the person a “voice.” (Look at The Arrival, by Shaun Tan or At Ellis Island, by Louise
Peacock, to see examples.)
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Written Work: Interview a family member or community member who has parents or
grandparents who immigrated to America. You may conduct the interview in person or
by e-mail. Write the immigrant’s story as if you were the person who immigrated. You
may choose a diary format or letters written to family back home. Read At Ellis Island,
by Louise Peacock, for ideas.
Dramatic Presentation: Create a dialogue between two intergenerational characters,

imagining one person as the immigrant. You may choose which person is young
and which is old. Address the following questions as you create a dialogue and
write a script: What questions will one ask of the other? What conflicts will an
immigrant find coming to the United States? Are there stories of hardship in getting
here? How is culture and ethnicity a factor in the immigrant settling into a new
country? (Look at Anna Deavere Smith’s dramatic performance in On the Road:
A Search for American Character.)
Assessment “Look Fors”

For all work:
1. The presentation of the character is understandable to the viewer, reader, or listener.
2. The historical background portrayed is accurate.
3. Character growth is shown by more than a collection of facts.
4. T he complexity of the character is explored in relation to the experience and
challenges of immigration.
5. The character shows development over time or in response to a major conflict.
6. All creative work follows the standard for the selected method of presentation.
Visual Art: Illustrations must be well chosen and reflect the theme. The overall presentation
should be colorful and dynamic. The space should be full, using both quotations and
pictures. Empty space should have a purpose.
Written Work: The interview should have seven to ten questions. The format selected for
presenting the information should reveal the character, his/her culture, personal traits,
concerns, emotions, and so on. The product should be well written and effectively
communicate the story to the reader.
Dramatic Interpretation: The presentation must be true to life. The audience must believe
that they are meeting someone from another cultural background. The dialogue
should reveal the immigrant experience. Humor or pathos in the dialogue should be
used effectively to engage the audience.
Source: Martha Stewart-Ratliff
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z of becoming a citizen of the United States. The task met required learning
goals, yet asked students to reflect using fiction and nonfiction stories that
communicated an authentic story.
Adapting Assessments to Students’ Strengths
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As you consider how to design optimal assessments, keep in mind that students
often produce a higher quality of work if the assessment taps into a strength
modality. It is not always appropriate or possible to create a test that aligns with
a preferred way of learning, but doing so when possible establishes a balance of
assessment methods. The chart below shows some of the possibilities framed in
the language of multiple intelligences (Thomas Armstrong, 2003).
Matching Assessment With Students’ Strengths
,
Verbal/Linguistic Logical/Mathematical Visual/Spatial
Speeches Puzzles Sorts
Storytelling Problem solving Artwork
Reading responses Pattern analysis Models
Written responses
Graphic organizers Graphic organizers
Bodily/Kinesthetic Musical Interpersonal

Games Songs Jigsaws
Role playing Jingles Interviews
Presentations Lyric poems Conferences
Learning centers Choral reading Think-pair-share
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Interpersonal Naturalistic Existential

Learning logs Sorts Debates
Self-evaluation Diagrams Concept maps
Research projects Lab reports Research projects
Reflective journals Pattern analysis Reflective journals
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Providing “Look Fors” for Students
Measuring student progress is only meaningful if students are informed about
the criteria on which they are being judged; otherwise, a test can be primarily
Guidelines for Creating Look Fors
These guidelines for creating Look Fors can assist you as you decide what tasks or
projects need a list of criteria describing what constitutes high-quality work or a rubric
outlining a continuum of quality.
Why Look Fors?

Students perform at their highest levels when they have a clear understanding of the
expectations teachers have for them. Criteria lists or Look Fors for class work and
projects guide students and serve as tools of self-reflection, eliminating uncertainty.
How often?
Teachers have asked, “Do I have to develop Look Fors for every assignment?”
No. If a math teacher asks students to do the odd questions at the end of a
chapter, Look Fors are not necessary. If the same teacher asks students to complete
an illustrated poster of the real-life uses of three kinds of triangles, Look Fors are
needed. Frequency will depend on the product or performance students are asked
to deliver. But err on the side of having a criteria list—even if the list is short.
When are Look Fors essential?

Develop criteria lists or Look Fors for assignments any time the assignment has two
or more components. Look Fors are also needed when you want to assess a range
of skills such as organization, illustrations, format, and neatness. In addition, use
Look Fors when the task is cumulative and you need to outline specific elements you
want included.
Are Look Fors just for students?

No, clear expectations are important for teachers as well. Creating Look Fors for
setting up a writer’s workshop, excellence in a math classroom, or brain-compatible
instruction can support teachers in their professional growth.
Is there a standard format?

Look Fors typically have the criteria on the left and a recording system on the right.
The criteria can be in statement or question format.
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z a “gotcha” experience. Think of the end-of-the-year field day during which an
array of activities and contests are being held. If you think you are competing
in the long jump, but when you arrive at your event it is actually a half-mile
run, you will likely not be prepared for the competition. Similarly, a major
disconnect occurs if a student knows there is going to be a history test and
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expects questions on the geography of North America, but the test focuses
on economics. Establishing the criteria or Look Fors with which a product or
performance will be assessed is an essential step. See the chart on page 107 for
guidelines on creating Look Fors.
Students as Partners in Assessment

In Chapter 2, I discussed several ways that students can self-assess as a pre-
assessment. As an additional way to involve students in measuring their own
progress, ask them to help establish Look Fors. It is a great way to increase
ownership in both the learning task and assessment while at the same time
ensuring that students review the criteria for the task. Another benefit is that
it reduces the likelihood of the “I didn’t know it was going to be on the test”
response. Here are some examples:
• Students review the first three chapters of the shared novel that was
read in English class and identify three to five key points in the story
that drive the action. The teachers and students select the most
significant actions and dissect them to gain additional insight. These
insights, agreed upon by the students, become Look Fors that will
be assessed.
• Students work in pairs to identify ten key facts of the American
Revolution. As a group, the teacher and students compile the 20 most
important facts/concepts. These items are the Look Fors that must be
evident in a project on the time period.
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• Each student writes down six goals that he or she must meet to have a
well-organized, appropriately written science report. This personal list
is added to in a conference with the teacher for a total of ten. These
ten Look Fors become the criteria to be met by the individual student.
• The teacher provides students with an “I Can” list for a space science
unit. The students monitor the list as they work on the assignments.
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The teacher reviews the “I Can” survey with students to determine
strengths and areas to improve.
Creating Self-Assessments
Self-assessments are varied and in many ways limitless. Although there are no
formulas, here are a few suggestions to keep in mind.
• Create a culture of self-assessment in the classroom. Design a lesson
focused on self-assessment explaining to students that the most
meaningful learning experiences occur when they take responsibility
for what they need to know and resolve to learn it. Show them
different kinds of self-assessment. Ask them to come up with
additional ways. Tell your students that you will frequently be asking
them to self-assess.
• Stick to your commitment to build self-assessment into your
instruction by being intentional about making it a part of your lesson
design. If you are creating the “culture” with your students, you
should use self-assessment several times a week.
• Use what you have. Once you develop an “I Can” checklist or other
Look Fors, you can begin to create a notebook of resources for future
classes. In addition, detailed checklists are often available in materials
provided with textbooks.
Rubrics
I’ve mentioned the importance of creating Look Fors and the benefit of
identifying criteria that guide both student tasks and assessment. An additional
tool for both teachers and students is a rubric. Rubrics typically outline all
aspects of a task or assignment that must be met in order to reach a certain
level. You can find excellent resources for rubrics that both you and your
students can use to assess at http://www.tcet.unt.edu/START/instruct/general/
rubrics.htm.
There are two types of rubrics—analytical and holistic. Analytical rubrics
are generally in a matrix format with specific performance subcategories
identified, as illustrated in the example of the Earth-Moon-Sun Model below.
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z Student Self Assessment: “I Can” Statements
,
Self-Assessment of Space
Check the box below to show how you would rate yourself on each of these skills.
I Can . . . Yes Somewhat Not there yet
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I can tell and show the difference between rotation
and revolution.
I can tell about what causes the seasons.
I can make a model that shows the phases of the moon

in the correct order.
I can tell how moon phases happen.
I can tell about the sun’s size, color, age, and what it is
made of.
I can tell how the surface of Earth, the moon, and the sun
are the same and how they are different.
I can make a model of Earth, the moon, and the sun that
shows the differences in sizes and distance.
I can compare the sizes and distances of Earth, the

moon, and the sun.
I can tell how an Earth-centered model and sun-centered

model are the same and how they are different.
I can tell what Aristotle, Ptolemy, Copernicus, and

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Galileo observed.
I can tell the differences in what they observed.
I can tell how they supported their conclusions.
I can tell how the NASA missions have helped people

understand the moon.
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Student Self-Assessment Rubric
,
Rubric for Earth-Moon-Sun Model
Check the box below to show how you would rate yourself on each of these skills.
4E
xceeds 3 M
eets 2 In 1 N
eeds
Criteria Expectations Expectations Progress Improvement
Distance has been Both the model Either the model Neither the model
calculated using and description or description nor description
Approximate accurate measurements show approximate shows approximate
shows incorrect
scale distance and measuring tools, scale distances. scale distances.
scale distances.
which is demonstrated
in model and/or
description.
Size has been Both the model Either the model Neither the model
calculated using and description or description nor description
Approximate accurate measurements show approximate shows incorrect shows approximate
scale size and measuring tools, scale sizes. scale sizes. scale sizes.
which is demonstrated
in model and/or
description.
Both the model and Both the model and Either the model Neither the model
description show more description show at or description nor description
Appropriate than two appropriate least two appropriate shows incomplete shows appropriate
characteristics characteristics of Earth, characteristics of or incorrect characteristics.
the moon, and the sun. Earth, the moon, and characteristics of
the sun. Earth, the moon,
and the sun.
In addition to the Both the model and Either the model Neither the model
appropriate motions description show or description nor description
of Earth, the moon, and appropriate motions shows incomplete shows appropriate
Appropriate the sun, the causes of Earth, the moon, or incorrect motions.
motions for seasons, moon and the sun. motions of Earth,
phases, and tides the moon, and
are explained. the sun.
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z Holistic Rubric
,
Holistic Rubric for Primary Document Project
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Exceeds
Expectations
3
Meets
Expectations
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Student conveys all aspects of the contrasting perspectives of the two groups.
Student provides deep analysis of three (3) primary sources.
Student clearly demonstrates persuasive writing and knowledge of subject matter.
Student clearly demonstrates knowledge of content by exemplary debating in class.
Student clearly displays evaluative thinking and critical analysis on the topic.
Student addresses nearly all aspects of contrasting perspectives of the group.

Student uses two (2) out of three (3) primary sources
Student demonstrates persuasive writing, but lacks elaboration
Student makes some key points during debate.
• Student explains and supports contrasting perspectives, but some information is lacking.
• Student hits on a few key points, but it is clear there are holes in the assigned task.
• Student uses one primary resource.
2
In Progress • Student demonstrates persuasive writing but lacks insight and elaboration.
• Student offers a few points during debate but leaves gaps.
• Student does not demonstrate depth of thinking and lacks critical analysis.
• Student work and knowledge are extremely lacking and contrasting perspectives are not
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1 present, or if present, are not clearly stated.
Needs • Student uses one or no primary source.

Improvement • Student has marginal written work.
• Student is unable to debate on any aspect of the contrasting perspectives.
• Work shows that student does not understand concept.
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The holistic rubric organizes specific indicators across all categories
according to the level of accomplishment attained by the students. An example
of a holistic rubric created by teacher Jason Orrock for a fifth-grade classroom
addresses the standard requiring students to analyze contrasting perspectives
of Native Americans and settlers in regard to westward expansion. In addition,
students are to develop skills in discussion and debate.
After Look Fors and/or rubrics have been developed, they can be adapted for
tiered groups. For a student at an enrichment level, additional criteria might be
added to enhance the task; similarly, for a student at a lower point of entry, the
Look Fors might be selectively reduced. Some teachers build in the modifications
and distribute Look Fors on color-coded paper to indicate tier levels.
Coaching Students With Self-Assessments

In many ways, using a variety of self-assessment tools can make your life
easier because you have made students partners in the process. Self-
assessments help make students responsible for their own learning. When
students identify the criteria for an assignment, you are able to reinforce
their involvement and the quality of their product with the following sorts
of comments:
• (To an individual student) “Thank you for the assignment, James.
Before I accept it I want you to review the Look Fors that we agreed
on and make sure that you have met them all. We can talk about
areas where you might not be sure and I will give you more time if
need be.”
• (To a class two days before a project is due) “Class, be sure to look
at the criteria sheet that I gave you for the assignment. Check the
yes or no column for each of the ten items. Remember, you get
credit for being accurate in your own analysis of your project.”
• (To any individual or group) “Yesterday we reviewed the content of
the unit on explorers. You worked in small groups and came up with
ten important facts and three concepts. As a class, we compiled the
small-group information, coming up with 20 facts and five concepts.
Here is the study guide based on your contributions. The test will be
tomorrow and all information that you will need to know
is in the study guide.”
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z Incorporating Student Choice Into
Assessment Design
Offering choice increases student ownership. Tomlinson and McTighe (2006)
emphasize that “[e]ducators must be judicious in determining when it is
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important to offer product and performance options (and how many should
be offered), striking a balance between a single path and a maze of options”
(p. 77). There may be cases when there is only one way for a student to show
what he or she knows. For example, if a standard states that students will
“write a narrative report,” then the operative task is for students to construct
written work. While a partner activity using a graphic organizer may help
generate content, ultimately the student still needs to write. Many times,
however, a specific way of demonstrating knowledge is not required and you
can build in choices for students.
A tiered assessment in a language arts class asks students to demonstrate
the same essential understandings but with options for differing learning
styles. In this approach the “what” remains the same, but the “how” depends
on the learner. The example on page 115 taps into interest levels and multiple
intelligences, allowing students to choose a modality on the left-hand side
based on his or her preference and with the performance of the task(s)
identified on the right-hand side. Even though the options are different,
students are assessed with the same checklist or rubric criteria, since the
essential understandings are the same. Third-grade teachers Courtney
Chapman, Karen Peterson, Sara Vines, and Tammy Sanford and differentiation
specialist Stephanie Haskins each contributed an activity, helping to create a
menu for students that offers them choice.
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Tiered Assessment in Language Arts
Reading Standard: Describe the images created by language.

Students select one option from the choices below to demonstrate their ability to describe images created by language.
Tammy read When I’m Sleepy, by Jane R. Howard, with students and asked them to think about
“I love to write!” the language from the story, paying special attention to sensory details. Students highlighted words
Writer’s Den related to sight, sound, smell, feel, and taste, and discussed how these words helped create images
and deepen comprehension. Then the students wrote a piece on how the sensory images worked in
the story.
Stephanie paper-clipped pages at the end of Big Mama’s, by Donald Crews, and directed students
to stop reading when they reached the pages. At that point, students paused to discuss. Then they
“I love to build!” were given a printed card that contained the text of the last few pages only—no images. The students
Construction then used miscellaneous materials (blocks, newspaper, string, film canisters, tape, etc.) from the
Area “Technology Toolbag” to model the scene as they thought it would appear. They then justified their
scene by using words from the passage. After constructing, the students then compared their scene
with the author’s image in the last few pages.
Karen read the book Twilight, by Holly Young Huth, with students. She asked students to think about
“I love to act!” the character and how she was feeling at different points during the story, supporting their response
with language from the story. She also asked how the character’s feelings may have affected her
Theater Corner
facial expression and tone of voice. With a partner, students selected an excerpt from the story and
practiced acting out the scene, focusing on the language to help determine actions and expressions.
Courtney had paper-clipped the last scene of The Salamander Room, by Anne Mazer, before reading
it with students. Throughout the reading, students were asked to think about the images that “popped”
into their minds and discuss how the language supported those images. When Courtney got to the
“I love to draw!” last page, she read the words only and did not reveal the images. Then she gave students materials
Artist’s Studio to make a pop-up book by folding a piece of white paper in half, cutting two slits on the fold,
“popping” out along the slits, and then gluing a piece of construction paper backing (being careful
not to put glue on the “popped out” portion). Students were given an index card to draw the image
they visualized from hearing the last scene. They then glued the drawing to the popped out portion.
On the other white space of the paper, they wrote key words or drew images that reflected what they
heard, saw, smelled, or felt during the scene.
Sara had typed a portion of the story Night in the Country, by Cynthia Rylant, onto posters for
students. Students partnered together to read the story. Then students were given a graphic organizer
“I love to talk!” and asked to record ideas about the mental image, picture, or movie scene that came to mind under
Book Talk Zone the section of the organizer titled My Image. Students then talked about the images that they had
drawn with a partner, explaining how they used the language from the story to draw the picture. After
having a conversation and comparing the similarities and differences among pictures, students then
made changes or additions to their image based on the use of language.
Note: Title of choices adapted from Mosaic of Thought by Keene and Zimmerman, 1997.
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z Verbs
Vocabulary
Math 5.20: The student will analyze the structure of numerical and geometric patterns (how
they change or grow) and express the relationship, using words, tables, graphs, or a
Must know both
numerical and
geometric patterns
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mathematical sentence. Concrete materials and calculators will be used.
Must express the

Conjunctions Support
pattern in one of
the formats
Tips for Developing Assessments

Teacher-generated assessments have the potential to be more closely aligned
to standards than published assessments because teachers are able to carefully
examine the verbs, vocabulary, and big idea using a specific, identified
standard. As seen in Chapter 4, analysis of the verb should cue the teacher to
the best testing format. Based on the verb, what might be a meaningful way
to assess?
Let’s return to the standard with a teacher’s think-aloud about her analysis
of this math standard:
“When I see the verb analyze, I realize that this is a higher level of
Bloom’s taxonomy and will require students to look at something
very closely, possibly break it apart, and make observations about
what they observe. As an assessment for the verb analyze, I would
require students to provide either a written or oral statement that
explains their thinking. The written component might be in the form
of diagrams, words, and so on.
The chart on page 117 shows examples of verbs that might be in a standard
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and the possible impact on the type of assessment that you design.
As you expand your repertoire of how you test, keep in mind that the
best assessment measures for the higher level of Bloom’s revised taxonomy
mentioned previously (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001) are in the area of
constructed-response items. As you begin to strive for a balance of assessment
methods, decreasing methods that use selected-response and increasing those
in the performance area should be a goal. The chart on page 118 approximates
the connection between Bloom and assessment types.
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Analyzing the Standards: Focus on Verbs
,
Verb Implication Possible Assessments
Describe Implies written or • written or taped description

verbal statement • drawing and labeling
• interactive notebook
Identify Implies selecting from a • matching and labeling

group (selected response • A–Z chart
assessment would • graphic organizer
address) • word sort and picture sort
• highlight
• listing and drawing
• picture of students pointing to item
• interactive notebook
Compare Implies making a • written or oral presentation

judgment on likenesses • applying in graphic organizers
and differences • analyzing two or more works, pictures,
indicators, graphs
• debate or editorial
Create Implies making something • producing in writing or digitally

on own • developing and completing projects
• performing
• designing products
• drawing and modeling
• presenting
• diagramming
• problem finding and problem solving
Interpret Implies written or • producing in writing or digitally

verbal summary • creating an appropriate graphic organizer
• making connections to related content
• performing or demonstrating
Investigate Implies hands-on • using research tools

investigation and/or • writing steps (tape or tell)
experiment • problem solving
• manipulating artifacts, objects
• presenting findings
• experimenting
• outlining procedures: measure, classify,
predict, test
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z Designing Assessments Based on Level of Thinking Skill
Bloom’s Revised
,
Sample Verbs Assessment Options
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Taxonomy
Remembering find, identify, locate, Selected response

match, recognize
Understanding describe, explain, Selected response

recall, summarize Constructed response
Personal communication
Applying demonstrate, predict, Performance assessment

solve, use Constructed response
Personal communication
Analyzing analyze, compare, Performance assessment

differentiate, infer, Constructed response
investigate Personal communication
Evaluating conclude, confirm, Constructed response

decide, determine, Personal communication
evaluate, justify
Creating construct, create, design, Performance assessment

develop, plan
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Tiering: Providing Support and Extension

Tiering products used for assessment is very similar to tiering process to
gauge how we might increase or decrease intensity as seen in the Scaffolding
Readiness Scale on page 28. We first think about the standard, and then
consider the options for assessment. For example, if the teacher’s goal is to
develop students’ creativity, a multiple-choice or other selected-response
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test will not serve the purpose. Similarly, it is a challenge to verify whether
students can apply information they have learned through a selected-response
assessment. Matching the assessment to the level of thinking you want students
to demonstrate is essential.
Tiered Products With the Same Content

History Standard: The student will demonstrate knowledge of European
exploration in North America by describing the motivations, obstacles, and
accomplishments of the Spanish, French, Portuguese, and English explorations.
Advanced Learner: Have the student create a matrix that shows how the
motivations, obstacles, and accomplishments of the Spanish, French,
Portuguese, and English explorations compared and contrasted in North
America and West Africa.
On-level Learner: Have student complete a matrix. The top of the matrix should
include the terms motivations, obstacles, and accomplishments. The side
of the matrix should include the names Spanish, French, Portuguese, and
English. The student will be asked to use his own words in the spaces.
Struggling Learner: Provide support for completing the matrix listed for the on-
level learner. Provide a word bank if the student needs language support,
allow the student to arrange word cards onto the matrix if he or she is more
kinesthetic/tactile, or conduct an interview with the student explaining
the motivations, obstacles, and accomplishments if the student is strong in
verbal (rather than written) communication.
Grading Tiered Products

Once a commitment to tiering has been made, the question is “How will I
grade all of this?” In order to establish clear procedures on grading, you
must first reflect on your overall philosophy. To help summarize some of the
perspectives about effectively grading tiered assessments, consider the “If-
then” chart on page 120.
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z Belief Systems on Grading: A Teacher’s Self-Assessment
Think about the belief system that you and your team, grade level, department, and/or school embrace.
Compare and contrast your beliefs with practices. Based on your responses, determine what changes, if
any, need to be made in how you grade.
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Do you believe that If so, then grades would be based on individual student achievement related to
grades should reflect the learning goal. Such policies as “extra credit,” zeroes for incomplete work, and
what students group grades would be challenged, since they do not relate to the learning goal.
have learned?
Do you believe that the If so, then there is no time limit on mastery. In other words, students are given multiple
goal is for students to attempts to master a concept. Once the student is able to demonstrate mastery, a new
achieve content mastery? grade would likely replace the previous grade.
Do you believe that If so, then consider how you might adjust formative assessments so they are
continuing to receive providing more feedback to students along the way and correcting any
poor grades can have misunderstandings. Guskey and Bailey (2001) suggest the possibility of a two-part
a negative impact reporting system, so that both a grade and level are assigned to reduce the possible
on students? negative impact of a poor grade.
Do you believe that If so, then the idea of grading students based on product, process, and progress
grades should show is related to their personal best. In this way, a learner “profile” may be charted to
individual achievement? show individual achievement and growth as well as expected rate.
Do you believe grades If so, then it will be helpful to accompany them with a narrative with additional
should help serve as a suggestions of how parents might help at home. In addition, high-quality feedback
communication tool? beyond the grade is the norm.
Do you believe that If so, then teachers must look for consistency in the evidence they’ve gathered. If
there are fairer systems that evidence is consistent across several indicators and a student’s scores or marks
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for assigning grades are fairly uniform, then deciding what grade to assign is a relatively simple task.
(other than averaging)? If the evidence is not consistent, however, then teachers must look deeper and
search for the reasons why (Brookhart, 1999). They must also face the difficult
challenge of deciding what evidence or combination of evidence represents the
truest and most appropriate summary of students’ achievement and performance.
Recent evidence should be given priority or greater weight, as well as, evidence
related to the most essential learning goals or standards. Similarly, comprehensive
evidence that has been acquired and built upon over a period of time should be
weighted more substantially (Guskey and Bailey, 2001).
What Makes a Quality Tiered Assessment?
Criterion Exceeds Standards Meets Standards In Progress Does Not Meet Standards
Assesses big ideas of the standard in Assesses the big ideas of the standard in Assesses the standard. Vocabulary Does not assess all parts of the standard.
Alignment authentic context, with student using authentic context through application, with from the standard is included. Vocabulary from the standard is not
vocabulary in applied activity. Scaffolds vocabulary from the standard integrated included or stated in the same way
with above- and below-grade-level throughout directions and assessment. as the standard.
standards based on student needs.
Thinking skills are addressed through Thinking skills are addressed through the most Thinking skills are partially addressed, Thinking skills of the standard (implied
Thinking Skills most appropriate form; assessment appropriate form of assessment: selected or assessment is not by the verb) are not integrated in
extends students’ thinking beyond response, constructed response, performance the optimal form for addressing the assessment.
the standard. assessment, or personal communication. the thinking.
Test Development Students play a role in the test Follows general guidelines of test development Mostly follows general guidelines of Does not follow general guidelines of test
development process; general guidelines (as well as those specific to type of assessment). test development (as well as those development (or those specific to type of
of test development Assessment is concise, with like objectives specific to type of assessment). assessment). Assessment is disorganized
are followed. clustered together. Assessment could be streamlined. and cumbersome to follow.
Appropriate Provides options for students, Provides options for students, when appropriate, All students complete the same All students complete the same assessment
Learner “Fit” when appropriate, that continue to that continue to address assessment with accommodations in the same way.
address the thinking skills but also the thinking skills but also support provided, as needed.
support student strengths. Assessments student strengths.
are tiered to accommodate all
learners, including both advanced
and struggling.
Assessment Self-assessment is incorporated so Use information from assessment to determine Use information from assessment Assessment is used after learning—
that students, as well as teacher, have students’ strengths and needs; understanding to determine students’ strengths “summative”; student scores
clear understanding of learning and set is logged and tracked over time; followed by and needs. are documented.
independent goals. “different” instruction and reassessment.
,
121
z
z
z A Word About Grading
Since grading is such a huge question I want to direct you to some
excellent resources:
z
Guskey, T., & Bailey, J. (2001). Developing grading and reporting
systems for student learning. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
Marzano, R., & Haystead, M. (2008). Making standards useful in
the classroom. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and
Curriculum Development.
Tomlinson, C. (2001). How to differentiate instruction in mixed-ability
classrooms. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and
Reeves, D. (Ed). (2007). Ahead of the curve: The power of assessment
to transform teaching and learning. Bloomington, IN: Solution Tree.
Tomlinson, C., & McTighe, J. (2006). Integrating differentiated instruction
and understanding by design. Alexandria, VA: Association for
Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Wormeli, R. (2006). Fair isn’t always equal: Assessing and grading in
the differentiated classroom. Portland, ME: Stenhouse Publishers.
Summary
“In ‘formative’” is how Stiggins (2003) describes the use of our assessments—
to both inform us and allow us to adjust our teaching to accommodate learner
needs. Quality assessments can answer the questions to support scaffolding
z
and the determination of the next step in learning for a student. A strong
assessment is valuable not only to the teacher, but also to the student who
can begin to own the learning process. Use the matrix below as a guide to
support your reflection about providing tiered assessment for your students.
z
1. Review the Framework of Assessment Approaches and Methods on page
101. Think about content that you will be teaching in the next few weeks.
How can you adapt the way you assess what students know so that you are
using something other than a selected-response format?
2. Decide on a standard or competency that you will be teaching students.
While designing the lesson, write down all the expectations you have for
student performance. Answer the question: What must they know and be
able to do to successfully demonstrate that they know this content? Now
create a list of Look Fors for students.
3. Consider a lesson that you have taught or will be teaching. Look at the
graphic Matching Assessment with Student Strengths on page 106. Create
a menu of products from which students can choose to demonstrate
knowledge of content. (Note: Be sure that the choices are equally rigorous
and relevant to the content.)
4. Examine the chart What Makes a Quality Tiered Assessment? on page 121.
Identify some personal targets for growth as you endeavor to advance your
efforts to differentiate.
5. What kind of conversations are you having with your colleagues about
assessment for differentiation? How can you expand the discussion?
z z Chapter 7
Tiered Instruction:
How to Get There From Here
Ask any of your colleagues if they think it is important to differentiate
instruction in order to meet the needs of individual learners and you will
likely get full agreement. If you and your coworkers are committed to holding
your feet to the proverbial fire, the obvious follow-up question is this: How
does our practice align with our beliefs? I regularly talk to teachers who
conceptually embrace the idea that the content they teach ought to be tailored
to achievement levels of individual students, but they sigh deeply, saying, “I just
can’t work any harder!” Perhaps you can identify with their struggle.
Though the effort is challenging, if you have the desire and the intention to
move forward in your effort to tier instruction, you can be successful. To make
the goal manageable, let the following thoughts serve as your mantras:
• I must start with small successes and increase my efforts; I cannot do
it all at once.
• I must work with a partner, critical friend, or learning community; I am
not expected to do it alone.
Growing as Differentiators
Be patient. Just as there is tiered instruction for students, we also have to
recognize that there are tiers of growth for us as well. Although we want to
be working toward particular goals, each of us has his or her own continuum
of growth. You need to give yourself permission to be at different places on
z
z
the continuum. As long as you stay committed to the idea of continuous
improvement, you’ll improve.
The transition from proficient teacher to highly effective teacher begins with
assessing where you are and where you want to go. Similarly to how they use
Learning Continuum: Individual, Team,

or School Self-Assessment
Tier 1: Proficient Tier 2: Highly Effective
Uses the curriculum guide Unpacks the curriculum guide to identify

Content to identify standards essential learning outcomes, key language,
and vocabulary; finds the big ideas and
makes content relevant to learners
Uses data to examine Uses school-wide goals to build on areas of

areas of strength strength and target weaknesses across all grades
and weakness in the or teams; uses data as a tool to inform decisions
understanding of content about teaching and learning
Explores best practices Explores best practices, plans for differentiated

Process instruction, and selects strategies that will scaffold
learning for students
Applies best practices in Uses classroom walk-throughs, peer coaching,

the classroom and/or lesson study to continuously and
collaboratively improve on classroom practices
Develops quality Develops pre-, during-, and post-instruction quality

Product assessments assessments—including formative and summative
assessments—with differentiated options for
students that are clearly articulated in Look Fors
and/or rubrics
Evaluates student Examines student assessments on an ongoing

assessments basis and develops a group action plan
based on varying strengths and needs
z
z scaffolding with students, teachers who desire to grow must discern where they
get wobbly and establish those areas as targets for growth. Consider the tools
in the earlier chapters as guides and supports as you assess both your own and
your students’ progress, and design lessons accordingly.
A by-product of your efforts to tier instruction for students is that you begin
z
to identify areas in which you are highly confident and effective. If you have
skill and confidence in certain areas with regard to differentiation, ask yourself
how you can support others. Perhaps you can be the mentor or critical friend to
another colleague. In the same vein, you will also find areas in which you want
to become more proficient. Decide where and how you will begin and don’t be
afraid to ask for help.
As an additional tool, use the matrix in the chart above to guide your
thinking about where you and your colleagues are in terms of being proficient
or highly effective in working toward the goals of differentiation.
The Power of Collaboration

Even if you are fully committed to differentiating in your classroom using tiered
instruction, the task is daunting if you are forging the path on your own. Here
is where a partner, colleague, or learning community can be your companion on
the journey. Reach out to those around you. Collaborating with others is very
helpful in focusing ideas and establishing a vision at the grade, department, or
school level. Consider the word team as an acronym:
Together
Each
Achieves
More
While this phrase may seem like a cliché, it identifies the power to be found
z
in collaboration. The positives of collaboration are clear because we learn

and grow professionally when sharing ideas with others. Additionally, hours
spent working interdependently on a task can be much more efficient and
ultimately take less time than working solely in isolation. A third positive aspect
of working collaboratively with colleagues is that everyone understands the
same language and has ownership, resulting in greater sustainability and, most
important, increased student learning!
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Team Versus Group
Sandra McGrath, a middle school math teacher, is a staunch advocate of
teamwork. Here’s what she has to say:
If teachers truly desire to improve student learning, they must

also collaborate. Teaching and learning do not occur in a vacuum,
and students are not the only learners. Collaborating affords the
opportunity for groups of teachers to use the same lens to discuss
student success as a grade level or school.
In looking at student achievement in the consumer math
standard, each teacher shares the instructional strategies used
in their individual classrooms, including strategies that engage
students, as well as any impediments to student learning they may
have discovered. Such group discussions of content and strategy are
powerful. One teacher may hear of a different activity, manipulative,
or context in which to teach the material. Another may hear an
alternative method of explaining the concept. This same group
of teachers can then use their experiences to group and reteach
students, tiering instruction to meet the needs of each student.
Collaborating as a “team” is different from working as a “group” within a

school. Think about some of the distinctions in the chart below and consider
where your school, grade-level, or department team are currently functioning.
A key to collaboration is to establish times and structures for meetings
with the goal of determining specific ways that the group can work together to
achieve success for all students. Framing the compelling question that will drive
discussion and improvement areas is part of the team’s task. As a member of the
team, be persistent in your efforts to practice strategies with students and at the
next team meeting reflect on what worked and what could have been improved.
Consider your team as action researchers who are constantly trying
to enhance instruction for students. In this regard, the topics selected by
collaborative partners, teams, or learning communities should be ones that are
essential to the success of all students. As you focus on tiered instruction, think
about avenues or paths to both improve pedagogy and gain insight into student
achievement. With your partner or team, agree on areas of “research” for
reflection and growth. Some ideas with related links for additional information
are below.
z
z Differences with
Learning Continuum: Individual,
Team, or School Self-Assessment
z
regard to . . . Working as a group Collaborating as a team
Goals Each group member works toward All of the team members work toward
individual goals (that may or may not align common goals focused on continuous
with those of other group members). improvement.
Contribution Group members work independently, with Team members work interdependently,
each doing his or her own work. providing a necessary support for
each other.
Purpose Group members are focused on learning Team members are focused on learning
for “my” group of students (which will for the entire grade level, department,
hopefully contribute to success of school). or school.
Consistency There is inconsistency in the performance of Team members are consistent in

group members. implementation of best practices.
Results Group members typically do not share Team members examine data collectively
data, but instead examine data on an to determine student strengths and
individual teacher basis. needs and the best strategies for
continuous improvement.
Effectiveness Group members typically do not share their Team members build on their
individual strengths. collective strengths.
Problem Solving Group members are not necessarily Team members all bring multiple
focused on working to solve problems perspectives and group reflections and
z
collectively; this is usually an individual task ideas in considering topics that they have
involving self-reflection. identified as a team.
Conversation Group members engage in intermittent Team members engage in scheduled

dialogue, with a focus on individual discussion and dialogue to help
task completion. determine the best solutions.
z
Focus on Tiered Instruction Using the Lenses of . . .
Lesson Study After a teacher on the team develops a tiered lesson, the collaborative group analyzes it
with the team to see what elements of tiered instruction are evident. When the lesson is
taught, a collaborative colleague observes and debriefs. The lesson is then brought back to
the team for follow-up discussion. (Resource: http://www.tc.edu/lessonstudy/faqs.html)
Peer Coaching Seek out a partner (in a learning community, at the same grade level, or in the department)
and participate in arranged observations followed by reflection. During reflection,
questions to discuss include, What worked well? How could I have made the tiered lesson
more successful for some or all students?
Response to Before considering placement of struggling learners in need of intervention, respond to these
Intervention questions: Have we effectively tiered instruction in the student’s classes? Would differentia-
tion through tiered instruction make a difference in this student’s learning? Is the tutoring
intervention sufficient? (Resource: http://www.rtinetwork.org/Essential/TieredInstruction)
Action Research Consider the ways you should use data to establish a baseline of performance before
and Data you try strategies of tiered instruction to see what kind of progress students make. What
Analysis action research steps should you take to assess whether your efforts are working? (Resource:
http://nationalstrategies.standards.dcsf.gov.uk/node/88674)
Creating and Consider what assessments you can create that measure ongoing learning, tap into a
Evaluating variety of modalities, and focus on assessment for learning. Does your grading system
Assessments box you into certain kinds of assessments? What changes, if any, can or should be made?
Using Case As a team, analyze all demographic and performance data of one or two specific students.
Studies Discuss how differentiated instruction might be of benefit. As an alternative, consider case
studies of hypothetical students to help focus the team’s thinking.
Portfolios Keep a compilation of tiered lessons in a portfolio organized by content area and topic.
These lessons could be exemplars for teachers working on differentiation or for other
learning communities in the school.
Common Tiered Work together in teams to analyze achievement on common assessments, develop
Assessments strategies to improve levels of achievement, and help each other build on strengths and
address weaknesses.
Critical Friends Establish a formal Critical Friends group to discuss complex issues related to instruction.
(Resource: http://depts.washington.edu/ccph/pdf_files/CriticalFriends.pdf)
Classroom Set targets related to tiered instruction and use them as filters during walk-throughs. Discuss
“Learning Walks” walk-through observations with your partner or team. (Resource: http://www.mcrel.org/
pdf/teacherprepretention/0125NL_ChangingSchools_58_4.pdf )
z
z Students as Partners
As you commit to adding differentiation through tiered instruction to your
repertoire of skills, think about how you are encouraging students to become
adept at self-regulating their learning and, in so doing, helping them acquire
z
the skills of metacognition. According to Resnick and Hall (2000), “Today,
metacognition and self-regulatory capabilities are widely recognized as a key
aspect of what it takes to be a good learner. Moreover, there is little argument
that metacognitive strategies are both learnable and teachable” (p. 5).
In Chapters 2 and 6, we discussed ways to involve students in assessing
their own progress. Providing opportunities for students to become more
responsible for their own learning, as well as becoming contributors to the
learning experiences in your classroom, will assist you as you try to support
them through differentiation. An ultimate goal is for students to be able to
scaffold their own learning and tell you where they need to go next!
For optimal performance, students must be considered partners in the
effort to improve both teaching and learning. Believing that all students have
innate capacity and that academic ability can be grown is a defining element
of professional learning communities (Saphier, 2005, p. 88). In this regard,
just as teachers need to work collegially with each other to become more
effective at teaching, teachers need to collaborate with students. When you
make students part of a classroom learning community, you communicate
to them the message that by working hard, thinking together, and problem
solving, we can all achieve more. Students need to hear early and often in
their school years that achievement is related to effort, not innate ability.
Summary
A single formula for success does not exist when it comes to differentiating
through tiered instruction. Rather than a solo performance, it should be
z
considered an ensemble act—you, your colleagues, students, and other

stakeholders—performing together. Be bold in your endeavor, courageous in
facing the challenges, and confident that you are doing the right thing for the
learners in your charge.
z
1. Look at the descriptors in the learning continuum graph on page 128. At
what points do you think you are proficient? In what areas do you believe
that you are highly effective?
2. Look at the chart on page 129. Think about the areas in which you can
focus tiered instruction. Are there some tasks that you are involved in
already? What instructional-action research activities can you and/or your
learning team develop?
3. As you consider the commitment to differentiation at the grade-,
department-, and school-level, how can you help advance this effort in
your setting?
z z
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Student Scaffolding Readiness Scale
Student : ____________________________ Teacher: _________________ Grade: ______ Date:____________
Category Degree of Readiness

Background Knowledge 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
• Familiarity with the content Unfamiliar Very familiar
• Related background knowledge Limited or none Substantial experience
• Vocabulary Strong grasp of essential

Mostly unfamiliar and related vocabulary
• Reading Level Two or more years below Confidently above level
Evidence of Higher-Order Thinking 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
• Capacity to handle choice with task Needs guidance Performs without direction
Knowing Analyzing
• Complexity of thinking Understanding Evaluating
Applying Creating
Initially needs concrete, Works well with

• Facility with abstract material
tangible evidence abstract examples
Interaction With Content 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
• Skill level Entry Mastery
Content can be compacted

• Ability to handle pacing of lesson Additional time needed for acceleration
Needs leveled readers and Needs access to

• Scope of resources used
supplemental materials enrichment resources
Step by step Overview with only

• Level of direction needed
strong support of teacher intermittent checks
Degree of Independence 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
• Degree to which modeling Dependent on teacher Independent

is needed
• Degree to which practice Needs built-in practice Can move to

is needed with ongoing feedback enrichment quickly
• Degree to which rehearsal

Must teach/assess/reteach Minimal rehearsal needed
is needed
Student Scaffolding Readiness Scale Summary
(Scores of 1, 2, or 3 are areas to be developed and are noted as “D”; scores of 8, 9, and 10 are areas of strength and are noted as “S”)
Teacher: __________________________ Grade: ______ Period: _________Date:_____________ Content: _______________________
Category
Background Knowledge
• F amiliarity with
the content
• R elated background
knowledge
• Vocabulary
• Reading level
Evidence of Higher-
Order Thinking
• Capacity to handle
choice with task
• C
omplexity of
thinking
• F acility with
abstract material
Interaction With Content
• Skill level
• Ability to handle
pacing of lesson
• S
cope of
resources used
• Level of direction
needed
Degree to which
• Modeling is needed
• Practice is needed
• Rehearsal is needed
,
139
12 Questions to Prompt Decisions About Tiering by Process
How Will I Engage Students? Notes
1. What information about my students have I

learned from the pre-assessments?
2. What grouping arrangements are optimal at

different stages of the lesson? (When do I
use whole-group, small-group, partner, or
individual tasks?)
3. What leveled books and resources do I have

to support learning? Do I need to secure
additional materials?
4. W
hat strategies will I use to make connections
to what students know already (activate
prior knowledge)?
5. What degree of choice should I offer to students

at each tier?
6. What are entry levels of thinking for students

at each tier?
7. What questions can I pose to scaffold or

extend thinking?
8. How much complexity in a task or assignment

can students, pairs, or groups manage?
9. How quickly or how slowly should tasks

advance for each tier of students?
10. How much independence will specific students,

pairs, or groups be able to handle and how
much support will I need to provide?
11. What will be the most effective strategies to use

to deliver content?
12. How will I measure student progress?
Lesson Planning Template With Guiding Questions
Standard: The same standard may be used for all learners. This standard is derived from the pacing
guide, curriculum guide, or scope and sequence. Do the strengths or needs of learners indicate that this
standard may require scaffolding or extending?
What are the big ideas? How do these big ideas connect to the real world?
All students learn best when they are able to make connections and apply meaning. These are not the
discrete skills that every student should learn, but are instead the overriding ideas or concepts.
Hook:
What common experiences do I want the entire class to have? How can I engage their attention?
Tiers Content Process Product
WHAT will I teach? HOW will I teach the content? What will I ask students to DO?
What information does pre- What background knowledge Is the assessment authentic,
assessment provide about what will I need to provide? including real-life connections
students already know or need and big ideas that are
to learn? What is the prior How much independence will informative of student
knowledge about the subject? be offered? Are students able to understanding?
perform independently, or will
What is a developmental support need to be provided? Does the assessment scaffold
progression of understandings or build on prior knowledge by
that students need to have to What level of thinking will each using specific vocabulary?
grasp the standard? What tier be asked to engage in
are the prerequisite skills initially? What questions might What assessment method
as well as the post-requisite I pose to scaffold or extend matches with the verb and
skills that students will need thinking, as needed? the level of thinking implied
to demonstrate? Where by the standard?
What amount of choice will
do my students fall on this
be provided to students? Does the assessment meet
progression? Each tier should
criteria for quality test
begin where students are and How many steps or how development, including
progress forward. complex of a task can conciseness and clustering of
students handle? similar objectives?
What will be the on-grade-
level task? What will struggling How quickly or how slowly Does it incorporate student
learners do? What will should the tasks progress, based choice, and is it tailored to
advanced learners do? on the needs of the students? meet the strengths and needs
How will the complexity of the of my students?
What will be the most effective
content vary by tier, using the way of delivering the content? Does it incorporate self-
progression above?
assessment and feedback?
Will the vocabulary or reading
content vary? Does the assessment inform my
instruction? In what way(s)?
Closure: How will I have students share as a community of learners?
Sample Lesson Plan: Math
Math Standard: (Grade 6) Solve multistep consumer application problems.
What are the big ideas? How does this big idea connect to the real world?
How can we be economically savvy, spending and saving money wisely?
Hook: You are a “smart shopper”! As the consumer, your goal is to always find the best deal
and save money. What are some ways that you try to save money? (e.g., looking for the best
deal at different stores, investing, etc.) Today, each of you will be looking at some scenarios and
deciding on the best buys and explaining why. You will write explanations using paragraphs,
tables, and/or graphs.
Students use the green-level

task card from below. Provide
Tier 1
students with a budgeting
template, structure for writing
paragraph conclusions, or
table or graphing template,
if needed. Basic vocabulary
will include consumer, vendor,
conclusion, and budget. Solve multistep Present data
consumer problems on and conclusions
tiered task cards. The in paragraphs,
Students use the red-level task problems will include tables, or graphs.
card. Vocabulary will include planning a budget.
Tier 2
all of the basic vocabulary
plus the words economy
and finance.
Students use the blue-level task

card. Expanded vocabulary
Tier 3 will also include the words
stock market.
Task Cards for Math Lesson
Green-level Task Card Red-level Task Card Blue-level Task Card
Look at the table. You want to buy Look at the table. You want to Look at the table. You want to buy
three shirts. You have found the buy three shirts. You have found three shirts. You have found the same
same style of shirt at two different the same style of shirt at two style of shirt at two different stores. You
stores. Where would you want to different stores. Including a sales have determined that after a 5% sales
go to get the best deal? How much tax of 5%, what would be the total tax, your total cost savings would be
money did you save in all? cost savings if you were to take $3.06. What was the cost per shirt
advantage of the better deal? at Shirt Factory?
Vendor Cost per shirt
Vendor Cost per shirt Vendor Cost per shirt
Shirt Factory $8.99
Clothing Closet $9.49 Shirt Factory $8.99 Shirt Factory ???
Clothing Closet $9.49 Clothing Closet $9.49
You have decided to go out for You have decided to go out with You have decided to go out with your
the weekend. Here is a list of your friends for the weekend. Here friends for the weekend. Here is a list of
activities and their costs. What is is a list of activities and their costs. activities and their costs. You and your
a close estimate of the total amount You and your friends will each pay friends will each pay 1/3 of the total
you will spend? 1/3 of the total cost. What is a cost. You cannot spend more than $20
close estimate of the total amount in all. The cost of the movies is fixed,
Activity Amount you will spend? but all other amounts vary. Find at least
three different ways you could spend
Movies $14.75 Activity Amount your money, if you spend money for all
Popcorn and Drink $ 8.58 of these activities.
Movies $14.75
Shopping $46.28
Popcorn and Drink $ 8.58 Activity Amount
Dinner $38.12
Shopping $46.28
Movies $14.75
Dinner $38.12
Popcorn and Drink ???
Shopping ???
Dinner ???
Be a smart consumer! Use Be a smart consumer! Use Be a smart consumer! Use the
newspaper ads to plan a budget newspaper ads to plan a party newspaper or the Internet to track stock
and show ways that you would budget. You will need to decide the market prices of competitive vendors.
save money by purchasing from number of guests you are inviting to Examine the stock prices, if you were to
different vendors. You may spend the party and then purchase enough make a purchase a month previously.
up to $200. Record the item, materials. Pay close attention to You may spend up to $1000. Record
price, quantity purchased, and total quantities in each package so that the stock, selling price, quantity
savings. Draw conclusions about you order just enough. Show a purchased, and total gain or loss. Draw
your savings, in a paragraph, table, comparison using two competitive conclusions about your investment, in a
or graph. vendors. You may spend up to paragraph, table, or graph.
$500. Draw conclusions about
your savings, in a paragraph, table,
or graph.
Lesson Planning Template
Standard:
What are the big ideas? How do these big ideas connect to the real world?
Hook:
Closure:

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A Practical Guide to

Tiering Instruction in the

Classroom-Tested Strategies, Management Tools,

New York • Toronto • London • Auckland • Sydney

I would like to give thanks to

Stephanie Haskins, a teacher of teachers, who understands what it is to

My editor, Joanna Davis-Swing who was a consistent advocate and critical

My family and friends who believe it is not if, but when.

Cover design by Jorge J. Namerow

Copyright © 2010 by Sarah Armstrong

Chapter 1 , Differentiation in Practice: Tiered Instruction.. . . . . . 6

Chapter 2 , Knowing Your Learners: Assessing and

Chapter 3 , Lesson Design With Tiering in Mind.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Chapter 4 , Content Instruction: Tiering to Teach Essential

Chapter 5 , Process: Strategic Teaching to Tier Instruction.. . 67

Chapter 6 , Product: Tiering Ways Students Demonstrate

Ideas for Reflection .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

Chapter 7 , Tiered Instruction: How to Get There From Here.. . 124

Step by Step: Moving Toward Differentiation

Why Tiered Instruction?

True False Statement

Scaffolding means providing support at the student’s

T F Higher-level, complex thinking can be built into every

T F Leveled textbooks and leveled resource materials should

T F Assessment of student progress should be made weekly.

In order for tiered instruction to be successful, students must

Ways to Use Leveled Texts in Tiered Instruction

Evidence of Area of Differentiation

1. Create a T-chart. On the left side write “Evidence

Self Assessment: Tiering Instruction

1. I identify the essential understandings that I want students

2. If you asked the students in my class, they would be able to

3. I pre-assess my students to determine strengths and needs.

4. I plan the final assessment before designing the instruction.

5. I use assessment to help determine student groupings.

6. I arrange my groups flexibly; they may vary daily.

7. I design interesting and relevant lessons to hook and

8. I create tasks that challenge students and stretch

9. I begin by determining on-level tasks that meet the essential

10. I adjust the complexity, support, pace, materials, and/or

Knowing Your Learners:

Assessing Reading Levels

Developmental Reading K, 1, 2, 3 http://www.pearsonschool.com/

Phonological Awareness Literacy 1, 2, 3 http://pals.virginia.edu/

Analytical Reading Inventory, K, 1, 2, 3, http://www.mypearsonstore.com/bookstore/

Diagnostic Assessments of K, 1, 2, 3, http://www.riversidepublishing.com/

Qualitative Reading Inventory, K, 1, 2, 3, http://www.directtextbook.com/

STAR Reading Computer- K, 1, 2, 3, http://www.renlearn.com/

Scholastic Reading K–12 http://teacher.scholastic.com/products/

The Role of Assessment in the

“Today, more teachers are thinking about assessment in their classrooms as a

assessment and teaching are inseparable—and in fact they are. Because of

Assessment for Learning

Only one of these five achievement types—knowledge—is readily assessed

Statement Option 1 Option 2 Option 3

I prefer completing by myself with one with a

When it comes to give me the let me select assign a topic

When it comes I need a written I need a written just tell me when

Chapter 4 , Content Instruction: Tiering to Teach Essential

Chapter 6 , Product: Tiering Ways Students Demonstrate

Scaffolding means providing support at the student’s

T F Higher-level, complex thinking can be built into every

T F Leveled textbooks and leveled resource materials should

T F Assessment of student progress should be made weekly.

_ cooperative group work _ self-assessment

_ opportunities to use technology _ independent study

_ resources other than the textbook _ partner projects

I can find the sum of angles, triangles,

resources to use Student : ____________________ Teacher: _ Grade: Date:______