Homework 8

1. (Chapter 10: Question 8) If n ∈ N, then

1 2 3 n 1
+ + + ··· + =1− .
2! 3! 4! (n + 1)! (n + 1)!

Proof. We will prove this by using induction on n.

1
Base step: When n = 1 the left hand side is 2!
= 12 . When n = 1 the right hand side is 1 − 1
(1+1)!
= 1
2
which proves the equality is true when n = 1.
Inductive step: Let n ≥ 1. We will assume that 2!1 + 3!2 + 4!3 + · · · + (n+1)!
n 1
= 1 − (n+1)! . Our goal is to
1 2 3 n+1 1
show that 2! + 3! + 4! + · · · + ((n+1)+1)! = 1 − ((n+1)+1)! . Using our inductive assumption we have
   
1 2 3 n n+1 1 n+1
+ + + ··· + + = 1− +
2! 3! 4! (n + 1)! ((n + 1) + 1)! (n + 1)! (n + 2)!
 
1 n+1
=1− −
(n + 1)! (n + 2)!
 
1 n+1
=1− 1−
(n + 1)! n+2
 
1 1
=1−
(n + 1)! n + 2
1
=1− .
((n + 1) + 1)!
1 2 3 n 1
By induction we have thus shown that 2!
+ 3!
+ 4!
+ ··· + (n+1)!
= 1− (n+1)!
for all natural numbers
n.

2. (Chapter 10: Question 12) For any integer n ≥ 0, it follows that 9|(43n + 8).

Proof. We will do induction on n.

Base step: For n = 0, 43·0 + 8 = 40 + 8 = 9 is divisible by 9.
Inductive step: Assume 9|(43n + 8) for n ≥ 0. This means 43n + 8 = 9p for some p ∈ Z. Then

43(n+1) + 8 = 43 · 43n + 8 = 64 · 43n + 8 = 63 · 43n + (43n + 8) = 9(7 · 43n + p).

Therefore, 9|(43(n+1) + 8). By Mathematical Induction 9|(43n + 8) holds for any integer n ≥ 0.

3. (Chapter 10: Question 18) Suppose A1 , A2 , . . . , An are sets in some universal set U , and n ≥ 2. Prove
that
A1 ∪ A2 ∪ · · · ∪ An = A1 ∩ A2 ∩ · · · ∩ An .

Proof. We will prove this by using induction on n.

Base step: n = 2. We know whenever we have two sets A1 and A2 in the universal set U by DeMorgan’s
law A1 ∪ A2 = A1 ∩ A2 .
Inductive step: Let n ≥ 2. We will assume that give any n subsets B1 , B2 , . . . , Bn of U that
B1 ∪ B2 ∪ · · · ∪ Bn = B1 ∩B2 ∩· · ·∩Bn . Our goal is to show that given any n+1 subsets A1 , A2 , . . . , An+1
of U that A1 ∪ A2 ∪ · · · ∪ An+1 = A1 ∩ A2 ∩ · · · ∩ An+1 . So let A1 , A2 , . . . , An+1 be any n + 1 sets which
are subsets of the universal set U . Note that then A1 , A2 , . . . , An is a collection of n subsets of U so
 we can apply our inductive assumption to this collection of sets. Using DeMorgan’s law (page 145 in
textbook, Exercise 11)and our inductive assumption we have that

A1 ∪ A2 ∪ · · · ∪ An ∪ An+1 = (A1 ∪ A2 ∪ · · · ∪ An ) ∪ An+1

= (A1 ∪ A2 ∪ · · · ∪ An ) ∩ An+1
= A1 ∩ A2 ∩ · · · ∩ An ∩ An+1

which proves our statement by induction.

4. (Chapter 10: Question 22) If n ∈ N, then

      
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1− 1− 1− 1− · · · 1 − n ≥ + n+1 .
2 4 8 16 2 4 2

Proof. We will prove this by using induction on n.

Base step: When n = 1 the left hand side is (1− 21 ) = 12 . When n = 1 the right hand side is 41 + 21+1 1
= 12
1 1
and since 2 ≥ 2 the inequality is true for n = 1.
Inductive step: Let n ≥ 1. We will
assume
that 1
− 21 1
− 14 1 − 81
1 − 16 1
· · · 1 − 21n ≥






1 1
4
+ 2n+1 . Our goal is to show that 1 − 12 1 − 14 1 − 18 1 − 16 1 1
· · · 1 − 2n+1 ≥ 14 + 2(n+1)+1
1
. Using
our inductive assumption we have
           
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1− 1− 1− 1− ··· 1 − n 1 − n+1 ≥ + 1 − n+1
2 4 8 16 2 2 4 2n+1 2
1 1 1 1 1 1
= + n+1 − n+1
− n+1 n+1
4 2  42 2 2
1 1 1 1
= + n+1 1 − − n+1
4 2 4 2
 
1 1 3 1
= + n+1 − .
4 2 4 2n+1
1 1
Because n ≥ 1 and 21+1 ≤ 2n+1 we know 2n+1 ≤ 21+1 = 14 so
   
1 1 3 1 1 1 3 1
+ − ≥ + n+1 −
4 2n+1 4 2n+1 4 2 4 4
 
1 1 1
= + n+1
4 2 2
1 1
= + (n+1)+1
4 2
Thus we have shown 1 − 12 1 − 14 1 − 18 1 − 16 1 1
≥ 14 + 1






· · · 1 − 2n+1 2(n+1)+1
. Hence by induction
1 − 21 1 − 14 1 − 18 1 − 161
· · · 1 − 21n ≥ 14 + 2n+1
1






for all n ∈ N.

5. The Fibonacci numbers are defined to be F1 = 1, F2 = 1, and Fn = Fn−1 + Fn−2 for n > 2. Show that
for all k ∈ N, F4k is a multiple of 3.

Proof. We will prove this by inducting on k.

Base step: When k = 1 we have m = 4k = 4 and Fm = F4 = F3 + F2 = (F2 + F1 ) + F2 = (1 + 1) + 1 = 3
which is a multiple of 3.
 Inductive step: Let k ≥ 1 we will assume that F4k is a multiple of 3 and show that F4(k+1) is also a
multiple of 3. Since F4k is a multiple of 3 we know F4k = 3x for some integer x. Using the Fibonacci
recurrence we have

F4(k+1) = F4k+4
= F4k+3 + F4k+2
= (F4k+2 + F4k+1 ) + (F4k+1 + F4k )
= ((F4k+1 + F4k ) + F4k+1 ) + (F4k+1 + F4k )
= 3F4k+1 + 2F4k
= 3F4k+1 + 2(3x)
= 3(F4k+1 + 2x).

Hence F4(k+1) is also a multiple of 3. Therefore, by induction we can conclude that F4k is a multiple of
3 for all k ∈ N.

6. Use induction to prove that if A is a finite set of cardinality n ≥ 0 then |P(A)| = 2n .

Proof. We proceed by induction on n.

Base case: If n = 0, then A = ∅. Then P(A) = {∅}. Thus |A| = 0 and |P(A)| = 1 = 20 . Hence the
statement is true for n = 0.
Inductive step: Assume that the statement is true for any set of cardinality k. Let B be a set with
|B| = k + 1. We write B as B = {b1 , ..., bk , bk+1 }. For any subset C of B, we consider two cases:

• If bk+1 6∈ C, then C ⊆ {b1 , ..., bk }; it follows from the induction hypothesis that there are 2k such
subsets.
• If bk+1 ∈ C, then C = D ∪ {bk+1 } for some D ⊆ {b1 , ..., bk }; again, by the induction hypothesis
there are 2k such sets D.

Since these two cases give disjoint collections of sets, there must be 2k + 2k = 2k+1 subsets of B. Now
by induction the statement is true for all n ≥ 0.

7. Let f (x) = x ln x and x > 0. Denote f (n) (x) the nth derivative of f (x) for n ∈ N. Prove that for all
integer n ≥ 3 it holds
(n − 2)!
f (n) (x) = (−1)n n−1 .
x
Proof. We use induction on n.
Base case: n = 3. Direct computation shows:

f 0 (x) = 1 + ln x
1
f 00 (x) =
x
1 (3 − 2)!
f (3) (x) = − 2 = (−1)3 3−1 .
x x
Thus the statement is true for n = 3.
Inductive step: Assume k ≥ 3 and

(k − 2)!
f (k) (x) = (−1)k .
xk−1
 For k + 1, we differentiate the above equality

((k + 1) − 2)!
f (k+1) (x) = (f (k) (x))0 = (−1)k (k−2)!(k−1)(−1)x−(k−1)−1) = (−1)k+1 (k−1)!x−k = (−1)k+1 .
x(k+1)−1
By induction the statement is true for all integer n ≥ 3.

8. A sequence a1 , a2 , ..., an , ... is defined by

a1 = 1, a2 = 4, and an = 2an−1 − an−2 + 2 for all n ≥ 3.

Show: an = n2 for all n ∈ N.

Proof. We proceed by strong induction. Since a1 = 1 = 12 and a2 = 4 = 22 , the formula holds for
n = 1, 2. Assume ak = k 2 for every integer k with 2 ≤ k ≤ n. As n + 1 ≥ 3, we can use the iteration
formula as follows

an+1 = 2an − an−1 + 2

= 2n2 − (n − 1)2 + 2
= 2n2 − (n2 − 2n + 1) + 2
= n2 + 2n + 1
= (n + 1)2 .

By strong induction, an = n2 for all n ∈ N.

9. Suppose you begin with a pile of n stones (n ≥ 2) and split this pile into n piles of one stone each by
successively splitting a pile of stones into two smaller piles. Each time you split a pile you multiply the
number of stones in each of the two smaller piles you form, so that if these piles have p and q stones
in them, respectively, you compute pq. Show that no matter how you split the piles (eventually into n
piles of one stone each), the sum of the products computed at each step equals n(n − 1)/2. (Hint: use
strong induction on n.)

Proof. We proceed by strong induction.

Base case: When n = 2, the stones are split into two piles of one stone each. Thus p = q = 1 and
pq = 1 = (2)(2 − 1)/2. So the statement is true for n = 2.
Inductive step: Assume that the statement is true for the game of any l stones with 2 ≤ l ≤ n. For
n + 1 stones, suppose that we finish the first round of the splitting and have two piles now: one with k
stones and one with n + 1 − k stones, k > 0.
Case 1: If k = 1 then the pile with k = 1 stone will not be changed in the later part of the game and
the pile with n + 1 − k = n falls in the range of the induction hypothesis, so the sum of the products
from each step to the end of the game is

n(n − 1) (n + 1)n
1·n+ = .
2 2

Case 2: If k = n, we have a pile with n stones and a pile with 1 stone, so we have the same formula for
the sum of the products as in Case 1.
Case 3: If 2 ≤ k < n, we can apply the induction hypothesis to both piles since 2 ≤ k ≤ n and
2 ≤ n + 1 − k ≤ n (to see this: as k < n, k + 1 ≤ n, so 1 ≤ n − k, then 2 ≤ n − k + 1; adding n to both
sides of 1 − k ≤ 0 yields n + 1 − k ≤ n). Now, the two piles together contribute a product k(n + 1 − k),
and individually the two piles contribute k(k − 1)/2 and (n + 1 − k)(n − k)/2, respectively, according
to the induction hypothesis; therefore the total sum is

k(k − 1) (n + 1 − k)(n − k)
+ + k(n + 1 − k)
2 2
1
(k 2 − k) + ((n + 1)n − (n + 1)k − kn + k 2 ) + 2k(n + 1 − k)


=
2
(n + 1)n
= .
2
Hence, by strong induction, the statement holds for any integer n ≥ 2. .