RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND

STATISTICAL QUANTITATIVE
METHODS

(FOR PRIVATE CIRCULATION ONLY)

2016
PROGRAMME COORDINATOR
Dr. Padmpriya Irabatti

COURSE DESIGN AND REVIEW COMMITTEE

Prof. Dr. Narendra Parchure Prof. Safia Farooqui
Prof. Kishori Kasat Dr. Bharati D. B.
Prof. Naim Shaikh Prof. Nazima Shaikh
Prof. Umesh Kulkarni

COURSE WRITERS
Dr. Jayant Tatke Ms. Anjali Mandke

EDITOR
Ms. Kumkum Tripathi

Published by Symbiosis Centre for Distance Learning (SCDL), Pune

July, 2004 (Revision 02, 2015)

Copyright © 2016 Symbiosis Open Education Society

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, transmitted or utilised in any form or by any
means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any information storage or retrieval
system without written permission from the publisher.

Acknowledgement
Every attempt has been made to trace the copyright holders of materials reproduced in this book. Should any
infringement have occurred, SCDL apologises for the same and will be pleased to make necessary corrections
in future editions of this book.
 PREFACE

It is indeed a pleasure to write this book on ‘Research Methodology’ for SCDL, as we had a dream to
write on this subject for the benefit of the student-community. Without proper research, India cannot
progress. In fact, during 1970’s the late Shri. S. L. Kirloskar, a missionary industrialist had openly
said, “If India wants to progress fast, leave research for the time-being and buy latest technology from
developing world from the research funds saved. Come near if not at par with developed countries;
then invest in research.”
All these years, perhaps research did not attract either the academicians or the industries. It was
only when the nation’s economy took a leap forward with globalisation, competition at its doors, we
realised the importance and use of research in development and progress. Research methodology
means scientific discipline in solving whatever problems one wants to solve. We have taken pain to
introduce this subject vividly, yet in a simple language to students and teachers as well. Right from
the beginning, we have tried to explain what research means, how it is related to scientific discipline,
how the approach can be made step by step to solve the research problem. “Correctly defining a
research problem is half success” is what we wish to insist on. When you look around life today, you
will agree that in many situations, selection of wrong problem is the real cause of failure.
The book unfolds systematically till the end. In fact, we have avoided the temptation of devoting
chapters on methods of research in details, because that will firstly vitiate the main objective of this
book and secondly the other part is so varied, difficult to understand and use, that we decided to
leave that to be published as another book, particularly when these methods are mainly comprising
Quantitative Techniques, involving higher mathematics & statistics. We did not want to mix them at
this juncture.
This book mentions the objective in each unit, the summary of each unit followed by keywords and
a list of questions wherever necessary. It also includes ‘Activity’ questions for self-learning. We are
more than confident that the book will be interesting and useful to the students and teachers as well.
We take this opportunity to sincerely extend our thanks to SCDL authorities for giving us an
opportunity to write this book.

Dr. Jayant Tatke

Anjali Mandke

iii
 ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Dr. Jayant Vishnu Tatke is a counsellor and guide at Indira Gandhi National Open University, Pune
Regional Centre. He was a visiting faculty to many Business schools in and around Pune as well as
Symbiosis (deemed university), University of Pune, MIT (deemed university) and Bharti Vidyapeeth
(deemed university) for the past 16 yrs.
He joined Indian Statistical Units Psychometric Unit in Kolkata under late Dr. J.B.S. Haldane in 1957,
after his M.Sc. (Statistics) from Pune University in 1956. Thereafter, he started Statistical Quality
Control Dept. at National Tobacco Co. of India Ltd., near Kolkata in 1958. He joined Hindustan
Antibiotics Ltd., Pimpri, Pune in 1961 as statistician and retired in 1991 as a Manager, Production
Planning and Control Dept. which he started in HAL.
During his service he obtained his Ph.D (Statistics) in 1971 under the guidance of late Dr. V.S.
Huzurbazar. He underwent “Operation Research Course” conducted by the ‘Indian Statistical Institute,
Kolkata, as well as “Management Information System Course” conducted by Indian Institute of
Management, Bangalore.
Dr. Tatke was a member of HAL’s ‘work study team’ since its inception and also a member of
HAL’s ‘working capital management team’. He was a recipient of HAL’s “Management excellence
award”. Dr. Tatke has about 30 years of industrial experience, applying mathematical, statistical and
management techniques in solving real industrial problems in the field of Tobacco & Cigarettes,
textiles, drugs and pharmaceuticals. He has published about 20 technical papers in Scientific and
Technical journals. He was bestowed upon “the IAQR – Kirloskar award” for the best technical
publication of the year.
Dr. Tatke has carried out training courses in “SQC, Industrial Statistics, Quantitative techniques, etc.”
on behalf of Bombay Management Association, Tata Management Training Centre, Pune, Divisional
Productivity Council, Thermax. He was a member of the “Board of Studies in Statistics” of Pune
University for three times. He was a member of American Statistical Association, USA; ASQC,
USA; IAQR, India and was a consulting statistician to reputed Chemical and Pharmaceutical firms.
Dr. Tatke has also authored many books.
Anjali Mandke completed her M.B.A. with Quantitative Techniques as a subject of specialisation in
Shivaji University, Kolhapur. She has more than 18 years of industrial experience and was associated
with the development of Management Information Systems in Electronica Mechatronic Systems
Ltd. & Eagle Flasks Industries Ltd., etc. She has a rich teaching experience of 6 years in Statistical
Quantitative Methods domain and has worked with Bharti Vidyapeeth’s College of Engineering,
JSPM’s Imperial College of Engineering, and Alard Institute of Management Sciences and as visiting
faculty in Raja Shivrai Pratishthan’s Management College. She is famous among students for her
unique style of teaching.

iv
 CONTENTS

Unit No. TITLE Page No.

SECTION - I
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
1 Understanding Research 1-28
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Definition and Meaning of Research
1.3 Characteristics of Research
1.4 Objectives of Research
1.5 Motivation in Research
1.6 Types of Research
1.7 Research in Decision Making
1.8 Role of Research in Various Areas
1.9 Limitations of Research
1.10 What constitutes a Good Research
Summary
Keywords
Self-Assessment Questions
Answers to Check your Progress
Suggested Reading
2 Scientific Methods and Research 29-40
2.1 Scientific Method
2.2 Definitions of Scientific Method
2.3 Characteristics of Scientific Method
2.4 Basis of Scientific Method
2.5 Scientific Methods and Scientific Research
2.6 Components of Scientific Approach
2.7 Bias and Prejudice in Scientific Research
Summary
Keywords
Self-Assessment Questions
Answers to Check your Progress
Suggested Reading

v
 Unit No. TITLE Page No.
3 Formulating Research Problem and Hypothesis 41-64
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Research Process/Planning Process
3.3 Research Problem – Need for Defining
3.4 Prerequisites for Formulating Research Problem
3.5 Selection of the Research Problem
3.6 Points to Ponder on Research Problem
3.7 Units of Analysis
3.8 Time and Space Co-ordination
3.9 Characteristics of Interest
3.10 Environmental Conditions
3.11 Formulation of a Research Problem and Hypothesis Testing
Summary
Keywords
Self-Assessment Questions
Answers to Check your Progress
Suggested Reading
4 Hypothesis Testing 65-82
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Hypothesis: Definition and Meaning
4.3 Role of Hypothesis
4.4 Sources of Hypothesis
4.5 Kinds of Hypothesis
4.6 Characteristics of Hypothesis
4.7 Formulation of Hypothesis
4.8 Importance of Hypothesis
4.9 Difficulties in Formulating of Hypothesis
4.10 Means to Overcome Difficulties
4.11 Testing of Hypothesis
4.12 Steps in Testing Hypothesis
4.13 Statistical Hypothesis/Tests of Significance
4.14 Limitations of Tests of Significance
Summary
Keywords
Self-Assessment Questions
Answers to Check your Progress
Suggested Reading

vi
Unit No. TITLE Page No.
5 Research Design 83-102
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Meaning and Definition of Research Design
5.3 Relation between Problem Formulation and Research Design
5.4 Factors affecting Research Design
5.5 Advantages of Research Design
5.6 Steps in Research Design
5.7 Various Types of Research Designs
Summary
Keywords
Self-Assessment Questions
Answers to Check your Progress
Suggested Reading
6 Data Collection and Measurement 103-120
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Meaning and Importance of Data
6.3 Sources of Data
6.4 Choosing the Method of Data Collection
6.5 Methods of Collection of Primary Data
6.6 Methods of Collection of Secondary Data
6.7 Scrutiny of Secondary Data
6.8 Merits and Demerits of Different Methods of collecting Primary Data
Summary
Keywords
Self-Assessment Questions
Answers to Check your Progress
Suggested Reading
7 Sampling and Sampling Technique 121-156
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Population and Sample
7.3 Variables and Attributes
7.4 Procedures for Collecting Data
7.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of Sampling
7.6 What makes a Good Sample
7.7 Sampling and Non-Sampling Errors
7.8 Sampling Frame
7.9 Methods of Sampling and Probability Sampling
7.9.1 Types of Probability Sampling Method
7.10 Methods of Sampling: Non-probability Sampling
7.11 Sampling Design
7.12 Sample Size
7.13 Other Sampling Methods
Summary
Keywords
Self-Assessment Questions
Answers to Check your Progress
Suggested Reading
vii
 Unit No. TITLE Page No.
8 Observation 157-172
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Definition of Observation
8.3 Features of Observation
8.4 Importance of Observation
8.5 Types of Observation
8.6 Advantages and Disadvantages of Observation
8.7 Limitations of Observation
8.8 Difficulties in Observation
Summary
Keywords
Self-Assessment Questions
Answers to Check your Progress
Suggested Reading
9 The Interview Method 173-190
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Definition and Meaning of Interview
9.3 Types of Interview
9.4 Advantages of the Interview Method
9.5 Major Limitations of the Interview Method
9.6 The Process of Interview
9.7 Prerequisites of a Successful Interview
Summary
Keywords
Self-Assessment Questions
Answers to Check your Progress
Suggested Reading
10 The Questionnaire Method 191-210
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Meaning and Purpose of a Questionnaire
10.3 Types of Questionnaires
10.4 Formulation of a Questionnaire / Schedule
10.5 Guidelines for Questionnaire Items
10.6 Questionnaire – Choice, Wording etc.
10.7 Advantages and Disadvantages of Questionnaires
10.8 Pre-testing a Questionnaire
10.9 A Model Questionnaire
Summary
Keywords
Self-Assessment Questions
Answers to Check your Progress
Suggested Reading

viii
Unit No. TITLE Page No.
11 The Survey Method 211-226
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Definitions of Social Survey
11.3 Meaning of Survey
11.4 Objectives of Survey
11.5 Characteristics of Social Survey
11.6 Types of Survey
11.7 Planning a Survey
11.8 Advantages of Survey
11.9 Limitations of Survey Method
11.10 Comparison between Pre-Testing and Pilot Survey
11.11 Survey Trends
Summary
Key Words
Self-Assessment Questions
Answers to Check your Progress
Suggested Reading
12 The Experimental Method 227-248
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Definition and Meaning of Experimental Method
12.3 Objectives of Experiment
12.4 What constitutes an Experiment
12.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of Experiments
12.6 How to conduct an Experiment
12.7 Validity in Experimentation
12.8 Basic Principles of Experimentation
12.9 Experimental Designs
Summary
Key Words
Self-Assessment Questions
Answers to Check your Progress
Suggested Reading

ix
 Unit No. TITLE Page No.
13 Scaling Techniques and Attitudes Measurement Techniques 249-274
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Attitudes, Attributes and Beliefs
13.3 Attitudes Measurement
13.4 Choice of Data Collection and Measurement Techniques
13.5 Scaling Techniques
13.6 Types of Scales
13.7 The Semantic Differential Scale
13.8 Selection of an Approximate Scale
13.9 Limitations of Attitudes Measurement Scales
Summary
Keywords
Self-Assessment Questions
Answers to Check your Progress
Suggested Reading
14 Data Presentation, Processing and Analysis 275-314
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Editing of Data
14.3 Coding of Data
14.4 Classification of Data
14.5 Tabulation of Data
14.6 Graphical Representation of Data
14.7 Analysis of Data
14.8 Interpretation of Data
14.9 SPSS Statistics for Students: The Basics
14.9.1 Features of SPSS
14.9.2 Layout of SPSS
14.9.3 SPSS Menus and Icons
14.9.4 Basic Steps in Data Analysis
14.9.5 The SPSS Windows and Files
14.9.6 Statistical Procedures
Summary
Keywords
Self-Assessment Questions
Answers to Check your Progress
Suggested Reading

x
Unit No. TITLE Page No.
SECTION - II
STATISTICAL QUANTITATIVE METHODS
1 Arranging Data to convey Meaning 315-330
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Definitions of Various Terms
1.3 Data Classification/Tabulation
1.4 Cumulative Frequency Distribution
1.5 Tabulation of Data
1.6 Diagrammatic Representation
1.7 Graphical Representation
Summary
Keywords
Self Assessment Questions
Answers to Check your Progress
Suggested Reading
2 Measures of Central Tendency (Mean, Median And Mode) 331-364
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Mean
2.3 Median
2.4 Mode
2.5 Measures of Dispersion
Summary
Keywords
Self-Assessment Questions
Answers to Check your Progress
Suggested Reading
3 Correlation 365-378
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Types of Correlation
3.3 Methods of Correlation
3.4 Association of Attributes
Summary
Keywords
Self-Assessment Questions
Answers to Check your Progress
Suggested Reading

xi
 Unit No. TITLE Page No.
4 Probability 379-394
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Definitions
4.3 Theorems of Probability
4.4 Binomial Distribution
4.5 Poisson Distribution
4.6 Normal Distribution
Summary
Keywords
Self-Assessment Questions
Answers to Check your Progress
Suggested Reading
5 Queuing Theory 395-408
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Input Source of Queue
5.3 Behaviour of the Arrivals
5.4 Service System
5.5 Queue Configuration
5.6 Markov Chains
5.7 Simulation
Summary
Keywords
Self-Assessment Questions
Answers to Check your Progress
Suggested Reading
6 Game Theory and Decision Theory 409-428
6.1 Introduction: Game Theory
6.2 Definitions
6.3 Characteristics of Game Theory
6.4 Strategy
6.5 Introduction to Decision Theory
6.6 Elements of an Effective Decision-Making Process
6.7 Decision Models
Summary
Keywords
Self-Assessment Questions
Answers to Check your Progress
Suggested Reading

xii
 SECTION - I

RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY

xiii
xiv
Understanding Research
UNIT

1
Structure:

1.1 Introduction
1.2 Definition and Meaning of Research
1.3 Characteristics of Research
1.4 Objectives of Research
1.5 Motivation in Research
1.6 Types of Research
1.7 Research in Decision Making
1.8 Role of Research in Various Areas
1.9 Limitations of Research
1.10 What constitutes a Good Research
Summary
Keywords
Self-Assessment Questions
Answers to Check your Progress
Suggested Reading

Understanding Research 1
 Notes
Objectives
----------------------
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
----------------------
• Assess the need for research in the current situation
----------------------
• Explain the actual process of research and its role in managerial
---------------------- decision making
• Differentiate between various types of research
----------------------

----------------------
1.1 INTRODUCTION
----------------------
You are learning different branches of subjects. For all these branches,
---------------------- research methodology is not only an important base but also an essential one.
To formulate theory, research is fully utilised and life experience with empirical
---------------------- evidence is also used. Thus research is an academic activity which gives
---------------------- creativity, thinking and knowledge. The goal of life is progress and development
for good and comfortable life. Research is a backbone of any country. Research
---------------------- has proved to be an essential and powerful tool in the modern world. There
would have been very little progress without systematic research. We have
---------------------- developed good and useful research after the invention of computer. Research
---------------------- is nothing but a matter of raising questions and then trying to find answers.
Thus research is an art of scientific investigation. Science is based
---------------------- upon axioms. The axioms of science deal with validity of human knowledge.
---------------------- Research influences the values of science. So science and values interact
in several ways. The philosophy of science is to validate the knowledge of
---------------------- society. The science has the basic values of having faith in seeking knowledge.
Knowledge is considered as value in science. Hence science is a systematic
---------------------- study of knowledge provided the facts exist in the world. For instance the
---------------------- sunlight is composed of seven colours. It cannot be seen through naked eye.
But by systematic approach, if the light passes through a prism, one can see the
---------------------- seven colours of the rainbow. Here the knowledge is the prism, angle, reflection
etc. and the fact is the seven colours. Thus research is a network of connecting
---------------------- knowledge through critical inquiry or examination in seeking facts or principles
---------------------- through different investigation in order to ascertain something.

---------------------- 1.2 DEFINITION AND MEANING OF RESEARCH

---------------------- The simple meaning of research is to search for facts - answers to
---------------------- questions and solutions to problems. Research is a purposeful investigation. It
is an organised enquiry. It clarifies doubtful facts; it corrects the misconceived
---------------------- ideas/facts; it seeks to find explanations to unexplained phenomenon. How is a
search made? Are there possible methods or approaches?
----------------------
a) Arbitrary Method: Such a method usually consists of seeking answers
---------------------- to questions through opinions, imagination, beliefs or impressions e.g. we

2 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

 earlier believed that the shape of the earth was flat. However, this method Notes
has a serious weakness. It is very subjective. The findings vary from one
person to another. It is also rather vague and inaccurate. ----------------------
b) Scientific Method: It removes the weaknesses and drawbacks of Arbitrary ----------------------
Method.
----------------------
It is a systematic rational approach to seeking facts. It is objective, precise
and arrives at conclusions on the basis of verifiable evidences. ----------------------
Therefore, search for facts should be made by scientific method rather
----------------------
than by arbitrary method which can help us to get verifiable and accurate
facts. Hence, research is a systematic and logical study of an issue or a ----------------------
problem or a phenomenon through scientific method.
----------------------
Some of the definitions of research in literature are given below which
can help you to understand the proper meaning and concept of research. ----------------------
1. Encyclopedia of Social Science defines research as, “the manipulation
----------------------
of generalising to extend, connect or verify knowledge…” Manipulation
incorporates experimentation adopted for the purpose of arriving at ----------------------
generalisation.
----------------------
Kerlinger defines research as a “systematic, controlled, commercial and
critical investigation of hypothetical propositions about the presumed ----------------------
relations among natural phenomenon.” The objectives of study are the
main characteristics of scientific method. Investigation of hypothetical ----------------------
propositions perhaps is not always true, as research can be carried out
----------------------
for discovery of a hypothesis or can be used to collect information on
a phenomenon. In other words, research does not call for hypothesis ----------------------
always.
----------------------
2. Clover and Balsley define research as “the process of systematically
obtaining accurate answers to significant and pertinent questions by the ----------------------
use of the scientific method gathering and interpreting information.”
----------------------
3. Young defines research as “a scientific undertaking which by means of
logical and systematic technique, aims (a) to discover new facts or to ----------------------
verify and test old facts (b) to analyse their sequences, interrelationships
and causal explanations (c) to develop new scientific tools, concepts ----------------------
and memories that would facilitate reliable and valid study of human
----------------------
behaviour. This definition specifies all the major aims of research, vis.,
verification and testing of old facts, discovery of new facts, study and ----------------------
analysis of interrelationships and development of new theories, tools and
concepts.” ----------------------
4. Webster’s Twentieth Century Dictionary defines the term research as ----------------------
“a careful, patient, systematic diligent inquiry or examination in some
field of knowledge undertaken to establish facts or principles.” ----------------------
5. Random House Dictionary of the English Language defines research ----------------------
as “a diligent and systematic inquiry or investigation into subject in order
to discover or revised facts, theories, applications etc.” ----------------------

Understanding Research 3
 Notes These definitions lead us to conclude that research is an activity undertaken
to establish facts or principles in a scientific way.
----------------------
6. John W. Best has defined research as “the systematic and objective
---------------------- analysis and recording of controlled observations that may lend to
development of generalisation, principles or theories resulting in
---------------------- prediction and perhaps ultimate control of events.”
---------------------- Thus, research is an intensive and purposeful search for knowledge and
understanding of social and physical phenomenon. It is a method of
---------------------- discovering true values in a scientific way. It is a critical and scientific
analysis of social facts and formulations as a basis for definition which
----------------------
leads us to formulate the following characteristics of research.
---------------------- Meaning of Research
---------------------- Inquisitiveness is a distinctive feature of all human beings. We are curious
to know about ourselves, our environment, our institutions and so on.
---------------------- Why sky looks blue? Is there life on other planets? Can the problem of
scarcity of food be solved? Why the same persons differ on the same
----------------------
subject? Whenever questions like these occur, we seek answers for that.
---------------------- Whenever we encounter problems, we try to find solutions to them.
Seeking such answers and solutions to problems faced is as old as our
---------------------- civilisation. A systematic search for getting answers to our problems or
questions is called research. The answers form the knowledge.
----------------------
The simple meaning of research is to search for facts - answers to questions
---------------------- and solutions to problems. Research is a purposeful investigation. It is an
organised enquiry. It clarifies doubtful facts; it corrects the misconceived
----------------------
ideas/facts; it seeks to find explanations on unexplained phenomenon.
---------------------- How is the search made? Are there possible methods or approaches?

---------------------- The word research identifies a process by which the organisation attempts to
supply the information required for making sound management decisions.
---------------------- Research is not synonymous with common sense. The difference revolves
around words such as ‘systematic,’ ‘objective’ and ‘reproducible’. Both
---------------------- research and common sense depend on information; the distinction
---------------------- between them lies in the procedures and methods adopted by which the
information is obtained and used in arriving at conclusions. Research
---------------------- cannot address itself to the complete information on a particular subject.
Hence, two secondary characteristics of research specify ‘relevance’ and
---------------------- ‘control’.
---------------------- A systematic approach is essential in a good research. Each step must be so
planned that it leads to the next step. It is usually very difficult to go back
---------------------- and correct the mistakes of the previous step; sometimes it is impossible.
---------------------- Even when it is possible, it will involve loss in time and money. Authors
have divided research into a number of steps. Both the number of steps and
---------------------- the names are somewhat arbitrary, however the recognition of a sequence
is crucial. Planning and organisation are a part of this systematic approach
---------------------- with a lot of emphasis given to the interdependence of the various steps.

4 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

 While planning, one of the very common mistakes committed is the Notes
separation of data collection and data analysis. First we collect the data
then, we decide that analysis is appropriate. This approach invites a ----------------------
disaster. A considerable thought should have been given at the planning
stage itself as to what kind of analysis will be required for the project ----------------------
which will satisfy the needs of the decision maker. ----------------------
Objectivity warrants an approach which is independent of the researcher’s
----------------------
personal views and opinions with regard to the answer to the problem
under investigation. It is possible to have honest differences with respect ----------------------
to the proper definition or collection procedure, but the one selected must
not be chosen in order to verify a prior position. ----------------------
A reproducible research procedure is one which an equally competent ----------------------
researcher could duplicate and obtain approximately the same results
from it. In order to achieve reproducibility, all procedures must be stated ----------------------
unambiguously. Precise wording of questions, method of sampling,
----------------------
collection method, interviewer instructions and all other details must be
clearly stated. Even if the environment changes, the research is at least ----------------------
‘conceptually’ reproducible in the sense that the steps could be mentally
duplicated. ----------------------
Relevance accomplishes two important tasks. First it avoids the collection ----------------------
of unnecessary information along with the accompanying cost. Secondly,
it forces the comparison of the data collected with the decision maker’s ----------------------
criteria for action. This approach enables both the investigator and
----------------------
the decision-maker to know whether the project is moving in the right
direction. ----------------------
Control aspect is particularly elusive in research. We must be aware that
----------------------
the results of our study are due to the presence of some factor other than
those we are investigating on. It is impossible to have control on all other ----------------------
factors; the best we can do is to have control for those we think are most
likely to cause us difficulty. Suppose we study the relationship between ----------------------
shopping behaviour and income without controlling for education and
----------------------
age, it will be the height of folly since our findings may reflect the effect
of education or age rather than income. ----------------------
Control raises extremely difficult issues when research is conducted in a
----------------------
live environment. Many factors other than the ones of principal interest
may influence the research results. The danger is that the researcher may ----------------------
attribute changes to one variable when the uncontrolled variable is the cause.
----------------------
Control must consider two aspects namely (a) Those variables that are
truly with in your control must be varied according to the nature of your ----------------------
investigation. (b) Those variable beyond your control should be recorded.
----------------------
The research methods course recognises that students preparing to manage
any function- regardless of the setting-need training in a disciplined ----------------------
process for conducting an inquiry of a management dilemma, the problem
or opportunity that a requires a management decision. ----------------------

Understanding Research 5
 Notes
Check your Progress 1
----------------------

---------------------- Multiple Choice Single Response.

1. The main concept behind doing research is to
----------------------
i. Study and explore knowledge
----------------------
ii. Start with a predefined and clear-cut objectives
---------------------- iii. Get new ideas
---------------------- iv. Define clear objectives
----------------------

---------------------- 1.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH

---------------------- The main characteristics of research are as follows:

i. Research is a systematic inquiry. It is said to be a careful, patient and
----------------------
diligent inquiry. This means research is a scientific study of facts or
---------------------- phenomenon.
ii. Research is a critical investigation into a phenomenon or a subject.
----------------------
Research is taken in specific field of knowledge may be pure science, social
---------------------- science or applied science. One may be interested in verifying a fact or a
principle in any discipline of his choice like chemistry, physics, biology,
---------------------- economics, commerce and the like. Each of such disciplines consists of
huge knowledge. In every discipline, there exist certain confirmed and
----------------------
unconfirmed facts, theories and principles etc. An activity undertaken to
---------------------- verify or revise these facts or principles becomes a research.

---------------------- iii. Research is undertaken to establish facts or principles. Mere compilation

of information does not become a research. It is a scientific activity
---------------------- undertaken to establish a fact, a theory, a principle or an application.
As an example, data collected by Institutes such as Central Statistical
---------------------- Oganisation or Reserve Bank of India does not form research. Research
---------------------- is the after analysis of such a data forming meaningful conclusions.
iv. It is a logical method which uses possible tests to validate theories or
---------------------- tools and draw valid conclusions.
---------------------- v. Research is also based on empirical evidence and observational experience
for formulating conclusions to establish new theories.
----------------------
vi. Research, many a times, is directed towards finding answers to pertinent
---------------------- questions posed.
---------------------- vii. Research does follow a scientific method.

----------------------

----------------------

6 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

 Notes
Check your Progress 2
----------------------
Multiple Choice Single Response. ----------------------
1. According to your text, which of the following is a source of research
----------------------
ideas?
i. Everyday life ----------------------
ii. Practical issues ----------------------
iii. Past research ----------------------
iv. Theory
----------------------
v. All of the above
----------------------

1.4 OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH ----------------------

----------------------
Research aims at formulating general laws or establish generalisation in
various fields of knowledge. Some of the illustrations are as follows: ----------------------
i. The law of gravitation, the pattern of consumer behaviour, the law of
----------------------
demand, motivational theories etc.
ii. To verify and/or to test the existing facts and theories and to improve the ----------------------
knowledge pertaining to these so as to be able to handle situations and ----------------------
events.
iii. To make suitable predictions of future events by use of general laws ----------------------
developed through research. ----------------------
iv. To add knowledge to human beings regarding the social life, environment.
Scientists and/or researchers have built up wealth of such knowledge ----------------------
through their research findings on various types of phenomenon observed. ----------------------
v. To bring to limelight, information that could have never been brought
----------------------
to knowledge under normal course, e.g. Discovery of new uses of old
products through market research. ----------------------
vi. To explore and/or analyse relationships or inter-relationships between
----------------------
variables so as to obtain effects by causative factors. This enables to
have a great insight into many understandings in the field of industry and ----------------------
agriculture.
----------------------
vii. To find solutions to problems in the form of applied research. By
solving problems in sociology and economics, in human relationship in ----------------------
organisations etc. this type of research has improved the quality of our
life. ----------------------
viii. To develop new theories, concepts or tools for study of unknown ----------------------
phenomenon.
----------------------

Understanding Research 7
 Notes ix. To aid sound planning for national development. This is particularly
true in evaluating alternate strategies and to perfect the most appropriate
---------------------- among them for development of various factors of national economy, e.g.
sectors of social welfare, health, education, agriculture and industry.
----------------------

---------------------- Check your Progress 3

----------------------
Multiple Choice Single Response.
---------------------- 1. Research objectives falls into a number of categories that include
---------------------- i. Planning to get answers for what, why & where type of
questions.
----------------------
ii. Considering the logic behind the methods we use in the context
---------------------- of the research.
---------------------- iii. Formulative, concept and planning for research methods.
iv. Exploratory, descriptive, diagnostic and experimentation
----------------------
research.
----------------------

---------------------- 1.5 MOTIVATION IN RESEARCH

---------------------- Motivation in research has a fundamental importance. Many factors
may motivate people to perform research. Some of the factors are curiosity
----------------------
about new things; desire to understand the cause and effect relationships, social
---------------------- thinking and awakening etc.
i. Motivation in research may level to get a degree in research.
----------------------
ii. Motivation in research may give enjoyment to the researcher to solve a
---------------------- problem.
---------------------- iii. Motivation in research may induce to do creative work.

---------------------- iv. Motivation in research may offer a chance to serve the society.
v. Motivation in research may get responsibility to the researcher from the
----------------------
society.
---------------------- vi. Motivation in research may lead the researcher to take responsibility in
the society.
----------------------
vii. Motivation in research reciprocates the inventions or discoveries by one
---------------------- another.
---------------------- viii. Motivation in research initiates others also to do research.

---------------------- The subject can be extended to a wide variety of opportunities for being
motivated for research. The few given are only illustrative.
----------------------

----------------------

8 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

 Notes
Activity 1
----------------------
List some distinguishing feature of any good research. ----------------------

----------------------
1.6 TYPES OF RESEARCH
----------------------
There are different approaches to research as defined or discussed by
various authors, e.g. research may be classified according to its major intent or ----------------------
the method it follows. ----------------------
If one looks from the point of view of intent, research may be classified
as follows: ----------------------

●● Pure Research ----------------------

●● Applied Research ----------------------
●● Descriptive Research
----------------------
●● Exploratory Research
----------------------
●● Action Research
●● Descriptive Study ----------------------

●● Diagnostic Study ----------------------

●● Evaluation Study ----------------------
According to methods of study, it may be classified as ----------------------
a) Experimental Research
----------------------
b) Historical Research
----------------------
c) Survey
In social science research, two out of many methodical issues are quoted ----------------------
to be more interesting by some authors.
----------------------
1. Problem - Orientation - verses Methods of Orientation
----------------------
2. The Scientific ‘method’ or approach
Problem - Orientation verses Methods of Orientation ----------------------

Some authors have classified approaches to research as given below ----------------------

considering that the main purpose of any research is to make advancement in
the existing volume of knowledge. They are ----------------------

●● Exploratory Research ----------------------

●● Conclusive Research ----------------------
Some have classified research on the basis of approach, purpose and ----------------------
nature of research activity in the following two categories:
●● Pure, Fundamental or Theoretical Research ----------------------

Understanding Research 9
 Notes ●● Applied Research
Let us understand some of these classifications.
----------------------
1. Pure, Fundamental or Theoretical Research
----------------------
This type of research is basic or original in nature. It is said that this
---------------------- is undertaken for the sake of knowledge without formal intention of
applying it in practice. Perhaps, a genuine researcher, with his honesty
---------------------- and integrity, love and lust for searching truth, discovers new things to
enrich human knowledge in fundamental fashion after persistent and
----------------------
patient efforts. This type of research can result in two ways:
---------------------- i. A discovery of a new theory
---------------------- It means knowledge of something which has not exerted then and
researcher’s theory has nothing to do with any existing theory. It
---------------------- is a result of researcher’s own idea or imagination e.g. Galileo’s
---------------------- contribution, Newton’s theories or Einstein’s theory of relativity.
ii. Development or Refinement of Existing Theory : This is carried out
---------------------- to improve the existing theory by
---------------------- a. Relaxing some of the assumptions
---------------------- b. Reinterpreting them or

---------------------- c. Developing new theory with existing one as the base.

2. Applied Research
----------------------
Pure research lays the foundation for applied research. The findings of
---------------------- pure research have formed the basis for many scientific and technological
inventions such as automobiles, electric data processing, steam engine,
---------------------- telephone, telecommunications, etc. which has not only enriched man’s
---------------------- life but revolutionised the human life. Applied research is carried out to
find solutions to real life problems. It is, thus, problem oriented. Applied
---------------------- research is conducted to test empirical content or assumption or the
validity of a theory under certain conditions. It contributes to science
----------------------
i. By providing convincing evidence of usefulness to society,
----------------------
ii. By utilising and developing techniques that can serve basic research
---------------------- and
iii. By providing data and ideas that may speed up the process of
----------------------
generalisation. There is a vast scope for applied research in the fields
---------------------- of technology, management, commerce, economics and also social
sciences as it seeks immediate and practical results to problems faced.
---------------------- Developing countries, therefore, can gain quite a lot from applied
research than spending huge amount on pure, fundamental research.
----------------------
3. Exploratory Research
----------------------
This research, as the work implies, is just ‘to explore’ a general subject.
---------------------- It is a preliminary study of an unfamiliar problem about which there is

10 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

 little or no knowledge. It often happens at a decision-maker is grappling Notes
with a broad and poorly defined problem, e.g. the doctor makes initial
investigations of a patient suffering from an unknown disease for getting ----------------------
some clues for identifying it. Attempt to secure better definition by
analytical thinking may prove to be a wrong approach as it may lead ----------------------
to substantive answer to a wrong question. Exploratory research follows ----------------------
a formal approach as it pursues several possibilities simultaneously. Its
approach is of curiosity type. This can be sub-classified as ----------------------
a. Historical approach ----------------------
b. Case-study approach
----------------------
Purpose of Exploratory Research is
----------------------
●● To generate new ideas
●● To gather information for clarifying concepts ----------------------

●● To determine if it is feasible to attempt a study ----------------------

●● To increase the researcher’s familiarity with the problems and ----------------------
●● To formulate a given problem precisely
----------------------
It is to be noted that exploratory research does not aim at testing a
hypothesis. Daniel Katz says, “It is to see what is there rather than ----------------------
to predict the relationship that will be founded”. But it should be so ----------------------
designed that definite information is provided to the set of research
objectives. ----------------------
Need for Exploratory Research ----------------------
Social science is a relatively recent field. Research workers are few
and a lot of research work needs to be done. Most existing theories ----------------------
in social sciences are either too general or too specific to provide real ----------------------
guidance for any empirical research. Hence, exploratory research is
necessary to get initial insight into the problems for the purpose of ----------------------
formulating them for more precise investigations. Hence, it is also
known as ‘Formative Research’. ----------------------

a) Historical Approach ----------------------

Seltiz and others have suggested three steps approach for exploratory ----------------------
study, namely
----------------------
i) A review of pertinent literature
ii) An experience survey and ----------------------

iii) An analysis of insight stimulating ‘cases’ ----------------------

Some authors have combined all these three under two approaches of ----------------------
study, i.e.
----------------------
(a) Historical Approach and (b) Case Study Approach
----------------------

Understanding Research 11
 Notes Historical approach is followed when a research is based on historical
data. Historical research depends upon observations, which are generally
---------------------- not repetitive. It involves intensive use of library material, historical records
and patience of the researchers. This leads to a number of clues for further
---------------------- investigation that will advance research. Usually no prehypothesis is formulated.
---------------------- The interpretation of research data depends on the researcher himself in line
with his own objective formed. It is, rather, difficult to disprove this hypothesis.
----------------------
Such an approach is made by Historians, Psychiatrists, Literary men and
---------------------- Social Scientists. This approach has its own advantages and disadvantages.
Advantages
----------------------
●● Historical approach makes it possible to fill the gap of making research
---------------------- possible and meaningful on problems that would have, otherwise, remained
unexplored.
----------------------
●● Since historical data is non-repetitive, this approach serves as a better way
---------------------- to researcher whose problems are concerned with historical records.
---------------------- Disadvantages
---------------------- ●● Past situations cannot be matched to existing situations as the socio-
economic, political etc. factors are no longer the same.
----------------------
●● This approach tends, on the part of a researcher, to generalise the results
---------------------- beyond reasonable limits thereby misleading to understand the historical
process.
----------------------
●● To validate researcher’s objective, with great possibilities, a subjective
---------------------- interpretation of data is made at the cost of objective analysis under fear
of criticism, challenge from other researchers. Another important aspect is
---------------------- that historical data itself may not be complete in all aspects-full of personal
biases and interpretations. A typical approach could be (a) A literature
----------------------
survey to develop a better understanding of a problem area. It familiarises
---------------------- one with past research results data sources and type of data available.

---------------------- b) Case Study Approach

Case Study Approach has been a recent development in research. In an
---------------------- unexplored area of study, an intensive study of some selected cases can
---------------------- yield stimulating insights. It involves a deeper investigation of a single
unit - a family an individual, an institute, a firm, a district or a community
---------------------- or a single event for an investigation. For example, the Govt. of India’s
Public Account Committee decides periodically one manufacturing firm
---------------------- out of many in one of the fields of production and carries out extensive
---------------------- study in it from various angles. Anthropologists have brought profound
relationship between the individual and the society in the study of primitive
---------------------- cultures. Such a case study approach has been developed essentially as a
problem solving technique and also suggests a device for improvement
---------------------- in various dimensions. It aims at studying everything about something
---------------------- rather than something about everything.

12 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

 The end of an exploratory research comes Notes
a. Either when the researcher finds that further research is not presently
----------------------
possible on the problem,
b. Or, he succeeds in identifying the major dimensions of the problems. ----------------------
In the later case, the researcher has to plan the Research Design.
----------------------
Conclusive Research
----------------------
Exploratory research gives rise to several hypotheses which will have to
be tested for drawing definite conclusions. These conclusions, when tested ----------------------
for validity, lay the structure for decision making. Conclusive research is
used for the purpose of testing the hypothesis generated by exploratory ----------------------
research. Conclusive research can be either of ----------------------
1. Descriptive Approach
----------------------
It is the simplest type of research which is more specific than exploratory
research. It focuses on particular aspects or dimensions of the problem ----------------------
studied. It is a fact finding investigation with adequate interpretation and
has been recently developed in the field of investigation. As the name ----------------------
suggests, it is designed to describe something. It seeks to describe a ----------------------
field or a problem by use of one or more methods of observation, i.e.
by. Interviewing or with the help of questionnaires. The approach is ----------------------
mostly directed towards identifying various characteristics of a research
problem and to create observations conclusive to further research. Some ----------------------
applications are - characteristics of users of a given product, the number ----------------------
and type of people who saw a particular T.V. serial.
----------------------
Application of Descriptive Approach
All problems do not lend themselves to descriptive study. The method can ----------------------
be applied if,
----------------------
i. The problem is describable and not arguable
----------------------
ii. The data may be amenable to an accurate, objective, reliable and
significant study ----------------------
iii. Valid standards can be developed for standards ----------------------
iv. It can itself subject to variable procedure of collection and analysis
----------------------
of data
Objective of Descriptive Approach ----------------------
The study aims at identifying the various characteristics of a problem, ----------------------
institution or a community under study; but it does not deal with the testing
of a hypothesis. The domain of investigation is properly specified and the ----------------------
research questionnaire etc. is conversed within this domain. In this, the skill of
----------------------
the researcher and also his intelligence are at stake to frame the questionnaire
and also to elicit information of accurate nature from various responses. ----------------------
The information collected should be useful for explanation, prediction and
awareness. Some of the advantages and disadvantages are as follows: ----------------------

Understanding Research 13
 Notes Advantages
●● Researchers and respondents come close enough to make research study
---------------------- effective.
---------------------- ●● Existing theories and laboratory findings can easily be put to test through
empirical observations.
---------------------- ●● It also helps in identifying factors that may explore fresh opportunities of
---------------------- experimental research.
●● It provides valuable guidance in providing facts needed for planning
---------------------- social action programmes.
---------------------- Disadvantages
●● In the hands of an inexperienced researcher, implausible interpretations
---------------------- are put forward.
---------------------- ●● It is a time consuming effort.
●● Since it is a mutual effort, ignorant, illicit respondents pose problem of
---------------------- indifference, inhibitious and lack of awareness.
---------------------- ●● The researcher may make description and end itself. It must lead to
discovery of facts.
----------------------
Diagnostic Study
---------------------- It is similar to descriptive study and is directed towards discovering what
is happening, why it is happening and what can be done about it. It identifies the
---------------------- causes, of the problems and the possible solutions for the same. For example,
---------------------- do more villagers vote for a particular party than city dwellers? Are persons
from rural area better suited for manning rural bank branches? The features for
---------------------- such diagnostic approach are as follows:
●● It is directly connected with causal relationships and with implications of
----------------------
actions than a descriptive approach.
---------------------- ●● It is a step further than descriptive approach as it discovers and exploits
reasons for occurrence and actions hereafter.
----------------------
●● Unlike descriptive approach, it is directed by hypothesis.
---------------------- ●● It is not possible in areas where knowledge is not advanced enough to
make possible adequate diagnosis. The researcher has not limited his
---------------------- studies to descriptive studies.
---------------------- Evaluation Study
It is a type of applied research. It is used to assess the effectiveness of social
----------------------
or economical programmes or to assess the impact of development project. The
---------------------- illustrations include family planning schemes or irrigation project. Such man
defines evaluation as “determination of the results attained by some activity (a
---------------------- programme, a drug or a therapy or an approach) designed to accomplish some
valued goal or objective.” It, therefore, assesses the quality and quantity of an
----------------------
activity and its performance and so specifies it attributes and conditions required
---------------------- for its success. It is also concerned with a kind of change the programme views
as desirable.
----------------------

14 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

 Action Research Notes
It is also a type of evaluation study. It is a concurrent evaluation study
----------------------
of an action programme for solving a problem or improving an existing
situation. Examples consist of land reform programming, agricultural extension ----------------------
programmes, social and welfare, HRD programme, managerial improvement
programmes, rural development programme for improving quality of life in ----------------------
factories, offices, etc.
----------------------
2. Experimental Approach
It is based on scientific methods for studying causal relations studied ----------------------
under controlled conditions. It means the experiments will create
----------------------
situations to obtain particular data needed and can measure it accurately.
It is designed to assess the effects of particular variable on a phenomenon ----------------------
by keeping other variables constant or under controlled conditions. It
is possible, in this case, to explain variations in an explained variable ----------------------
through the changes made in explanatory variables. Experimental
approach resembles scientific methods as far as model building approach ----------------------
is concerned to explain variations in dependent variable as a result of ----------------------
change that occurs in the set of independent variables. It gives an idea
about how much variation can be explained by this model and hence ----------------------
provides an opportunity to researchers to look for plausible explanation
for that part of variation which the model does not explain. For example, ----------------------
Agricultural Productivity (Crop yield per hectare) and influencing factors
----------------------
like soil fertility, quality of seed, type and level of manure etc.
Types of Experimental Designs ----------------------
The major ones are as below: ----------------------
a. After only design
----------------------
b. One group before - after design
c. Before-after design with control group ----------------------
(i) After only design: In this Y is the dependent variable to be ----------------------
assessed by measuring it in an experimental group and a control
group by exposing experimental group to independent variable ----------------------
X. For example, the effect of fertilisers (X) can be attributable for
----------------------
difference noted on crop yield (Y) measured in experimental group
and control group both. ----------------------
(ii) One group before-after design: In this case, the same group is
used as experimental and control group, measuring yield (Y) before ----------------------
and after the group has been exposed to (X) the fertiliser e.g. the ----------------------
change in score on attitude test on a group of students before and
after a training course. ----------------------
(iii) Before-after design with control group: In this design, both ----------------------
experimental and control groups and measured before and after
experimental group is exposed to the effect of variable factor (X). ----------------------
This eliminates the impact of extraneous factors occurring during
the time period. ----------------------

Understanding Research 15
 Notes Use of Experimental Design
Use of experimental designs in social science research is complicated.
----------------------
It is difficult to establish comparable experimental and control groups. There
---------------------- are limits to experimentation among human beings. It is difficult to design an
experiment as it is time consuming and expensive. It can be used to study the
---------------------- present only and not the past and future.
---------------------- However, the experimentation has definite advantages. No other method
can equal experimentation in objectivity and in studying casual relationships
---------------------- between variables. The effect of extraneous variables can be controlled more
effectively in experimental design than in other designs. An experimental design
----------------------
offers a means of testing social values.
----------------------
Check your Progress 4
----------------------

---------------------- Multiple Choice Single Response.

---------------------- 1. Diagnostic research studies is a category of research that aims to
i. Achieve new insights of a concept.
----------------------
ii. Analyse characteristics of something.
---------------------- iii. Determine the frequency with which something occurs.
---------------------- iv. Test the relationship between variables.
2. Descriptive research studies is a category of research that aims to
----------------------
i. Achieve new insights of a concept.
---------------------- ii. Analyse characteristics of something.
---------------------- iii. Determine the frequency with which something occurs.

---------------------- iv. Test the relationship between variables.

3. Analytical research is the type of research that
----------------------
i. Is made for performing the basic or pure research; it is a
---------------------- theoretical research.
ii. Is intended for finding some solution to the problem considered.
----------------------
iii. Includes fact-finding enquires and surveys.
---------------------- iv. Uses available information as the base to make the further
---------------------- critical evaluation.
4. Applied research is the type of research that
----------------------
i. Is made for performing the basic or pure research; it is a
---------------------- theoretical research.
ii. Is intended for finding some solution to the problem considered.
----------------------
iii. Includes fact-finding enquires and surveys.
---------------------- iv. Uses available information as the base to make the further
---------------------- critical evaluation.

16 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

 Notes
Activity 2
----------------------
1. Prepare a list of uses of Research in the following fields: ----------------------
a. In service management of T.V., washing machine
----------------------
b. In Automobile Industry
c. In State Transport Management ----------------------
d. In Indian Railways ----------------------
2. In a major way, Research can be classified into : ----------------------
3. A Nationalised Bank Manager, on seeing the performance of his
branch, observes that the bank deposits have declined in past three ----------------------
years. He asks his research wing to study the problem to determine
----------------------
why the deposits have declined? What category/ type of research will
this be? Give your reasons. ----------------------
4. A Marketing Manager of a consumer goods manufacturing company
----------------------
notices that over the last four year period, the sales of his goods have
increased, yet the profitability has declined. He asks his Research ----------------------
Manager to study the problem and find out the reasons for this
phenomenon and to suggest ways to increase the profitability. What ----------------------
type of research can be undertaken by him? Give your reasons.
----------------------

----------------------
1.7 RESEARCH IN DECISION MAKING
----------------------
When managers use research, they are applying the methods of science
to the art of management. The significance of management has recently gone ----------------------
up owing to increased acceptance of the Industrial Development. It is also now ----------------------
accepted that managers can be trained. People coming out of Management
Institutes are regarded as professional managers and management slowly has ----------------------
headed to be a profession. It is said that management is in practice with the
dawn of civilisation as a discipline, but it is just a century old and started off ----------------------
as a scientific approach to the organisation of things. It borrowed heartily ----------------------
from disciplines like sociology, psychology, mathematics and statistics. Now,
perhaps, it can be said to be knowledge having potential for theory and practice. ----------------------
The management, in a broader sense, deals in general with planning, organising,
staffing, directing and controlling. However, it has now spread to various ----------------------
specialised areas. In other words, we have management concepts as applied to ----------------------
finance, production, personnel and marketing.
All business undertakings operate in the world of uncertainty. We ----------------------
cannot eliminate uncertainty entirely by any method but this uncertainty can ----------------------
be minimised. This is possible only by research methodology. It reduces the
probability of making a wrong decision out of many alternatives available. ----------------------
This is particularly significant in the current conditions of global competition,
growing size of industries and the economic liberalisation. ----------------------

Understanding Research 17
 Notes In the competitive world, a manager has to take sound decisions quickly
and with minimum risk. This is possible provided he has the systematic supply of
---------------------- precious information along with appropriate tools of analysis for making sound
decisions. In this context, research methodology plays a very important role.
----------------------
STEPS FOLLOWED IN RESEARCH
----------------------
Research process is a sequence action or steps to carry out research. The various
---------------------- steps involved in a research process are not manually exclusive, nor are they
separate and distinct. Yet, the following order of various steps offers a useful
---------------------- guideline to do research.
---------------------- They are:

---------------------- i. Choose the exact topic for research.

ii. Genesis of research problem.
----------------------
iii. Statement of problem.
----------------------
iv. Importance of the study.
---------------------- v. Review of literature.
---------------------- vi. Motivation for research.

---------------------- vii. Scope of research.

viii. Organisation of thesis or dissertation.
----------------------
i. Choose the exact topic for research:
----------------------
A research problem is either theoretical or practical. A research problem
---------------------- is one which requires a researcher to find out the best solution for the
given problem. A problem under study can be selected
----------------------
●● Because of interest
---------------------- ●● As a basis of further study
---------------------- ●● To improve the existing conditions
---------------------- ●● To personal ambitions
ii. Genesis of research problem:
----------------------
One of the important sources of problems for research is the daily
---------------------- experience of the researcher or coworker. The researcher states how the
problem is generated. One of the best sources of research problems is
----------------------
at the cutting edge where the problems are generated. The closest one
---------------------- can get to their cutting edge is through experience. For example, the
problem is to increase the agricultural produce in India. Especially the
---------------------- food problem depends on the modern science and technology of the most
developing countries. The scientific advancement has come to the aid of
----------------------
the farmers to increase the productivity of their land and livestock. A great
---------------------- deal of scientific progress in agriculture has been made due to the rapid
development of generic transformation in seed technology in the field of
---------------------- agriculture. This has increased rapid food production.

18 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

iii. Statement of the problem: Notes
After the problem has been selected, it must be precisely formulated and
----------------------
clearly stated. It leads to statement of the objectives of the study. The
type of the statement to be employed depends on the preference of the ----------------------
researcher and the nature of the problem. A chain is no stronger than its
weakest link. An unimportant fact may turn out to be important in the ----------------------
hands of a scholar or scientist. An expertise area of knowledge is needed
----------------------
to state a research problem to enhancement of food production in India.
iv. Importance of the study: ----------------------
Keeping in view of the statement of the problem, one should know the ----------------------
importance of the study. The criteria for the selection of the research
problem are given below: ----------------------
●● Need of the study ----------------------
●● Interest of the problem
----------------------
●● Value and vision of the study
●● Feasibility of the problem to the study ----------------------
●● Validity of the research. ----------------------
v. Review of the literature:
----------------------
The researcher should undertake extensive literature survey connected
with problem. For this purpose the abstracting and indexing journals, the ----------------------
published or unpublished bibliographies are to be reviewed by the researcher.
Academic journals, conference proceedings, Government reports, books, ----------------------
etc., must be tapped depending on the nature of the problem.
----------------------
vi. Motivations or innovations in research:
----------------------
In the process, it should be remembered that one source will lead to another.
The earlier research, if any, motivated original into new research. Birds ----------------------
motivated man to invent Aeroplane. The instrument ABACUS motivated
Charles Babbage to invent computer. Thus if the researcher has identified ----------------------
the research problem, then the researcher will have to rely very much on
----------------------
his own understanding of the subject, his own technical competence and
his own artistic intuition. ----------------------
vii. Scope of research:
----------------------
A lucid, complete and concise scope of the research must be stated. It
should be useful to extend further research, since any completed research ----------------------
is helpful in providing a note of caution and taking lesions from it for the
----------------------
designing future research.
viii. Organisation of thesis: ----------------------
Generally a thesis consists of chapters like introduction, review of ----------------------
literature, profile of the study. Chapters concentrate on the study of the
problems, conclusions or summary of findings with suggestion and finally ----------------------
references or bibliography.
----------------------

Understanding Research 19
 Notes 1.8 ROLE OF RESEARCH IN VARIOUS AREAS
---------------------- A manager, through research, can quickly get the knowledge of the
current scenario pertaining to a given problem, which improves his information
----------------------
base for making sound decisions that may affect the future of the organisation’s
---------------------- various operations. The following are the major areas in which research plays a
role in taking effective decisions.
----------------------
1. Financial Management
---------------------- This is one of the most pivotal functional areas of management, as efficient
---------------------- utilisation of a business enterprise directly relates to the effectiveness of
the enterprise. Financial management is now concerned with:
---------------------- i. Determining financial needs
---------------------- ii. Raising funds at minimum cost
---------------------- iii. Making optimum allocation of funds
iv. Developing control tools for financial performance
----------------------
v. Preparing financial data for decision-making
----------------------
2. Production Management
---------------------- Production means the conversion of input in the form of raw materials,
---------------------- with the aid of machines, to output in the form of goods of services by
the use of manpower. Frederic W. Taylor advocated the use of scientific
---------------------- methods for determining methods of production in the early part of the
present century. Currently, the production has undergone tremendous
---------------------- change with the advent of new techniques and new methods.
---------------------- Hence, research methods enabled organisations to develop systematic
development of the principles of systematic production planning and
----------------------
control like what to produce, how much to produce, when to produce
---------------------- etc. With the advent of computer technology, we are at a threshold of
a break through on the development of production management control
---------------------- as an applied science. Research tools are very helpful and are widely
used in quality control, quality assurance etc. even problems of setting up
----------------------
optimum inventory level is no exception.
---------------------- 3. Banking
---------------------- Banking institutions have found it useful to setup research departments
for the purpose of gathering and analysing information for their internal
---------------------- operations for making independent studies on economic conditions of
business. Reserve Bank of India has set up an excellent research department
----------------------
for planning and management. Currently, the banks offering master cards
---------------------- are using research methods on a large scale to increase their business.

---------------------- 4. Government
The government’s economic policy has a foundation of research.
---------------------- Research is used for economic planning, optimum utilisation of resources

20 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

 for the development of the nation. Research is applied in evolving the Notes
union budget and railway budget too. The Indian Government has set up
a wide network of Research Institutes in different fields to assess what is ----------------------
happening in each field and how that will enrich the country’s progress.
----------------------
5. Human Resource Management
----------------------
Earlier, human resource management was taken care of by the Personnel
Department. With the realisation that men play a role, may be indirectly, in ----------------------
the company’s profit, the scope of the personnel department was widened
to HRD. This new department uses research methods to study (i) wage ----------------------
rates (ii) incentive schemes (iii) cost of living (iv) Employee turnover rates
----------------------
(v) employee performance appraisals. The HRD uses research effectively
for its most important activity, namely manpower planning. ----------------------
6. Marketing Management
----------------------
Today, marketing has assumed such a great significance that most
corporate managements consider customer satisfaction as the only source ----------------------
of profitable operations. Marketing management concepts are now widely
----------------------
used for adjusting the organisational design to suit market policies and
practices. Marketing is the only revenue generating activity, unlike ----------------------
all the other departments. Marketing research has become a life of the
organisation to take sound marketing decisions such as, when to launch ----------------------
a new product and where? What should be targeted area or customers
----------------------
for widening and increasing sales? Marketing research has become a
prominent topic to learn for management teaching schools. Research ----------------------
tools are effectively applied for policies involving (i) demand forecasting
(ii) consumer buying behaviour (iii) measuring effectiveness of advertising ----------------------
(iv) media selection (v) product positioning (vi) test marketing etc.
----------------------
To summarise, all these aspects culminated in the formation of various
institutions having distinction of contributing to both theory and practice ----------------------
of management and research. To name a few - The Indian Institute of
----------------------
Management at Ahmedabad, Bangalore, Kolkata, Hyderabad, Lucknow
etc., the Institute of Marketing and Management, Institute of Financial ----------------------
Management and Research. Least so, the various universities have also
taken lead to form schools of managements. Of late, private companies ----------------------
have also come forward to form management and research institutes.
----------------------
7. Research in Natural or Physical Sciences
----------------------
We are familiar with many research applications in various branches of
physical sciences such as Physics, Chemistry, Biology etc. Each of these ----------------------
branches of science is itself a specialised knowledge and as the needs
of mankind increased due to environmental demands, man plunged into ----------------------
getting solutions to the problems he had to encounter. In other cases, the ----------------------
scientific man through his observations, studies, insight into subject matter
put forward various research theories that have certainly contributed to ----------------------
the knowledge in addition to the mankind. In some cases, it has helped
developing more about the universe we live in. In certain other cases, it ----------------------

Understanding Research 21
 Notes has given insight into understanding about nature. For example, the Law
of Gravitation, the Newton’s theory of Physics, Prof. Einstein’s Theory
---------------------- of Relativity, Prof. Naralikar’s theory to know more about astronomy.
Science has thus progressed and is progressing in a very rapid rate.
----------------------
8. Research in Social Sciences
----------------------
Social sciences are not exact science like physical science, as they deal
---------------------- with human beings. Due to complexity of human nature and man’s
environment, it is more difficult to comprehend and predict the human
---------------------- behaviour than the physical phenomenon. No two persons are alike
in their feelings, drives or emotions or even attitudes. No one person
----------------------
is consistent from one moment to another. This is probably due to the
---------------------- influences of biological, psychological, social, cultural and environmental
factors on the human beings. It is therefore, very different to lay down
---------------------- the underlying uniformities in the diversity of complex human behaviour.
Naturally, a controlled trial or an experiment, which is usually used in
----------------------
physical sciences, is out of the question in social sciences.
---------------------- In fact, both have attained the stature of major industry. Scientific
principles and methods have been used more and more to the study and
----------------------
analyse social and personal relations, social processes, changes as well
---------------------- as to study of psychological, political, economic and industrial problems
in war and peace, prosperity and adversity on local, state, notional and
---------------------- international level.
---------------------- Importance of Social Research to Personnel Management Personnel
management
----------------------
Edward Flippo says, “Personnel Management is the planning, organising,
---------------------- directing and controlling of the procurement, development, compensation,
integration, maintenance and separation of human resource as to the end
---------------------- that individual, organisational and social objectives are accomplished.”
---------------------- Indian Institute of Personnel Management says, “Personnel Management
deals with the welfare aspect of human resources; concerned with
---------------------- recruitment, remuneration, promotion, incentives, productivity etc. and
---------------------- the industrial relations aspect concerned with trade unions negotiations,
settlement of industrial disputes, joint consultation and collective bargaining.
----------------------
Human Resource Development
---------------------- It is a continuous process of enhancing the personality of an individual
(on and off the job). Recently, it has been accepted that people/
----------------------
personnel management has an indirect contribution to the organisation’s
---------------------- profitability. This led to development of HRD as a major functional area
of management. To achieve the organisational objectives of an individual,
---------------------- HRD started dealing with the human side of an individual.
---------------------- It is imperative, therefore, that manpower planning, training of individuals,
selection and placement, evaluation of performance of individuals become
---------------------- of prime importance along with the organisation’s development and thus

22 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

 the methods of research as applied to human being for his widespread Notes
characteristics gained momentum. This perhaps can be social research as
applied to personnel management. ----------------------
The major role played by an individual is in raising the productivity of ----------------------
manufacturing along with his own rise in productivity. Apart from such
direct contributions, many characteristics like his opinions, attitudes ----------------------
etc. have a significant role to play in his development and that of his
----------------------
organisation. The whole gamut of these characteristics is extensively
studied, evaluated by use of various appropriate research techniques. ----------------------

1.9 LIMITATIONS OF RESEARCH ----------------------

1. Conceptualisation problem: There exists the problem of conceptualisation ----------------------

and problems regarding process of data collection and related matters ----------------------
take place.
2. Inefficient library and information system: At many places library, ----------------------
management and information system are not satisfactory and researcher’s ----------------------
important time and energy are spent in tracking out books, journals,
reports, etc. ----------------------
3. Lack of resources: In order to conduct a quality research inadequacy of ----------------------
funds also becomes an obstacle.
4. Lack of scientific training: The researchers in India lack scientific ----------------------
training. Competent researchers are not available. ----------------------
5. Lack of interaction: There is less interaction between university research
department and business organisations, government departments, research ----------------------
institutes etc.
----------------------
6. Absence of code of conduct: There is no code of conduct for the researchers
and inter-university and inter-departmental rivalries are common. ----------------------
7. Lack of confidence: Many times business organisations are hesitant to ----------------------
provide the required information to the researcher as they feel that the
information may be misused. ----------------------
8. Problem of co-ordination: There is a problem of co-ordination among ----------------------
various agencies conducting research.
9. Repetition: Many times for the want of information research studies ----------------------
overlapping one another are taken. Due attention should be given towards ----------------------
identification of research problems in various disciplines of applied
science which are of immediate concern to the industries. ----------------------

----------------------
1.10 WHAT CONSTITUTES A GOOD RESEARCH
----------------------
A. Whatever may be the types of research works and studies, one thing that
is important is that they all meet on common grounds of scientific method ----------------------
employed by them. One expects scientific research to satisfy the following
criteria: ----------------------

Understanding Research 23
 Notes ●● The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common
concepts be used.
----------------------
●● The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to
---------------------- yield results that are as objective as possible.
●● The research should be described in sufficient detail to permit another
----------------------
researcher to repeat the research for further advancement, keeping the
---------------------- continuity of what is already attained.
●● The analysis of the data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its
----------------------
significance and the methods of analysis used should be appropriate.
---------------------- The validity and reliability of the data should be checked properly.

---------------------- ●● The researcher should report the complete frankness, flaws in

procedural designs and estimate their efforts on findings.
---------------------- ●● Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of
---------------------- research and limited for those for which the data provide an adequate
basis.
---------------------- ●● Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is
---------------------- experienced, has a good reputation in research and is a person of
integrity.
----------------------
●● In other words, we can state the characteristics of a good research as
---------------------- under:
●● Systematic: It means that the research is structured with specified
----------------------
steps to be taken in a specified sequence in accordance with the well
---------------------- defined set of rules. Systematic characteristic of the research does
not rule out creative thinking but it certainly does reject the use of
---------------------- guessing and intuition in arriving at conclusions.
---------------------- ●● Logic: This implies that research is guided by the rules of logical
reasoning and the logical process of induction and deduction are
---------------------- of great value in carrying out research. Induction is the process of
---------------------- reasoning from a part to the whole whereas deduction is the process
of reasoning from some premise to a conclusion, which follows from
---------------------- that very premise. In fact, logical reasoning makes research more
meaningful in the context of decision-making.
----------------------
●● Empirical: It implies that research is basically related to one or more
---------------------- aspects of a real situation and deals with concrete data that provides a
basis for external validity to research results.
----------------------
●● Replicable: This characteristic allows research results to be verified by
---------------------- replicating the study and thereby building a sound basis for decisions.
----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

24 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

B. Good Researcher’s Qualities Notes
It is imperative that scientific method calls for scientific attitude among
----------------------
the scientists, researchers. Such qualities of scientific attitudes in a
scientist/researcher have different degree and large varieties. Some can ----------------------
be summarised as below:
----------------------
a. Method of approach: Selection of research problem is the most
difficult part followed by initiating the effort to understand and ----------------------
work for it. This requires the capacity to find a problem to which
known methods are to be applied. ----------------------
b. Knowledge: The researcher’s knowledge in the field of investigation ----------------------
plays a significant role in locating the sources of data collection.
This perhaps starts by reviewing the literature to provide an insight ----------------------
into the subject matter, leading to the choice of the right methods
----------------------
and to give broad conceptual thinking and ultimately testing the
hypothesis. It helps him to plan all the procedural steps. ----------------------
c. Qualifications and attitudes: The scientist or researcher must have
----------------------
scientific attitude i.e. the ability to make an objective and to take an
unbiased view of the problem. This cannot be had without having the ----------------------
qualification and in depth knowledge in the field of investigation as
well as research methods themselves. This has also to be supported ----------------------
by practical experience, which calls for professional contacts and
----------------------
training by productive investigators.
d. Personal qualities: The personal qualifications of his are no less ----------------------
important than his knowledge and experience. He must, in addition,
----------------------
i. Have consistent thinking
----------------------
ii. Objective and unbiased devotion to collect data
iii. Have ardent curiosity ----------------------
iv. Have faith in the universality of cause and effect ----------------------
v. Have the ability of independent thinking
----------------------
vi. Not be laid away by personal views, opinions but judge on the
basis of evidence, tests and proofs ----------------------
vii. Possess a very open mind ----------------------
viii. Have ability to transform a failure to a new curiosity and thus
----------------------
a new sense of enquiry
ix. Have integrity, honesty, sincerity of purpose and truthfulness ----------------------
- the most essential ingredients of researches ----------------------
x. Be able to keep balance between mental moral and physical
qualities ----------------------
xi. Possess a lot of perseverance demanding a high order of ----------------------
courage, ambition to achieve goal and unfailing interest in
the work. ----------------------

Understanding Research 25
 Notes Summary
---------------------- ●● he concept of research being difficult to understand, we have discussed
T
the meaning of the research and how research methods can be used in
----------------------
managerial decision making by minimising the risk of uncertainty. We
---------------------- have briefly described various fields in which methods of research can be
used. The discussion also gives the role of research in important areas of
---------------------- management.
---------------------- ●● hile explaining known type of research, we have emphasised on two
W
major types of research, namely explanatory and conclusive type of
---------------------- research, with two major sub-divisions of both types. While descriptive
---------------------- research merely tests the hypothesis, the experimental research establishes
more effectively the factors and the relationships among them contributing
---------------------- to hypothesis formed.

---------------------- ●● e also explained that research has close relationship with science and
W
hence the methods of research help to reach the decisions - even under
---------------------- risk - closely to their reality.

---------------------- ●● astly, we have emphasised how certain qualities are necessary for good
L
research - helping to add further knowledge to humanity.
----------------------

---------------------- Keywords
---------------------- ●● Research : It is a systematic, careful and critical inquiry or examination
in seeking facts or principles or is a manipulation of things, concepts
---------------------- or symbols for the purpose of generalising to extend, correct or verify
knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in construction of theory or in
----------------------
the practice of art.
----------------------

---------------------- Self-Assessment Questions

---------------------- 1. Explain in brief the importance and meaning of the following terms in
research.
----------------------
a. Systematic
---------------------- b. Objectivity
---------------------- c. Control

---------------------- d. Reproducibility
e. Relevance
----------------------
2. Distinguish between ‘primary source of data’ and ‘secondary source of
---------------------- data’, giving illustration of each.
---------------------- 3. Describe different types of research.
4. What makes a good research? Why?
----------------------

26 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

5. Write short notes. Notes
a. Motivation in research
----------------------
b. Objectives of research
----------------------
Answers to Check your Progress ----------------------
Check your Progress 1 ----------------------
Multiple Choice Single Response.
----------------------
1. The main concept behind doing research is to
iii. Get new ideas ----------------------

Check your Progress 2 ----------------------

Multiple Choice Single Response. ----------------------
1. According to your text, which of the following is a source of research ideas?
----------------------
v. All of the above
Check your Progress 3 ----------------------
Multiple Choice Single Response. ----------------------
1. Research objectives falls into a number of categories that include ----------------------
iv. Exploratory, descriptive, diagnostic and experimentation research.
----------------------
Check your Progress 4
Multiple Choice Single Response. ----------------------
1. Diagnostic research studies is a category of research that aims to ----------------------
iii. Determine the frequency with which something occurs.
----------------------
2. Descriptive research studies is a category of research that aims to
----------------------
ii. Analyse characteristics of something.
3. Analytical research is the type of research that ----------------------
iv. Uses available information as the base to make the further critical ----------------------
evaluation.
4. Applied research is the type of research that ----------------------

ii. Is intended for finding some solution to the problem considered. ----------------------

----------------------
Suggested Reading
----------------------
1. Bryman, Allan & Bell Emma. 2003. Business Research Methods. Oxford
University Press. ----------------------
2. Cooper, Donald, Schindler Pamela. 2006. Business Research Methods. ----------------------
Tata McGraw Hill Companies.
----------------------
3. Kothari C.R. 1985. Research Methodology – Methods & Techniques.
New Age International Publishers. ----------------------

Understanding Research 27
 Notes

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------
----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

28 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

Scientific Methods and Research
UNIT

2
Structure:

2.1 Scientific Method

2.2 Definitions of Scientific Method
2.3 Characteristics of Scientific Method
2.4 Basis of Scientific Method
2.5 Scientific Methods and Scientific Research
2.6 Components of Scientific Approach
2.7 Bias and Prejudice in Scientific Research
Summary
Keywords
Self-Assessment Questions
Answers to Check your Progress
Suggested Reading

Scientific Methods and Research 29

 Notes
Objectives
----------------------
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
----------------------
• Explain the meaning of “science” and scientific method
----------------------
• Specify what constitutes scientific methods
---------------------- • Describe the role of scientific method in research
---------------------- • Identify how to incorporate various characteristics of scientific
method for research
----------------------

---------------------- 2.1 SCIENTIFIC METHOD

---------------------- Research plays an important role in managerial functions, not only in
general management but also in functional areas. Managerial research is
---------------------- of great utility value if the method used is scientific, while hypothesis is an
---------------------- inseparable element of the scientific method. Therefore, we throw some light
on the scientific method, in research.
---------------------- To understand what scientific method is, one must understand the
---------------------- meaning of science. The simplest definition of science is the accumulation of
systematic knowledge in general. Knowledge is identified as goal of science
---------------------- and “Systematic” implies the method that is used in reaching this goal. In fact,
the aim of any study one undertakes, be scientific or non-scientific, is to add to
---------------------- the knowledge of mankind, to know the truth. Therefore, the word ‘Systematic’
---------------------- is most important.
Good and Hatt defined, ‘Science’ as a method of approach to the entire
---------------------- empirical world it is said to be more an approach which does not aim at
---------------------- persuasion, at knowing the ultimate truth. It can be said to be a type of analysis
that allows the scientists to state prepositions in due form of “If” and “Then”.
---------------------- The main or the only purpose of science is to understand the world in which a
man lives.
----------------------
The term ‘science’ refers to the body of systematic and organised
---------------------- knowledge which makes use of the scientific method to advance knowledge
in a particular field of enquiry. It refers to clear concepts, theory and other
---------------------- accumulated knowledge developed by scientific method and by a test of
---------------------- hypotheses. It may be treated as a “method of approach to the entire empirical
world”. The scientific method is a method of systematic analysis leading to
---------------------- observations, prepositions and testing of hypotheses and contributes to the
organised body of knowledge. Science portrays a basic relationship between
---------------------- theory and fact; the scientific method deals with both theory and fact. A fact is
---------------------- an empirically verifiable observation, while theory deals with the established
relationships between facts. The scientific method does not, therefore, refer
---------------------- to a mere collection of facts, but to interpretation, observation and theoretical
treatment as well. Facts and theories are the two sides of the coin, which is
---------------------- the scientific method. A consistent interaction between these two elements

30 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

results in scientific knowledge. The collection of facts and their theoretical Notes
treatment are the tools of the scientific method. Theory provides the basis for
the scientific method. Theory based studies are strong in conceptual framework ----------------------
and classification of facts, enabling the research to crystallise the problem and
choose the data relevant to it. Theoretical treatment facilitates the process of ----------------------
summarising while theory predicts facts. The possibility for extrapolation from ----------------------
the known to the unknown is the result of a strong theoretical base. For example,
the growth of trade unionism and its impact on the decline of production and ----------------------
output can be theorised. Similarly, a strong theoretical base enables one to
appreciate the facts that are necessary for a scientific enquiry and underscores ----------------------
the gap, in knowledge if any. Theory is initiated by fact, while the latter is ----------------------
uncovered by the former. Both are in constant interaction with each other. Facts
form the basis of theory, which is reformulated, redefined and clarified, wherever ----------------------
necessary by facts. Sometimes, new theoretical problems are presented by facts.
A fact sometimes would falsify the existing theories and become the basis of a ----------------------
new theory. It is, therefore, evident that a theory should be adjusted to the facts. ----------------------
Induction and deduction from facts assist one to formulate and reformulate any
theory. Theory is general and fact is particular. Value makes a considerable ----------------------
impact on theoretical expression. It may be asserted that the scientific method
consists of theoretical treatment, factual expression and value judgment. ----------------------

----------------------
2.2 DEFINITIONS OF SCIENTIFIC METHOD
----------------------
Scientific method is the pursuit of truth as determined by logical
considerations that is scientific method attempts to achieve facts by ----------------------
experimentation, observation, logical arguments from accepted postulates and ----------------------
a combination of these three in varying proportions. In scientific method logical
aids in formulating proportions explicitly and accurately are used that their ----------------------
possible alternatives become clear. All this is done through experimentation and
survey investigations, which constitute the integral parts of scientific method. ----------------------
Experimentation is done to test the hypotheses and to discover new relationships, ----------------------
if any among variables. Survey research may also provide scientifically gathered
information to work as a basis for the conclusions. ----------------------
Thus quality of results depends on reliability of the data. Reliability of the ----------------------
data is obtained by scientific method. Scientific methods are based on systematic
study. Scientific study involves axioms logical arguments, postulates, principles, ----------------------
statements etc.
----------------------
Further scientific method avoids favouritism and nepotism; guide the
researcher by the rules of logical reasoning. ----------------------
Scientific method has been defined by various writers as below: ----------------------
Karl Pearson says that the scientific method is one and the same in all
branches and the unity of all science consists alone in its method and not in its ----------------------
material.
----------------------
George A. Lundberg defines scientific method which consists of
systematic observation, classification and interpretation of data. The main ----------------------

Scientific Methods and Research 31

 Notes difference between our day to day generalisation and the conclusions usually
recognised as a scientific method lie in the degree of formality, rigorousness,
---------------------- verifiability and general validity of the later.
---------------------- L.L. Bernard defined science as “six major processes that take place
within it. These are testing, verification, definition, classification, organisation
---------------------- and orientation which include prediction and application.”
---------------------- Karl Pearson says, scientific method is marked by the following features
(a) careful and accurate classification of facts and observation of heavy
---------------------- correlation and sequence, (b) the discovery of scientific laws by aid of creative
imagination (c) self criticism and the final touch stone of equal validity for all
----------------------
normally constituted minds.
---------------------- Encyclopedia Britannica states that scientific method is a collective
form denoting the various processes by the aid of which sciences are built up. In
----------------------
a wide sense, any method of investigation by which scientific or other impartial
---------------------- and systematic knowledge is required, is called a scientific method.

---------------------- The scientific method is a systematic method of investigation, evaluation,

experimentation, interpretation and theorising. It is characterised by critical
---------------------- discrimination, generality and system and empirical verification. Generally
speaking, the scientific method is characterised by a systematic study, based
---------------------- on theory and facts, universality or generality, objectivity of observation,
---------------------- predictability of results and verifiability of the phenomenon. It consists of
a number of formalities and procedures which are time consuming. Time
---------------------- management is the basic requirement for the success of managerial decisions.
Many management problems require timely solutions and decisions. In such
---------------------- situations, the management may not have adequate time at its disposal to make
---------------------- use of scientific studies before arriving at decisions. Laboratory experiments
occupy a prominent place in the scientific method which may not be useful in
---------------------- many situations of managerial decision making.

---------------------- The scientific method is effective in the physical sciences, because physical
phenomena can be verified and evaluated by the sense; but many managerial
---------------------- factors, like the behavioural aspects in organisation, cannot be absolutely
tested or verified physically. As a result, the scope of the scientific method in
---------------------- management is profoundly affected. Many management problems cannot be
---------------------- empirically tested, in spite of the extensive use of quantitative techniques in
the latter half of this century. Though quantitative techniques are available for
---------------------- certain areas - inventory control, transportation problems, servicing, decision
making, marketing and promotional effectiveness, production planning - the
---------------------- complexity of these techniques makes them unpopular with many practitioners.
---------------------- At the same time, the scientific method does not find favour with many
organisations and functional executives because of the heavy demand it makes
---------------------- on their time, exposure, resources and man-powers. Even in the sciences where
quantitative, empirical and scientific methods are extensively employed, the
---------------------- qualitative approach is made simultaneously, thus limiting the importance of
---------------------- scientific method.

32 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

 The experimental method is seldom used in managerial analysis, unlike in Notes
the physical sciences, while the cause-effect relationship cannot be established
beyond doubt in many cases. For example, there is a relationship between the ----------------------
sales revenue and the advertising budget; but it is not easy to establish which
the actual cause is or effect because both are interlinked. The exact magnitude ----------------------
of the effect of each on the other cannot be easily determined, for various ----------------------
other factors economic variables, market forces, changes in fashion, tastes,
temperaments and the competitors’ policies - make a substantial impact on the ----------------------
sales volume. Similarly, business policies, marketing opportunities and product
specifications attain dynamic dimensions in a dynamic economic social and ----------------------
business environment. Evidently research, scientific methods and their results ----------------------
have very little policy implications in such situations and that is why the
resources invested on research do not yield any considerable returns. However, ----------------------
the scientific method that empirically tests a hypothesis has a far-reaching utility
value, not only for theoretical purposes, but also for practical applications and ----------------------
policy decisions. ----------------------

Check your Progress 1 ----------------------

----------------------
State True or False.
----------------------
1. Scientific method is a “Method of approach to the entire empirical
world.” ----------------------
2. Scientific method does not consist of factual expression. ----------------------

----------------------
2.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF SCIENTIFIC METHOD
----------------------
Scientific method has two important bases, one which deals with the method
----------------------
employed and the other with the results obtained. Of course, the latter is most
important. Any method of investigation by which science has been built up and ----------------------
is being developed is known to be called a scientific method. Wolfe, therefore,
mentioned three main characteristics of science namely ----------------------
a. Critical Discrimination ----------------------
b. Generality and System and
----------------------
c. Empirical Verification
----------------------
Any method of study that satisfies the above objectives can be termed as
scientific method. The scientific method is one and the same in all branches of ----------------------
science and this method is the method of all logically trained minds. The man
who classifies facts of a kind, who sees their mutual relations and describes ----------------------
their sequences, applies the scientific method and is a man of science. It is not ----------------------
facts that get solved, make science. It is rather methods by which they are dealt
with which makes science. ----------------------

----------------------

Scientific Methods and Research 33

 Notes 2.4 BASIS OF SCIENTIFIC METHOD
---------------------- The scientific method is based on certain basic postulates which can be stated
as under:
----------------------
1. It relies on empirical evidence.
----------------------
2. It utilises relevant concepts.
----------------------
3. It is committed to only objective considerations.
---------------------- 4. It aims to make adequate and correct statements about population objects.
---------------------- 5. It results into probabilistic predictions.

---------------------- 6. Its methodology is made known to all concerned for critical scrutiny or
for use in testing the conclusions through replication.
---------------------- 7. It aims at formulating most general axioms or what can be termed as
---------------------- scientific theories.
Every method of investigation is composed of two parts (i) the technical
---------------------- aspect and (ii) the logical aspect. The former deals with collection of data and
---------------------- manipulation of phenomenon to allow an objective observation. The latter
comes at the time of generalisation of inference on the basis of collected facts/
---------------------- data. Technical methods are different in different sciences. It is rarely that
scientists master the technical methods of more than one science or group of
---------------------- connected sciences.
---------------------- In general, every method applied in a particular branch for investigation
involves two aspects:
----------------------
i. The general part consisting of basic rules of investigation : common to all
---------------------- scientific investigations and
---------------------- ii. The applied part consisting of special precautions pertaining to the
particular science alone - for which specialised knowledge is essential.
----------------------

---------------------- Check your Progress 2

---------------------- State True or False.
---------------------- 1. Scientific Method is committed to both subjective and objective
considerations.
----------------------
2. Scientific method results into probabilistic predictions.
----------------------

---------------------- 2.5 SCIENTIFIC METHODS AND

---------------------- SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
---------------------- For any scientific research, a researcher must have the knowledge
about what is Science and Scientific Method. Though, in the earliest stage
---------------------- of development, mythology was used almost entirely to explain unusual

34 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

occurrences of everyday life which would otherwise have remained a mystery Notes
forever.
----------------------
Step by step, we visualise that the evaluation of science took place
throughout the prehistoric times. Many great benefits to mankind occurred ----------------------
during this period such as use of fire, use of weapons, use of metal. These
great discoveries occurred very slowly, perhaps by chance, indicating a need for ----------------------
definite method of approach for the solutions to problem.
----------------------
2.6 COMPONENTS OF SCIENTIFIC APPROACH ----------------------

The scientific approach has two components, namely the procedural and ----------------------
the personal.
----------------------
1. Procedural Component
----------------------
The procedure of scientific method involves the major steps as given
below: ----------------------
i. Defining the problem
----------------------
ii. Formulating hypothesis as to causes/explanations/solutions of the
problem ----------------------

iii. Collecting data ----------------------

iv. Analysing the data to test hypothesis and draw conclusions ----------------------
The procedural components of above are identified as Observation,
----------------------
Hypothesis and Verification. They are applied in different degrees in
different areas of inquiry and in different methods. However, these three ----------------------
are essential ingredients of research. The scientist must have a thorough
knowledge of the subject matter of the problem. This helps him to ----------------------
formulate a conceptual model for its study. He must operationalise the
----------------------
concepts to determine the data requirements. Next is the selection of
appropriate methods of collecting data and choice of relevant statistical ----------------------
techniques for testing the hypothesis. This brings to the importance of
second component, namely the personal component. ----------------------
Observation ----------------------
Observation on which a hypothesis is based/built, is itself based on ----------------------
data currently available to the scientist/researcher before he begins his
investigation. Such knowledge is available either in literature or in the ----------------------
form of actual observations. Observations have limitations in defining
terms of recording data, may it be in literature or in personal observation. ----------------------
The more accurate and detailed the observation, the more comprehensive ----------------------
is the data and more meaningful would be the hypothesis.
Formulation ----------------------

Next step is to formulate one more hypothesis to start and lead the enquiry. ----------------------
The hypothesis is a tentative conclusion based on inadequate data which
is also vague. Its main purpose is to guide the collection and processing ----------------------

Scientific Methods and Research 35

 Notes of facts and to indicate the direction of investigation. Without forming a
hypothesis, no satisfactory investigation can be carried out. A hypothesis
---------------------- is not proved but tested.
---------------------- Verification
This is the most important step in the scientific approach. Verification
----------------------
has four factors, namely collection, analysis, interpretation of data and
---------------------- ends with hypothesis testing and the generalisation that follows. Both
the results, whether positive or negative, are very important. This is
---------------------- put forward by Prof. N.K. Smith as, “The history of human thought is
the record not of a progressive discovery of truth, but of our gradual
----------------------
emancipation from error.”
---------------------- 2. Personal Component
---------------------- Just as the man behind the machine is more important than the machine
itself, similarly, the researcher or the scientist is more important than
---------------------- the procedural steps and technical tools that he uses. Eigelberner has
---------------------- said, “The research man needs the scientific imagination to construct
hypothesis, the analytical ability to devise crucial experiments to test the
---------------------- hypothesis, the resourcefulness, manipulative skill and pursuance to carry
through the experiment, the perspective which distinguishes the essential
---------------------- from non-essential and the reasoning which co-ordinates individual facts
---------------------- into a principle.” This brings to describe the most important characteristics
a researcher must possess. He must have sincerity, honesty, integrity and
---------------------- perseverance. He must also possess “the spirit of independence and the
spirit of originality.” The researcher’s basic qualities and attitudes play a
---------------------- very significant role.
----------------------
2.7 BIAS AND PREJUDICE IN SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
----------------------
Each person is forced, some of course more than others, to make
---------------------- rationalisations, judgements and to form opinions. These mental processes at
best are catalysed by the mould into which each of us is cast.
----------------------
The spirit of man accordingly (as it is meted out to different individuals)
---------------------- is in fact variable and full of perturbation and governed, as it were, by chances.
---------------------- There is an element in research which we might term as ‘creeping bias’
which means that the researcher is not consciously aware that a psychological
---------------------- force is influencing his thinking. For example, if, in urban research, one were to
---------------------- attempt to ascertain the relative efficiency of a large and a small town, judgment
may be influenced by one’s liking or disliking for large or small towns. If the
---------------------- researcher in question had been closely associated with a small town in a rural
setting, he may not want to show evidence that the larger town was more
---------------------- economically sound. Although this is an oversimplified illustration, it well
---------------------- illustrates a weakness which is not always recognised in research.
The statement, opinions and judgments of those whom we esteem,
---------------------- affect in no small way, our own thinking. This prevents objective, original and

36 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

independent thinking and research. As researchers we need to apply the same Notes
criteria in evaluating others’ thinking that we would apply to field research.
In this light we have become ‘truly objective’ although it must be recognised ----------------------
that objectivity is a relative term and much abused. Personal experiences of an
individual also play a very important part in the induction of bias and prejudice. ----------------------
If an individual has experienced on several occasions, by participation, the un- ----------------------
profitability of a certain agricultural enterprise, it is likely that he will rationalise
his failures by generalisation of such experienced unpredictability. ----------------------
Many inductive inferences are made on the basis of observations of data ----------------------
as evidence. Indirectly, at least, prejudice and bias affect the perception obtained
from observations. We need to explore some of the fallacies in observations ----------------------
created by bias and prejudice.
----------------------
Incomplete Observation
----------------------
‘Incomplete observation’ consists in overlooking or neglecting either
instances or related circumstances which should be observed. This is related ----------------------
to the previous discussion of prejudice, since the most common form of this
fallacy is the selection of positive proofs or evidence and the neglected negative ----------------------
proofs or instances due to bias, inattention, interest or selective memory.
----------------------
Inaccurate Observation
----------------------
There are three types of factors - namely physical, physiological and
psychological which are the forerunners of inaccurate observation. We are ----------------------
concerned here only with the psychological factors as they are related to our
discussion of bias and prejudice. The factors might include emotion, imagination ----------------------
and misplaced attention- all of which may result in the lack of objectiveness
----------------------
and work or observation may be deemed inaccurate or biased or prejudiced
although not consciously planned so. ----------------------
Some of the most common or sought after evidence in research is the ----------------------
establishment of causes or cause and effect relationships. There are many
opportunities in this quest for causes that lend themselves to the cause of the ----------------------
biased and prejudiced individual as well as the individual who is incompetent.
Some of these are the (a) attributing cause to preceding event; that is to say that ----------------------
because two events occur in sequence that one is related to the other e.g., if we ----------------------
developed a cold after sitting next to a draft; (b) failure to eliminate irrelevancies
or those factors which improperly stated affect the results; (c) establish false ----------------------
relationships, e.g. noting a bumper corn crop following planting during the
“Up-side” of the moon; (d) confusing cause and effect; e.g., an individual may ----------------------
claim that a poverty stricken childhood led him to crime whereas the truth may ----------------------
be that this background only provided the conditions favourable to crime; and
(e) lack of necessary conditions; e.g., a carburetor may be necessary to run an ----------------------
engine but it is in no way sufficient because many other items such as a starter,
battery, etc. are also needed. ----------------------
The presence of bias and/or prejudice in the scientific method and ----------------------
research is a problem that the researcher must be consciously aware of and on
guard against. Bertrand Russel has said, “The kernel of the scientific outlook ----------------------

Scientific Methods and Research 37

 Notes is the refusal to regard our own desires, tastes and interests as affording a key
to the understanding of the world.” The researcher must force himself to more
---------------------- searching re-examination before describing his work to others who should
judge it impartially and objectively. Louis Pasteur gave us a good insight into
---------------------- this attitude by saying.
---------------------- “When you believe you have found an important scientific fact and you
are feverishly curious to publish it, constrain yourself for day, weeks, years
----------------------
sometimes; fight yourself, try and ruin your own experiments and only proclaim
---------------------- your discovery after having exhausted all contrary hypothesis. But when after
so many efforts you have at last arrived at certainty your joy is one of the
---------------------- greatest that can be felt by the human soul.”
----------------------
Summary
----------------------
●● We started the unit with the meaning of research, various types of research
---------------------- etc. In this unit, we have tried to emphasise the importance of scientific
method in making a good research.
----------------------
●● The scientific method has been explicitly dealt with. How and when it was
---------------------- originated and the scientists, who contributed to the status of scientific
method, as it exists today, have also been vividly described. The evolution
---------------------- of scientific method can be a guide to scientists for further contribution to
---------------------- scientific method and to make it further strong.
●● We have learnt the various factors of scientific method, its main
---------------------- characteristics as well as basis and we have also widely discussed scientific
---------------------- method and scientific research.
●● Finally, a brief discussion is made as to what constitutes the lacunae in the
---------------------- scientific research.
----------------------
Keywords
----------------------
●● Science: It accounts for particular events by reference to general laws
---------------------- together with the actual conditions under which these laws act or to account
---------------------- for laws by reference to principles in general.
●● Scientific Method: This refers to a procedure or a mode of investigation
---------------------- by which scientific and systematic knowledge is acquired and this is based
---------------------- on certain faiths like empirical evidence, ethical neutrality, probability
prediction etc.
---------------------- ●● Bias: It refers to a systematic error in a statistical result. Errors from chance
factors will cancel each other in the long run, but those from bias will not.
----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

38 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

 Notes
Self-Assessment Questions
----------------------
1. Write a short note on Research and Scientific method.
2. What do you understand by Scientific Method? Describe its essentials. ----------------------
3. What are the major characteristics of Scientific Method? ----------------------
4. Give basic postulates on which scientific method is based. ----------------------
5. Explain ‘Scientific Research’ and its advantages.
----------------------
Answers to Check your Progress ----------------------

Check your Progress 1 ----------------------

State True or False. ----------------------
1. True
----------------------
2. False
----------------------
Check your Progress 2
State True or False. ----------------------

1. False ----------------------
2. True ----------------------

----------------------
Suggested Reading
----------------------
1. Bryman, Allan & Bell Emma. 2003. Business Research Methods. Oxford
University Press. ----------------------
2. Cooper, Donald, Schindler Pamela. 2006. Business Research Methods. ----------------------
Tata McGraw Hill Companies.
----------------------
3. Kothari C.R. 1985. Research Methodology – Methods & Techniques.
New Age International Publishers. ----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

Scientific Methods and Research 39

 Notes

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------
----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

40 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

Formulating Research Problem and Hypothesis
UNIT

3
Structure:

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Research Process/Planning Process
3.3 Research Problem – Need for Defining
3.4 Prerequisites for Formulating Research Problem
3.5 Selection of the Research Problem
3.6 Points to Ponder on Research Problem
3.7 Units of Analysis
3.8 Time and Space Co-ordination
3.9 Characteristics of Interest
3.10 Environmental Conditions
3.11 Formulation of a Research Problem and Hypothesis Testing
Summary
Keywords
Self-Assessment Questions
Answers to Check your Progress
Suggested Reading

Formulating Research Problem and Hypothesis 41

 Notes
Objectives
----------------------
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
----------------------
• Explain the distinguishing features of research problem.
----------------------
• Assess the importance and significance of different elements
---------------------- constituting the total research problem.
• Formulate your research problem in terms of four hypotheses to be
----------------------
tested.
----------------------

---------------------- 3.1 INTRODUCTION

---------------------- In unit 1, we have discussed what is meant by research, characteristics
and types of research. In unit 2, we discussed in brief scientific method and its
---------------------- relevance and nearness to research. In this unit, we will discuss the importance
---------------------- and formulation of a research problem and the various steps involved in the
same. We give a complete coverage to “designing/formulating a research
---------------------- problem and research hypothesis,” the most important step. Defining a research
problem is the first step in research. A full understanding of most of its elements
---------------------- is imperative for making a right decision. The complete research problem has to
---------------------- specify the following:
●● Unit of analysis
----------------------
●● Time and space boundaries
---------------------- ●● Characteristics under study
---------------------- ●● Specific environmental conditions prevailing in addition to pre-requisite
of research process. We now deal one by one, with all those aspects that
---------------------- will end in final moving of the research problem and research hypothesis
---------------------- formulation.

---------------------- 3.2 RESEARCH PROCESS/PLANNING PROCESS

---------------------- We learnt that the major objective of research is to improve the human
knowledge and the level of living in the society. In society, we take several
----------------------
problems which need to be studied for finding a solution. Only the most urgent
---------------------- among them need the attention of the researchers. Thus, the selection of research
problem has significance to the society and the researcher must be able to
---------------------- identify those problems that need urgent solution. Problem selection assumes
considerable importance in social science since social sciences - which deal with
----------------------
human environment, face a great problem in justifying their utility or service to
---------------------- the society. Research is an organised activity requiring proper planning.
For the sake of a systematic research study, the process of research may
----------------------
be classified under, three stages viz. primary stage, secondary stage and the final
---------------------- stage.

42 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

The Primary Stage includes: Notes
i. Observation
----------------------
ii. Interest
----------------------
iii. Crystallisation and identification of a research problem
iv. Formulating of research problem and hypothesis ----------------------

v. Primary synopsis ----------------------

vi. Conceptual clarity ----------------------
vii. Documentation
----------------------
viii. Literature survey
----------------------
The secondary stage includes:
i. Research project planning ----------------------

ii. Research project formulation ----------------------

iii. Data collection ----------------------
iv. Compilation of data
----------------------
v. Classification, Tabulation and presentation of data
----------------------
vi. Data Analysis
vii. Testing of hypothesis ----------------------

viii. Interpretation ----------------------

The final stage includes: ----------------------
i. Conclusion and recommendations
----------------------
ii. Report writing
----------------------
These stages are briefly discussed below:
Primary Stage ----------------------

i. Observation ----------------------
Research starts with observation which leads to curiosity to learn more ----------------------
about what has been observed. Observation can either be unaided visual
observation or guided and controlled observation. Sometimes, a casual or ----------------------
associated observation leads to substantial research and a great invention.
----------------------
Deliberate and guided observation can also form the basis for research.
While observation leads to research, research results in final observations ----------------------
and conclusions or even further research. Observations can either be
subjective or objective. ----------------------
Participant observation is the type of observation where the observer ----------------------
himself is a participant in the group under study. It enables him to study
the group in its natural behaviour, without the group knowing anything ----------------------
about it; and observation here is closer than non-participant observation.
----------------------

Formulating Research Problem and Hypothesis 43

 Notes A participant observer can observe the group from all angles, without
any extra effort on his part. Participant observation has both merits and
---------------------- demerits.
---------------------- When someone, who is not a member of the group under observation,
observes that group, this is known as non-participant observation. For
---------------------- example, a professional researcher observes the behaviour pattern of
the workers in a factory, who are members of a particular trade union.
----------------------
The merits of non-participant observation include: objectivity and
---------------------- scientific approach, impartiality, unbiased observation and unprejudiced
information, expertise and efficiency. Its demerits include difficulty for
---------------------- detailed observation, biased and doubtful behaviour on the part of those
who are observed and delicacy on the part of both to behave objectively
----------------------
on certain occasions.
---------------------- Controlled observation is the type of observation which suffers from
some restrictions. It may include control over behaviour, control over
----------------------
phenomena, control over environment and observation. The observation
---------------------- is made under controlled conditions. A laboratory experiment is an
example of controlled observation. The observations made in natural
---------------------- surroundings, without any control or influence by any external forces are
non-controlled observations. Such observations are realistic and pave the
----------------------
way for research. Field observation studies and group observations are
---------------------- also done to lay the foundation of a research study.
The observation technique, however, suffers from some limitations.
----------------------
Some of the occurrences may not be open to observation, while many
---------------------- occurrences open for observation cannot be conveniently studied. Not
all occurrences lend themselves to a study by observational techniques,
---------------------- mainly because of faulty perception, the awareness on the part of the
people who are observed, the personal bias of the observer, lack of a
----------------------
system of observation, etc.
---------------------- However, the observation method is widely used, mainly because of
---------------------- its simplicity, usefulness in the framing of hypothesis, its accuracy,
the possibility of getting convincing results, the possibility of the test
---------------------- of validity, etc. It may be appointed out that observation is a common
method in all the sciences and that is why its applicability has been widely
---------------------- accepted. To be precise, observation should be the basis of any research.
---------------------- ii. Interest
---------------------- The observation of certain occurrences creates an interest and
inquisitiveness in the mind of the researcher to study it further. This is
---------------------- the basis of the interest to study the subject matter of observation. This
interest may be academic interest or policy-making interest. It may be self
---------------------- interest or group (social) interest. The interest is the guiding force behind
---------------------- any research.

----------------------

44 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

iii. Crystallisation Notes
Crystallisation is the process of designing the definite form of research
----------------------
to be undertaken for the purpose of studying the subject matter that has
been observed. It is the formulation of the research project, defining its ----------------------
objectives, rationale, scope, methodology, limitations, including financial
commitments and sources. It is at this stage that the research project is ----------------------
given a concrete shape and structure, which form the basis of further
----------------------
activities.
iv. Formulating a research problem ----------------------
By and large, a research problem falls in two categories. First, in which ----------------------
there can be relationships between various variables and second as per
nature. Initially, a researcher must try to find out the general interest or ----------------------
subject matter he wants to study. The problem can then be stated broadly
----------------------
in a general form. The various ambiguities associated with respect to
the problem can be considered. This really helps to formulate a real and ----------------------
specific problem of research. The process is not that easy and generally
can be formulated after having meaningful discussions, with colleagues, ----------------------
friends, seniors, apart from guide. This is most important. It provides the
----------------------
focal point for research. If affects the method of testing to be carried out
for analysing data. The hypothesis should be very specific and limited ----------------------
to the piece of research taken in hand, as it has to be tested for its final
acceptance or rejection. It helps to focus the researcher’s attention on ----------------------
importance of his problem.
----------------------
v. Primary Synopsis
----------------------
Prior to entering into the actual study, the researcher is expected to make
a summary of what is going to be done in connection with the research. ----------------------
This enables him as well as others to gather a definite idea of what would
be written in the final report. Accordingly, he would be able to collect the ----------------------
date and make interpretations. This may also be called a tentative chapter ----------------------
scheme.
vi. Conceptual Clarity ----------------------

Any researcher should have an in-depth background knowledge of the ----------------------

topic of his study. He can gain such basic knowledge only by an extensive
----------------------
reading of text books, specialised books and publications on the topic
articles and research papers published in journals and periodicals, reports ----------------------
of the past studies, etc. He can also gain knowledge by a detailed discussion
with the people concerned and by his own observation. However, it is ----------------------
imperative for a researcher to gain a deep knowledge from any reliable
----------------------
source prior to actually plunging himself into the research, so that he may
have a clear knowledge of the concepts which would be of value to him ----------------------
in his task.
----------------------

----------------------

Formulating Research Problem and Hypothesis 45

 Notes vii. Documentation
The documentary source is an important source of information for a
----------------------
researcher. A document is anything in writing - a record, files or diaries,
---------------------- published or unpublished - which can be extracted and used in research. It is
a very valuable source of information for a research either in management
---------------------- or in social sciences. It may comprise office files, business and legal
papers, biographies, official and unofficial records, letters, proceedings of
----------------------
any courts, committees, societies, Assemblies, Parliaments, enactments,
---------------------- constitutions, reports of surveys or research of commissions, official
statistics, newspaper editorials, special articles, company news, cases or
---------------------- company directors’ reports etc. Documentation is the process of collecting
and extracting the documents which are relevant to research.
----------------------
Documents may be classified into:
----------------------
i. Personal documents
---------------------- ii. Company documents
---------------------- iii. Consultants’ reports and published materials and

---------------------- iv. Public documents

Personal documents are those that are written by or on behalf of individuals.
----------------------
They may include autobiographies, biographies, diaries, memoirs, letters,
---------------------- observations and inscriptions, which are primarily written for the use
and satisfaction of individuals and which can be utilised for purposes of
---------------------- research.
---------------------- Company documents are the most essential types of documents in
management research, annual reports, statements of income and
---------------------- expenditure and balance sheets, files and records, policy statements,
resolutions, minutes of the Board of Directors, general bodies and
----------------------
executive conferences, performance records and evaluation files, specific
---------------------- forecasting and evaluation reports, directions’ reports, etc.
Consultants’ published materials consist of reports of professional
----------------------
consultants, records of commodity boards, chambers of commerce,
---------------------- FICCI manufactures’ associations; industry associations; like the
Engineering Association, the Textile Mill Owners’ Association, the Jute
---------------------- Mills Association, etc., documents available with trade unions, the All
India Management Association, management training institutions, etc.
----------------------
Public documents are documents, both published and unpublished,
---------------------- of Government organisations and documents of public interest. They
---------------------- include Government records, finance commission reports, special enquiry
commission reports, company law board reports, MRTP Commission
---------------------- reports, reports and files of the Registrar of Companies, the Registrar of
Firms, the Ministry of Commerce and industry, etc., reports of Population
---------------------- census, National Sample Survey and such other Government research
---------------------- institutions. Such documents are valuable if they are reliable and suitable
for a particular study - if they can be obtained.
46 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods
viii. Literature Survey Notes
The researcher must have full literature knowledge on the subject of his
----------------------
choice. An extensive survey of literature is a must for any researcher if he
wants to be successful in research. Right selection of a research topic is half ----------------------
success. One reason for making this survey is to have correct concepts and
right theories. Another reason is to have knowledge on earlier work carried ----------------------
out by others on the same and / or similar topic. Up to date knowledge on
----------------------
the research topic definitely helps what data and other materials are to be
collected to properly define the research problem. The research problem ----------------------
needs to be defined very carefully and without any ambiguity.
----------------------
Secondary Stage
i. Research Project Planning ----------------------
The secondary stage of research consists of all the aspects of actually ----------------------
carrying out the research project. It starts with research project planning,
which is the process of selecting future courses of action in carrying out ----------------------
a research project. Project planning is the first step in actually conducting ----------------------
and directing a research project. It is one of the most important tasks of a
researcher. This includes formulation of the research objectives and goals ----------------------
and determining ways of achieving them. A project plan provides a rational
approach to research, enabling one to decide in advance what to do, how ----------------------
to do it, when to do it, where to do and who is to do it in investigating ----------------------
the concerned subject. It enables the researcher to effectively carry out
the project within the given time, means and available manpower for the ----------------------
achievement of the objectives of the research in the best way possible.
----------------------
ii. Research Project Formulation
A project plan results in project formulation. Once the project is planned, ----------------------
the research executive or the researcher makes a practical approach to ----------------------
carry out the project. It consists of deciding upon the objective of the
research, identifying the various factors that influence it, determining ----------------------
the courses of action open to him - from framing the questionnaire to
interpretation and presentation and so on. It consists, too, of setting up ----------------------
priorities and determining the strategy for the collection of the data, ----------------------
identifying the variables and establishing their relations. It calls for a
thorough understanding of the environment under which the survey is to ----------------------
be conducted, of the informants and the population from whom the data
would be collected. It includes the guidelines for the effective conduct ----------------------
of the research project, putting everything down in black and white and ----------------------
specifying the research methodology. In other words, project formulation
is a way of systematically setting forth the total research project with ----------------------
a view to conducting a systematic study. It includes the selection of a
topic for research, the formulation of hypotheses, the identification of ----------------------
the sources of data, the utilisation of funds and so on. Data collection ----------------------
methods, too, have to be specified. Project formulation is one of the most
important steps in the conduct of a research. ----------------------

Formulating Research Problem and Hypothesis 47

 Notes iii. Data Collection
Collection of data involves the basic definition for the concepts to be
----------------------
investigated, specific wordings of enquiries to communicate those
---------------------- concepts, definition of the environment in which the data will be collected,
specified fields procedure and the design of instruments for recording
---------------------- the actual data. Data collection looks forward to data analysis, data
requirement for various analytical techniques that must be anticipated in
----------------------
the data collection phase. Special care must be taken in the collection
---------------------- phase to avoid sources of understatement or overstatement for the various
characteristics. The desired data must be as free from error as possible.
---------------------- The data collection plan- questions, instruments and procedures must be
appropriate for the researcher’s problem. The data collection plan must
----------------------
be properly implemented through competent supervisors. The data can
---------------------- have sources of primary and secondary data and has to be adequate,
appropriate, accurate and free of any bias, free of sampling as well as non
---------------------- sampling errors.
---------------------- iv. Classification and Tabulation
Classification is the way of arranging the data in different classes in order
----------------------
to give a definite form and a coherent structure to the data collected,
---------------------- facilitating their use in the most systematic and effective manner. It is
the process of grouping the statistical data under various understandable
---------------------- homogeneous groups for the purpose of convenient interpretation.
Uniformity of attributes is the basic criterion for classification; and the
----------------------
grouping of data is made according to similarity. Classification becomes
---------------------- necessary when there is diversity in the data collected for meaningful
presentation and analysis. However, in respect of homogeneous data,
---------------------- classification may be unnecessary.
---------------------- A good classification should have the characteristics of clarity,
homogeneity, equality of scale, purposefulness, accuracy, stability,
---------------------- flexibility and unambiguity.
---------------------- The classified data may be arranged in tabular form (tables) in columns
and rows. Tabulation is the simplest way of arranging the data, so that
---------------------- anybody can understand it in the easiest way. It is the most systematic
---------------------- way of presenting numerical data in an easily understandable form. It
facilitates a clear and simple presentation of the data, a clear expression
---------------------- of the implication and an easier and more convenient comparison. There
can be simple or complex tables for general purpose or summary tables.
---------------------- Classification and tabulation are interdependent events in a research.
---------------------- v. Data Analysis
---------------------- The collected data has to be processed in order to summarise the results.
The data analysis seeks to determine how the units covered in the research
---------------------- project respond to the terms under investigation. This is possible through
data array, data tabulation, data classification to make it more meaningful.
----------------------

48 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

 Further in computation of percentage, certain coefficients also help. Quite Notes
often, data is subjected to statistical analysis using appropriate statistical
techniques. In such analysis, relationships or differences supporting ----------------------
or conflicting with a hypothesis are subjected to statistical tests of
significance to determine with what validity data can be said to indicate ----------------------
and make conclusion. All such varied tools of analysis are required since ----------------------
the data analysis can be of various types such as:
----------------------
●● Univariate analysis
●● Bivariate analysis ----------------------
●● Multivariate analysis ----------------------
vi. Analysis and Interpretation
----------------------
Collection, compilation, classification, tabulation and presentation of data
enable the researcher to make appropriate analysis and interpretation. ----------------------
Proper analysis, on the other hand, results in unambiguous observations,
suggestions, conclusions, inductions and deductions, which may perhaps ----------------------
be the actual aid of the Manager in his decision-making process. Testing ----------------------
of hypothesis and identifying relationships between variables may
also become a part and parcel of research, analysis and interpretation. ----------------------
Diagrammatic presentation, graphs, charts, mathematical models,
statistical tools, etc. also enhances the research work. ----------------------

vii. Testing of a Hypothesis ----------------------

Testing forms the heart of any data analysis. The researcher tests his ----------------------
hypothesis i.e. whether the facts support the hypothesis or they are in
contradiction. This type of question is answered by testing of hypothesis ----------------------
procedure. Various statistical tests such as “t” test, “z” test, chi-square test,
----------------------
‘F’ test have been developed by statisticians for this purpose. Testing of
hypothesis will result in either accepting or rejecting the null hypothesis. ----------------------
viii. Interpretation of Results
----------------------
Research results must have reference for the decision to be made. Results
must be interpreted into action recommendations. Recommendations must ----------------------
be communicated to proper authority in an understanding manner. The real ----------------------
success of research lies in the implementation of the recommendations
for right feedback for further research, if any, that can be taken up or that ----------------------
it has helped society to make gains both in knowledge and in leading life
happily, comfortably, safely etc. ----------------------

Final stage ----------------------

i. Conclusions and Recommendations ----------------------
This is the crux of the research project work. The recommendations
----------------------
are on the basis of conclusions drawn. The conclusions are based on
interpretation of the results of data analysis. All this has to be in relation ----------------------
to the research hypothesis stated and therefore, does not leave any room
for opinion or any unscientific propositions. ----------------------

Formulating Research Problem and Hypothesis 49

 Notes ii. Report Writing
Report Writing is very important for both the researcher and the reader.
----------------------
This is the best manner of communication between the two. This has to
---------------------- be in simple language, with clarity and be effective. The message and
the researcher must be correctly understood. Report writing is an art and
---------------------- requires excellent skill.
----------------------
3.3 RESEARCH PROBLEM: NEED FOR DEFINING
----------------------
The entire research activity is based on the proper identification of the
---------------------- research problem. The first duty of a research scholar is to select and define a
research problem. After selecting and defining a research problem, a researcher
---------------------- must examine the symptoms concerning the problem. A research problem may
---------------------- be theoretical or practical. In order to solve a research problem a researcher has
to satisfy the following conditions.
----------------------
1. The problem must be concerned with an individual or a group.
---------------------- 2. There must be a goal to be achieved.
---------------------- 3. There must be an alternative way to achieving one’s goal?

---------------------- 4. The researcher must have some doubt regarding the selection of alternatives.
5. The difficulty of a problem may be due to some environmental factors.
----------------------
The following considerations should be kept in mind while selecting the
---------------------- research problem:
---------------------- a. Human Considerations: It is necessary to ensure people’s participation
and involvement where resistance to change or reaction is too much. A lot of
---------------------- human energy is required.
---------------------- b. Economic Considerations: Research design efforts require money. The
value of the anticipated results must be commensurate with the efforts required.
---------------------- Short research problems which can provide results quickly are to be given
preference compared to long-term research problems whose benefits may be
----------------------
difficult to foresee.
---------------------- c. Time Considerations: There is always a time constraint whether the
research is for academic purpose or otherwise. In former case, time is a big
----------------------
constraint and needs to be considered in taking research problems.
---------------------- d. Technical Considerations: Availability of adequate technical knowledge
---------------------- should be checked to undertake the research problem. Large problem throws
up a number of subjects which are independent of each other, small individual
---------------------- research problems instituted on each subject should be preferred.

---------------------- e. Environmental Considerations: While defining a research problem

controversial subject should not be chosen for research, until and unless very
---------------------- much warranted. The selection of a problem must be preceded by a preliminary
study. It should be remembered that too narrow or too vague problems should
---------------------- not be taken up. The subject of research should be familiar and feasible.

50 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

3.4 PREREQUISITES FOR FORMULATING RESEARCH Notes
PROBLEM
----------------------
a. Expensive study: The first essential condition for formulating a research
problem is the systematic immersion in the subject matter through first- ----------------------
hand observation. It is always helpful to study extensively the existing ----------------------
literature on the subject, to discuss the matter with experienced people
and to deeply think about the problem. ----------------------
b. Well acquaintance with relevant theories: Sometimes, field observation ----------------------
may be very useful to the researcher. He may make a preliminary or pilot
study or an exploration. The researcher must be well acquainted with the ----------------------
relevant theories and empirical generalisations in the research area. The
----------------------
researcher should be familiar with the result of the findings in the similar
area. He has to find out the existing gap in the theory inconsistency, ----------------------
inadequacy or loophole. All these will provide him an insight for the
formulation of the problem. ----------------------
c. Help from experts: The researcher may undertake an experience survey ----------------------
and discuss the matter with the relevant learned minds. He may seek a
comment on his proposed topic and its formulated problem from the ----------------------
existing authorities on the topic. He should have his mind open, flexible,
----------------------
critical and curious.
d. Clarity: The topic must be clear and manageable. This is an initial ----------------------
necessary step in problem formulation. ----------------------
e. Source: The suitable source of data around time period should be
considered. The researcher should himself try to suggest some solutions ----------------------
or explanations of the difficulty experienced by him (hypothesis). He must ----------------------
properly define the involved concepts practically so that the definitions
become workable propositions. Some aspect of the topic which can be ----------------------
formulated into a specific research problem can be identified which is
feasible to investigate. However, the formulation and reformulation of ----------------------
research problem is a continuous process, no process is final. ----------------------

3.5 SELECTION OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM ----------------------

The problem selected on specific rationale helps us to complete the ----------------------

project in stipulated time period and within the prescribed financial outlay. In ----------------------
order to boost up the moral of the researcher proper selection of the problem
is essential. ----------------------
The factors, which require due consideration for selecting research ----------------------
problems, are stated as below:
1. Interest of the researcher ----------------------

The interest of the researcher is the main factor while selecting problem. It ----------------------
is the attitude spirit and dedication of the researcher towards his research
----------------------
study that will generate the interest in the research study. Therefore the

Formulating Research Problem and Hypothesis 51

 Notes personal interest of the researcher is very much essential in any of the
research study.
----------------------
2. Importance of the topic of the study
---------------------- Topic selected for the study should not only socially relevant but it must
be useful for the society. It should be having the reference to the practical
----------------------
field. The results of this type of social relevant study will used by the
---------------------- concerned individual or group of the individuals.
3. Avoid the selection of the monotonous problem
----------------------
The researcher should avoid to use monotonous problem for the purpose
---------------------- of the research study. Such topic for the research may not able to generate
---------------------- for utility of the subject matter. Therefore should be novelty of ideas in
the subject so as to have the proper utility of the research.
---------------------- 4. Resources for the research
---------------------- The availability of the resources is very important factor in the research
study. These resources are related to financial and technical assistance to
---------------------- the researcher. Along with this, his experience in this respect is necessary.
---------------------- Resources have their application in the research within the prescribed
time period. The efforts in this direction should be made for having proper
---------------------- application of the resources within specific time period.
---------------------- 5. Data Availability
The data required for the study should be easily accessible. In case if
----------------------
researcher decides to make use of the primary data than it is necessary to
---------------------- ascertain the response of the respondent. If secondary data is to be used
then authenticity of the data is to be tested before it is put to an application.
---------------------- Proper care should be taken to collect sensitive data it is required for the
purpose of the study.
----------------------
Selection of a research problem is governed by two major factors like
----------------------
a. Internal factors such as the interest, the competence, the resources
---------------------- of time and finance of the researcher himself and

---------------------- b. External factors such as importance and urgency feasibility, novelty

and research ability of the research problem; so also availability of
---------------------- research personnel, facilities and last but not the least the usefulness
and its relevance to the society at large.
----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

52 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

 Notes
Check your Progress 1
----------------------
Multiple Choice Single Response.
----------------------
1. The basis of Research problem selection is
----------------------
i. Its future orientation
ii. Its novelty ----------------------
iii. Its practicality
----------------------
iv. All the above
Multiple Choice Multiple Response. ----------------------

1. The quality of research problem is that it should: ----------------------

i. Have clarity ----------------------
ii. Be hypothesis oriented
----------------------
iii. Be simple to analyse
iv. Be complex ----------------------

----------------------
3.6 POINTS TO PONDER ON RESEARCH PROBLEM ----------------------
The following points should be kept in mind while defining a research ----------------------
problem:
----------------------
●● The right question must be addressed if research is to aid decision makers.
A correct answer to the wrong question leads either to poor advice or to no ----------------------
advice.
----------------------
●● Very often in research problem we have a tendency to rationalise and
defend our actions once we have embarked upon a particular research ----------------------
plan. The best time to review and consider alternative approaches is in the
planning stage. If this is done, needless cost of false start and redoing work ----------------------
could be avoided.
----------------------
●● A good starting point in problem definition is to ask what the decision
maker would like to know if the requested information could be obtained ----------------------
without error and without cost.
----------------------
●● Another good rule to follow is “Never settle on a particular approach”
without developing and considering at least one alternative. ----------------------
●● The problem definition step of research is the determination and structuring ----------------------
of the decision maker’s question. It must be the decision maker’s question
and not the researcher’s question. ----------------------
●● What decision do you face? If you do not have a decision to make, there is ----------------------
no research problem.
●● What are your alternatives? If there are not alternatives to choose, again ----------------------
there is no research problem. ----------------------

Formulating Research Problem and Hypothesis 53

 Notes ●● What are your criteria for choosing the best alternative? If you do not have
criteria for evaluation, again that is not a research problem.
---------------------- ●● The researcher must avoid the acceptance of the superficial and the obvious.
----------------------
Activity 1
----------------------
Write down the advantages of considering all the points mentioned above
----------------------
while defining a research problem.
----------------------

---------------------- 3.7 UNITS OF ANALYSIS

---------------------- The individuals or objects whose characteristics are to be measured are
called the units of analysis. They may be persons, groups of persons, business
----------------------
establishments, inanimate objects, transactions, monetary units or just about
---------------------- objects or activity a person can name. Some very interesting communication
studies have even used words as the units of analysis. Basically the units answer
---------------------- the question, ‘What objects am I interested in?’
---------------------- To illustrate the selection of units, consider a manufacturer of Machine
tools who wishes to ascertain the extent to which its potential customers know
---------------------- that the company exists. The potential customers are basically business entities.
---------------------- But the units of the universe could also be defined as purchasing departments,
production departments, engineering departments or particular individuals
---------------------- within one or more departments. Is the company considering specific acts that
might increase awareness levels for certain groups? These are the different
---------------------- types of questions that should be considered in specifying the appropriate units
---------------------- of analysis.
The basic unit of analysis could be defined in terms of transactions rather
---------------------- than in terms of potential buyers. With buyers as units, the universe consists of
---------------------- persons, group of persons or business entities. With transactions as units, the
universe consists of activities as the focus of interest. Typically, in research,
---------------------- we wish to classify or measure the units according to some characteristics.
Once more we see the interdependence of research decisions. The selection
---------------------- of universe units is best determined only in conjunction with what is to be
---------------------- measured.
Is the manufacturer interested in finding the percentage of buyers who
---------------------- are aware of the company’s existence? Or is the manufacturer more concerned
---------------------- with the percentage of transactions in the market place in which the buyer is
aware (or unaware) of its existence? The same type of comparison would be
---------------------- required if level of awareness were measured; here it might be average level of
awareness of buyers versus average level per transaction.
----------------------
Rupee value would be still another basis for establishing units. These
---------------------- rupees could be rupees expended on the type of machine tools made by this
manufacturer. The objective would then be to determine the percentage the total
----------------------

54 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

rupee value to market awareness of the company’s existence. This was very Notes
close to what the president had in mind. In theory, the president wanted to
classify every rupee spent as coming from a buyer who was or was not aware ----------------------
of the company’s existence. The same arithmetic result is obtained if buyers
are classified according to awareness with each buyer weighted by the rupee ----------------------
volume he or she generates. ----------------------
The well-known management concept of a “Decision-making unit”
----------------------
(DMU) often comes into play in defining the units of the universe. But the
DMU is usually difficult to define in an unambiguous manner. A purchase that ----------------------
is a wife’s decision in one family may be a husband’s decision in another and
a joint decision in third. How does one cope with this problem? A two- step ----------------------
procedure is a possibility. The first stage units are families; within each family
----------------------
the decision maker is identified. The units of the problem are the DMUs.
The specification of the appropriate DMU for industrial products is ----------------------
more difficult than it is for consumer products. The number of persons who
----------------------
have potential involvement is greater. Job designations do not have the same
meaning for all organisations. Responsibilities for ultimate decisions vary with ----------------------
size of organisation, organisational structure, philosophy of decentralisation,
plus the personalities involved. The question is further complicated by the fact ----------------------
that some characteristics of interest refer to the organisation - for example,
----------------------
size, geographic location and past purchases - while others such as preferences
education and attitudes, uniquely refer to specific individuals. ----------------------
The problem definition, whether for a consumer product or an industrial
----------------------
product, must specify the units of analysis. It is better to err at this stage
by specifying conceptually correct units that pose difficult problems in ----------------------
implementations. Compromises in the transition to operational definitions can
then be better evaluated. This approach also permits the possibility of using ----------------------
different procedures with different market segments or a multistage approach
----------------------
in identifying the relevant DMUs.
----------------------
Activity 2
----------------------
Write what you understand by DMU with an example. ----------------------

----------------------
3.8 TIME AND SPACE CO-ORDINATION
----------------------
The time dimension of a decision problem is always the future. What
----------------------
will consumer response be to our contemplated promotion for the month of
November? These questions indicate the futurity aspect of the time dimension ----------------------
of a decision problem. Managers continually run the risk of making the right
decision at the wrong time. Opportunities are transient; the executive who ----------------------
assumes the static environment is doomed to failure. Therefore, it is crucial that
----------------------
the decision maker and the researcher establish the appropriate time reference
for the decision. ----------------------

Formulating Research Problem and Hypothesis 55

 Notes What is the appropriate time decision for the manufacturer of machine
tools? The manufacturing company is interested in awareness at the point of
---------------------- time when it contemplates possible actions, either to modify that awareness
level or to operate within that constraint. If its decision is to be implemented
---------------------- on January 15, 1991, it would like to know the conditions, in the universe on
---------------------- that date. If the implementation would be delayed for 5, 10 or 20 months, the
company would like to know the state of the universe on those dates. Large
---------------------- time consuming capital expenditures may be initiated in the near future, but
the size of the expenditure is based upon estimates of conditions at a distant
---------------------- point of time. The problem of road construction and the road’s ability to handle
---------------------- peak loads are all too familiar examples. Study of the present or the past is
appropriate only in so far as it can indicate the future.
----------------------
The space geographic coordinates supply of the geographic boundaries
---------------------- within which the action is to be taken. These lines are rarely neat political
divisions or subdivisions. Advertising, media do not stop abruptly at city or
---------------------- state line. Retailers and wholesalers usually welcome customers regardless of
where the customers reside. Sales territories may, however, be established along
----------------------
country or state lines. In a similar way, licensing by governmental units may
---------------------- determine the appropriate space coordinates. In the absence of such externally
imposed constraints, the problem definition, in theory, often includes the whole
---------------------- earth or the whole of India. Recognition of this fact in the problem definition
will help evaluate the utility of a research universe that is considerably smaller.
----------------------
The universe of interest may be defined either conceptually or by
---------------------- enumeration. For example, all current accounts of a service organisation can
be obtained from current records. These accounts have specific geographic
----------------------
locations, but the specification of location is neither necessary nor germane to
---------------------- the problem definition. The enumerative approach to universe specification is
appropriate so long as the decision maker has that group as his or her target and
---------------------- has a list available.
---------------------- All Units or Specific Units

---------------------- It is not sufficient to specify that the units of a problem are housewives
or auto owners or purchasing agents unless a decision maker truly is interested
---------------------- in all persons within the time and space limits. More often the decision maker
is interested in employed housewives or housewives from households with an
---------------------- automatic washer or housewives who have tried product X. These examples
---------------------- illustrate three different types of modifications applied to units: (i) a characteristic
or present state of units (ii) a characteristic of an object associated with the
---------------------- unit rather than a more direct characteristic of the unit itself (households with
automatic washer) and (iii) past behaviour of the unit (have tried product X).
---------------------- These few examples illustrate the vast scope of ways to limit the particular units
---------------------- of concern.
Instead of specifying a universe of vehicle owners, a tyre manufacturer
---------------------- might specify vehicle owners whose income exceeds a stipulated amount and
---------------------- whose vehicles are not equipped with radial tyres. Any business may select its

56 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

own target markets, each of which may form a universe worthy of study. Notes
Stipulation of units according to characteristics of objects (that are related
----------------------
to the units) rather than characteristics of the units themselves sometimes
obscure the nature of the units. For example, are the units persons whose ----------------------
vehicles do not have radial tyres or have radial tyres? The proper selection can
usually be accomplished by asking what the appropriate base is for calculating ----------------------
percentages or averages. The difference is often critical in the case of industrial
----------------------
products. The percentage of machines leased with maintenance contracts might
be very different from the percentages of leasees who lease with maintenance ----------------------
contracts. Failure to distinguish between the two could lead to quite diverse
research designs and recommended actions. ----------------------

----------------------
Activity 3
----------------------
A steel company wants to make a quick estimate of the total steel requirement
----------------------
in a particular region to assess the scope for setting up a new steel plant. The
company should decide within a year about its action. ----------------------
Define the appropriate time and space coordinates and also the specific units
----------------------
of analysis for the problem.
----------------------

3.9 CHARACTERISTICS OF INTEREST ----------------------

The characteristics of interest identify about the units that are of concern ----------------------
to the decision maker. These characteristics fall into two categories: the
----------------------
dependent variables and the independent variables. The dependent variables
are those of interest for their own sake. For example, in marketing, they often ----------------------
refer to behaviour or attitude towards a firm’s offering. Examples are purchases,
awareness, opinions or profits associated with consumer behaviour attitudes. ----------------------
The independent variables included in the problem definition are those
----------------------
characteristics thought to be related to the dependent variables. These variables
may either be within the control of the firm (endogenous) - such as advertising, ----------------------
pricing or personnel changes - or beyond the control of the firm (exogenous).
Exogenous variables of potential interest cover a multitude of possibilities, ----------------------
varying from competitor and government actions to economic conditions to
----------------------
individual consumer characteristics.
It is impossible to give a complete list of various characteristics that may ----------------------
be of interest to the manager. In order to overcome this, many practitioners ----------------------
and theorists have suggested a multitude of classification schemes. Indeed it
seems that all managers and researchers feel compelled to establish their own ----------------------
classification scheme - and often more than one. No system is optimal for all
projects and all discussions. ----------------------
Characteristics of Interest versus Unit of Analysis ----------------------
Confusion sometimes arises concerning the difference between the ----------------------

Formulating Research Problem and Hypothesis 57

 Notes characteristic of interest and the unit of analysis. A manufacturer of drugs is
interested in rupee value sales of a particular generic drug. The manufacturer
---------------------- wants to know rupee sales for a group of six states during the period of September
1988 - April 1989. Thus, the time and space co- ordinates have been defined for
---------------------- the research universe.
---------------------- ‘Rupee value sales’ is the characteristics of interest - this is the measure
of concern to the drug company. The unit of analysis identifies ‘on what’ or
----------------------
‘on whom’ the characteristic of interest is measured. The unit of analysis for
---------------------- the drug company may be the individual drug store. The research may collect
rupee sales from the individual drug stores, adding them together in order to
---------------------- determine total sales in the six states.
---------------------- The characteristic of interest is crucial to the management. Its value will
serve as the basis for the choosing among alternative actions. The unit of analysis
---------------------- establishes the source for the information. In many cases the unit employed
is dictated by convenience rather than the “proper” problem definition. For
----------------------
example, the drug company could generate aggregate sales by using the ultimate
---------------------- consumer as the unit instead of using the drug store. The following table shows
these two alternative approaches.
----------------------
The drug company wants to know total sales (labeled as …). This figure can be
---------------------- generated either by

---------------------- (1) Determining sales of each separate drug store and summing these values,
or
---------------------- (2) Determining purchase of each individual customer and summing these
---------------------- values (Refer to table 3.1). The first approach is based on the drug store
as the unit of analysis, collecting the column totals (, ,…..). The second
---------------------- approach is based on the ultimate customer as the unit of analysis,
collecting row totals (, , ……). Since both approaches yield the target
---------------------- characteristic of interest ( ), either approach is satisfactory.
---------------------- Table 3.1: Two Alternative Units of Analysis for Determining Sales,
Drug Company Problem
----------------------
Drug store as unit of analysis
----------------------
Ultimate customer as unit of Drug store 1 Drug store 2 Row total
---------------------- analysis
---------------------- Customer A
Customer B
----------------------
CUSTOMER TOTAL
----------------------
The choice between the two approaches depends on their respective costs
---------------------- and the extent to which the necessary data can be obtained with accuracy.
---------------------- Two side issues should also be recognised in choosing between the two
alternatives (a) Purchases by resident of six-state area may be made outside of the
---------------------- area or from non drug store outlets. Sales by drug stores in the six-state area may

58 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

be made to nonresidents. The researcher must decide whether these differences Notes
are trivial and, if they aren’t, which alternative is better approximation of the
true problem. (b) The company may be interested in the shape and distribution ----------------------
of sales (or purchase) among units. If so, the best way to proceed is to use the
unit of analysis corresponding to that interest. ----------------------

The problem could also be defined with other units of analysis. The ----------------------
individual sales person, states are but a few of the possibilities. Again the choice
----------------------
depends on the ease of obtaining the necessary data and the desire for detail
concerning the distribution across units. ----------------------

Activity 4 ----------------------

----------------------
By following the classification matrix 2*2 discussed above to measure
characteristics of interest in a research problem, construct an example in an ----------------------
area other than marketing to explain all the four cells.
----------------------
----------------------
3.10 ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS
----------------------
Environmental conditions fall within the category of relevant
characteristics, but they comprise a special type of relevant characteristic. The ----------------------
characteristics of interest are the target variables. The research is undertaken
in order to discover their values. Environmental conditions, however, are of ----------------------
concern because of their possible relationship with the characteristics of interest.
----------------------
What would sales be if prices were Rs. 169? Rs. 149? What would competitor
do if we increased our advertising by 25% or decreased it by 25%? How would ----------------------
A’s action affect our sales and profits? What would happen to the supply of oil
if the depletion allowance were cut in half / were removed completely? ----------------------
The environmental conditions specified in the research problem are of ----------------------
two types; (1) those beyond the firm’s control and (2) those within the firm’s
control. The firm must adjust to the first and choose wisely with respect to ----------------------
the second. Neither is possible without knowing how the particular variables ----------------------
influence the characteristics of interest. Therefore, both types of variables must
be introduced into the research problem. ----------------------
Ideally, the decision maker would like to know the precise value of all ----------------------
relevant, uncontrollable variables. He or she would like to know the plans
of all competitors, the state of the economy, availability of raw material, the ----------------------
international climate, fashion changes and many other relevant factors. The
decision maker cannot obtain all this information, but it is frequently possible ----------------------
to identify the factors that seem most critical to the existing problem. These ----------------------
factors are then incorporated in the problem definition as environmental
conditions. They may be specified at a single value - in which case the solution ----------------------
recommended may be inappropriate for other values. Several values may be
specified - in which case alternative recommendations may result, depending ----------------------
on which set of conditions prevail at the decision time. Each problem faced ----------------------

Formulating Research Problem and Hypothesis 59

 Notes should explicitly include one or more of these environments within the problem
definition.
----------------------
For example, the research cannot study every price, every level and type of
---------------------- advertising support or every sales training programme. Only a few alternatives
can be researched. The research problem must specify those which seem most
---------------------- promising. These specifications are critical; the research cannot answer unasked
questions.
----------------------

---------------------- Activity 5
----------------------
Explain with the help of a suitable example the need for introducing two
---------------------- types of environmental conditions in a research problem.

----------------------
3.11 FORMULATION OF A RESEARCH PROBLEM AND
----------------------
HYPOTHESIS TESTING
----------------------
Formulation means translating and transforming the selected research
---------------------- topic/problem into a scientifically researchable question. It specifies exactly
what the research problem is and why it is studied. Merton identifies the three
---------------------- major components in formulating a research problem:
---------------------- i. The originating question

---------------------- ii. The rationale behind and

iii. The specific question
----------------------
The first indicates the nature of problem, e.g. is it calling for a new
---------------------- discovery or more decisive facts / or judging empirical validity? Or any relations
to the structure of an organisation? The rational - the second includes statements
----------------------
of reasons prompting the selection of the first questions. It indicates how the
---------------------- question can contribute to theory and/or practice. The third marks decomposing
the first question into several ones to identify date that will provide the answers.
----------------------
The primary task of research is collection of relevant data and the
---------------------- analysis of the same for finding answers to the research questions. The proper
performance of this task depends upon the identification of exact data and
---------------------- information required for the study. The formulation serves this purpose. The
exact data needs for the study are determined from clear and accurate statement
----------------------
of the problem, the development of conceptual model, the definition of the
---------------------- objectives of the study, the setting of investigative questions, the formulation
of the hypothesis to be tested, the definition of concepts etc. Once the data
---------------------- requirement is known, the researcher can plan and execute the other steps
without any waste of time and energy.
----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

60 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

Importance of Formulation Notes
i. It gives a direction and a specific focus to the research efforts.
----------------------
ii. It delimits the vast field of inquiry.
----------------------
iii. It prevents a blind research and indiscriminate gathering of data that may
prove irrelevant. ----------------------
iv. It also identifies methods to be adopted for sampling and collection of ----------------------
data.
v. It through its hypothesis formation, determines appropriate statistical ----------------------
techniques to be adopted for testing the hypothesis. ----------------------
Thus, all major tasks - sampling, selecting appropriate methods of
collection of data , tools for data collection, designing plans of analysis can be ----------------------
exactly planned without waste of time and efforts. ----------------------
Formulating Hypothesis
----------------------
The formulation of hypotheses or propositions to the possible answers
to the research problems is an important step in the formulation of research ----------------------
problem. A critical eye, creative thinking, imaginary power, a sound vision
----------------------
and sound judgment, without doubt, help setting up a reasonable hypothesis.
In addition, a detailed insight into the phenomenon or field of research has ----------------------
the added advantage. This is a key step in the growth of knowledge in every
science. Therefore, hypothesis formulation has a tremendous value in scientific ----------------------
investigation.
----------------------
It is often convenient to structure a research problem in terms of a hypothesis
to be tested. The hypothesis must be agreed upon by both the manager and the ----------------------
researcher, although the formal statement is primarily the responsibility of the
----------------------
researcher. In thesis, use of the word ‘hypothesis’ is simply a statement about
the universe. It may or may not be true; the research is designed to ascertain the ----------------------
truth. Consider the following pair of hypothesis.
----------------------
H0: At least 10% of the viewing audience for “children’s TV shows”
consists of adults. H1: Less than 10% of the viewing audience for “children’s ----------------------
TV shows” consists of adults.
----------------------
First, it should be noted that these hypothesis are worded in such a way
that either one or the other is correct. They cannot both be correct and they ----------------------
cannot both be incorrect. Second, in order for these two hypotheses to be useful
in a research decision making situation, the decision maker should choose first ----------------------
act if the first is true and a second act if the second act is true. Both statements ----------------------
are characteristic of all situations in which a research problem is properly
structured in terms of hypothesis testing. ----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

Formulating Research Problem and Hypothesis 61

 Notes
Check your Progress 2
----------------------
Multiple Choice Single Response.
----------------------
1. Formulation of hypothesis may not be required in:
----------------------
i. Experimental studies
---------------------- ii. Survey studies
iii. Historical studies
----------------------
iv. None of these
---------------------- Multiple Choice Multiple Response.
---------------------- 1. The nature of hypothesis is:
---------------------- i. Action-oriented
ii. Declarative
----------------------
iii. Conceptual
---------------------- iv. Abstract
----------------------

---------------------- Summary

---------------------- ●● If you want a right answer to a given question, the question should be right.
If a problem is correctly defined, an answer can be given without much
---------------------- difficulty. Actually, all difficulties can be avoided if we think of many
alternatives at the early stages of formulation of our research problems. In
----------------------
this unit, we have discussed in details all these and other relevant points.
---------------------- ●● The problem is defined in four elements such as unit of analysis, time and
space boundaries, characteristics of interest (to be studied) and specific
----------------------
environmental conditions. We have described how to formulate a problem
---------------------- without ignoring the above four points.
●● We have highlighted what needs are relevant to formulate a research
----------------------
problem. We also highlighted the need for structuring research problem
---------------------- as hypothesis testing - by use of very simple statements. These statements
may or may not be true. The research is designed to asserting the truth
---------------------- which helps the researcher to choose the right alternative in his problem.
----------------------
Keywords
----------------------
●● Hypothesis: In scientific investigation, it is a tentative statement asserting
---------------------- a relationship between certain facts. The statement is intended to be tested
empirically and is either verified or rejected
----------------------
●● Data: It is plural of the Latin word ‘datum’ (= given). It means any
---------------------- information which is ‘given’ or ‘provided’ for solution of a problem
----------------------

62 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

 Notes
Self-Assessment Questions
----------------------
1. How do you define a research problem? Give three examples to illustrate
your answer. ----------------------
2. ‘Researcher should not be in a hurry in deciding of the research topic, nor
----------------------
in defining its scope’. Discuss.
3. What factors will you consider while selecting a problem or research? ----------------------
4. Discuss the planning stages in a research process. ----------------------
5. Why is ‘Conceptualisation’ very important in research?
----------------------
Answers to Check your Progress ----------------------
Check your Progress 1 ----------------------
Multiple Choice Single Response. ----------------------
1. The basis of Research problem selection is
----------------------
iv. All the above
----------------------
Multiple Choice Multiple Response.
1. The quality of research problem is that it should: ----------------------
i. Have clarity ----------------------
ii. Be hypothesis oriented ----------------------
Check your Progress 2
----------------------
Multiple Choice Single Response.
----------------------
1. Formulation of hypothesis may not be required in:
iii. Historical studies ----------------------

Multiple Choice Multiple Response. ----------------------

1. The nature of hypothesis is: ----------------------
i. Action-oriented
----------------------
ii. Declarative
----------------------
iii. Conceptual
----------------------
Suggested Reading ----------------------
1. Bryman, Allan & Bell Emma. 2003. Business Research Methods. Oxford ----------------------
University Press.
----------------------
2. Cooper, Donald, Schindler Pamela. 2006. Business Research Methods.
Tata McGraw Hill Companies. ----------------------
3. Kothari C.R. 1985. Research Methodology – Methods & Techniques. ----------------------
New Age International Publishers.

Formulating Research Problem and Hypothesis 63

 Notes

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------
----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

64 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

Hypothesis Testing
UNIT

4
Structure:

4.1 Introduction
4.2 Hypothesis: Definition and Meaning
4.3 Role of Hypothesis
4.4 Sources of Hypothesis
4.5 Kinds of Hypothesis
4.6 Characteristics of Hypothesis
4.7 Formulation of Hypothesis
4.8 Importance of Hypothesis
4.9 Difficulties in Formulating of Hypothesis
4.10 Means to Overcome Difficulties
4.11 Testing of Hypothesis
4.12 Steps in Testing Hypothesis
4.13 Statistical Hypothesis/Tests of Significance
4.14 Limitations of Tests of Significance
Summary
Keywords
Self-Assessment Questions
Answers to Check your Progress
Suggested Reading

Hypothesis Testing 65
 Notes
Objectives
----------------------
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
----------------------
• Explain the importance of hypothesis
----------------------
• Formulate the research problem in terms of a hypothesis to be tested
---------------------- • Explain the testing of Hypothesis along with its risks and
minimisation of errors
----------------------

---------------------- 4.1 INTRODUCTION

---------------------- Hypothesis is an assumption of a statement or a principle or an axiom
---------------------- about the distribution of a population. Thus a hypothesis is put to test for its
tenability and for determining its validity, it is proved, it becomes the solution
---------------------- for the problem for which it is formulated.
---------------------- A few examples of hypotheses are given below:
●● A average salary of Men is greater than the average salary of Women
----------------------
●● Monthly income among the ASK company employees are not homogenous.
---------------------- ●● Birth rate of male child is greater than the birth rate of female child in
---------------------- Tamil Nadu.
●● Indian population has equal gender proportion.
----------------------

---------------------- 4.2 HYPOTHESIS: DEFINITION AND MEANING

---------------------- The word ‘hypothesis’ in science generally refers to a definite
interpretation of a given set of facts, which is put forth as a tentative suggestion
---------------------- and remains partly or wholly unverified. After it is once established, it ceases to
be a hypothesis and becomes a theory or explanatory principle.
----------------------
The word hypothesis was derived from the Greek word hypo (under)
---------------------- and tithenas (to place) and suggests that when the hypothesis is placed under
---------------------- the evidence as a foundation, they tend to support one another. It performs
this function by providing a proposed explanation which will have certain
---------------------- consequences that may be confirmed or refuted by testing.

---------------------- Definitions of hypothesis

A hypothesis is a tentative generalisation, the validity of which remains
---------------------- to be tested. In this most elementary stage, the hypothesis may be very hunch,
---------------------- guess, imaginative data, which becomes the basis for action or investigation.
- George A Luniberg
----------------------
‘Hypothesis is a proposition which can be put to test, to determine
---------------------- validity.’ - Goode and Hatt
----------------------

66 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

 ‘A hypothesis is a statement capable of being tested and thereby verified Notes
or rejected.’
----------------------
- Rummel and Balline
“A hypothesis is a proposition, condition or principle which is assumed, ----------------------
perhaps without belief, in order to draw out its logical consequences and by this
----------------------
method to test its accord with facts which are known or may be determined.”
- Webster Dictionary ----------------------

“Hypothesis is any supposition which we make (either without actual ----------------------

evidence or an evidence) avowedly ill, sufficient in order to endeavour to deuce
conclusion in accordance with facts which are known to be real, under the ----------------------
idea that if the conclusions to which the hypothesis leads are known truths, the ----------------------
hypothesis itself either must be or at least likely to be true.”
- Mill ----------------------

Hypothecation is proposition, generalisation or justification which is put ----------------------

to test in order to test its validity. Attempt is made to deduce correct result out
----------------------
of it.
“The formulation of a deduction however constitutes a hypothesis. If ----------------------
verified, it becomes a part of theoretical construction.” Proposition which can
----------------------
be included in test determine a validity.
- Goode W.G. and Hatt P.K. ----------------------
“A hypothesis is an attempt at explanation of a provisional supposition ----------------------
made in order to explain scientifically some facts or phenomenon.”
----------------------
- Coffey
----------------------
“A hypothesis directs our search for the order. It is not essential for a
hypothesis to be necessarily true.” ----------------------
- Cohen M. and Negel E.
----------------------
The formulation of deduction constitutes hypothesis. If verified, it
becomes a part of the theoretical construct. In scientific research, hypothesis ----------------------
suggests explanations for certain facts. Such tentative explanation is suggested
----------------------
by something in the test and by one’s previous knowledge.
Hypothesis is not a theory. They are linked and related to theory in more ----------------------
elaborate nature. The element of generalisation is present in both. But the theory ----------------------
is more elaborate as compared to hypothesis. It is derived from theory itself. It
has also generalisation which, if and when tested and found correct, becomes ----------------------
a part of theory. There is only difference in degree and form. Hypothesis is
a stage that precedes formulation of theory. In the words of Mrs. P.V. Young ----------------------
“Provisional central idea which becomes the basis for fruitful investigation is ----------------------
known as working theory”. William H. George, while distinguishing between
theory and hypothesis, described theory as ‘Elaborate hypothesis’. ----------------------

----------------------

Hypothesis Testing 67
 Notes “The hypothesis actually emerged from the theory. It is a generalisation
drawn from the theory itself and when it has been tested and found correct it
---------------------- becomes a part to the theory itself. Thus, theory itself in its early form is only a
hypothesis and the two are interdependent upon each other.”
----------------------
- William H. George
----------------------
Simply stated, a hypothesis helps us see and appreciate (i) the kind of data
---------------------- that need to be collected in order to answer the research questions and (ii) the
way in which they can be organised most efficiently and meaningfully.
----------------------

---------------------- 4.3 ROLE OF HYPOTHESIS

---------------------- A hypothesis serves several important functions:

●● A hypothesis gives a definite point for investigation. It also gives direction
----------------------
on the research study. Without a hypothesis, research becomes unfocussed,
---------------------- a random wandering.
●● It also specifies the sources of data that is required for study.
----------------------
●● It exactly determines the data needs. It defines which facts are relevant and
---------------------- which are not.
---------------------- ●● The use of hypothesis prevents a blind search and collection of unessential
data - usually proving irrelevant to the problem.
---------------------- ●● A hypothesis also suggests what type of research is likely to be most
---------------------- appropriate.
●● It determines the most appropriate technique of analysis.
----------------------
●● A hypothesis contributes to the development of theory. It links theory and
---------------------- investigation.
When a social scientist develops a theory to explain a phenomenon, he
----------------------
does not test the theory directly. He tests the hypothesis derived from it. If the
---------------------- test confirms the hypothesis, the theory is accepted. This is how hypothesis
make it possible to test theories.
----------------------
Following are some more important functions of hypothesis:
---------------------- ●● To test theories
---------------------- ●● To suggest theories

---------------------- ●● To describe (explain) social phenomena (environment situation)

The function of the hypothesis is to state a specific relationship between
---------------------- phenomena is such a way that this relationship can be empirically tested. That
is, the hypothesis must be empirically demonstrated as either probable or not
----------------------
probable.
---------------------- “Every worthwhile theory permits the formulation of additional hypothesis.
---------------------- These when teste, are either proved or disproved and in turn constitute further
tests of the original theory.”
---------------------- - Goode and Hatt

68 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

When hypotheses are tested, they explain the social phenomena associated with Notes
them. The phenomena may be totally new or partly known or not known earlier.
----------------------
4.4 SOURCES OF HYPOTHESIS ----------------------
Sometimes, scientists see a connection between data and then formulate ----------------------
a hypothesis. More often many years of hard work, disciplined research and
study result in the formulation of a hypothesis. ----------------------
The sources of hypothesis in managerial analysis include: ----------------------
●● Observation in day-to-day practices
----------------------
●● Suggestions from functional executives
●● Suggestions from the shop floor ----------------------
●● Scientific theory ----------------------
●● Analogies (similarity between two phenomena) ----------------------
●● Experiences of the competitors
----------------------
●● Findings of Research and Development Department
Goode and Hatt have stated the following as the source of hypothesis: ----------------------
Analogy: Hypothesis is formulated on the basis of analogy or similarity between ----------------------
phenomena. Once a similarity or analogy is observed between two phenomena,
a thesis is formulated to test whether the two phenomenon are similar in other ----------------------
respect or not. Sometimes, the similarity that is observed in one field may also
----------------------
be noticed in the other field. The theory of Ecology is based on Botany. It is
based on the observations of certain plants in certain geographical conditions ----------------------
and on the basis of that the hypothesis is formulated in certain geographical
conditions, certain plants shall grow. This is hypothesis drawn from ‘analogy’. ----------------------
General culture: There is a great influence of the cultural pattern on the ----------------------
thinking process of the people and the hypothesis may be formulated to test one
or more of these ideas. Cultural element or common cultural pattern may form ----------------------
a source of the hypothesis formulation. ----------------------
Individual experience: For formulation of hypothesis it in not culture, science
and analogy alone are responsible. The way in which an individual reacts to each ----------------------
of these is also a factor that is responsible for formulation of hypothesis. Certain ----------------------
factors are present but every one is not able to observe them and formulate a
hypothesis. A person who has correct approach sees a thing and formulates a ----------------------
hypothesis. Isaac Newton discovered the “Theory of Gravitation” is an example
of this type of ‘personal experience.’ ----------------------

Scientific theories: Scientific theory explains what has been found to be correct ----------------------
after experimentation. On the basis of the knowledge of scientific theory, further
generalisation can be made to formulate hypothesis. These generalisations are ----------------------
part and parcel of hypothesis. For example, the theory propounded regarding ----------------------
suicide which deals with the factors that influence the society is known as ‘Theory
of suicide’ On the basis of this theory it is known that poverty, unemployment, ----------------------

Hypothesis Testing 69
 Notes frustration etc. are responsible for suicide. There is also a link between these
factors and their results. So, on the basis of this theory, a hypothesis can be
---------------------- formulated.
---------------------- Using the review of relate literature as the background to formulate
hypothesis.
----------------------

---------------------- 4.5 KINDS OF HYPOTHESIS

---------------------- Hypotheses are of two types, namely Null Hypothesis and Alternative
hypothesis.
----------------------
Null Hypothesis:
---------------------- A hypothesis to be tested with possible rejection when it is true is known
as null hypothesis. It is denoted by H0
----------------------
For example, a researcher wants to know the purchase intention of durable
---------------------- commodities of monthly income employees, then the null hypothesis is H0 is
that there is no significant difference between income and purchase intention of
----------------------
durable commodities.
---------------------- Alternative Hypothesis:
---------------------- Rejection of null hypothesis is leads to accept another hypothesis is
known as alternative hypothesis. It is denoted by H1.
----------------------
From the above example, the alternative hypothesis H1 is that there is
---------------------- a significant difference between income and purchase intention of durable
commodities.
----------------------
Hypotheses can be classified in a variety of ways. But classification of
---------------------- hypotheses on the basis of their levels of abstraction is regarded as especially
fruitful. Goode and Hatt have identified three different levels of abstraction
----------------------
reached by hypotheses and hence typified.
---------------------- On the basis of the level of abstraction, hypotheses may be classified
under three categories:
----------------------
(i) Hypotheses that explain the existence of empirical uniformities
----------------------
(ii) Hypotheses that deal with the complex existence of logically derived
---------------------- relationships between empirical uniformities

---------------------- (iii) Hypotheses which are concerned with the relation of analytic variables
The first type of hypothesis states some degree of uniformity among the
----------------------
empirical phenomena.
---------------------- The second type of hypothesis aims at testing the existence of logically-
derived relationships between empirical uniformities.
----------------------
The third type of hypothesis deal with a study of analytic variables
---------------------- between changes in one property the other.
----------------------

70 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

Certain authors explain this in a different way, as below: Notes
●● Explanatory or Descriptive Hypothesis: A hypothesis may be about
----------------------
the cause of a phenomenon or about the law of which it is an instance. A
hypothesis about cause is explanatory whereas a hypothesis about law is ----------------------
descriptive.
●● Tentative Hypothesis: When a phenomenon cannot be fully understood ----------------------
due to technical difficulties a tentative hypothesis can be made about it ----------------------
and how far this is successful in explaining can be seen. Sometimes two
or more hypothesis can be simultaneously tested. The famous hypothesis ----------------------
about propagation of light, namely, wave theory and corpuscular theory of
light both explain the phenomenon of light but none of them is final. They ----------------------
are tentative. ----------------------
●● Representative Fictions: In the word of Bain, “some hypothesis consist
of assumptions as to the minute structure and operation of bodies. From the ----------------------
nature of the case, these assumptions can never be proved by direct means. ----------------------
Their only merit is their suitability to express the phenomenon. They are
representative fictions.” An example of representative fiction is E=Mc2. ----------------------
The hypothesis is based upon imaginative reasoning and it basically ----------------------
involves thinking with the help of concrete examples. This hypothetical
reasoning is abstract. ----------------------
A hypothesis which proves to be correct becomes a theory or law. The law ----------------------
of gravitation was a hypothesis in Newton’s mind, but when it proved to be true
it become a law. ----------------------

----------------------
Check your Progress 1
----------------------
Fill in the blanks.
----------------------
1. The null hypothesis asserts that there is no true difference in
the ___________ and _________in the particular matter under ----------------------
consideration.
----------------------
2. The hypothesis links theory and __________________.
----------------------

4.6 CHARACTERISTICS OF HYPOTHESIS ----------------------

There are certain characteristics of a hypothesis: ----------------------

i. It should be conceptually clear ----------------------

ii. It should have empirical referents ----------------------
iii. It should be specific ----------------------
iv. It should be related to available techniques
----------------------
v. It should be related to the body of the theory
----------------------

Hypothesis Testing 71
 Notes vi. It should be relevant to the existing environmental conditions for the
purpose of testing
----------------------
vii. It should identify the specific variables and their relations
---------------------- The criteria for judging the usability of the hypotheses are none else than
those that help the hypotheses perform their designated functions vis-à-vis
----------------------
research and the existing edifice of knowledge, generally.
----------------------
4.7 FORMULATION OF HYPOTHESIS
----------------------
The main part of a research is the formulation of a hypothesis and a
----------------------
statement that a researcher strongly believes in and seeks to investigate. A
---------------------- hypothesis is “a proposition, in order to draw out its logical consequences and
to test its accord with facts known.
----------------------
“According to G.A. Lunberg, “A hypothesis is a tentative generalisation,
---------------------- the validity of which remains to be tested. In its most elementary stage, the
hypothesis may be any hunch, guess, imaginative idea, which becomes the
---------------------- basis for the action or investigation.
---------------------- Good and Hatt have defined it as “a proposition which can be put to tests
to determines its validity. A hypothesis looks forward. It is a proposition which
---------------------- can be placed for testing to determine its validity. Hypothesis is a question
raised in such way that some kind of answer can be forthcoming.
----------------------
The method of hypothesis is restricted to the formulation of good working
---------------------- suggestions and good tentative principles of explanation. It is the procedure
---------------------- including the rules used in reaching a hypothesis.
Certain general requirements or rules to be followed in reaching a
---------------------- hypothesis are usually given by logicians. They are as follows:
---------------------- ●● A hypothesis should be conceivable and not absurd. In other words, it must
be capable of being brought into the accepted body of knowledge.
----------------------
●● A hypothesis must be of such a character that deductions can be made from it.
---------------------- - A hypothesis is valueless if it is not stated in such a way that various
---------------------- deductions can be made from it.
- A deductive elaboration of a hypothesis must follow its formation.
----------------------
A hypothesis is usually framed depending on one or more of the following
---------------------- sources:
---------------------- i. Facts established by previous investigations in the related areas,
ii. Through the investigator’s experience and observation and
----------------------
iii. Through the investigator’s reasoning, insight and logical derivation
---------------------- from a theory. For any reason, if the investigator cannot make use of
---------------------- the above sources to frame a hypothesis, he will have to resort to ‘Null
hypothesis’, which assumes ‘no relationship’ between the variables under
---------------------- consideration.

72 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

Mcguigan suggested the following criteria to frame a good hypothesis: Notes
●● The hypothesis must be an adequate answer to the specific problem that
----------------------
demanded an answer.
●● The hypothesis should have logical simplicity. ----------------------
●● The hypothesis should be expressed in a quantified form and be susceptible ----------------------
to convenient quantifications.
●● The hypothesis must be verifiable. ----------------------
●● The hypothesis must be stated in such a way as to allow it to be rejected. ----------------------

----------------------
Activity 1
----------------------
Consider any research problem that interests you. Put it in terms of an
appropriate hypothesis to be tested. Try to mention the likely errors and the ----------------------
recommendations associated with your hypothesis. Illustrate with a suitable
----------------------
example.
----------------------
4.8 IMPORTANCE OF HYPOTHESIS ----------------------

Hypothesis is the basic function of the scientific research. If simple, brief ----------------------
and clear scientific hypothesis has been formulated, there shall be no problem
for the investigator to proceed in the research field. Its utility or importance for ----------------------
research may be studied as under: ----------------------
i. It defines what is relevant and prevents the review of irrelevant literature
----------------------
and the collection of useless or excess data. It prevents the wastage in
collection of data. ----------------------
ii. It induces the researcher to deal with certain aspects of the situation
----------------------
which are relevant from the stand point of the problem in hand. It spells
difference between precision and haphazardness between useful and ----------------------
useless research.
----------------------
iii. It projects the objective of research.
iv. It guides the processes of thinking and discovery. It is a tool for data ----------------------
collection and to select appropriate statistical technique to analysis the ----------------------
collection of data.
v. It explains the specific goal not only to the researcher, but also readers. ----------------------

vi. It is a tool of link together the related facts and information and organising ----------------------
them in comprehensive as a single brochure manner.
----------------------
vii. It provides the room for known facts where researchers can try to get into
the unknown facts. ----------------------
viii. It enables a researcher to draw a conclusion. ----------------------

----------------------

Hypothesis Testing 73
 Notes 4.9 DIFFICULTIES IN FORMULATING OF HYPOTHESIS
---------------------- The task of formulating hypothesis has certain difficulties as pointed out
by Goode and Hatt as under:
----------------------
a. Lack of knowledge of scientific method: The lack of scientific knowledge
---------------------- presents difficulties in formulation of hypothesis. It is not always possible
to have complete information and acquaintance with the scientific methods
---------------------- for formulation of hypothesis.
---------------------- b. Lack of clear theoretical background: Hypothesis do not have a clear cut
and definite theoretical background. Due to this weakness, it is not easy to
---------------------- arrive at certain conclusion.
---------------------- c. Lack of logical background: Hypothesis not only lacks a definite and
clear cut background but also lacks to the logical use of the theoretical
----------------------
background. It means that there is no logical background.
----------------------
4.10 MEANS TO OVERCOME DIFFICULTIES
----------------------
The difficulties that beset formulating hypothesis have to be removed and
---------------------- unless it is done, it is difficult to formulate the hypothesis. In order to overcome
---------------------- this difficulty, the following steps are required to be taken:
●● Complete and perfect knowledge of the principles of the concerned subjects
----------------------
has to be acquired i.e. it may be Management, Administration, Costing,
---------------------- Co-operation, Sociology etc.
●● The hypothesis should be brief and timely from the very beginning.
----------------------
●● Hypothesis may grow as the research proceeds further. Thus, it means that
---------------------- hypothesis should become elaborate as it proceeds in the field.
---------------------- 4.11 TESTING OF HYPOTHESIS
----------------------
Science does not admit anything as valid knowledge, until satisfactory
---------------------- tests confirm its validity. Hypotheses are often only hunches and provisional
ideas. They cannot be considered as facts. They need to be tested through
---------------------- research process for their acceptance or rejection. Normally, the hypothesis is
tested by making use of a predefined decision, rule, which is applied to sample
----------------------
data and guide the researcher in deciding the hypothesis to be accepted or
---------------------- rejected. There are two important means of testing hypothesis:
i. To test the hypothesis for logical consistency and
----------------------
ii. To test the hypothesis for agreement with fact
----------------------
The first calls for impartial thinking. It consists of checking the logical
---------------------- character of the reasoning by which the consequences of hypothesis are deduced
for verification. The second calls for checking it for agreement with the already
---------------------- known laws of nature. It should agree with scientific laws or scientific principles
---------------------- which are established of its validity.

74 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

 A well known example of the test of hypothesis in the field of management Notes
science is in the area of Statistical Quality Control. This helps determination of
an acceptable quality level. ----------------------
For the purpose of testing hypothesis, one may have to resort to various ----------------------
types of techniques to test and to analyse both qualitative and quantitative factors
involved. Various statistical, mathematical, econometric and experimental ----------------------
methods are at present known for testing the various kinds of hypothesis. The
----------------------
techniques to be adopted depend upon convenience, availability and reliability
of data. It also depends upon level of sophistication required, least so the ----------------------
knowledge of the researcher.
----------------------
A hypothesis can be tested on the basis of its characteristics. Its main
task is to establish a co-relationship between the various factors that influence ----------------------
the phenomena. It should be worth experimentation or empirical tests. It is not
founded on facts. If the facts verify the hypothesis, it can form the basis of study. ----------------------
They may be negative as well as positive. For testing the velocity of a hypothesis,
----------------------
the facts should be put under control so that possible results may be drawn. It
is difficult to make experiments under controlled conditions. Hypothesis must ----------------------
be tested on the basis of facts or it should be capable of experimentation or
empirical test. Without it, the hypothesis shall not be workable and useful. ----------------------

----------------------
4.12 STEPS IN TESTING HYPOTHESIS
----------------------
1. Setting up of Hypotheses
----------------------
This step consist of hypotheses settings. In this step formal statement
in relation to hypotheses in made. In traditional practice instead of one, ----------------------
two hypotheses are set. In case it one hypotheses is rejected than other
hypotheses is rejected than other research problem. There hypotheses are: ----------------------
a. Null hypotheses and ----------------------
b. Alternative hypotheses. ----------------------
Acceptance or rejection of hypotheses is based on the sampling
information. Any sample which we draw from the population will vary ----------------------
from it therefore it is necessary to judge whether their differences are ----------------------
statistically significant or insignificant.
The formulation of hypotheses is an important step which must be ----------------------
accomplished and necessary care should be taken as per the requirements ----------------------
and object of the research problem under construction.
----------------------
2. Selecting Statistical Technique
In this average will make selection of statistical technique which is going ----------------------
to be used.
----------------------
There are various statistical tests which are being used in testing of
hypotheses. There tests are Z-test, T-test, F-test and X2. ----------------------
It is the jobs of the researcher to make proper selection of the test. ----------------------

Hypothesis Testing 75
 Notes A-Z- test is used when hypotheses is related to a large sample (30 or
more)
----------------------
b-‘t’ test is used when hypotheses is related to small sample (less than 30)
---------------------- The selection of test will be dependent on various considerations like
variables involved, sample size, type of data and whether samples are
----------------------
related or independent.
---------------------- 3. Selecting level of Significance
---------------------- This stage consists of making selection of desired level of significance.
The researcher should specify level of significance because testing
---------------------- of hypotheses is based on ‘pre-determined level of significance. The
---------------------- rejection or retention of hypothesis by the researcher is also based on the
significance level.
---------------------- The level of significance is generally expressed in percentage form such
---------------------- as 5% or 1%, 5% level of significance is accepted by the researcher; it
means he will be making wrong decision about 5% of time. In case if
---------------------- hypotheses is reject at this level of 5% he will be entering risk hypotheses
rejection in 5 out of 100 occasions.
----------------------
The following factors may affect the level of significance.
----------------------
i. The magnitude difference between sample means
---------------------- ii. The size of sample
---------------------- iii. The validity of measurement within sample.

---------------------- iv. Whether the hypotheses is directional or non-directional.

The level of significance must be adequate in relation to the same nature
---------------------- and object of the research study.
---------------------- 4. Determining Sampling distribution
---------------------- The next step after significance level in testing of hypotheses is to
determine the appropriate sampling distribution. It is, normal distribution
---------------------- and ‘t’ – distribution in which choice can be excised.
---------------------- 5. Selecting Sample and Value

---------------------- In this step random sample is selected and appropriate value is computed,
from the sample data relating to the test statistic by utilising the relevant
---------------------- distribution.

---------------------- 6. Performance Computation:

In this step calculation of performance is done. The calculation includes
---------------------- testing statistics and standard error.
---------------------- A hypotheses is tested for following four possibilities, that the hypotheses
is-
----------------------
a. True, but test leads to its rejection.
----------------------

76 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

 b. False, but test leads to its acceptance. Notes
c. True, but test leads to its acceptance.
----------------------
d. False, but test leads to its acceptance.
----------------------
Out of the above four possibilities a and b lends to wrong decision.
In this case a lends to Type I error and b lends to Type II error. ----------------------

7. Statistical Decision: ----------------------

Thus is the last step in which we have to draw statistical decision involving ----------------------
the acceptance or rejection of hypotheses.
----------------------
This will be dependent on whether the calculated value of the test fails in
the region of acceptance or in the rejection at given significance level. ----------------------
Steps in Hypothesis Testing:
----------------------
The following four steps are carried out in testing a hypothesis:
----------------------
Step I: State the null hypothesis (H0) and the alternative hypothesis (H1).
Step II: Compute the value of appropriate test statistics on which the ----------------------
decision to accept or reject H0 depends. ----------------------
Step III: Decide on the acceptance or rejection of H0 on the basis of the
----------------------
value of the test statistics in Step II at a particular level of significance ( ).
Step IV: Make appropriate conclusion based on Step III. ----------------------
Different kinds of tests in this Chapter and in Chapters 4 and 5 have been ----------------------
carried out in these four steps.
----------------------
4.13 STATISTICAL HYPOTHESIS / TESTS OF ----------------------
SIGNIFICANCE
----------------------
A statistical hypothesis is a statement about the probability distribution
of a random variable. The hypothesis usually involves an assumed parent ----------------------
population and the test only purports to assess whether a given sample has come ----------------------
from this population.
In other words, a statistical hypothesis can be described as a procedure ----------------------
to decide whether to reject or not to reject the hypothesis in the light of the ----------------------
information given by the sample, at the given level of significance.
----------------------
The procedure adopted in testing hypothesis is as follows:
Prepare a hypothesis ----------------------
A hypothesis is a supposition made as a basis for reasoning. All scientific ----------------------
theories are tested for setting up a hypothesis against data of observation. The
test of significance may best be oriented logically around the statement of a ----------------------
hypothesis with which the data may or may not conform. A statistical hypothesis
----------------------
is a hypothesis concerning the parameters or form of the probability distribution
for a particular population. ----------------------

Hypothesis Testing 77
 Notes The two hypotheses in a statistical test are normally referred to as:
i. Null Hypothesis
----------------------
ii. Alternative hypothesis
----------------------
The null hypothesis is a very useful tool in testing the significance
---------------------- of difference. In its simplest form, the hypothesis asserts that there is no
true difference in the sample and population in the particular matter under
---------------------- consideration and that the difference found is accidental, unimportant arising
out of fluctuations of sampling.
----------------------
As against the null hypothesis the alternative hypothesis specifies those
---------------------- values that the researcher believes to hold true and, of course, he hopes that the
---------------------- sample data leads to acceptance of this whole hypothesis as true.
The alternative hypothesis may embrace the whole range of values rather
---------------------- than a single point.
---------------------- The null and alternative hypothesis is distinguished by the use of two
different symbols, Ho representing the null hypothesis and Ha the alternative
---------------------- hypothesis.
---------------------- Choose a suitable significance level
---------------------- Having set up the hypothesis the next step is to test the validity of Ho
against Ha at certain level of significance. The confidence with which an
---------------------- experimenter rejects or retains a null hypothesis depends upon the significance
level adopted. This significance level is customarily expressed as a percentage,
----------------------
such as 5 percent, 1 percent and the like.
---------------------- Decide test criterion
---------------------- The third step in general testing procedure is to construct a test criterion.
This involves selecting an approximate probability for the particular test, that
---------------------- is, a probability distribution which can properly be applied. Some probability
---------------------- distributions that are commonly used in testing procedures are t, F and X2. Test
criteria must employ an approximate probability distribution.
---------------------- Carry calculations
---------------------- The fourth step is the performance of various computations from a random
sample of size which is necessary for the test. These calculations include the
----------------------
testing statistics and the standard error of the testing statistics.
---------------------- Decision
---------------------- Finally, as a fifth step, we may draw statistical conclusions and may make
decisions. A statistical conclusion or statistical decision is a conclusion either to
---------------------- reject or not to reject the null hypothesis. The decision will depend on whether
the computed value of test criterion falls in the region of rejection or the region
----------------------
of acceptance.
----------------------

----------------------

78 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

Types of errors in testing of hypothesis Notes
When a statistical hypothesis is tested there are four possible results:
----------------------
●● The hypothesis is true but our test rejects it.
----------------------
●● The hypothesis is false but our test accepts it.
●● The hypothesis is true and our test accepts it. ----------------------
●● The hypothesis is false and our test rejects it. ----------------------
Obviously, the first two possibilities lead to errors. When the results of the
test leads to the rejection of a null hypothesis which is true (possibility No.1) ----------------------
this is called type I error. ----------------------
In other words, type I error are made when we reject null hypothesis by
making a difference significant, although no true difference exists. On the other ----------------------
hand, if the result of statistical test leads to the acceptance of a null hypothesis ----------------------
which is not true, this is called type II error. In other words, type II errors are
made. We accept a null hypothesis by making a difference not significant, when ----------------------
a true difference actually exists.
----------------------
Check your Progress 2 ----------------------

State True or False. ----------------------

1. When the hypothesis is true and our test accepts it, it is called Type I ----------------------
error.
----------------------
2. H0 is known as null hypothesis.
3. The size of sample does not affect level of significance. ----------------------

----------------------
4.14 LIMITATIONS OF TESTS OF SIGNIFICANCE ----------------------
In testing statistical significance the following points must be noted: ----------------------
Test of significance should not be used mechanically: Tests of significance
----------------------
are simply the raw materials from which decisions need to be made.
Conclusions are to be given in terms of probabilities and not certainties: ----------------------
When a test shows that a difference was statistically significant, it suggests that ----------------------
the observed difference is probably not due to chance. Thus, statements are not
made with certainty but with knowledge of probability. ----------------------
Test do not tell us ‘why’ the difference exists: Though tests can represent ----------------------
that a difference has statistical significance, they do not tell us why the difference
exists. However, they do suggest the need for further investigation in order to ----------------------
reach definite answers.
----------------------
If we are to have confidence in a hypothesis it must have support beyond
the statistical evidence. It must have a rational basis. ----------------------

----------------------

Hypothesis Testing 79
 Notes The above points clearly show that in problems of statistical significance
as in other statistical problems, technique must be combined with good judgment
---------------------- and knowledge of the subject matter.
----------------------
Summary
----------------------
●● We have so far explained how close research is to science. In the previous
---------------------- units we discussed what research is and how research problem is formed.
In this unit we go a step further to explain how a research problem is
---------------------- formulated in terms of a Hypothesis.
---------------------- ●● We have elaborately discussed the meaning of hypothesis, how it is formed,
sources of hypotheses and various types of hypotheses.
----------------------
●● The units, later on, details with how the hypothesis formed can be tested
---------------------- using statistical theory underlying risks etc. In short, the testing of
hypotheses ultimately helps in verifying or otherwise, the very theory of
---------------------- research. We have sequenced the entire scientific approach to hypothesis
testing with all points associated with it to ultimately reach scientific
----------------------
conclusion that may either help to add knowledge to humanity or to form
---------------------- a particular theory which may help the human progress.

----------------------
Keywords
----------------------
●● Hypothesis, Statistical: A hypothesis which is concerning the parameter
---------------------- ●● Significance: The term is used mainly in the context of hypothesis testing.
It is said to exist when a value lies outside an acceptable interval – known
----------------------
as confidence interval
---------------------- ●● Type I and Type II Errors: This refers to those errors which occur when,
respectively, a true null hypothesis has been rejected and a false null
----------------------
hypothesis has been accepted
----------------------

----------------------
Self-Assessment Questions

---------------------- 1. Define a hypothesis. What are the various sources of hypothesis?

2. All research needs to start with formulating a hypothesis”. Discuss.
----------------------
3. Write short notes.
----------------------
(a) Test of significance
---------------------- (b) Statistical hypothesis
---------------------- (c) Characteristics of hypotheses

---------------------- (d) Formulation of hypothesis.

4. Explain Type I and Type II error.
----------------------
5. Define different steps in “Testing a given hypothesis”.
----------------------

80 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

6. State the difficulties in formulating hypothesis and the means to overcome Notes
them.
----------------------
Answers to Check your Progress ----------------------
Check your Progress 1 ----------------------
Fill in the blanks.
----------------------
1. The null hypothesis asserts that there is no true difference in the sample
and population in the particular matter under consideration. ----------------------
2. The hypothesis links theory and investigation. ----------------------
Check your Progress 2
----------------------
State True or False.
----------------------
1. False
2. True ----------------------

3. False ----------------------

----------------------
Suggested Reading
----------------------
1. Bryman, Allan & Bell Emma. 2003. Business Research Methods. Oxford
University Press. ----------------------

2. Cooper, Donald, Schindler Pamela. 2006. Business Research Methods. ----------------------

Tata McGraw Hill Companies.
----------------------
3. Kothari C.R. 1985. Research Methodology – Methods & Techniques.
New Age International Publishers. ----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

Hypothesis Testing 81
 Notes

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------
----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

82 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

Research Design
UNIT

5
Structure:

5.1 Introduction
5.2 Meaning and Definition of Research Design
5.3 Relation between Problem Formulation and Research Design
5.4 Factors affecting Research Design
5.5 Advantages of Research Design
5.6 Steps in Research Design
5.7 Various Types of Research Designs
Summary
Keywords
Self-Assessment Questions
Answers to Check your Progress
Suggested Reading

Research Design 83
 Notes
Objectives
----------------------
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
----------------------
• Assess whether the research to be carried out has a scientific way to
---------------------- proceed
---------------------- • Examine whether a plan of action is required to carry out the
research project
----------------------
• Explain how a researcher has to keep a track of actions to achieve
---------------------- his goal

----------------------
5.1 INTRODUCTION
----------------------
Research design is nothing but a scheme of work to be undertaken by a
----------------------
researcher at various stages. Systematic handling of research and methodical
---------------------- handling of various operations could be facilitated by a research design. In
short, research design is a working schedule or plan prepared by a researcher
---------------------- before he actually starts his research work. It acts as a guide to achieve the aims
and goals of a researcher. This is how a research design is looked upon. Various
----------------------
authors have defined research design in different manner.
---------------------- Young says, “Research design is a logical and systematic planning
which directs a piece of research”. Chaira Saltiz and others say, “A research
----------------------
design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a
---------------------- manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy
in procedure”. Burnad S. Phillips states, “Research design contributes the blue
---------------------- print for the collection, measurement and analysis of data”. It aids the scientists
in allocation of his limited resources by posing crucial choices”. A research
----------------------
design, simply, is a logical and systematic plan prepared for directing a research
---------------------- study. It specifies the objective of the study, the methodology and the technique
to be adopted for achieving objectives.
----------------------

---------------------- 5.2 MEANING AND DEFINITION OF RESEARCH DESIGN

---------------------- Various authors have defined research design in their own ways. A few of
them are as follows:
----------------------
“A research design is the arrangement of conditions for corrections and
---------------------- analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research
purpose with economy in procedure”. Therefore, the research design must be in
---------------------- accordance with the specific purpose.
---------------------- - Cook, Dentish and Jahoda

---------------------- “There is no such thing as a single or correct design. Research design

represents a compromise dictated by the many practical considerations that go
---------------------- into research. A research design is not a highly specific plan to be followed

84 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

without deviation, but rather a series of guide posts to keep one, headed in the Notes
right direction.”
----------------------
- E.A. Suchluan
Talcott Parsons has observed that numerical data are scientifically ----------------------
important only when they can be fitted into analytical categories and that “a
----------------------
great deal of current research is producing facts in a form which, according to
Talcott Parsons, cannot be utilised by any current generalised scheme.” ----------------------
Russel Ackoff in his book, ‘Designs of Social Research’ has defined
----------------------
research design as “Design is the process of making decisions before a situation
arises in, which the decision has to be carried out. It is a process of deliberate ----------------------
anticipation directed towards bringing an unexpected situation under control.”
----------------------
“The design results from controlling general scientific model into varied
research procedure.” “A Research design is the logical and systematic planning ----------------------
and directing a piece of research.”
----------------------
- P.V. Young
----------------------
The research design is the plan, structure and strategy of investigation
conceived so as to obtain answers to research questions and to control variance. ----------------------
The research design constitutes the blue print for the collection, measurement
and analysis of data. ----------------------
Meaning of Research Design ----------------------
An architect prepares a blue –print before he approves a construction.
----------------------
An army prepares a strategy before launching an attack. An artist makes a
design before he executes his ideas. Any prudent man makes a plan before he ----------------------
undertakes work. Similarly, researcher makes a plan of his own study before
he undertakes his research work. This enables the researcher to save time and ----------------------
resources. Such a plan of study or blue-print for study is called a Research
----------------------
Design or Research Strategy.
According to Cook Jahoda: The design may be a specific presentation of the ----------------------
various steps in the process of research. ----------------------
These steps include:
----------------------
●● The selection of research Problem
●● The presentation of the Problem ----------------------
●● The formulation of the Hypothesis ----------------------
●● Conceptual Clarity
----------------------
●● Methodology
●● Literature survey and Bibliography ----------------------
●● Data Collection
----------------------
●● Hypothesis testing
●● Result Interpretation ----------------------
●● Report Writing ----------------------

Research Design 85
 Notes Thus, it is a crucial step in the dissertation of project because if a
wrong decision is made, the whole study may be criticised on the grounds of
---------------------- inappropriate design or even worse as being unscientific or illogical.
----------------------
Check your Progress 1
----------------------
Fill in the blanks.
----------------------
1. A research plan of study or blue-print for study is called a ________.
----------------------

---------------------- 5.3 RELATION BETWEEN PROBLEM FORMULATION

---------------------- AND RESEARCH DESIGN

---------------------- The research problem may be formulated in different forms. It may be

formulated with different purposes. The nature of research design depends on
---------------------- the way in which the problem is formulated.
---------------------- ●● If the problem is an explanatory, it requires explanatory design.
●● If the problem is to describe characteristics of groups or situation, a
----------------------
descriptive design is necessary.
---------------------- ●● If the problem involves historical analysis, it calls for a historical design.
---------------------- ●● If the study aims at the solution of a particular problem, is proper, a
diagnostic design is necessary.
---------------------- ●● If the researcher wants to test a hypothesis of casual relationship between
---------------------- variables, the experimental design is proper.
Selection of the Problem
----------------------
Before selecting a problem a researcher must study and contemplate over
---------------------- it and then a particular problem may be chosen for research. While choosing a
problem a researcher should have the following points in mind:
----------------------
1. The researcher is interested in a particular problem.
----------------------
2. The research work is a basis for further study.
---------------------- 3. To improve the educational conditions of a researcher.
---------------------- 4. Basing on the personal ambitions of a researcher.

---------------------- Thus a researcher must at first discover a problem and its characteristics.
Afterwards a researcher has to collect sources in the form of books, courses,
---------------------- periodicals, proceedings of learned societies, theses, historical analyses, survey
of scientific studies etc.
----------------------

---------------------- 5.4 FACTORS AFFECTING RESEARCH DESIGN

---------------------- The following factors affect the design of research:

---------------------- ●● Availability of scientific information

86 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

●● Availability of sufficient data Notes
●● Availability of time
----------------------
●● Proper exposure to the source of data
●● Availability of money ----------------------
●● Availability of manpower
----------------------
●● Effect of various internal and external variables on the research project
●● Impact of controllable and uncontrollable variables on the research project ----------------------
●● The ability, skill, knowledge and technical background of the researcher ----------------------
●● Utility and applicability of research results in managerial decision making
and corporate policy ----------------------
●● Proper exposure to the sources of data, especially primary data ----------------------
●● Top management’s attitudes and approaches to research and its result
----------------------
The magnitude of the management problem dealt with by the research
problem ----------------------
Research in management aims at the specific tasks of problem-solving ----------------------
and result maximisation. The expected utility of research findings motivates the
researcher to design a utility-oriented research in management. But researches ----------------------
with a theoretical implication are of academic and intellectual interest and
their entertainment and utility value are very marginal. Hence, management ----------------------
research is considerably influenced by such factors as time, money etc, rather ----------------------
than anything else.
----------------------
Time and Money; Determinants of Design
Any managerial problem carries within itself an element of time for its ----------------------
solution. Time management is, therefore, of prime importance in decision-
----------------------
making. The managerial decision is based on a specific managerial analysis.
Project design, therefore, depends on the time available for the decision-maker. ----------------------
Each type of decision is supported by a corresponding type of managerial
analysis; and the project is designed accordingly. Decisions on a fire in the ----------------------
factory or a fatal accident to a worker at work have to be quick; while decisions
----------------------
on long-term computerisation policy or diversification are well thought out long
term decisions. Each of these decisions is influenced by the time limit. ----------------------
Any research design should broadly specify three phases, viz. problem
----------------------
identification, statistical or factual analysis and interpretation and suggestion
of solution. The time element plays a very vital role in all these phases, though ----------------------
problem identification places a greater degree of reliance on time.
----------------------
A research design is also determined by the availability of resources
because the attainment of goals largely depends on the money spent on the ----------------------
research. The larger the amount of money invested in research, the greater the
accuracy of the result. However, the optimum utility of the resources invested ----------------------
in research should be obtained. Money influences the size and magnitude of the ----------------------
data collection, choice of sample, the quality and quantity of the manpower,
efficiency and expertise. The selection of a research problem, therefore, depends ----------------------

Research Design 87
 Notes on the availability of financial resources but problem selection is an inseparable
part of research design.
----------------------

----------------------
5.5 ADVANTAGES OF RESEARCH DESIGN

---------------------- The preparation of research design has the following advantages:

●● Saves a lot of researcher’s time.
----------------------
●● Directs him to prepare himself for executing the various activities
---------------------- systematically.
---------------------- ●● Ensure project time schedule.
●● Enables resources planning, procurement in right time.
----------------------
●● Better documentation of the activities while project is in progress.
---------------------- ●● Provides satisfaction and sense of success from the beginning at the
completion of every stage of the project.
----------------------
---------------------- 5.6 STEPS IN RESEARCH DESIGN
---------------------- 1. The Problem: The first step is to select and define the problem clearly in
operational terms so that the researcher knows positively what facts he is
---------------------- searching and what is relevant to the study. It is necessary to ensure that
---------------------- the problem selected is practicable in costs of time and money. In order to
have the validity and reliability of results, the researcher should not select
---------------------- the problems which are unmanageable.
---------------------- 2. Objective of Study: Its objective must be made clear whether the design
aims at theoretical understanding or presupposes a “welfare” notion.
---------------------- Objective of the study aids in clarity of the design and proper response
from the respondents.
----------------------
3. Nature of Study: The research design should be related to the nature
---------------------- of study to be undertaken. The choice of the statistical, experimental or
comparative type of study should be done at this stage for facilitating
----------------------
other steps in planning.
---------------------- 4. Sources of Data: The researcher should clearly state the various sources
of information such as library, personal documents, field work, after
----------------------
selecting the problem.
---------------------- 5. Techniques of Data Collection: In order to collect required data,
---------------------- a suitable technique, relevant to the problem of study and design is
necessary to adopt. The relative merits of ‘Observation’, ‘Interview’ and
---------------------- ‘Questionnaire’ when studied together will help in suitable technique.
This will follow the coding and presentation of report.
----------------------
6. Social Cultural Context: A social research design is set to context which
---------------------- has a social and cultural effect on the individual. In this way, the meaning
of the term must be clearly defined otherwise variation in the study could
---------------------- take place.

88 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

7. Geographical Limit: At this stage, it is necessary to mention the Notes
geographical limit of the design so that the research related to the
hypothesis is applicable only to particular social groups. ----------------------
8. Basis of Selection: An adequate and representative sample is to be ----------------------
selected and this may be done by adopting the mechanics, drawing a
random stratified, deliberate, double cluster or quota sample etc. It is ----------------------
difficult to analyse the data collected from a large universe. Hence, the
----------------------
selection of an adequate and representative sample is the key and this can
be done depending upon the dimension of the study undertaken. ----------------------
Limitations and scope of study Contents of a Research Design
----------------------
The plan is woven round the following and involves a careful consideration of
the given factors: ----------------------
I. Research Study ----------------------
a. About what subject it is? ----------------------
b. Reason for this selection
----------------------
c. Scope for this study
----------------------
d. Objective of this study
II. Hypothesis ----------------------
What is to be tested? ----------------------
III. Data - Collection ----------------------
a. What kind?
----------------------
b. What different series?
----------------------
c. What methods of collection?
d. What tools for collection ----------------------
IV. Universe and Sample ----------------------
a. What universe to be studied? ----------------------
b. What type of sampling to be used?
----------------------
c. What is the sample-size?
----------------------
V. Data Analysis
a. Choice of techniques for analysis ----------------------

b. Methods of analysis ----------------------

c. Results of analysis and conclusions ----------------------
VI. Report – Writing
----------------------
a. Stress on domain of validity
----------------------
b. Reference period
c. Reference and Significance of Study ----------------------

Research Design 89
 Notes d. Identifying areas for further research
e. Bibliography
----------------------
A Good Research Design
----------------------
Features of Good Research Design:
---------------------- The good research design should have the following considerations.
---------------------- 1. It must be minimum bias and must have maximum reliability.
---------------------- 2. The research design must have flexibility. It should contain discovery
of ideas and insight as required in case of exploratory studies.
----------------------
3. In case of descriptive studies there should be accurate description of the
---------------------- situation.
4. The reliability of the evidence collected is considered a good research
----------------------
design.
---------------------- 5. It should involve testing of hypothesis.
---------------------- 6. The good design should permit inferences about the causality.

----------------------
Check your Progress 2
----------------------
Multiple Choice Single Response.
----------------------
1. The research design includes:
---------------------- i. Formulation of experimental design
---------------------- ii. Sample selection

---------------------- iii. Hypothesis testing

iv. All of the above
----------------------
2. The objective of the research design step in the research process is to
----------------------
i. Inform the reader of what you want to attain through the study
---------------------- ii. Search the existing literature in the area of research
---------------------- iii. Formulate the problem statement to decide what you want to
find out about
----------------------
iv. Provide the collection of relevant information with minimal
---------------------- cost, effort and time

----------------------
5.7 VARIOUS TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGNS
----------------------
The practical research design may be conceived of as comprising the
----------------------
following four phases:
---------------------- ●● The sampling design, which deals with the method of selecting the subjects
to be observed for the given study.
----------------------

90 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

●● The observational design, which relates to the conditions under which the Notes
observations are to be made or the data are to be secured.
●● The statistical design, which deals with the question of how many subjects ----------------------
are to be observed and how the observations are to be organised with a ----------------------
view to securing answers to the research problem.
●● The operational design, which deals with the specific techniques by which ----------------------
the procedures specified in the sampling, statistical and observational ----------------------
designs can be carried out.
None of these sub-designs and the resultant models is autonomous vis- ----------------------
à-vis the others. A decision in respect of any one phase of the design may ----------------------
influence or affect a decision subsumed under any other phase. Consequently,
these phases generally overlap. ----------------------
The practical research design represents a compromise prompted by a ----------------------
number of practical considerations that are related to the actual conduct of
social research. “Research design is not a highly specific plan to be followed ----------------------
without deviations but rather a series of guide- posts to keep one headed in the
right direction.” ----------------------

Research designs differ depending on the research purpose. The research ----------------------
purposes can be grouped broadly as below:
----------------------
a. To gain familiarity with the phenomenon or to achieve new insights
into it, often in order to formulate more precise research problems or to ----------------------
develop hypotheses. Studies having this purpose are known generally as
----------------------
Exploratory or Formulative studies.
b. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular situation or group ----------------------
or individual (with or without specific initial hypotheses about the nature
----------------------
of these characteristics). Studies characterised by such aims are known as
Descriptive studies. ----------------------
c. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which
----------------------
it is associated with something else (usually but not necessarily, with a
specific initial hypothesis). Studies having this purpose are known as ----------------------
Diagnostic studies. (Descriptive)
----------------------
d. To test a hypothesis suggesting a causal relationship between variables.
Studies characterised by this purpose are called experimental studies. ----------------------
Types of Research Designs: ----------------------
The type of research study differs from the nature of the study to be
conducted. Therefore different types of research design are used in case of ----------------------
exploratory descriptive or testing of hypothesis research studies concerned- ----------------------
Exploratory research design-
----------------------
The basic purpose of the exploratory research studies is to achieve new
insight for formulating research problem or to develop hypothesis for the ----------------------
purpose of further studies. These studies are more important in case where
----------------------

Research Design 91
 Notes very little information is available. The following methods are used in context
of this research design. The survey of the literature related to the field. The
---------------------- survey of the people who have an experience of concerned problem. The insight
stimulating examples in related to the study are analysed.
----------------------
Design for Exploratory or Formulative Studies
----------------------
Exploratory studies have, in the main, the purpose of formulating
---------------------- a problem for more precise and structured investigation or of developing
hypothesis. An exploratory study may, however, have other functions too,
---------------------- e.g., increasing the investigator’s familiarity with the phenomena he wishes
to study in a subsequent, more structured investigation or with the setting in
----------------------
which he plans to carry out such an investigation. An exploratory study may
---------------------- also serve as a basis for clarifying concepts, establishing priorities for further
research, gathering information about practical possibilities for carrying out
---------------------- research in specific real-life settings, etc. “Exploratory studies,” say Katz,
“represent the earlier stage of science. ” From its findings may emanate the
----------------------
knowledge that helps the researcher in formulating a problem for research or
---------------------- in developing hypothesis to be tested subsequently. Let us try to understand
to some satisfactory extent the nature of an exploratory study by an analogy.
---------------------- A doctor who is called upon to attend to a patient whose malady he is totally
unfamiliar with, will ask him various questions concerning his complaints, will
----------------------
examine the various parts of the patient’s body using different instruments at
---------------------- his disposal and peruse the patient’s pathological reports or records (if any) and
so on. On the basis of this exploration the doctor may find himself in a position
---------------------- to pose a question like, “could it be typhoid?” One of his hypotheses relating to
the above question may be, ‘It is typhoid’. The doctor’s subsequent treatment
----------------------
in the nature of antibiotics will constitute a test of the hypothesis. If the patient
---------------------- responds favourable to the treatment there is room for believing that the typhoid
hypothesis is tenable. If the post-treatment observations suggest unfavorable
---------------------- response, the typhoid hypothesis is falsified. Such test of hypothesis does not
belong to the realm or exploratory.
----------------------
The above example illustrates the nature of an exploratory study and
---------------------- also how it differs from the problem-solving and hypothesis testing studies.
In the initial stages, when the doctor was asking the patient all manner of
----------------------
questions and was examining him, using various instruments and scrutinising
---------------------- various reports, the doctor was simply exploring i.e. conducting some sort of an
exploratory study. The end-result of this exploration was the question (problem)
---------------------- that suggested itself to him and the attendant set of alternative hypotheses.
---------------------- (A) Descriptive research design:

---------------------- Descriptive research design aims at protecting accurate of particular

individual of a group. As it describes their characteristics, this study can be
---------------------- conducted in factors for the workers like cart group and educational level or age
and income group etc. This study is primarily conducted with an object to know
---------------------- their attitude towards anything this research design for this study involves farming
---------------------- of an objective selecting sample collection and analysing of data and the result.

92 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

(B) Diagnostics research design Notes
The diagnostic research studies decide the frequency of the occurrence
----------------------
in associate with something else. Cause-effect relationships are described in
such studies. It’s a fact finding exercise. This includes screening classification ----------------------
description and prediction act of problem reported.
----------------------
It is a discovery of relevant variables that are associated with it in varying
degrees. It’s a typical problem solving strategy. The relevant data for the purpose ----------------------
of the study can be obtained from observation and formal testing. This includes
the steps like applications of statistical computations. ----------------------
(C) Differences in the two research designs ----------------------
Research for Design Exploratory Describe/ Diagnostic ----------------------
points
----------------------
Overall Flexible Rigid
Sampling Non-Probability Probability ----------------------
Observational Unstructured Structured ----------------------
Statistical Un planned Preplanned ----------------------
Operational No fixed decision Advance decision
----------------------
(D) Experimental Pre research design
----------------------
Experimental research is related to laboratory processing. By this method
researcher is in a position to observe the effects of manipulation of independent ----------------------
variable to dependent variable. This study is more useful for testing of causal
hypothesis. The basic purpose of this study is to test causal relationship between ----------------------
variables. The validity of experimental studies depends on equivalence between
----------------------
control group and experimental group. These groups should not differ in
significant respect except by chance. Then only they can be compared in terms ----------------------
of assumed effect by comparing and randomisation in which we can have better
estimation of experimental error. The main purpose of the research design is to ----------------------
set up research project which must end to logical conclusion for which following
----------------------
stages are adopted. It must be remembered that a fixed typology of the studies
suggested above is inevitably arbitrary in as much as the different types of ----------------------
studies are not absolutely separable from one another. As Max Weber has said:
“Every scientific fulfillment raises new questions, it asks to be surpassed and ----------------------
outdated”.
----------------------
Research design for conclusive studies
----------------------
We consider two research studies falling under Descriptive category of
research, namely ----------------------
(a) Case study method (b) Statistical method ----------------------
Case Study Method is extensively used in commerce and industry. These
are highly respectable methods of teaching and research in management as firms ----------------------
of similar type face same type of environment. Since the intention of researcher ----------------------

Research Design 93
 Notes is to find out the causes and consequences of the incident of phenomenon, case
study yields rich dividends.
----------------------
Statistical Method is also gaining grounds in commerce and industry.
---------------------- They use statistical techniques of correlation and regressions, analysis, chi-
square etc. tests. More and more fields such as international trade, marketing
---------------------- finance, production are falling in line in this category. Computers have made
statistical analysis more rigorous and sophisticated.
----------------------
Design for descriptive and diagnostic studies
----------------------
We have already stated that the descriptive studies are the ones that aim
---------------------- at describing accurately the characteristics of a group, community or people. A
researcher may be interested in studying the people of a community, their age
---------------------- composition, sex composition, caste-wise distribution, occupational distribution
and so on.
----------------------
A researcher may be concerned with estimating the proportion of people
---------------------- in a particular population who hold certain views or attitudes. For example,
---------------------- how many people favour in lowering the age of voting? How many students
favour student representation on university bodies?
---------------------- Descriptive studies often provide a jumping pad for the study of new
---------------------- areas in social sciences. It is worthy of mention that Freud’s compilation of case
histories of patients laid the foundation for clinical psychology.
---------------------- Most anthropological research may be characterised as descriptive as the
---------------------- thrust is on portraying a rounded picture of a total culture or some aspect of it.
In more mature social sciences, statistical techniques of description may also be
---------------------- used. A general description of the situation, rather than nearly narrowing down
of the field, helps one grasp the essence of the problem.
----------------------
It may not be very useful to conceive descriptive research only as a phase
---------------------- on the evolutionary continuum of researches, because a piece of descriptive
research may be of important scientific value for itself, although it cannot be
----------------------
generalised to apply to other situations. It can provide information which is of
---------------------- value in policy formulation and secondly, because the notion of stages assumes
that we have knowledge about the various stages in the supposed continuum.
----------------------
Another class of researches called diagnostic, may be concerned with
---------------------- discovering and testing whether certain variables are associated e.g. do more
villagers than city dwellers vote for a particular party in national elections? Both
---------------------- descriptive as well as diagnostic studies share common requirements in regard
to the study design. So those two kinds of research interest – descriptive and
----------------------
diagnostic together share certain important characteristics. It should be noted
---------------------- that in contrast to the problem (of problem findings) which forms the basis
for exploratory studies, the research questions characteristic of the descriptive
---------------------- and diagnostic studies demand much prior knowledge of the problem to be
investigated. Here the researcher must be able to define clearly what he wants to
----------------------
measure and must identify adequate methods for measurement. The researcher
---------------------- must be able to specify who are to be included in the definition of the given

94 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

population with reference to which conclusions are to be drawn. In collecting Notes
evidence for studies of this type, what is needed is not so much the flexibility
(as for exploratory studies) as a clear formulation of what is to be measured and ----------------------
the techniques to be adopted for precise, valid and reliable measurements.
----------------------
The procedures to be used in descriptive/diagnostic study must be carefully
planned since here the aim is to obtain complete and accurate information. ----------------------
The research design for these studies must make a much greater provision for
----------------------
protection against bias. Due to the amount of work involved in descriptive/
diagnostic studies, concern with economy (of time, money and labour) in the ----------------------
course of research is extremely important. Considerations of economy and
protection against bias permeate every stage of the research process. ----------------------
The first step in a descriptive/diagnostic study is to define the question ----------------------
that is to be answered. It is necessary to formally define the concepts entering
into the question and also to indicate how the concept is to be measured. This ----------------------
restricts the area of the study to the bounds of manageability.
----------------------
After the problem has been formulated specifically enough to indicate
what data would be required, the methods by which data can be obtained must ----------------------
be selected. Tools for collecting the information must be devised if no suitable
----------------------
ones already exist. Each of the various methods of data collection – observation,
interview, questionnaire etc. has its peculiar advantages and limitations. The ----------------------
researcher should consider the nature of the problem, the scope of the study,
the nature of respondents, type of information needed, the degree of accuracy ----------------------
needed, etc. and in view of these, balancing the gains and losses, should select
----------------------
one or more methods of data collection.
The stage of developing the data collection procedures is one of the ----------------------
major points at which safeguards against bias and unreliability would need ----------------------
to be introduced. Questions to be asked to the respondents must be carefully
examined for the possibility that their wording may suggest one answer rather ----------------------
than another. Interviewers must be instructed not to ask leading questions,
observers need to be trained so that all the observers involved in the study ----------------------
record their observations uniformly. ----------------------
In many descriptive/diagnostic studies, the researcher wants to make
statements about some specific class of people or objects. However, it is rarely ----------------------
necessary to study all the people comprising the group in order to provide an ----------------------
accurate and reliable description of certain characteristics of its members. Quite
often a sample or a fragment of the population about which inferences are to be ----------------------
drawn, affords an adequate basis for making such statements.
----------------------
It is important that the study findings based on the sample (a part of the
population under study) should be a reasonably accurate indicatory of the state ----------------------
of affairs in the total group (population). This means that the sample should be
selected in such a way that findings based on it are likely to correspond closely ----------------------
to these that would be obtained if the ‘population’ were studied. The researcher ----------------------
must select his sample in full consideration of the relative advantages and
limitations of different methods of sampling and adopt the one (or a combination ----------------------

Research Design 95
 Notes of two or more) that will provide the most accurate estimate of the population it
represents, with maximum economy.
----------------------
The process of analysing the data (after these) involves coding the
---------------------- responses, i.e. placing each item in the appropriate category, tabulating the
data and performing statistical computations. Hence, we note that both the
---------------------- considerations i.e. of economy and need for safeguards against error, enter into
each of these steps. The considerations of economy indicate that analysis be
----------------------
planned in detail to the extent possible before work on it is started.
---------------------- Safeguards against errors in coding ordinarily take the form of checking
the reliability of coders through continual supervision. Accuracy of tabulation
----------------------
must be checked. Statistical computations, e.g., averages, dispersions,
---------------------- correlations, etc. must be computed (as and when needed). These involve such
procedures as estimating from the sample findings the probable occurrence of
---------------------- some characteristic in the population which the sample purports to represent
and estimating the probability that differences found between the sample sub
----------------------
groups represent the true differences between the two sub groups in the total
---------------------- population etc.
Research design for experimental studies
----------------------
Experimental designs refer to structure of an experiment. There are several
---------------------- designs. Two categories out of these are suitable for experimental studies. A. The
---------------------- informal experimental designs are those that use less sophisticated form of analysis,
whereas B. the formal experimental designs offer more control and use precise
---------------------- procedures for analysis. They are further classified on above basis as below:

---------------------- Informal Experimental Design

a. After only design
----------------------
b. After only with control design
---------------------- c. Before and after without control design
---------------------- d. Before and after with control design

---------------------- Formal Design

a. Completely Randomised design
----------------------
b. Randomised Block design
---------------------- c. Latin Square design
---------------------- d. Factorial design

---------------------- The details are not within the purview of this book. Depending on the
nature of study, the researcher is thus required to formulate a design of his own
---------------------- and conduct the study. The utility of the study depends upon how effectively the
researcher can design the study accordingly. The student is advised to refer to a
---------------------- good text book in statistics.
----------------------

----------------------

96 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

Experimental study designs Notes
The experimental studies form a sub class of the studies which attempt
----------------------
to deal with problems in which we ask how events are related to one another.
Experimental studies are the ones concerned with testing the causal hypotheses. ----------------------
A hypothesis of casual relationship asserts that a particular characteristic or
occurrence (X) is one of the factors that determine another characteristic or ----------------------
occurrence (Y). Before setting out to consider the kinds of research design that
----------------------
can best test the hypotheses of this type, it is necessary to discuss the concept of
casualty. ----------------------
It makes sense to say that causal relationships are a sub class of associations.
----------------------
In other words, all causal relationships are associations but all associations may
not be causal relationships. A cause and effect statement may be understood as ----------------------
a type of scientific explanation but not all explanations are causal statements.
----------------------
Where experimentation is possible, the operational definition of causality
may be proposed as follows: ----------------------
If the response follows the experimental stimulus and if this experimental ----------------------
relationship persists even if other elements of the situation are subjected to
variation, the observed relationship may be called casual. ----------------------
Whether a situation is closely analogous to a controlled experiment or ----------------------
otherwise does not provide a complete definition of causality. Furthermore,
even in controlled experiment, there is often no help for specification error ----------------------
except subject matter knowledge.
----------------------
In the light of the above discussion, a working definition of causal
relationship may be offered as under: ----------------------
A casual relationship is expressed in a statement that has the following ----------------------
important characteristics: Firstly, it is an association that is strong enough for
the observer to believe that it has a predictive (explanatory) power that is great ----------------------
enough to be scientifically useful or interesting.
----------------------
Experiment
----------------------
The experiment includes a statement of the problem to be solved. Though
it sounds easy, it actually is difficult to frame properly and takes long time. ----------------------
Since it is important to bring out all points of view to establish just what the
experiment is intended to do, a careful statement of the problem goes a long ----------------------
way towards its solution.
----------------------
While selecting the variables for an experiment, choice has to be made as
to the dependent variable or variables to be studied. Whether these variables are ----------------------
measurable? How accurately can they be measured? If they are not measurable, ----------------------
what type of response is expected from them? What are the types of results? Yes
no type, go or no go type? How the results are distributed? ----------------------
Defining independent variables or factors, which affect the dependent or ----------------------
response variable also is a must. Do these factors need be kept constant or need
to be raised at certain levels? How the levels of factors are to be chosen in the ----------------------

Research Design 97
 Notes experiment? At random levels or equivalent levels? Do the factors need to be
varied qualitatively or quantitatively? All these go in making the definition of
---------------------- an experiment or design of an experiment.
---------------------- The design phase of any project, experiment is of vital importance. In
any experiment, the experimenter is attempting to draw certain inferences or
---------------------- make a decision about some hypothesis or ‘hunch’. In a scientific approach, an
experimenter always formulates a ‘hypothesis’ and then verifies them directly
----------------------
or by their consequences. To verify the hypothesis, one needs to collect data.
---------------------- Design of experiment is the collection of observations to be collected. Designing
an experiment means planning an experiment so that information will be
---------------------- collected which is relevant to the problem in hand. Design of an experiment is
therefore, a complete sequence of various steps taken before hand to ensure the
----------------------
appropriateness of data.
---------------------- How data is collected is very important. How many observations should
be taken? How large a difference is to be detected? How much variation is
----------------------
present? What amount of risk can be tolerated? All these questions are very
---------------------- closely related to sample size to be decided for an experiment. An arbitrary or
large size of sample is many a times chosen but the cost consideration is also
---------------------- very important. The experiments also need to be run in a random order to avoid
introduction of bias. Some variables need to be controlled, some cannot be
----------------------
controlled. Randomisation of experimental runs tends to average out the effect
---------------------- of these uncontrollable variables. Randomisation also permits the experiments to
proceed as if the errors of measurement are independent, a common assumption
---------------------- in most statistical analysis.
---------------------- Once the experiment is finalised and randomisation procedure is agreed
upon, a mathematical model can be set up which should describe the experiment.
---------------------- This model will show the response variable as a function of all factors, which
are to be studied and any restrictions imposed in the experiment due to the
----------------------
method of randomisation.
---------------------- Analysis
---------------------- This step includes data collection, data reduction and the computation of
certain test statistics to be used in making decisions about various aspects of
---------------------- an experiment. The analysis usually involves calculations, of test statistic such
---------------------- as t, F, Chi Square and the corresponding decision rules for testing hypothesis
about the given mathematical model. Once the test statistic has been computed,
---------------------- decisions must be made. The decisions / results should also be used as feedback
to design a better experiment, once certain hypothesis seems tenable.
----------------------
Outline of experiment
----------------------
Experiment
---------------------- a. Make a clear statement/objective of experiment.
---------------------- b. Make a choice of dependent variable / response factor.

---------------------- c. Decide those factors, which are to be varied.

98 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

d. Select the different levels of these factors Notes
i. Choice is qualitative or quantitative.
----------------------
ii. Variables form fixed number or random one.
----------------------
Designs
a. Decide the number of observations to be taken ----------------------

b. Order in which experiments will be carried out ----------------------

c. Randomisation method to be used ----------------------
d. Selection of mathematical model to describe experiment
----------------------
Analysis
----------------------
a. Collection of data and processing
b. Computation of test statistics ----------------------

c. Interpretation of results for the experiment ----------------------

Advantages of planning experiments ----------------------
None of the statistical designs for experiments can be applied without
----------------------
the appropriate forethought and planning. We cannot superimpose them on a
hotchpotch of random results. The implications of these are far reaching. ----------------------
The traditional way of experimenting by varying one variable at a time
----------------------
is time consuming. On the other hand, appraising all factors that appear to
be of interest or importance or both and then plan an experiment on them ----------------------
simultaneously makes us take a leap forward than the step – wise traditional
process. This leap forward gives a lot of information than the traditional way. ----------------------
Experimentation promotes teamwork between managers, research workers,
----------------------
production executives and statisticians. It gives scope for scientific preplanning,
consideration of inter relationship between several variables, measuring real ----------------------
sources of variability. The conclusions can be validated and correctly ascertained
with known mathematical precision. The results are more reliable. ----------------------
But certain experimental designs are complex, time consuming and ----------------------
tedious for analysis. Utmost caution is required in interpreting results of the
experiments. Experimentation is scientific, economical and more precise. ----------------------

----------------------
Check your Progress 3
----------------------
State True or False.
----------------------
1. Exploratory research design is useful in developing a new hypothesis.
----------------------
2. Cause-effect relationship is described in descriptive research design.
----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

Research Design 99
 Notes Summary
---------------------- ●● We have so far discussed what science is and how research cannot be
different from science. This unit clearly explains or defines ‘research
----------------------
design’ which has all the steps of a scientific approach. The various steps or
---------------------- contents of a research design are very well defined and explained. For the
convenience of the research worker, a lucid comparison is made between a
---------------------- research process and a research design.
---------------------- ●● A clear guidance is also given as to what factors are responsible for making
the research design more acceptable or better valid. In addition, a good
---------------------- discussion pertains to the advantages in making a good selected design.
Even though, information is also given about what few disadvantages of
----------------------
the research design can be.
---------------------- ●● An exhaustive discussion is made on various types of research designs
mainly used. They include design for explanatory or formulative type
----------------------
of research problems, design for conclusive type of research problems,
---------------------- experimental type of research problems and descriptive type of research
problems.
---------------------- ●● The researcher is therefore, fully exposed to the various research designs
---------------------- so that the further handling of research project will be easier.

---------------------- Keywords
----------------------
●● Research Design: An ideal research procedure the researcher would like
---------------------- to adopt for solving the research problem.
●● Statistical Design: A statement of the purpose of and proposed approach to
----------------------
an experiment or investigation involving statistical analysis. The approach
---------------------- covers the method used, the realistic mathematical modes.

---------------------- Self-Assessment Questions

----------------------
1. Explain the meaning and significance of research design.
---------------------- 2. Explain major types of research designs and when they can be used. Give
---------------------- illustrations.
3. Write short notes.
----------------------
a. Descriptive design
----------------------
b. Exploratory design
---------------------- 4. What is meant by ‘Experimental Design’? Give two illustrations where
you can use this.
----------------------
5. Discuss briefly the relation between research problem and research
---------------------- design.
---------------------- 6. Mention the advantages of research design.

100 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

Answers to Check your Progress Notes
Check your Progress 1 ----------------------
Fill in the blanks. ----------------------
1. A research plan of study or blue-print for study is called a Research
Design. ----------------------

Check your Progress 2 ----------------------

Multiple Choice Single Response. ----------------------
1. The research design includes:
----------------------
iv. All of the above
----------------------
2. The objective of the research design step in the research process is to
iv. Provide the collection of relevant information with minimal cost, ----------------------
effort and time ----------------------
Check your Progress 3
----------------------
State True or False.
----------------------
1. True
2. False ----------------------

----------------------
Suggested Reading
----------------------
1. Bryman, Allan & Bell Emma. 2003. Business Research Methods. Oxford
----------------------
University Press.
2. Cooper, Donald, Schindler Pamela. 2006. Business Research Methods. ----------------------
Tata McGraw Hill Companies.
----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

Research Design 101

 Notes

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------
----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

102 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

Data Collection and Measurement
UNIT

6
Structure:

6.1 Introduction
6.2 Meaning and Importance of Data
6.3 Sources of Data
6.4 Choosing the Method of Data Collection
6.5 Methods of Collection of Primary Data
6.6 Methods of Collection of Secondary Data
6.7 Scrutiny of Secondary Data
6.8 Merits and Demerits of Different Methods of collecting Primary Data
Summary
Keywords
Self-Assessment Questions
Answers to Check your Progress
Suggested Reading

Data Collection and Measurement 103

 Notes
Objectives
----------------------
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
----------------------
• Assess the importance and usefulness of data collection
----------------------
• Evaluate the difference in primary and secondary data
---------------------- • Explain various methods of collecting primary data along with the
merits and demerits
----------------------
• Define a questionnaire
----------------------
• Discuss skills for conducting interviews
---------------------- • Identify various sources of secondary data
----------------------

---------------------- 6.1 INTRODUCTION

---------------------- The task of data collection begins after a research problem has been
defined and research design chalked out. In this unit, you will find details of the
---------------------- source of data collection, importance of data collection and various methods for
---------------------- data collection. In today’s competitive world, in the increasing complex nature
of business and governance, decision making has to be accurate for solving
---------------------- such problems. For this purpose, an increased use of Research methodology
is made by concerned decision makers in solving various types of problems.
---------------------- The credibility of the results derived from application of such methodology
---------------------- depends upon the most up-to-date information pertaining to characteristics of
various problems faced by the decision makers. The necessity and usefulness
---------------------- of information gathering depends upon basic data collected. For example,
before formulating any policy decision regarding import / export of sugar, say,
---------------------- accurate information regarding stocks, requirement, predicted crop of sugarcane
---------------------- and hence sugar must be available for which data collection methods must be
accurate, simple yet fast. In other words, no decision can be made casually - be
---------------------- it by Government, private institutes or business houses. The decision maker
can take sound decisions with a minimum risk through the appropriate data
---------------------- collection its correct analysis.
----------------------
6.2 MEANING AND IMPORTANCE OF DATA
----------------------
Data consists of facts, figures, any relevant material that serves for basic
---------------------- study and analysis. It may be the old or the current one. For example,
---------------------- ●● The import-export trade between India and USA.
---------------------- ●● The marks obtained by students appearing for an MBA examination in
chosen subjects.
---------------------- ●● The bill of material for manufacturing a given product.
----------------------

104 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

●● The demographical characteristics such as age, sex, religion, earning level Notes
in a social study of consumers.
●● The likings of people on a particular T.V. serial. ----------------------
●● The number and types of failures of a particular product or component ----------------------
in a product. Any search for acquiring answers to our questions, whether
they are simple or research base, call for collection of data relevant to ----------------------
the questions. Without data, no question can be answered. It is a base for ----------------------
analysis. The analysis of data results into certain inferences which are
known as information. In research, since inference based on guess work ----------------------
or opinions has no place, the relevance adequacy, accuracy, suitability and
reliability of data become very important factors. Then only the quality of ----------------------
inferences can be ascertained. The scientific or research process involves ----------------------
testing a hypothesis formed for a given study. Data that provides facts and
figures are subject to analysis statistically after which research questions ----------------------
get valid results on testing of hypothesis. To sum up, the entire gamut of
measurement, analysis, testing and conclusions, of the research process is ----------------------
based on data with the above mentioned characteristics. ----------------------

6.3 SOURCES OF DATA ----------------------

The basic data directly affects the answers to the various questions. If a ----------------------
question is with respect to Govt. Policy or industrial problem, perhaps the type
----------------------
of data can affect the fortunes of Govt. and / or industry. Therefore, the source
of data which provides necessary information gains the importance. Young ----------------------
feels that data can be divided into:
----------------------
a. Documentary source and
b. Field source; but the more popular and accepted sources of data are ----------------------
classified as: ----------------------
●● Primary Source and
----------------------
●● Secondary source
Primary Sources ----------------------
Primary sources mean first hand sources or original sources at the hands ----------------------
of a researcher, which is not collected previously. For example, the various
replies received by the teachers from their students as regards their assessment ----------------------
of teaching method, constitute primary source of data. Primary data is collected ----------------------
through principle sources of observation and surveys.
The first hand information bearing any research, which has been collected ----------------------
by the researcher or his agent or assistant, may be called primary data. These ----------------------
are original observations collected for the first time. Such data facilitate original
investigations and observations, leading to useful and valuable results. The ----------------------
results, which are based on primary data, are bound to be empirical and of great
utility value. The primary data, collected and compiled without any bias, are more ----------------------
reliable and dependable and are accurate and apt for specified investigations. ----------------------

Data Collection and Measurement 105

 Notes Once the primary data have been put to use, the original character of these data
disappears and they become secondary. The data which are primary at one time
---------------------- point are, therefore, bound to become secondary at a later stage.
---------------------- Secondary Sources
Secondary data refer to the information, generally collected by persons
----------------------
other than researcher for other purpose and not the purpose involved in the
---------------------- given research project work. As an example, the annual accounts of a company
form a primary data for that company for purpose of presenting the company’s
---------------------- financial status and performance. But for a researcher, it may form a secondary
data as it is used, perhaps in part, for some other purpose and is independent
----------------------
of research investigation. The sources of secondary data consists of reports
---------------------- such as annual reports and accounts or company reports of various Government
Departments, Reserve Bank of India’s various annual reports, National Sample
---------------------- Survey reports, UNO, UNICEF, WHO, ILO or World Banks’ various reports
compiled. In fact, books, journals, manuscripts, diaries, letters etc. also form the
----------------------
secondary source of data. The main characteristic associated with such a data is
---------------------- that the data is readily available. Also, the researcher does not have any control
over this collection. The form and contents are shaped by those other than a
---------------------- particular researcher.
---------------------- The secondary data, on the other hand, are based on second-hand
information. The data which have already been collected, compiled and
---------------------- presented earlier by any agency may be used for the purpose of investigation.
Such data may be called a secondary data. Population census reports, national
----------------------
sample survey reports, economic and statistical reports, data banks of any
---------------------- professional association or trade organisation are examples of secondary data.
There are many printed and published reports of various government and private
---------------------- agencies, say, the All India Management Association etc. which can be obtained
and made use of by any researcher.
----------------------
A researcher can use part of this data, results or findings into his own
---------------------- research, if relevant and useful. To be frank, the difference between primary
---------------------- and secondary source of data is technical and really a matter of relativity. Data
that is primary in the hands of one can become secondary in the hands of other.
---------------------- A researcher should be able to construe what is appropriate and most suitable
for his research. The judicious use of both really contributes enrichment of the
---------------------- utility for study.
---------------------- Data Sources
---------------------- 1. Primary Sources
a. Observation
----------------------
b. Interview
----------------------
c. Mailed Questionnaire
----------------------

----------------------

106 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

2. Secondary Sources Notes
a. Internal Sources
----------------------
b. External Sources
----------------------
a) Private documents or Personal documents:
i. Bibliography ----------------------
ii. Camera ----------------------
iii. Directories
----------------------
iv. Encyclopedias
v. Films ----------------------
vi. Indexes ----------------------
vii. Journals
viii. Magazines ----------------------
ix. News Papers ----------------------
x. Public speeches
----------------------
xi. Radio
xii. T.V. ----------------------
xiii. Tape recorder ----------------------
xiv. Use of Mechanical Devices
xv. Year Books ----------------------

b) Unpublished record - Not available to people in published form. ----------------------

Advantages of Secondary Data ----------------------
i. It is most economic to get. Once the sources of documents, journals,
----------------------
records etc. are located, we can readily get results from secondary
data compiled by someone else. ----------------------
ii. Secondary data is also available quickly- a great time saver. ----------------------
iii. It also widens the data base from which scientific generalisations
can be made e.g. the government reports on public sectors can give ----------------------
a generated trend in the performance of key sectors readily from ----------------------
this data.
iv. The findings based on primary data can easily be verified by the use ----------------------
of secondary data. It easily meets the need for additional empirical ----------------------
support.
----------------------
Disadvantages of Secondary Data
i. There are instances when the secondary data available may not meet ----------------------
the needs of the research work. This is because; the secondary data
----------------------
is a result of study undertaken by someone else with some other
object even and some other time too. The data itself may mismatch ----------------------
with respect to definition, units of measurement or time-period.
----------------------

Data Collection and Measurement 107

 Notes ii. The available data may not be very accurate or reliable. Therefore,
reliance on this data becomes a factor or worry for the researcher.
---------------------- He may need to know the details as to how this data is collected and
what the true purpose of collection of data is.
----------------------
iii. The secondary data may not be up-to-date and can be obsolete
---------------------- because of time lag, e.g., the report findings of census data - which
takes a long time to publish, falls in this category.
----------------------
iv. The utility of the secondary data is limited, if the method of
---------------------- collection of data or to that extent its analysis has not been carefully
done.
----------------------
v. Many secondary data have poor accessibility to a researcher as
---------------------- quite many unpublished reports or compilations or studies remain
with only key institutes or Government Departments only.
----------------------
Characteristics for evaluating Secondary Data
----------------------
It is an essential requirement for every researcher to evaluate the secondary
---------------------- data he may use with the following characteristics:
---------------------- i. Data Relation: The most important is to assess if secondary data really
pertains to the research problem under study. This requires the knowledge
---------------------- regarding definitions, units of measurements, coverage of field and time
of the research data to be used.
----------------------
ii. Quality: If the secondary data best fits to the requirement of the
---------------------- researcher’s study, the next point is to examine its quality decided on the
basis of accuracy, reliability and completeness.
----------------------
iii. Reliability: This is ascertained mostly on the basis of two factors namely
---------------------- (a) the organisation that collects data and (b) the purpose for which the
data is collected. The degree of confidence in the data depends upon
----------------------
capability, authority and prestige of the organisation.
---------------------- iv. Originality: It is always important to go to the original source than to
---------------------- utilise an intermediate one as the intermediate might not reflect truthfully
the original.
---------------------- v. Completeness: This refers to total coverage of the published data. It
---------------------- depends upon the methodology and sampling design adopted by the
parent or original organisation. The sampling method and its type, the
---------------------- number of samples or sample size determines the appropriateness and
adequacy of the data.
----------------------
vi. Unbiased quality: The data should be free from bias. This directly runs
---------------------- to look into the purpose of original data its, organiser and his interest.
----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

108 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

 Notes
Activity 1
----------------------
State whether the following data are primary or secondary.
----------------------
1. A certain NGO is examining the relationship between cigarette
smoking and heart disease on the basis of data published in “The ----------------------
Journal of Medicine”. ----------------------
2. The Railway Ministry is writing a report on various types of railway
accidents during 2005-06, using the data available in “The Annual ----------------------
Report of the Chief Safety Officer of the Railways” published by the ----------------------
Railways.
----------------------
3. A Time and Motion study engineer studies the time taken to pack a
bundle of 5 cartons, each containing 5 antiseptic powder vials on the ----------------------
basis of random observations made by him in packing department.
----------------------
4. The Secretary, Department of Agriculture is using the figures in
“Agriculture Bulletin” published by the Agriculture Department as a ----------------------
basis for forecasting the rice crop yield in the season.
----------------------
5. The District Collector is preparing a report on the prospect of water
requirement in the district head quarters city for next 5 years from ----------------------
the data available from the “Water Management” publication by his
Government. ----------------------

----------------------
6.4 CHOOSING THE METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION
----------------------
Facts, information or premises, systematically collected and formally
----------------------
presented for the purpose of drawing inferences, may be called a data. Statistical
information collected, compiled and presented for the purpose of establishing ----------------------
appropriate relationships between variables may also be included in the data
which, whether statistically processed or not, play a very vital role in the ----------------------
research and analysis of management problems, as they do in any other area of
----------------------
investigation. This is the rationale of data collection in research.
This problem forms a part of a research plan. It is possible to make a ----------------------
choice of one or two methods. Some of the factors influencing this choice are as ----------------------
follows:
i. Type of information needed: For a simple study involving factual data, ----------------------
interviewing and mailing methods look appropriate. Observational ----------------------
method suits for collecting information pertaining to behaviour, customs
and lifestyle. ----------------------
ii. Nature of Research Study: Study of behavioural pattern calls for ----------------------
observation.
----------------------
Study of preferences or opinions of individuals result in interviews or
mailing. Experimentation is used in study of effect of variables. ----------------------

Data Collection and Measurement 109

 Notes iii. Unit of Enquiry: It can be an individual, a household, an institute or may
be a community. Interview fits for first two; mail survey takes care of an
---------------------- institute and observational method best fits a community.
---------------------- iv. Education: If respondents are less educated, interviewing is preferred
over survey which is best suited for an educated class.
----------------------
v. Skilled and Trained Persons: Interviewing is best suited even when
---------------------- complicated questions are involved.
vi. Sample Size: A small sample size calls for interviewing whereas a large
----------------------
sample size does with a survey method, as coverage is very large.
----------------------
6.5 METHODS OF COLLECTION OF PRIMARY DATA
----------------------
The primary data are the information generated to meet the lesser specific
----------------------
needs of the investigation at hand. Thus, the investigator has to collect data
---------------------- separately for the study undertaken.
Primary data are the information generated to meet the specific
----------------------
requirements of the investigation to be made. Hence, the investigator is required
---------------------- to collect data separately for the study taken by him. A method refers to the way
of gathering data. Some of the methods are as follows:
----------------------
1) Observation
---------------------- 2) Questionnaire and Schedules
---------------------- 3) Experimentation
---------------------- 4) Simulation
5) Interview
----------------------
6) Projective Technique
----------------------
Projective techniques aim at drawing inferences on the characteristics of
---------------------- respondents by presenting to them stimuli.

---------------------- 1. Observation
Observation involves gathering of data pertaining to a given research
----------------------
either by viewing or listening or both.
---------------------- Direct personal observation is one of the prominent methods of collecting
data. In this type of data collection, the researcher observes the situation
----------------------
in person and collects the relevant data. If the observation is unbiased,
---------------------- the data collected by direct personal observation would be the most
reliable information. For example, if the researcher wants to study the
---------------------- behavioural pattern of workers in a traditionally managed foundry and to
compare it with that in a modern foundry, the result would be realistic if
----------------------
the researcher himself observes the behavioural pattern in person.
----------------------

----------------------

110 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

2. Questionnaire and Schedule Notes
Questionnaires and schedules involve collecting data by getting
----------------------
questionnaires completed by respondents.
Research Project formulation is followed by data collection. In order to ----------------------
systematically collect the Primary data, questionnaires and schedules
----------------------
are employed. A questionnaire is a schedule consisting of a number
of coherent questions related to the various aspects of the topic under ----------------------
study. A schedule is a tabulated statement of details. It may be almost
identical to the questionnaire, which is usually used for the collection ----------------------
of information directly by the investigator himself. A questionnaire is a
----------------------
form of formulated series of questions related to a survey or a research
study. It is mailed to informants for the purpose of the collection of data. ----------------------
When a questionnaire is mailed, it is known as a mailed questionnaire.
However, there is no bar in making use of a questionnaire for the purpose ----------------------
of interview and collection of data directly. In fact, a questionnaire is
----------------------
widely used more as a direct method now-a- days than as an indirect way
of collecting the data. ----------------------
3. Experimentation
----------------------
Experimentation involves study of independent variables under controlled
conditions for evaluating their effect on a dependent variable. ----------------------
Experimentation is a basic ingredient of the research process, which ----------------------
is popular in the physical sciences for a long time because of the
possibility of laboratory experiments. An experiment is the process of ----------------------
critically studying the contrasting aspects of the relationships between ----------------------
independent and dependent variables in a controlled situation. It is a test
or a trial procedure for testing a hypothesis in a laboratory. As laboratory ----------------------
experiments were not possible in the social sciences or in management,
the physical sciences had owned them in the past. But now the monopoly ----------------------
has been shifted and experimental methods are utilised not only by social ----------------------
sciences like sociology anthropology and psychology but by management
science also. ----------------------
4. Simulation ----------------------
Simulation means creation of an artificial condition similar to the real life
----------------------
situation.
Abelson defines simulations as “the exercise of a flexible imitation of ----------------------
processes and outcomes for the purpose of clearing or explaining the
----------------------
underlying mechanisms involved.” Simulation is the theoretical model
of the elements; relations and processes which symbolise some reference ----------------------
system. It is simply a technique of performing sampling experiments
on the model of the systems. Experiments are carried out on the model ----------------------
rather than on the real system, because the latter is either inconvenient or
----------------------
expensive. Simulation is one of the forms of observational method.
----------------------

Data Collection and Measurement 111

 Notes A real life experiment may be costly or may not be possible to be conducted
due to practical difficulties or the complexities of the phenomenon.
---------------------- One great advantage of simulation is that it can handle many variables
including intrapersonal or interpersonal process simultaneously unlike
---------------------- experimentation. Also, unlike experimentation, it is best suited to the study
---------------------- of a system with a set of interrelated and interdependent sub components.
Simulation is extensively used in war strategies and tactics, business
---------------------- problems such as order quantities, productions scheduling, waiting line
---------------------- problems in transport services, consumer behaviour etc. It is also used in
economical problems, political problems and so also in behavioural and
---------------------- social problems such as population dynamics, group behaviour or social
conflicts.
----------------------
5. Interview
---------------------- Interviewing means conversation between the researcher and the
---------------------- respondent directly.
This forms one of the important methods of data collection. It involves
---------------------- systematic conversation between an interviewer/investigator and the
---------------------- respondent for getting relevant information for a specified research
problem. It is said that the respondent’s facial expressions, bodily
---------------------- gestures etc. also help to learn important things governing his answers to
the problem under study.
----------------------
Observational methods are less effective in giving information about a
---------------------- person’s perception, attitudes, beliefs, feelings, motivations etc. To obtain
such information, the interview method is very effective. Interview,
---------------------- though can be a main method of collecting data, can also become a
---------------------- supplementary one to observation method. It is also capable of collecting
a wide range of data from demographic to social characteristics, to future
---------------------- intentions of a person. It also seems to be superior as people prefer to
talk than write. In fact, the most confidential of the information can be
---------------------- obtained by this method. It helps probing into the problem deeply and to
---------------------- get correct answers to the same and to get clarification for many replies
containing relevant information.
---------------------- 6. Projective Techniques
---------------------- Projective techniques aim at drawing inferences on the characteristics of
respondents by presenting to them stimuli.
----------------------
The direct methods of data collection such as personal interview,
---------------------- telephone interview, mail survey pre suppose that the person is willing
to and able to give information about his own behaviour, beliefs, feelings
---------------------- etc. But this is not always true but people may be unwilling to discuss
---------------------- controversial issues or to reveal intimate information about them. They
may be reluctant to express their true views. In order to overcome these
---------------------- limitations, techniques are developed that are largely independent of
the subject’s self-insight and of his willingness to reveal himself. The
---------------------- techniques are known as projective techniques.

112 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

 Notes
Check your Progress 1
----------------------
Multiple Choice Single Response.
----------------------
1. For primary data collection, several methods are usually considered
such as ----------------------
i. Observation, survey and experimental ----------------------
ii. Structured, unstructured
----------------------
iii. Direct, indirect
iv. None of the above ----------------------

2. The limitation of the observation data collection methods is that ----------------------

i. They do not deploy a means to measure certain attitudes ----------------------
ii. They do not deploy a means to measure certain behaviors and
are expensive ----------------------

iii. Sometimes people may not be interested in help and just give ----------------------
any data
----------------------
iv. None of the above
3. In comparison, the most cost effective data collection method is usually ----------------------

i. Observation methods ----------------------

ii. Survey methods ----------------------
iii. Experimental methods
----------------------
iv. Research methods
----------------------

Activity 2 ----------------------

----------------------
State the type of data collection method to be followed in the following
cases along with reason: ----------------------
a) It has been claimed by the Insurance Regulatory Authority that wide ----------------------
publicity over the media has increased the sale of Mediclaim policies
in the rural areas. You are asked to collect data to ascertain the real ----------------------
status.
----------------------
b) A manufacturer of a popular household electronic product is interested
to collect nationwide data of similar product with marginal funds only ----------------------
available. What suitable method of data collection you will suggest?
----------------------
c) The General Manager, Pune Telephones claimed that the telephone
service handling of the city has tremendously improved during 2005. ----------------------
You are selected to provide a data based report on the said claim ----------------------
quickly.
----------------------

Data Collection and Measurement 113

 Notes 6.6 METHODS OF COLLECTION OF SECONDARY DATA
---------------------- Method of collecting Secondary Data is broadly classified into two main
factors:
----------------------
(a) Internal and (b) External
---------------------- (a) Internal
---------------------- This represents data already available with a research institute or a company.
The data collected by a company may consist of sales, costs, assets,
----------------------
liabilities, profits, production etc. Such a data is routinely collected by a
---------------------- company for its own use, guidance etc. In case of a research organisation,
such as Central Statistical Organisation of the Indian Statistical Institute,
---------------------- the data collected is always in tune with the purpose or objective in mind
then.
----------------------
(b) External
----------------------
This usually consists of data/information collected by individuals. The
---------------------- individual collects information about society etc. it for his own self. Many
people indulge in such activities. A researcher may, therefore, find such
---------------------- data very useful. A researcher collecting information as regards India’s
ancient heritage may find data material collected by late Shri Kelkar of
----------------------
Pune and displayed in the famous Raja Kelkar Museum in Pune.
---------------------- They are further classified as (i) Personal sources (ii) Public sources.
---------------------- i. Personal sources: The several ways of collection of data, prominent
among them is through:
----------------------
a. Autobiographies
----------------------
b. Diaries
---------------------- c. Letters and
---------------------- d. Memoirs

---------------------- Such data proves very useful to get a better account of things such as
pre- independence life in India, history of a person or a particular society,
---------------------- social life problems such as love, death, marriage and divorce-revealing
important information. It also throws light on different social phenomenon.
----------------------
ii. Public Sources: These usually do not deal with individuals but are more
---------------------- concerned with issues; hence called public. They are classified further as:
---------------------- a. Unpublished: Many a times, for various reasons, though matter is of
public interest, the data is not at all published i.e. reports of inquiry
---------------------- commissions, report of special inquiry, defense requirement reports
etc. Probably an access can be made at the source of preparation of
----------------------
such reports and can be made there - may be with permission.
---------------------- b. Published: There are a variety of sources which are easily available
to a researcher. They include i) Books (ii) Journals or periodicals
----------------------

114 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

 (iii) Newspapers, (iv) Reports of Government Departments Notes
(v) Reports of autonomous Institutes such as University Grants
Commission (UGC) or Bureau of Public Undertakings, Reserve ----------------------
Bank of India, Industrial Credit and Investment Corporation of
India (ICICI) (vi) Publications from Research Institutes, Centers ----------------------
or Organisations such a National Institute of Banking Management ----------------------
(NIBM), Gokhale Institute of Politics and Economics, Indian
Institute of Foreign Trade (IIFT), Indian Statistical Institute (ISI) etc. ----------------------
A close look at India will reveal that apart from a few above, there
are many other institutes (other than more than hundred universities) ----------------------
and many dealing with management training. Research papers, ----------------------
research bulletins, in-house journals, monographs etc. published by
them are wealthy sources of information for any researcher. ----------------------
All such vast amount of data can be taped through Documentation ----------------------
centers, Libraries, Archives and Bibliographies spread along the
length and breadth of India. Similar is the status elsewhere in the ----------------------
world.
----------------------
6.7 SCRUTINY OF SECONDARY DATA ----------------------

It is an essential requirement for every researcher to evaluate the secondary ----------------------

data he may use with a few following characteristics:
----------------------
●● Data Relation: The most important is to assess if secondary data really
pertains to the researcher problem under study. This requires the knowledge ----------------------
regarding definitions, units of measurements, coverage of field and time
----------------------
for the data to be used.
●● Quality: If the secondary data best fits to the requirement of the researcher’s ----------------------
study, the next point is to examine its quality decided on the basis of
accuracy, reliability and completeness. ----------------------

●● Reliability: This is ascertained mostly on the basis of two factors: (a) the ----------------------
organisation that has collected data and (b) the purpose for which the data
is collected. The degree of confidence in the data depends upon capability, ----------------------
authority and prestige of the organisation. ----------------------
●● Originality: It is always important to go to the original source than to
utilise an intermediate one as the intermediate might not reflect truthfully ----------------------
the original. ----------------------
●● Accuracy: The researcher must be satisfied about the accuracy of secondary
data. The degree of accuracy desired and achieved should be satisfactory ----------------------
and acceptable to the researcher. ----------------------
●● Completeness: This refers to total coverage of the published data. It
depends upon the methodology and sampling design adopted by the parent ----------------------
or original organisation. The sampling method and its type, the number
----------------------
of samples or sample size determine the appropriateness and adequacy of
data. ----------------------

Data Collection and Measurement 115

 Notes ●● Unbiased quality: The data should be free from bias. This directly runs to
look into the purpose of original data and its organiser and their interest.
----------------------
Check your Progress 2
----------------------

---------------------- State True or False.

1. Scrutiny is essential for secondary data.
----------------------
2. Secondary data is more reliable than primary data.
----------------------

---------------------- 6.8 MERITS AND DEMERITS OF DIFFERENT METHODS

---------------------- OF COLLECTING PRIMARY DATA
---------------------- Generally speaking, the conditions, under which the data are to be
obtained, will predetermine the method of data collection. If a relatively few
---------------------- items of information are sought quickly covering a number of industries and
---------------------- funds are limited, telephone interviews should be recommended for collection
of data. If depth interviews and probing techniques are to be employed, it is
---------------------- necessary to employ investigators to collect data. Thus, each method has its
uses and none is superior in all situations. The joint use of more than one data
---------------------- collection method is sometimes preferred for a variety of reasons. When a wide
---------------------- geographic area is being covered, the use of mail questionnaires supplemented
by personal interviews will yield more reliable results than either method alone.
---------------------- Two tables, Table 6.1 reviewing the relative merits and demerits of the
---------------------- principal methods of data collection and Table 6.2 under different resource
level are presented below:-
---------------------- Table 6.1: Comparison of Principal Methods of Data Collection
---------------------- Sr. Personal Interview Mailed Questionnaire Telephone Interview
No. with Questionnaire Advantages
----------------------
1 Most flexible method Wider and more Wider and more
---------------------- of obtaining data representative coverage representative
possible at the coverage possible at
---------------------- same cost the same cost
2 Identity of No field staff is required No field staff is
----------------------
respondent known required
----------------------
3 Very low / Non Cost per questionnaire Cost of response low
---------------------- response relatively low
4 Supervision and No bias of interviewers Quick way of obtaining
---------------------- control possible data
---------------------- 5 Respondents can answer
question directly
----------------------

----------------------

116 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

Disadvantages Notes
1 Most expensive Average number of Non telephone owners and
----------------------
method of collecting non- response those with unlisted numbers
data cannot be reached. ----------------------
2 Considerable Probing Questions Interview period is short.
supervision cannot be asked ----------------------
necessary
----------------------
3 Bias of the Slowest of all Questions which require
investigators present methods of data probing cannot be asked ----------------------
in the responses collection
4 Assumes that ----------------------
the respondent is
educated ----------------------

Table 6.2: Preferred Data Collection Method ----------------------

Sr. Funds Time Type of Data Personal Mail Telephone ----------------------
No. Interview
----------------------
1 Inadequate Restricted Few Items X
2 Inadequate Restricted Much Information X ----------------------
3 Inadequate Ample Few Items X X X
4 Restricted Ample Much Information X X ----------------------
5 Ample Restricted Few Items X X
----------------------
6 Ample Restricted Much Information X
7 Ample Ample Few Items X X ----------------------
8 Ample Ample Much Information X
----------------------
Summary
----------------------
●● The decision making process in the present day of globalisation and
----------------------
competition has become more complex yet demanding. The entire
business and industrial environment has been experiencing a challenging ----------------------
environment due to variety of causes. Therefore, for taking any meaningful
and sound decision making with an underlying risk, the current decision ----------------------
makers look for help through use of research methods which is in turn is
----------------------
completely based on right objectives and fact based data. This unit gives
details of how to achieve such objectives in decision making by collecting, ----------------------
compiling and analysis of most appropriate data.
----------------------
●● Data may be broadly classified into two parts/categories, namely primary
data and secondary data. The primary data is one which is collected for ----------------------
the first time. The secondary data is one which has already been collected
earlier by others and part of which can be used by person/organisation ----------------------
requiring this.
----------------------
●● Primary data can be collected by observation, interview, questionnaire,
telephone etc. each of this method requires skill and has its own advantages ----------------------
and disadvantages. This unit discusses all this along with a reference to
----------------------

Data Collection and Measurement 117

 Notes secondary type of data as regards suitability, reliability, adequacy and
accuracy of the same.
----------------------

---------------------- Keywords

---------------------- ●● Primary Data: Data which are obtained direct from source and are original,
collected by researcher through questionnaire, interview, observation and
---------------------- or experiment.
---------------------- ●● Secondary Data: Data which has been removed at least one stage from
source.
---------------------- ●● Schedule: A set of questions in a sample survey, arranged so as to obtain
---------------------- information from an individual(s) on a given subject.
●● Simulation: The representation of one system by means of another or a
---------------------- technique for studying alternative course of action by building a model of
---------------------- system under investigation.

---------------------- Self-Assessment Questions

----------------------
1. Enumerate the different methods of collecting data. List its merits and
---------------------- demerits.
2. What are different methods of collecting primary data and discuss their
----------------------
relative merits and demerits?
---------------------- 3. Distinguish between primary and secondary data.
---------------------- 4. What precautions are to be taken before collecting secondary data?

---------------------- 5. Explain briefly methods of collection of data. Which method is most

suitable for enquiring about ‘chikangunia’ awareness programme in
---------------------- India? Explain its merits.
---------------------- 6. Critically examine the following statements.
a. Interviews introduce more bias than does the use of questionnaire.
----------------------
b. Data collection through projective techniques is considered
---------------------- relatively more reliable.
----------------------
Answers to Check your Progress
----------------------
Check your Progress 1
----------------------
Multiple Choice Single Response.
---------------------- 1. For primary data collection, several methods are usually considered such
as
----------------------
i. Observation, survey and experimental
----------------------

----------------------

118 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

2. The limitation of the observation data collection methods is that Notes
ii. They do not deploy a means to measure certain behaviors and are
----------------------
expensive
3. In comparison, the most cost effective data collection method is usually ----------------------
ii. Survey methods ----------------------
Check your Progress 2 ----------------------
State True or False.
----------------------
1. True
----------------------
2. False
----------------------
Suggested Reading ----------------------
1. Bryman, Allan & Bell Emma. 2003. Business Research Methods. Oxford ----------------------
University Press.
2. Cooper, Donald, Schindler Pamela. 2006. Business Research Methods. ----------------------
Tata McGraw Hill Companies. ----------------------
3. Kothari C.R. 1985. Research Methodology – Methods & Techniques.
----------------------
New Age International Publishers.
----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

Data Collection and Measurement 119

 Notes

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------
----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

120 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

Sampling and Sampling Technique
UNIT

7
Structure:

7.1 Introduction
7.2 Population and Sample
7..3 Variables and Attributes
7.4 Procedures for Collecting Data
7.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of Sampling
7.6 What makes a Good Sample
7.7 Sampling and Non-Sampling Errors
7.8 Sampling Frame
7.9 Methods of Sampling and Probability Sampling
7.9.1 Types of Probability Sampling Method
7.10 Methods of Sampling: Non-probability Sampling
7.11 Sampling Design
7.12 Sample Size
7.13 Other Sampling Methods
Summary
Keywords
Self-Assessment Questions
Answers to Check your Progress
Suggested Reading

Sampling and Sampling Technique 121

 Notes
Objectives
----------------------
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
----------------------
• Identify the population, the samples, the sampling unit and the
---------------------- sampling frame
---------------------- • Appreciate the advantages of sampling
• Evaluate the role of random sampling with and without replacement
----------------------
• Assess various reasons of population heterogeneity and different
---------------------- sampling techniques to deal with such heterogeneity
---------------------- • Explain the probability consideration in the use of sampling
techniques
----------------------
• Identify when to use non-probability sampling and the weaknesses
---------------------- in its use
---------------------- • Identify a suitable sampling scheme

---------------------- 7.1 INTRODUCTION

---------------------- In the previous unit, we dealt with methods of data collection. This
primarily depends upon certain factors not discussed so far. In this unit, we shall
----------------------
be studying about important problems concerning the practical formulation
---------------------- of research. The problem relates to the estimation of certain characteristics
of a ‘universe’ or ‘population’ on the basis of the study characteristics of a
---------------------- part/portion of it. The method, consisting of selecting for study the so called
part/portion- known as sample, with a view to drawing conclusions about the
----------------------
universe or population, is known as sampling.
---------------------- It is known that Inferential Statistics which is also known as Inductive
---------------------- Statistics goes beyond description of a phenomenon or a problematic situation
through collection and meaningful analysis and presentation of the related data.
---------------------- It consists of methods that are used for drawing inferences about the totality
of observations on the basis of knowledge about a part of the totality. This
---------------------- leads to what we should know about population and sample. In other words,
---------------------- if we want to renew the entire knowledge of a group of objects, persons and/
or phenomenon, we must have all the information about them. But this is
---------------------- time consuming though accurate, costly and need more people. So scientists,
researchers started studying part of the whole and base their conclusions on
---------------------- the basis of observations made on a few for the study of all units. This leads to
---------------------- ‘Theory of Sampling’. This unit deals with this theory, its advantages, various
methods of sampling and their advantages and other details too.
----------------------
7.2 POPULATION AND SAMPLE
----------------------
A Population may be defined as the totality of all possible values
----------------------
(measurements or counts) of a particular characteristic for a specified group
122 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods
of objects. Such a specified group of objects is called a Universe. Naturally, Notes
a universe can have several populations associated with it. Populations are
classified as finite or infinite. A finite population consists of a definite number ----------------------
of objects in contrast to an infinite population which is infinitely large. The total
number of students appearing for MBA final examination of a given university ----------------------
forms a finite population. The output of a mass producing machine that ----------------------
continuously operates under same condition, gives an infinite number resulting
in an infinite population. ----------------------
The selected part, which is used to ascertain the characteristics of the ----------------------
population, is called Sample. While choosing a sample, the population is
assumed to be composed of individual units or members, some of which are ----------------------
included in the sample. The total number of members or units of the population
----------------------
and the number included in the sample are called Population size and Sample
size respectively. ----------------------
Sampling: It is the process of learning about the population on the basis of a
----------------------
sample drawn from it.
Definition of Sampling ----------------------
●● “Sampling is the selection of certain percentage of a group of items ----------------------
according to a predetermined plan.” – Bogrdus
----------------------
●● “Sampling method is the process or method of drawing a definite number
of individuals, cases or observations from a particular universe, selecting ----------------------
part of a total group for investigation.” – Mildred Parton
----------------------
●● “A statistical sample is a miniature picture of cross selection of the entire
group or aggregate from which the sample is taken.” – P.V. Young ----------------------
●● “The term sample should be reserved for a set of units or portion of an
----------------------
aggregate of material which has been selected in belief that it will be a
representative of the whole aggregate.” – Fank Yates ----------------------
●● “A sample, as the name applies, is a smaller representative of a large
----------------------
whole.” – Goode and Hatt
●● A sample should exhibit the characteristics of the universe. It should be a ----------------------
microcosm- a word which literally means ‘Small Universe’.
----------------------
●● “Statistical Sampling may be defined as a process of selecting a segment
of the universe to obtain information of ascertainable reliability about the ----------------------
population.” - Paul L. Erdos and Arthur J. Morgan
----------------------
●● “It is a small piece of the population obtained by a probability process that
mirrors with known precision, the various patterns and sub-classes of the ----------------------
population.” - Blalock and Blalock
----------------------
●● “A collection of primary sampling units selected as a representative
microcosm from which references about the population may be made.” - ----------------------
Ya-Lun-Chou
----------------------
Sampling, therefore, is a method of selecting some fraction of a population.
Sampling is an essential part of all scientific procedures. It is well developed ----------------------

Sampling and Sampling Technique 123

 Notes in biological researches, Physics, Chemistry and Social Sciences. One of the
first attempts to gather agricultural data by sampling was used by George
---------------------- Washington in 1771.
----------------------
Check your Progress 1
----------------------
Fill in the blanks.
----------------------
1. A ___________________ is defined as the totality of all possible
---------------------- values of a particular characteristic for a specified group of objects.
2. The selected part, which is used to ascertain the characteristics of the
----------------------
population, is called _____________.
---------------------- 3. The process of learning about the population on the basis of a sample
---------------------- drawn from it is known as ____________.

----------------------
Activity 1
----------------------
Define population and sampling unit in each of the following problems:
----------------------
1. The family planning among families having three or more children.
----------------------
2. Election for a political office with adult franchise.
---------------------- 3. Measurement of the volume of timber available in a forest.
---------------------- 4. Annual yield of grapes in Maharashtra.
---------------------- 5. Study of death rate in a metropolitan city.

----------------------
7.3 VARIABLES AND ATTRIBUTES
----------------------
We must first understand what is meant by characteristic. Characteristic
----------------------
means a property which helps to differentiate between the items of a given
---------------------- population. The differentiation may be either qualitative (by attributes) or
quantitative (by variables). It must also be remembered that a characteristic
---------------------- may be functional or dimensional or consists of the presence or absence of
some material, component or other feature. Some define ‘Characteristics’ as
----------------------
quality possessed by an individual person, object or item of a population, e.g.
---------------------- height, weight of a person, specific gravity of a liquid.
In statistics, characteristics are of two kinds – measurable and non-
----------------------
measurable. Measurable characteristics are those which can be numerically
---------------------- expressed in terms of some units. These measurable characteristics are known
as ‘Variables’ or ‘Variates’ Specific gravity, Weight, Height, Density … etc., are
---------------------- examples of variables.
---------------------- A non-measurable characteristic is a qualitative object and as such, is
incapable of numerical expression. Religion, Occupation, Nationality are such
---------------------- non-measurable characteristics and are called as Attributes.

124 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

 A variable may assume various values and they are numerically measured Notes
in appropriate units. An attribute can never be measured but it can be categorised.
A manufactured item is good or defective, a person can be a married, a divorce ----------------------
or a widower or a single one.
----------------------
Continuous and Discrete Variables
----------------------
A Continuous Variable is one which can assume a value for its quality
characteristics on a continuous scale and is expressed in terms of the units of ----------------------
measurement e.g. Time, Temperature, Height and Weight of an individual form
some examples of a continuous variable. ----------------------
A Discrete Variable takes only isolated values; the value of the characteristic ----------------------
for any item – being quantitative – takes mostly integral values, e.g., the number
of students in MBA class of an Institute, readings on a rickshaw meter, number ----------------------
of telephone calls on given days are all examples of discrete variables.
----------------------

7.4 PROCEDURES FOR COLLECTING DATA ----------------------

There are two main procedures for collecting data, namely ----------------------
●● By complete enumeration (Census method) and ----------------------
●● By sample survey
----------------------
Census Survey
----------------------
When we study the characteristics of each and every unit / individual in a
given population, the investigation is said to have been carried out by complete ----------------------
enumeration or Census Method. The process is known as census survey. The
census method is suitable when ----------------------
i. Population size is small ----------------------
ii. We want information about each and every unit of the population
----------------------
India’s census enumerates the entire population of the country every 10
years. Census of all public sectors in India pertaining to strength (persons), ----------------------
wages, attendance, absenteeism etc.
----------------------
Sample Survey
----------------------
Since the total enumeration, in most of the cases, is tedious, time-
consuming and costly, this method finds a wide application. It consists of ----------------------
taking a small portion of the population, examine the same, with respect to
characteristics under study and collect necessary data on these for study. The ----------------------
results on these are, generally, to project the characteristics of the population.
----------------------
This process is known as sampling. This method is used when
i. The population is very large, or ----------------------
ii. Census survey involves destructive test ----------------------
Advantage of Sampling over Census ----------------------
The sampling has a number of advantages as compared to complete
enumeration due to a variety of reasons. ----------------------

Sampling and Sampling Technique 125

 Notes Less Expensive
The first obvious advantage of sampling is that it is less expensive. If we
----------------------
want to study the consumer reaction before launching a new product, it will be
---------------------- much less expensive to carry out a consumer survey based on a sample rather
than studying the entire population which is the potential group of customers.
---------------------- Although in India’s decennial census every individual is enumerated, certain
aspects of the population are studied on a sample basis with a view to reduce cost.
----------------------
Less Time Consuming
----------------------
The smaller size of the sample enables us to collect the data more quickly
---------------------- than to survey all the units of the population even if we are willing to spend
money. This is particularly the case if the decision is time bound. A detailed
---------------------- study on the inventory is likely to take too long to enable him to prepare the
report in time. If we want to measure the consumer price index in a particular
----------------------
month, we cannot collect data of all the consumer prices even if the expenditure
---------------------- is not a hindrance. The collection of data on all the consumer items and their
processing, in all probability, is going to take more than a month and will not
---------------------- serve any meaningful purpose.
---------------------- Greater Accuracy

---------------------- It is possible to achieve greater accuracy by using appropriate sampling

techniques than by a complete enumeration of all the units of the population.
---------------------- Complete enumeration may result in accuracies of the data.

---------------------- On the other hand, if a small number of items are observed, the basic
data will be much more accurate. It is of course true that the conclusion about
---------------------- a population characteristic such as the proportion of defective items from a
sample will also introduce error in the system. However, such errors, known as
---------------------- sampling errors, can be studied, controlled and probability statements can be
---------------------- made about their magnitude. The accuracy which results due to fatigue of the
inspector is known as non sampling error. It is difficult to recognise the pattern
---------------------- of the non sampling error and it is not possible to make any comment about its
magnitude even probabilistically.
----------------------
Destructive Enumeration
----------------------
Sampling is indispensable if the enumeration is destructive. If you are
---------------------- interested in computing the average life of fluorescent lamps supplied in a
batch, the life of the entire batch cannot be examined to compute the average
---------------------- since this means that the entire supply will be wasted. Thus, in this case there is
no other alternative than to examine the life of a sample of lamps and draw an
----------------------
inference about the entire batch.
---------------------- Sampling
---------------------- i. Basic Principles

---------------------- There are two important laws (principles) on which the theory of sampling
is based:
----------------------
●● Law of Statistical Regularity

126 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

 ●● Law of Inertia of Large Numbers Notes
(a) The law of statistical regularity is derived from the mathematical
theory of probability. In the words of King, “Law of Statistical ----------------------
Regularity lays down that a moderately large number of items chosen ----------------------
at random from a large group are almost sure on the average to
possess the characteristics of the large group.” This law emphasised ----------------------
that sample units must be selected at random.
----------------------
(b) The law of Inertia of larger number states that other things being
equal, the larger the size of the sample, the more accurate the results ----------------------
a re-likely to be. This is because large numbers are more stable as
compared to small ones. ----------------------

ii. Implications of sampling ----------------------

Three important implications as listed out by Ya Lun Chou are as follows: ----------------------
Firstly, a sample may contain primary sampling units such as firms of
an industry, even though its purpose is to observe the properties of the ----------------------
elementary units such as the workers in the industry. Second, a sample is
----------------------
not a chunk – a slice of the population selected because of convenience
and ready availability, but a microcosm, a small universe or a subject ----------------------
which is expected to be representative of the parent population. Third
and last, the ultimate purpose of sampling is not merely to secure sample ----------------------
statistics but to make inferences concerning the population.
----------------------
iii. The main characteristic of sampling technique
----------------------
The sampling technique has following characteristics:
●● Economy: The sampling technique is economical, much less time ----------------------
consuming than the census technique. ----------------------
●● Intensive and elaborate study: Sample units can be studied
intensively and elaborately since the number of sample units is ----------------------
small. They can be examined from various view points. ----------------------
●● Reliability: If the choice of sample units is made carefully and the
survey is not heterogeneous, the conclusion of the sample survey ----------------------
can have the same reliability as in the case of census survey. ----------------------
●● Scientific nature: This is a scientific technique, because the
conclusion derived from the study of certain units can be verified ----------------------
from other units. By random samples, the amount of deviation from ----------------------
the norm can be determined.
●● Suitability: Most of the surveys are carried out by the technique ----------------------
of sample survey, because wherever the matter is of homogeneous
----------------------
nature, the examination of few units suffices. It happens in majority
of the cases. ----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

Sampling and Sampling Technique 127

 Notes iv. Reliability of sampling
The sample should be reliable and free from bias. Then only dependable
----------------------
results can be obtained. Reliability of samples depends upon:
---------------------- ●● Size of the sample: The size the sample determines its
representativeness and its utility for study. The investigator must test
----------------------
that the size is adequate for scientific and proper study of the problem.
---------------------- ●● The homogeneity of the samples: Samples should be homogeneous.
This again means that they possess all the characteristics that are
----------------------
present in the universe.
---------------------- ●● The representativeness of the sample: The representativeness of
the sample should also be tested. It means that the sample selected
---------------------- should be representative and has the characteristics of other units.
---------------------- ●● Similar sample: Apart from the sample that has been drawn,
another sample may be drawn from the same universe for testing.
---------------------- On the basis of the tests on this second sample, the reliability of the
---------------------- sample primarily selected may be tested.
Sometimes the nature of the phenomenon makes selection of
---------------------- representative samples extremely difficult. This happens in case of
---------------------- complex, heterogeneous and widely dispersed cases. The factors
stated above adversely affect the representative nature of the sample.
---------------------- The investigator has to be careful and should try to find out perfectly
representative sampling. The investigator and his skill play a vital role
---------------------- in this task. If the investigator has the knowledge of the universe, knows
---------------------- the importance and the nature of the study and takes efforts to collect the
representative sample, he shall be successful in selecting representative
---------------------- samples and take precautions to remove bias. Pre-testing is very useful to
determine whether a particular sample is representative or not.
----------------------
v. Importance of Sampling
----------------------
In research, sampling method has acquired great importance. In modern
---------------------- days, the sampling method is becoming quite popular in all the important
studies. Since Census method is difficult, sampling method is used as it
---------------------- provides the reliable results. Its importance is because of the following
factors:
----------------------
●● Concentrated study of selected items: In sampling, the whole
---------------------- attention is concentrated on the representative units. If the entire
universe is studied, it will not be possible to make an intensive
----------------------
study but in sampling method, a concentrated study of the selected
---------------------- items can be made.
●● Representatives units studied: In sampling method, the entire
----------------------
subject matter can be concentrated but certain representative units
---------------------- are considered as dependable and reliable. Thus, there is saving in
time, energy and resources.
----------------------

128 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

 ●● Large Area: It is possible to study large area through this method. Notes
If the whole area is selected for study, it will become difficult to
achieve maximum results in shorter possible time and to cover a ----------------------
large area, but it becomes possible through sampling method and
techniques. ----------------------

●● Scrutiny of available information: In other methods it is not ----------------------

possible to test the accuracy of the results. It becomes difficult in
other methods because of the large area and the large number of ----------------------
subjects involved. But in sampling method, representative units are ----------------------
studied. The available information can be scrutinised.
●● Sufficiency of results: In sampling method, although the study of ----------------------
the selective representative units is made, the results are the same as ----------------------
that of the entire universe. Thus, in sampling method, large number
of results in a short time can be obtained. ----------------------
●● Collecting of the information: It is easy to collect the information ----------------------
due to the selective nature of the study. In sampling method, there
is no need to roam about in the whole of the universe, but have ----------------------
to confine to the selected items as such. Sampling method has the
advantage of easy and quick collection of the information. ----------------------
Assumptions of Sampling ----------------------
Selection of a sample as representative of the whole universe is based ----------------------
upon the following assumptions
Accuracy: The absolute accuracy is not required in the case of large scale ----------------------
observation and the results of sample studies, although not hundred percent ----------------------
accurate, are nevertheless sufficiently accurate to draw valid generalisations
with a given standard of accuracy. Thus, it is not the absolute accuracy but ----------------------
relative or significant accuracy that is needed in case of large scale observations.
In fact, in any statistical enquiry, perfect accuracy in final results is practically ----------------------
impossible to achieve because of the errors in measurement and collection of ----------------------
data, its analysis and interpretation of its results.
Homogeneity: Social phenomena are very complex in nature and every ----------------------
unit appears to be different from another. But at the same time they also possess ----------------------
similarities in many respects. Hence, it is assumed that there is the possibility of
such representative types in the whole population that makes sampling possible. ----------------------
Representative Selection: Sampling has its origin in the mathematical ----------------------
theory of probability and law of statistical regularity. The law of statistical
regularity lays down that a group of objects, chosen at random from a large ----------------------
group, tend to possess the characters of that large group (universe). Hence, it is
----------------------
assumed that there is a possibility of selection of representative sample.
----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

Sampling and Sampling Technique 129

 Notes
Check your Progress 2
----------------------
State True or False.
----------------------
1. The law of Inertia of large numbers points out that if a sample is taken
---------------------- at random from a population, it is likely to possess almost the same
characteristics as that of the population.
----------------------
2. Sampling has its origin in the mathematical theory of probability and
---------------------- law of statistical regularity.
---------------------- 3. The size the sample determines its representativeness and its utility
for study.
----------------------

---------------------- Activity 2
----------------------
1. The organisation or the institute in which you are working might have
---------------------- carried some sample surveys. Name those research studies.
---------------------- 2. Write down the advantages of sampling over complete enumeration.

----------------------
7.5 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF SAMPLING
----------------------
Advantages
----------------------
The important advantages of sampling are listed below:
----------------------
1. Accuracy: Sampling gives scope for more accurate data. The researcher
---------------------- can concentrate on the sample and make a thorough probing. The
researcher cannot discharge his work with the level of diligence as is
---------------------- required in dealing with a large population.
---------------------- 2. Administrative Suitability: It is possible for the researcher to collect
more elaborate information from the few sample units than from the
---------------------- large population. Collection of data from all units leads to administrative
problems and therefore in depth study becomes difficult.
----------------------
3. Advantage over ‘Census’: When the universe is extremely large, it will
---------------------- be very difficult to study every unit of the universe. Hence, sampling is
---------------------- the only practical method for collection of data.
4. Less Cost: Information is collected from only a portion of the population.
---------------------- It is less costly to survey a sample of 50 people than to survey a population
---------------------- of 5000 people.
5. Saving in Time: The data can be collected and summarised more quickly.
---------------------- The results are available quickly and also decisions could be taken without
---------------------- much delay.

----------------------

130 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

Disadvantages Notes
Sample studies because of its merits are very popular with independent
----------------------
researchers. However, it does not mean that the sampling method does not suffer
from any drawbacks. As a matter of fact, sampling is subjected to drawbacks ----------------------
too. These drawbacks are:
----------------------
1. Chances for bias
2. Difficulty of accuracy ----------------------
3. Difficulty of obtaining a representative sample ----------------------
4. Lack of trained manpower ----------------------
5. Non-availability of informants
----------------------
6. Possibility for error in sampling
----------------------
7. Inadequacy of samples
The selection of large samples has the disadvantages of the census ----------------------
method, while the selection of a small sample is inadequate and the result may
----------------------
be wrong. But despite all the limitations of the sampling method of survey, it
is extensively used as the most reliable method of primary data collection, not ----------------------
only in managerial analysis, but in all the areas of systematic human activity.
----------------------
7.6 WHAT MAKES A GOOD SAMPLE ----------------------
The quality of sample plays a very crucial role in the accuracy of results ----------------------
obtained. The following characteristics make a sample a good one.
----------------------
1. Representative: A sample most closely represents the characteristics of
the population from which it is drawn. A good representative sample can ----------------------
be selected from any one of the probabilistic sampling techniques – which
are discussed subsequently i.e. the sample must be valid. ----------------------
2. Accuracy: It means closeness to population or one having a minimum of ----------------------
bias. The difference between the sample value and corresponding value
of the population should never be influenced by any factor. ----------------------

3. Precision: The sample must very precisely give estimates. Precision ----------------------
is measured in terms of the standard deviation or standard error of the
sample estimate. The precision increases if the standard error of estimate ----------------------
reduces. ----------------------
4. Sample-size: The size of the sample should be such that the inferences
----------------------
drawn from it are quite reliable.
Selection of a Sample ----------------------
Selection of a sample depends upon the type of samples to be selected. It ----------------------
means that the method shall differ from city to city or from selection of sample
to another selection of sample. Certain basic rules have been formulated to ----------------------
make this selection scientific.
----------------------

Sampling and Sampling Technique 131

 Notes Before selecting samples, the units, of the sample have to be decided. It
means that first of all it is to be decided which shall be the unit of the sample. It
---------------------- may be a house, a family, a group of individuals, depending upon the problem
of research etc. These units may be of various types. Generally, the sample units
---------------------- that are selected may be in the following fields:
---------------------- ●● Geographical: It would mean geographical area such as state, a region, a
district, a city, a ward or a locality.
----------------------
●● Individual: Individual persons are considered as units. In the ‘Sampling
---------------------- method’, a residential dwelling is considered to be the best unit. It is easy
to locate and study.
----------------------
●● Social: This type of unit includes family, school, college, social group,
---------------------- religious group, church, club, etc.
●● Structural: It would mean a building, part of a building structure such as
----------------------
house, flat, apartment, bungalow etc.
---------------------- Characteristics of a good Unit
---------------------- In sampling method, there must be dependable units. These units should
contain certain characteristics. Generally, the main characteristics of a good
---------------------- sampling unit are as follows:
---------------------- 1. Accessibility: The unit selected should be easily accessible. The
investigator should be definite in locating unit. If the units selected are
---------------------- difficult to reach and ascertain, the study shall be vitiated.
---------------------- 2. Clarity: A unit which is taken for study in the sampling method should be
clearly defined in an unambiguous term. This would make the study easy
---------------------- and efficient.
---------------------- 3. Source list: Source list is an important factor that makes the representative
selection possible. List of source is that list which contains the name of
---------------------- the units of the universe from which the sample has been selected. It may
be in existence before the project is drawn or it may have to be prepared
---------------------- afresh by the investigator himself.
---------------------- 4. Standardisation: As far as possible the units selected should be
standardised.
----------------------
If the source is to help the investigator in his study through sampling
---------------------- method, it should have the following characteristics:

---------------------- 1. Validity: The list should be up-to-date and valid. It should contain the
information which may lead the investigator astray. Repetition of the
---------------------- name of the units should be avoided.
2. Reliability: The source list should be reliable and completed by one,
----------------------
who should know about the universe. The information contained therein
---------------------- should be complete and drawn on stratified basis.
3. Suitability: The source list should be suitable for the study. It means that
----------------------
it should be relevant and properly drawn up. It should, also be accessible
---------------------- to the investigator.

132 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

4. Exhaustiveness: The list should be exhaustive so that all the units can be Notes
covered. It means that the entire universe must be incorporated in the list.
----------------------
7.7 SAMPLING AND NON-SAMPLING ERRORS ----------------------
It is obvious that the results obtained from sample would not exactly ----------------------
match that of census survey method. There would be errors, the causes of which
will be many. These errors can be classified into two categories, depending on ----------------------
the nature of causes.
----------------------
They are:
----------------------
●● Sampling Errors
●● Non-sampling Errors ----------------------
Sampling Errors ----------------------
Sampling errors are due to sample surveys and no error exists in survey
----------------------
technique. As the sample represents only part of a population resulting in
incomplete information, the error arises. Therefore, sampling error is defined as ----------------------
the difference between the results obtained from samples and those that would
have been obtained from complete enumeration of population. In repeated ----------------------
sampling these errors are averaged out because these errors arise due to random
----------------------
factors (chance factors)
Non-Sampling Errors ----------------------
Non-sampling errors are present in both – the survey method and the ----------------------
sample survey. These are caused due to presence of bias and mistakes on the part
of an individual, a machine, an instrument or a process. Bias means tendency of ----------------------
results based on repeated sampling of given size to deviate from corresponding
----------------------
population results in one particular direction. Bias creeps in due to
●● Incorrect concept of a Population ----------------------
●● Samples drawn lagging complete randomness ----------------------
●● Irrelevant, wrong, exaggerated replies to questionnaires
----------------------
●● Wrong interviewing method
----------------------
●● Inadequate response received
Non-sampling errors increase by increasing sample size, where as ----------------------
sampling errors increase by reducing the sample size. Therefore, a balance must
be maintained in making a choice of sample size whose main purpose is to ----------------------
minimise all errors. ----------------------

7.8 SAMPLING FRAME ----------------------

A sampling frame is a list of all the units of the population. The preparation ----------------------
of a sampling frame is sometimes a major practical problem. The frame should ----------------------
always be made up to date and be free from errors of omission and duplication
of sampling units. ----------------------

Sampling and Sampling Technique 133

 Notes A perfect frame identifies each element once and only once. Perfect
frames are seldom available in real life. A frame is subject to several types of
---------------------- defects which may be broadly classified on the following lines.
---------------------- Incomplete Frame
When some legitimate sampling units of the population are omitted, the
----------------------
frame is said to be incomplete. If we want to collect information regarding the
---------------------- political opinion of a group of voters on a sample basis, a complete list of voters
is necessary to select a sample. But instances are known when such a list is
---------------------- incomplete.
---------------------- Inaccurate Frame

---------------------- When some of the sampling units of the population are listed inaccurately
or some units which do not actually exist are included, the frame is said to
---------------------- be inaccurate. If you use the list of ration cards as a frame to select persons,
obviously such frame will be inaccurate as the details about the persons, such
---------------------- as age are never updated.
---------------------- Inadequate Frame
---------------------- A frame which does not include all units of the population by its structure
is an inadequate frame. If you use the list of names included in the telephone
---------------------- directory of a city as the frame for selecting a sample to collect information
about a consumer product, obviously, it will be an inadequate frame. It will
---------------------- include the names of only those persons who have a telephone omitting the
---------------------- majority of the residents of the city.

---------------------- 7.9 METHODS OF SAMPLING AND PROBABILITY

---------------------- SAMPLING
---------------------- A sampling method refers to the procedure of selecting a sample and
not its composition. A study of different methods of sampling is necessary
---------------------- because the precision, accuracy and the efficiency of sample results depend
upon the actual method in use. Sampling methods are classified into two types:
----------------------
Probability sampling and Non-probability sampling.
---------------------- Probability Sampling:
---------------------- This is a strategy in which sample elements are automatically selected by some
method under which every element has the probability of being selected equally.
---------------------- They are:
---------------------- ●● Sample random sampling method
---------------------- ●● Stratified random sampling method
●● Systematic sampling method
----------------------
●● Cluster sampling method
---------------------- ●● Multistage sampling method
---------------------- ●● Area sampling method

134 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

●● Sampling with probability proportional to size method. Notes
●● Sequential sampling method.
----------------------
Uses of Probability Sampling Methods
Probability sampling methods are generally applied in case of significant ----------------------
decisions, where accuracy is at a premium, regardless of the time and cost ----------------------
involved.
----------------------
Merits of Probability Sampling Methods
a. Accuracy: The population parameters can be estimated based on the ----------------------
sample statistics, with a known level of accuracy and desired degree of
----------------------
confidence.
b. Formulation of determinable representative sampling plans: Probability ----------------------
sampling is the only approach wherein determinable representative
----------------------
sampling plans can be formulated the sample size can be known which is
required for estimation of population parameters from the sample statistics ----------------------
with a known level of accuracy and a specific degree of confidence.
----------------------
c. Representative Samples: Probability sampling results in representative
samples. ----------------------
d. Wide applied method: Probability sampling is the most widely applied ----------------------
method in descriptive research studies aiming at quantitative estimates
with a reasonable level of accuracy. ----------------------
Demerits of Probability Sampling Methods ----------------------
a. Expensive: In situations where there are budgetary constraints, the
----------------------
prohibitively high cost of setting up the sampling frame and data collection
costs from the sample elements irrespective of their geographical locations ----------------------
acts as a clear dampener.
----------------------
b. Requirement of large sample: For reliable results and for generalisations,
the size of the sample required is considerably large. ----------------------
c. Other difficulty: It cannot be applied where it is not possible to have a
----------------------
complete and correct sampling frame.
7.9.1 Types of Probability Sampling Method ----------------------

Probability sampling methods are of the following types: ----------------------

1. Simple Random Sampling ----------------------
2. Stratified Random Sampling
----------------------
3. Systematic Random sampling
----------------------
4. Multi-Stage Sampling
5. Cluster Sampling ----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

Sampling and Sampling Technique 135

 Notes 1. Simple Random Sampling
Random Sampling is the process of drawing a sample from a population
----------------------
in such a way that each member of the population has an equal chance of being
---------------------- included in the sample. In a way, it is also called simple random sampling and
the sample obtained is called a random sample. This is free from personal bias.
---------------------- This method is very useful if
---------------------- i. A population is comparatively small
ii. A list of all elements in the population can be made
----------------------
iii. A population is really homogeneous with respect to the specified
---------------------- characteristics
---------------------- In addition to equal chance of selection, this method has an added
advantage to estimate that the population values accurately. For a very large
---------------------- population, the cost is high and no representative sample can be carried out if
---------------------- in addition, the population is not homogenous. There are two types of random
sampling. They are as follows:
---------------------- i. Simple Random Sampling with Replacement: If the units of a sample
---------------------- are drawn one by one from the population so that after each drawing, the
selected unit is returned to the population, then this is known as simple
---------------------- random sampling with replacement. The chance of selection of a sample
after each drawal and return to the population remains the same. This
---------------------- is most suitable when population is very small e.g. three cards are to be
---------------------- drawn from a shuffled pack of 52 cards from this method. The first drawn
has the change 1/52, this is returned and second card is drawn; this has
---------------------- also the same chance of being selected, namely 1/52. Similarly for third
card.
----------------------
ii. Simple Random Sampling without Replacement: If the units of a
---------------------- sample are drawn one by one from the population such that after each
drawing, the selected unit is not returned to the population. In this case, the
----------------------
chance of getting selected in a sample for all the remaining units after each
---------------------- drawal of a sample is not the same. This is called simple random sampling
without replacement. This is used for a large or infinite population e.g. in
---------------------- the same illustration of cards, the probability of drawing first card is 1/52,
for 2nd card 1/51 and 3rd card 1/50.
----------------------
Selecting a Random Sample
----------------------
The procedure for selecting a random sample depends upon the underlying
---------------------- population if finite or infinite.

---------------------- i. Finite Population: In this case, all units of the population are serially
numbered.
---------------------- They are then mixed mechanically or otherwise and a number is selected
---------------------- in each draw one after the other till we get the number required in the
sampling as sample size.
----------------------

136 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

ii. Infinite Population: In this case, the use of random number tables is Notes
made. The random numbers are tabulated as 2 digit, 3 digit and 4 digit
numbers. Depending upon the size of the sample, a particular digit random ----------------------
number table is used. The main principle used in these tables is that the
digits are so arranged that the probability of any one digit appearing in ----------------------
any one sequence is equal for all digits. Similarly, the probability of any ----------------------
combination of digits is the same for all combination consisting of equal
numbers of digits e.g. If we have to select say 40 samples from 800, we ----------------------
select a 3 digit random number table. We place the finger at any place
randomly. That number is selected as 1st sample. There are 8 directions ----------------------
to move from this random number namely right, left, top, bottom and ----------------------
four oblique ones. Choose any one direction and move to find the second
digit which will be the 2nd member and proceed similarly. If a number is ----------------------
repeated, drop it. Continue till desired number of samples is collected.
----------------------
Random sampling is done with the help of certain methods; most important
amongst them are discussed below: ----------------------
●● Lottery method: In a lottery method, a lottery is drawn by writing the ----------------------
number or the names of various units and putting them in a container. They
are completely mixed and certain numbers are picked up from the container ----------------------
and those which are picked up are taken up for sampling.
----------------------
●● Tippet’s numbers method: It is known as Tippet’s numbers method
because it was evolved by L.H.C. Tippet who constructed a list of 10,4000 ----------------------
four digit numbers written at random on every page. From these numbers,
----------------------
it is easy to draw samples at random. For, example, if 50 persons are to
be selected for study out of the total number 500, then any page of Tippet ----------------------
numbers can be opened and first 50 that are below 500 can be selected
and taken up for study. On the basis of the experiments made through this ----------------------
technique it has been found that the results that are drawn on the basis of
----------------------
Tippet’s numbers method are quite reliable and dependable.
●● Selection from sequential list: In this method, the names are arranged ----------------------
serially according to a particular order. The order may be alphabetical,
----------------------
geographical or only serial. Then out of the list any number may be taken
up, Beginning of selection may be made from anywhere. For example, ----------------------
if 10 persons are to be selected we can start right from the 10th and select
10,20,30,40,50,60 and so on. ----------------------
●● Grid system: Generally, this method is used to select the sample of an area ----------------------
and so in a grid system a map of the entire area is drawn. After that a screen
with the squares placed upon the map of the entire area is drawn which is ----------------------
followed by a screen with the squares placed upon the map and some of the
squares are selected at random. Then the screen is placed upon the map and ----------------------
the area falling within the selected squares are taken as samples. Bogardus ----------------------
has defined Random Sampling as “The common statistical procedure is
called random sampling, that is choosing and not according to personal ----------------------
interest or convenience but impersonally. At random, choosing every fifth
item for example is random sampling.” ----------------------

Sampling and Sampling Technique 137

 Notes Precautions in Simple Random Sampling: Mildred Parten has indicates some
important principles to be followed in adopting simple random sampling which
---------------------- are as follows:
---------------------- ●● Population and the units must be clearly defined
●● The units must be approximately equal in size
----------------------
●● The universe must consist of large number of small units
---------------------- ●● Units must be independent of each other
---------------------- ●● List of the universe must be made ready
●● Methods of selection should be completely independent of the characteristics
----------------------
to be examined
---------------------- ●● Units drawn should be accessible for investigation
---------------------- ●● Once selected, the unit cannot be discarded
Advantages of Simple Random Sampling
----------------------
●● No advance knowledge of the characteristics of the population is necessary.
----------------------
●● Assessment of the accuracy of the results in possible by sample error
---------------------- estimation.
●● It is representative of the universe.
----------------------
●● Bias due to human preferences and influences is eliminated.
---------------------- ●● It is a simple and easily practicable procedure if the population is not large.
---------------------- ●● It is less expensive as compare to other methods.

---------------------- Disadvantages of Simple Random Sampling:

●● Definition of the universe in many times is inadequate.
----------------------
●● The ready lists of universe are not always available. Serialising the large
---------------------- population is also difficult.

---------------------- ●● Sampling is likely to be biased at the survey stage because of non-

availability or non- response from the sample units.
---------------------- 2. Stratified Random Sampling
---------------------- This method of selecting sample is used in selecting items when there
is no homogeneous group in the universe. So the universe is classified in
---------------------- different level of the strata to selected sample belonging to each stratum on
---------------------- the basis of chance sampling. Therefore first classification is made and there
chance sampling is done. It is known as stratified sampling. In the composition
---------------------- population in the region, if increasing demand is required to be assessed by
increasing income that as there is no homogeneous group so the population will
---------------------- be classified as Higher-Middle and Lower income group than based on chance
---------------------- sampling items will be selected from each of the strata of the classified group.
Proportionate and disproportionate stratified sampling
----------------------
A proportional stratification yields a sample that represents the universe
---------------------- in the same proportion in which each stratum is represented in the population.

138 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

 If equal number of units is drawn from each stratum regardless of the size Notes
of the strata, the sampling is called disproportionate stratified sampling.
----------------------
The number of units in each stratum is proportionate to its number in the
universe. The following table illustrates proportionate stratified sampling. ----------------------
Classification of Teachers according to their age
----------------------
Category (age wise) Total Percentage to Number in
Total sample ----------------------
Less than 30 years of age 5000 5% 250 ----------------------
31-40 years of age 25000 1% 250
41-55 years of age 1650 10 % 165 ----------------------
More than 55 years of age 3500 10 % 35
----------------------
700
The breakup of teachers shows that the number of sample teachers has ----------------------
been selected in proportion to size of the population. ----------------------
The simple random sampling may not always provide a representative
miniature of the population. Certain segment of a population can easily be ----------------------
under presented when an unrestricted random sample is chosen. Hence, when ----------------------
considerable heterogeneity is present in the population with regard to subject
matter under study, it is often a good idea to divide the population into segments ----------------------
or strata and select a certain number of sampling units from each stratum, thus
ensuring representation from all relevant segments. Thus, for designing a ----------------------
suitable marketing strategy for a consumer durable, the population of consumers ----------------------
may be divided into strata by income level and a certain number of consumers
can be selected randomly from each strata. ----------------------
Formally speaking, the population of N units is subdivided into k sub- ----------------------
populations or strata, the ith sub-population having N units (i = 1,2…..k). These,
sub-populations are non overlapping so that they comprise the whole population ----------------------
such that
----------------------
N1 + N2 + N3 + .............. + Nk = N
----------------------
A simple random sample (with or without replacement) is selected
independently in each stratum, the sample size in the ith stratum being ----------------------
n1 (i = 1, 2, 3,.......k) ----------------------
Thus the total sample size is
----------------------
n1 + n2 + n3 + .......... + nk.
----------------------
The stratification should be performed in such a manner that the strata
are homogeneous within themselves with respect to the characteristic under ----------------------
study. On the other hand, strata should be heterogeneous between themselves.
Sometimes administrative convenience is taken into consideration to satisfy the ----------------------
population. For instance, in order to study the problems of railway commuters,
----------------------
each railway division may be considered to be a different stratum. In rural
areas, the region covering adjacent districts are likely to be homogenous with ----------------------

Sampling and Sampling Technique 139

 Notes respect to socio-economic and cultural pattern. Hence, they should be included
in common strata. Distribution of consumer products may face different types
---------------------- of problems in rural, urban or hilly areas. These may be considered as a separate
stratum from the point of view of management.
----------------------
Principles of Stratified Random Sampling:
----------------------
At the time of stratification, this sampling method has to observe the
---------------------- following two basic principles:
i. Homogeneity: There must be as much uniformity as possible within each
----------------------
stratum.
---------------------- ii. Heterogeneity or variability: There should be as great differences as
---------------------- possible among various strata.
Advantages:
----------------------
●● Stratified sampling is more representative of the population.
---------------------- ●● It is more precise and to a great extent avoids bias.
---------------------- ●● It saves time and cost of data collection since the sample size can be less
in the method.
----------------------
●● It is geographically concentrated and renders data collection convenience.
---------------------- Disadvantages:
---------------------- ●● It requires the knowledge of the traits of the population.

---------------------- ●● Classification or satisfaction becomes sometimes difficult and still difficult

in the assignment of each unit of the population to a particular stratum.
---------------------- ●● The results sometimes have to be weighted according to the size of strata,
which is a difficult task.
----------------------
●● Preparing a stratified list is an arduous task as the list may not be readily
---------------------- available.
---------------------- 3. Systematic Random Sampling
It means forming a sample in some systematic manner, usually taking
----------------------
items at regular intervals. It consists of arranging all units in the population
---------------------- serially. The population should be finite and clearly defined. Then from the first
k units, one unit is selected at random. This unit and every kth unit onwards
---------------------- from serially listed populations forms a systematic sample. Suppose a product
is manufactured in batches. Every day 10 batches are produced totaling 300
----------------------
batches in a month. If we have to test a product and we need 30 samples, then
---------------------- from one day’s production of k = 10 batches, select one batch at random – say
3rd, then each subsequent kth (10th) batch from 3rd batch constitute the sample. i.e.
---------------------- 3rd, 3 + 10 =13th, 13 +10 = 23rd……. batch up to 293rd batch. This is also known
as fixed interval method since the interval between the samples drawn is fixed.
----------------------
Here only one sample is randomly selected unlike in earlier two methods where
---------------------- all methods are randomly selected. The method is more a randomness oriented
than a probabilistic one.
----------------------

140 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

 The mechanics of taking a systematic sample are very simple. Suppose Notes
the population consists of ordered N units (numbered from 1 to N) and a sample
of size n is selected from the population in such a way that N/n =k (rounded to ----------------------
the nearest integer). Here k is called sampling interval. In systematic sampling
from the first k of the units a unit is selected randomly. Then every kth unit is ----------------------
selected in the sample. As for illustration, suppose k = 20. Then among the first ----------------------
20 units coming out through the production line, one unit is selected randomly.
Suppose this is unit number 9. Then we select unit number 29, 49, …….. in our ----------------------
sample till the requisite sample size has been reached.
----------------------
Advantages:
----------------------
●● The system is simple and convenient and it requires only less time and
work. ----------------------
●● Randomness and probability features require only less time and work.
----------------------
Limitations:
----------------------
●● There will be a bias in the result; this method is not suitable for heterogeneous
population. ----------------------
●● As in simple random, the population has to be serialised in this sample also
----------------------
which becomes a difficult task when the population is huge.
●● Any hidden periodicity in the list will adversely affect the representativeness ----------------------
of the sample.
----------------------
●● There is always a temptation to re-select or re-start while making selection.
4. Multi-stage-Sampling ----------------------

In this method, the sampling procedure is carried out in several stages. ----------------------
The population is regarded as composed of a number of first stage units. Each of
these first-stage units is made up of a number of second stage units and second ----------------------
stage units are having in it a number of third-stage units and the like till we ----------------------
reach the ultimate unit.
----------------------
At first, a sample of the first stage units is chosen by any method that is
right. Then a sample of second stage units is chosen by suitable method from ----------------------
first stage units and the process proceeds till we reach the ultimate units. This
method is used where the survey is contemplated over a wide area. It is to be ----------------------
noted that a part of a multi-stage sampling process is called sub-sampling.
----------------------
The multistage sampling procedure is used for large scale enquiry covering
large geographical area such as a state. As for illustration, a bank may like to ----------------------
gather information regarding the quality of customer service it is offering in a
----------------------
state. A random sample of districts is selected from the list of districts. From
each of the selected districts a number of branches are randomly selected. From ----------------------
each of the selected branch, a number of depositors, which is the ultimate sample
sampling unit, are selected randomly for collecting information. The districts ----------------------
are called first stage units, the branches are known as the second stage units
----------------------
and the depositors are regarded as the third stage units. This is an illustration of
three stage sampling. The third stage units being the ultimate sampling units. ----------------------

Sampling and Sampling Technique 141

 Notes The multistage sampling procedure has the advantage that the frame of
second stage units is necessary only for the selected first stage units. Likewise,
---------------------- the frame of the third stage units is necessary only for the selected second stage
units. The procedure is quite flexible and it permits the use of different selection
---------------------- procedures in different stages. It may also be mentioned that multistage sampling
---------------------- is the only sampling procedure available in a number of practical situations,
such as collecting information about consumers in a large geographical region.
---------------------- This is because no satisfactory sampling frame is available for the ultimate stage
units, namely, consumers and the cost of preparing such a frame is prohibitive.
----------------------
Sampling with varying probabilities
----------------------
It is also known as the sampling with probability proportionate to size.
---------------------- This is an important sampling plan applied in multi-stage selection. It ensures
that the probability of selecting any sample is proportionate to size of the group.
---------------------- Here, we have more enhancement of selecting samples from large groups than
from small groups. After assigning appropriate sample size, proportionate to
----------------------
the size of cluster, systematic selection is made at the second stage.
---------------------- Advantages
---------------------- ●● It is an appropriate sampling plan in finding out the variability of groups.
●● This method is helpful in giving groups with large number of units greater
----------------------
probability of selection and making the sample more representative.
---------------------- 5. Cluster Sampling
---------------------- In cluster sampling, the population to be sampled is divided in to a number
of groups, called clusters. These clusters are known as primary sampling
---------------------- units and the units comprising each cluster which is studied from elementary
---------------------- sampling units. A sample may be drawn by using simple random sampling
from one or more clusters. When all elementary sampling units contained in
---------------------- one or more clusters, selected at random, are studied, the sampling method is
known as single stage cluster sampling, or, we can select a random sample of
---------------------- the desired size from the elementary units contained in one or more randomly
---------------------- selected clusters. This is known as double – stage cluster sampling. The process
may continue. Therefore, cluster sampling can be a single, double or multi-
---------------------- stage sampling process. This is accurate and efficient method though involving
a high cost. It has been widely applied in marketing. For purpose of achieving
---------------------- maximum efficiency,
---------------------- ●● The variability in the elementary units comprising different clusters should
be large
----------------------
●● The difference among various clusters in terms of degree of variability
---------------------- in the elementary units should be as small as possible, e.g. if students are
elements, then affiliated colleges to a given university form cluster or
---------------------- sampling unit and university represent a population.
---------------------- The number of elements in a cluster is called ‘the cluster size’. They are
most often unequal.
----------------------

142 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

Cluster Sampling Process Notes
It involves the following main steps:
----------------------
●● Cluster identification
----------------------
●● Nature of cluster and
●● Determining the number of stages ----------------------
The details are as follows. ----------------------
i. Cluster identification: The approximate clusters may be units such as
----------------------
districts, talukas, city blocks, schools, colleges, factories or departments
in a factory. ----------------------
ii. Nature of clusters: Clusters should be homogeneous in internal
----------------------
characteristics.
Clusters should be such that the intra-cluster variation is more. Clusters ----------------------
are rarely equal in size. They are tried to be made of equal size by splitting
----------------------
large clusters and / or combining small clusters.
iii. Determination of the number of stages: It primarily depends upon the ----------------------
geographical area of the study, the size of the study, population size and ----------------------
cost factor. So one of the following choices can be made.
●● Single-Stage -Sampling: Clusters are selected at random and all ----------------------
elements in each sample cluster are studied. ----------------------
●● Two Stage-Sampling: Select clusters at random and then select at
random elements from each cluster. ----------------------
●● Multi-Stage- Sampling: Extend the same method to further stage. ----------------------
Though cluster sampling is not as precise as simple random sampling,
----------------------
it is in use due to low cost involved in it. It is, in fact, efficient with respect to
time, cost and convenience too. ----------------------
In order to motivate the use of cluster, we consider a survey where the ----------------------
sampling units are households in rural area. If simple random sampling is used
to select household they will be located over several villages. On the other ----------------------
hand, a village can be regarded as a Cluster of households. We select a few
villages randomly and include every household in the selected villages in our ----------------------
sample. Such a sampling procedure will be an illustration of Cluster sampling. ----------------------
It has a number of advantages over simple random sampling.
i. If the household are chosen using simple random sampling, they are to ----------------------
be distributed over several villages. Hence, from administrative point of ----------------------
view such a selection will involve more cost, more field supervision and
more travelling. On the other hand, if a selected village is completely ----------------------
enumerated, the cost involved will be lower and the supervision exercised
will be better. ----------------------

ii. If the household in the sample are distributed over several villages ----------------------
then a frame containing the list of households of each of these villages
----------------------

Sampling and Sampling Technique 143

 Notes is necessary for proper identification and selection of the household in
the sample. On the other hand, if every household in a selected village
---------------------- is included in the sample no sampling frame listing the households in a
village is necessary.
----------------------
iii. If the type of question is of intimate nature an isolated household selected
---------------------- in a village is unlikely to co-operate with the investigators. On the other
hand, if every household in a village is visited, a particular household
----------------------
after observing that his neighbours are also being interviewed are likely
---------------------- to offer greater co-operation and as such the quality of the basic data will
be more reliable.
----------------------
In the example presented in this section clusters have been formed
---------------------- based on geographic subdivisions. A village is a natural geographic Cluster of
households. A cluster sample with clusters based on geographic subdivisions is
---------------------- known as area sample and the procedure is known as Area Sampling.
---------------------- Principles of Cluster Sampling: Following principles are essential to
ensure maximum accuracy in cluster sampling.
----------------------
●● The differences or variability within a cluster should be as large as possible,
---------------------- i.e. heterogeneity.
●● The variability among or between groups or clusters should be as small as
----------------------
possible homogeneity.
---------------------- Advantages
---------------------- ●● This method provides significant cost gain, it lowers the filed cost.
●● It is easy and more practical method, which facilitates the field work.
----------------------
●● Due to the geographical contiguity of the samples more units can be included.
----------------------
●● It is being used when no satisfactory sampling frame for whole population
---------------------- exists.
Disadvantages
----------------------
●● Probability and representativeness of the sample is sometimes affected.
----------------------
●● It is the similarity of one unit in the cluster with its other units.
---------------------- ●● The results are likely to be less precise and accurate.
----------------------
7.10 METHODS OF SAMPLING: NON-PROBABILITY
---------------------- SAMPLING
---------------------- The alternative to probability sampling is non-probability sampling,
which includes any method in which the elements have unequal chances of
----------------------
being selected.
---------------------- It is also known as non-random sampling. In this, the units of the sample
are selected from the units of population on the basis of personal judgment,
----------------------
choice, convenience etc. They do not pay any attention to bias and also do not
---------------------- permit estimation or errors.

144 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

Non-probability sampling are mainly classified into Notes
i. Convenience Sampling
----------------------
ii. Purposive Sampling (or judgment)
----------------------
iii. Quota Sampling
In general, there are three types of non probability sampling that may, ----------------------
under appropriate conditions, be useful in business and government. ----------------------
i. Convenience Sampling: Under convenience sampling, the samples are
selected at the convenience of the researcher or investigator. Here there is ----------------------
no way of determining the representativeness of the sample. This results ----------------------
into biased estimates. Therefore, it is not possible to make an estimate of
sampling error as the difference between sample estimate and population ----------------------
parameter is unknown both in terms of magnitude and direction. It is
therefore suggested that convenience sampling should not be used in both ----------------------
descriptive and casual studies as it is not possible to make any definite ----------------------
statement about the results from such a sample.
This method may be quite useful in exploratory design as a basis for ----------------------
generating hypothesis. The method is also useful in testing of questionnaire ----------------------
etc. at the pre-test phase of the study. Convenience sampling is extensively
used in marketing studies and otherwise. This would be clear from the ----------------------
following examples:
----------------------
a. Suppose a marketing research study aims at estimating the
proportion of Pan shops in Pune which store a particular Cigarette ----------------------
say Gold flake. It is decided to take a sample size of 100. What an
----------------------
investigator does is pays a visit 100 Pan shops near his residence as
it is very convenient to him and observe whether a Pan shop stores ----------------------
Gold flake Cigarette or not. This is definitely not a representative
sample as most Pan shops in Pune had no chance of being selected. ----------------------
It is only those Pan shops which were near the residence of the
----------------------
investigator had a chance of being selected.
b. Jeans manufacturing company is interested in knowing about their ----------------------
jeans - quality, comfort etc. It is presently manufacturing with a
----------------------
view to modify it to suit customers’ need. The job is given to a
marketing researcher who visits a college near his residence and ----------------------
asks a few students (a convenient sample) about the jeans.
----------------------
c. Researcher might visit a few shops to observe what brand of edible
oil people are buying so as to make inference about the share of a ----------------------
particular brand he is interested in.
----------------------
ii. Purposive/Judgement Sampling: Judgement sampling is also called
purposive sampling. Under this sampling procedure, a researcher ----------------------
deliberately draws a sample from the population which he thinks is a
representative of the population. Needless to say, all members of the ----------------------
population are not given a chance to be selected in the sample. The ----------------------

Sampling and Sampling Technique 145

 Notes personal bias of the investigator has a great chance of entering the sample
and if the investigator chooses a sample to give results which favours his
---------------------- view point, the entire study may be vitiated.
---------------------- In small studies or pilot surveys, personal judgement or value judgement
of the researcher or the same time, in order to establish the value
---------------------- judgement and to arrive at a final conclusion, a small sample can be drawn
from the population. In such cases, the sample is expected to support
----------------------
the judgement. One who is in footwear trade for a long time would be
---------------------- able to make judgement as to what type of rain shoes would be more in
demand than leather shoes or fancy shoes in the monsoon season. His
---------------------- judgement would possibly be more accurate than a random survey. But
in order to establish this judgement, a few sample shops can be surveyed
----------------------
and evaluated. However, if the judgement goes wrong or is biased, then
---------------------- judgement sampling may not serve the purpose.
If persona biases are avoided, then the relevant experience and the
----------------------
acquaintance of the investigator with the population may help to choose a
---------------------- relatively representative sample from the population. It is not possible to
make an estimate of sampling error as we cannot determine how precise
---------------------- our sample estimates are.
---------------------- Judgement Sampling is used in a number of cases, some of which are
mentioned below.
----------------------
a. Suppose we have a panel of experts in the company’s Board of
---------------------- Directors. If for some reason or the other, a member drops out from
Board, the Chairman of the Board may suggest the name of another
---------------------- person whom he thinks has the same expertise and experience
---------------------- to be a member of the said panel. This new member was chosen
deliberately – a case of Judgement sampling.
---------------------- b. The method could be used in a study involving the performance
---------------------- of medical representatives. They could be grouped into top-grade
and low-grade performer according to certain specified qualities.
---------------------- Having done so, the sales executive may indicate who in his opinion
would fall into which category. Needless to mention, this is a biased
---------------------- method. However, in the absence of any objective data, one might
---------------------- have to resort to this type of sampling.
iii. Quota Sampling: Quota sampling is a special form of stratified sampling.
---------------------- The number to be selected from each stratum, which is known as quota,
---------------------- is selected in advance. The research workers are at liberty to select the
quota from each stratum. If the skilled workers of 10 engineering units
---------------------- in Chennai are to be studied, the units and the departments are fixed
in advance and the field worker is entrusted with the responsibility of
---------------------- selecting the workers at random. The random sampling technique can be
---------------------- used in all the areas.
This is very commonly used sampling method in marketing research
----------------------

146 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

 studies. Here the sample is selected on the basis of certain basic Notes
parameters such as age, sex, income and occupation that describe the
nature of a population so as to make it representative of the population. ----------------------
The investigators or field workers are instructed to choose a sample that
conforms to these parameters. The field workers are assigned quotas of ----------------------
the numbers of units satisfying the required characteristics on which ----------------------
data should be collected. However, before collecting data on these
units the investigators are supposed to verify that the units qualify these ----------------------
characteristics.
----------------------
Suppose, we are conducting a survey to study the buying behaviour of
a certain product and the buying behaviour is greatly influenced by the ----------------------
income level of the consumers. We assume that it is possible to divide our
----------------------
population into three income strata, namely A, B and C (Higher, Middle,
Lower Income). Further, it is known that 20% of the population is in A ----------------------
group, 35% in B group and 45% in C group. If it is decided to select a
sample of size 200 from the population samples of size 40, 70 and 90 ----------------------
should come from A, B and C groups respectively. Now the various field
----------------------
workers are assigned quotas to select the sample from each group in such
a way that a total sample of 200 is selected in the same proportion as ----------------------
mentioned above. For example, the first field workers may be assigned a
quota of 10 consumers from A group, 25 from B group and 40 from the C ----------------------
group. Similarly, the 2nd field worker may be given a different quota and
----------------------
so on such that a total sample of 200 is obtained in the same proportion as
discussed earlier. ----------------------
At the outset, the Quota sampling procedure might look similar to stratified
----------------------
sampling. However, there is a difference between the two. Under stratified
sampling, the field worker selects a random sample from each cell of the ----------------------
population, whereas under Quota sampling the selection of sample is not
random. It is left to the judgement of the field worker. ----------------------
The quota sampling method has some weaknesses. These are as follows: ----------------------
a. An accurate and up to date proportion of respondent assigning to each cell ----------------------
is not easy.
b. As the number of parameters associated with the objectives of the study ----------------------
becomes large, the total number of cells increases. This makes the task of ----------------------
field staff difficult.
c. The proper parameters related to the study in question must be incorporated ----------------------
while taking a sample. The results of the study could be misleading if any ----------------------
relevant parameter is omitted.
----------------------
d. The field workers might like to visit those areas where the chances of the
availability of a respondent satisfying certain desired parameters is very ----------------------
high. They might avoid certain respondent who look unfriendly and live
in the houses which may not be of good appearance. These factors are ----------------------
likely to make the findings of the study less reliable.
----------------------

Sampling and Sampling Technique 147

 Notes The quota sampling method has some advantages too. The method has
a lower cost and field workers have a free hand to select respondents for each
---------------------- cell to fill their quota. The samples, if selected with care would result into more
definitive findings.
----------------------

---------------------- Check your Progress 3

---------------------- Multiple Choice Multiple Response.
---------------------- 1. Which of the following sampling methods are not based on probability?
i. Simple Random Sampling
----------------------

ii. Quota Sampling
---------------------- iii. Stratified Sampling
---------------------- iv. Convenience Sampling

----------------------
Activity 3
----------------------
1. The data below indicate the number of workers in the factory for
----------------------
twelve factories.
---------------------- Factory No. No. of Workers
---------------------- 1 12104
2 11259
---------------------- 3 12030
4 11616
---------------------- 5 12382
6 1179
----------------------
7 12691
---------------------- 8 1741
9 1768
---------------------- 10 16655
11 14180
---------------------- 12 12812
---------------------- Select a simple random sample without replacement of size four. Start
at the beginning of the third row. Compute the average number of
---------------------- workers per factory based on the sample. Compare this number with
---------------------- the average number of workers per factory in the population.
2. Make a list of some research studies where some of the non probability
---------------------- methods, could be used. Also justify the choice of a particular sampling
---------------------- method you have selected for a study.

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

148 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

7.11 SAMPLING DESIGN Notes
A Sampling design is a clear plan for obtaining a sample from a given ----------------------
population. It refers to the procedure the business researchers would adopt to
select units for the sample. It will also indicate the number of units to be included ----------------------
in the sample also known as Sample size. Sampling design is determined before
----------------------
data are collected. While developing a sampling design, the researcher must
pay attention to the following points. ----------------------
Type of Population ----------------------
The first step in developing any sampling design is to clearly define the
aggregate of sampling units, namely, the population. Sometimes the structure ----------------------
of the population is quite unambiguous such as the population of a city or the ----------------------
number of workers in a factory. However, there may be occasions where the
compositions of the population is not too simple. For example, in the context ----------------------
of advertising a company may like to collect information about the number of
television viewers watching the advertisement. ----------------------

Sampling Unit ----------------------

The sampling unit must be identified before selection of a sample. A ----------------------
sampling unit may be a natural geographical unit such as a state, a district, a
village or a constructed unit such as a house or a flat. It may be a social entity ----------------------
such as a family or a school and also an individual. The researcher should be
----------------------
able to select appropriate unit so that its objective is achieved.
Type of Sample ----------------------
The researcher has a wide choice of sampling procedures. Each procedure ----------------------
has its suitability for the relevant occasion. The type of frame necessary also
depends upon the sampling procedure being used e.g. the use of simple random ----------------------
sampling will require a comprehensive list of the sampling units. But a two ----------------------
stage sampling will require the list of all first stage units and the list of all
second stage units in the selected first stage units only. ----------------------

Check your Progress 4 ----------------------

----------------------
Multiple Choice Single Response.
1. When selecting a sample for the “sample design”, the sample represent ----------------------

i. The whole possible set ----------------------

ii. A segment of the whole selected at random ----------------------
iii. A segment of the whole that best represent the set
iv. The whole set ----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

Sampling and Sampling Technique 149

 Notes 7.12 SAMPLE SIZE
---------------------- There are two basic requirements for the sampling procedure to fulfill. A
sample must be representative and it must be adequate. When it is representative,
---------------------- a sample will be relatively small piece of the population that mirrors the various
patterns and subclasses of the population. A sample is adequate if it provides
----------------------
an estimator with sufficiently high precision. It should be remembered in this
---------------------- context that the higher is the precision, the larger is the sample size and more is
the cost.
----------------------
Size of the Sample
---------------------- It is essential to have proper sampling for the proper study of a problem.
---------------------- It means that the sample should be of proper size. If the sample is either too
small or too big, it shall make the study difficult. The size of the sample can be
---------------------- decided after considering the various factors of study and the sample. Barten
has opined “An optimum sample in survey is one, which fulfils the requirements
---------------------- of efficiency representativeness, expenses and flexibility. The sample should
---------------------- be small enough to avoid unnecessary expenses and large enough to avoid
intolerable sampling error.”
----------------------
Factors Determining the Size of the Sample
---------------------- The following factors help to decide the size of the sample:
---------------------- Nature of the study: The size of the sample is determined by the nature of the
study. In case an intensive study is to be done, large number of samples shall
---------------------- not be useful, as they shall involve much of the resources. In order to make
intensive study, it is always the smaller number that is convenient. Apart from
----------------------
saving time and resources, it enables the investigator to study more.
---------------------- Nature of the Population: The size and the selection of the sample are also
---------------------- governed by the nature of the population. If it is homogeneous, the small sized
samples may yield dependable and expected results. If heterogeneous or most
---------------------- of the units differ from one another, the samples may not be of any use.

---------------------- Questionnaire and Schedule: The size of the sample is also dependent on the
size of the questionnaire. In case, the questionnaire is small and the questions to
---------------------- be asked pertain to certain limited factors, even small-sized samples can serve
the purpose. In case, the schedule is large in size so that from administrative
---------------------- point of view, the investigator feels that the questions are complicated, the
---------------------- schedule should be made smaller.
Types of the Sampling: The sampling method also determines the size of
---------------------- the samples. When samples are selected through random sampling method,
---------------------- the sample has to be large. But if sample selection is done through “stratified
sampling method”, the reliability can be achieved even with the help of the
---------------------- small-sized samples.
---------------------- Practicability: In determining the size of the samples, practical considerations
as well as the standard of accuracy play an important role. Every study is guided
---------------------- by certain practical considerations such as time, resources acceptability to the

150 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

data etc. These factors determine the size of the sample. Generally, it is believed Notes
that a large-sized sample is more representative and produces accurate results.
This is not said to be true of small sizes-samples but this would very much ----------------------
depend upon the technique of the sampling. If the technique is scientific, even
small-sized samples can produce dependable and accurate results. ----------------------

Apart from the factors stated above, the size of the samples is very much ----------------------
governed by the nature of the study, the experience and the common sense of
----------------------
the investigator. While using the instructions and the guidelines, he has to use
his commonsense also and rely upon his own experience and the experience of ----------------------
his predecessors.
----------------------
In the statistical sampling that is carried on by the government or
corporations, there are six criteria that have to be met. ----------------------
●● Usefulness and comprehensiveness of content
----------------------
●● Reliability of results, sufficient for the purpose
----------------------
●● Intelligibility (classifications and definitions understood)
●● Speed ----------------------

●● Economy of operation ----------------------

●● Accurate interpretation and presentation ----------------------
Most of the above criteria will be satisfied by establishing a good technique
----------------------
for deter- mining the proper sample size.
There is a common misconception that larger the sample size, greater ----------------------
is the accuracy of the sample results. This is not always true. An increase in a
----------------------
sample size increases the precision of the results till size of the sample reaches
certain point – beyond which there is no improvement. Empirically, size of the ----------------------
sample is taken considering resources at our disposal like time, cost and field
force. Statistically, a sample size less than 30 is governed by what is known ----------------------
as ‘t’ test – known as small sample test. A sample – size of more than 30 is
----------------------
governed by a Normal Distribution.
In a statistical approach, the sample size in estimated on the basis of a ----------------------
required level of accuracy of the results. The statistical approach uses either ----------------------
(a) the sample mean method or (b) the sample proportion method.
Before understanding these methods we need to understand some terms ----------------------
in details. ----------------------
Parameter and Statistic
----------------------
We have defined population (or universe) as the aggregate of statistical
data forming a subject of investigation and a sample is a portion of the population ----------------------
which is examined with a view to estimating the characteristics of the population.
----------------------
Sampling Theory is the study of relationship between a population and samples
drawn from the population and it is applicable to random samples only. We ----------------------
wish to obtain the maximum information about the population with the help of
samples. We estimate the true value of the population mean, standard deviation ----------------------

Sampling and Sampling Technique 151

 Notes etc., by using sample values like sample mean, sample standard deviation etc.
and also estimate the limits of accuracy of estimates based on samples. Sampling
---------------------- theory helps us to determine whether the differences between the samples are
actually due to chance variation or whether they are really significant. It is also
---------------------- useful is testing of hypothesis and significance which is important in the theory
---------------------- of decisions.
Parameter
----------------------
It is a statistical measure based on all the units of a population. The
---------------------- measures are population mean, population standard deviation, population
proportion defectives. These are known as population parameters.
----------------------
Statistic
----------------------
Sample statistic or only statistic is a statistical measure based only on
---------------------- all units or observations selected in a sample. They are sample mean, sample
standard deviation and sample proportion defective.
----------------------
---------------------- 7.13 OTHER SAMPLING METHODS
---------------------- 1. Snow Balling

---------------------- In this method the initial members of the sample lead the researcher to newer
sample constituents. In a way, the initial members are informants that help
---------------------- to generate the samples frame as well as develop the sample. Consider the
example of a researcher requesting a person of a specified socio-economic
---------------------- class to name a few similar persons. Each of these persons is in turn requested
---------------------- to name a few more similar persons and the sampling frame starts building
up. The researcher can now draw a sample from this population.
---------------------- Advantages of Snow Balling
---------------------- ●● Snow- balling is useful in social studies.
---------------------- ●● Snow-balling is useful where sampling frames are unavailable.
Disadvantages of Snow Balling
----------------------
●● The method cannot be effectively applied in case of large
---------------------- populations.
---------------------- ●● Snow-balling does not ensure a representative sample.
●● The choice of the original set of sample members is very crucial,
---------------------- yet very much subjective.
---------------------- ●● The principles of random sampling cannot be applied.
2. Saturation Sampling
----------------------
In certain activities, all members of the population need to be studied for
---------------------- getting a picture of entire population. The sampling method that requires
---------------------- a study of all population is called saturation sampling. This technique is
adopted in sociometric studies. In such studies even if one person is left
---------------------- out, distorted results can be obtained.

152 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

3. Spatial Sampling Notes
Some populations are not static; they move from place to place while
----------------------
an event is taking place. In such a case, the whole population (where
possible) at a particular place are included in sampling and studied. ----------------------
The above mentioned are a few recently developed sampling plans which
----------------------
are different from more traditional ones. Each sampling plan has its own
merits and demerits. The researcher can choose any one or a combination ----------------------
of sampling methods considering the needs and requirements and to
ensure maximum representation of the population. ----------------------
Self Selected Sampling ----------------------
In certain cases, some people themselves opt for inclusion or non-inclusion ----------------------
in the sample. For example, when the Union Public Services Commission
conducted a survey for the purpose of revising the selection methods of the ----------------------
all-India services, many prominent citizens of India voluntarily obtained the
questionnaire and opted to supply the information required by the Commission. ----------------------
Sequential Sampling ----------------------
Inductive inference is closely associated with statistical methods. ----------------------
Sequential sampling is the process of selecting a small number of samples from
a large population for the purpose of making inferences. The population itself is ----------------------
a set of large number of objects which can be the total number of conceivable
observations of a particular kind that possesses certain given specified common ----------------------
characteristics. The whole abstract concept or the area of study that represents the ----------------------
population is universe. Sequential sampling is the selection of small samples on
the basis of sequence from a large population for the sake of possible inferences. ----------------------
However, if the expected inference or decision becomes impossible on the
basis of the selected small sample, more samples would become necessary for ----------------------
meaningful inferences further. Sequential sampling is generally useful in the ----------------------
statistical quality control of finished products. In a pharmaceutical company,
small samples are drawn from each batch (lot) of every drug in a sequential ----------------------
manner to test the quality, in which case sequential sampling is useful.
----------------------
Summary ----------------------
●● The population consists of a total number of units. A sample is a part, ----------------------
group or aggregate selector a from a population with a view to obtain
information about the whole group known as population. The total number ----------------------
of units in the population and in the sample is known as the population size ----------------------
and the sample size respectively. Sampling is a technique which has been
traditionally used in estimating the crop yield or in examining the quality ----------------------
of outgoing produces. Today, in addition to such traditional applications
sampling is extensively and successfully used in management science in ----------------------
problems such as inventory assessment, in socio-economic surveys, in ----------------------
political and other organised polls. We have discussed all this at length.
Compared to complete enumeration or census, sampling is less expensive, ----------------------

Sampling and Sampling Technique 153

 Notes requires less time, demands moderate work force and is still accurate. In
addition, sampling is the only method for collecting information when the
---------------------- measurement of the sampling unit is destructive in nature.
---------------------- ●● Sampling methods are of two types: Probabilistic Sampling and Non-
Probabilistic Sampling
---------------------- ●● The former attaches some probability to each unit of the population to
---------------------- be included in the sample and is thus more representative. The simple
random sampling is the core technique in this sampling and attaches equal
---------------------- probability to each unit of the population to be selected. This, operationally,
depends upon the sampling frame, containing a list of only the units of the
---------------------- population.
---------------------- ●● When the population is heterogeneous due to variety of causes, a different
method is forwarded in selecting primary homogeneous groups but
---------------------- ultimately selecting individual units using simple random sampling. There
---------------------- different probability sampling methods are discussed as Stratified Random
Sampling, Multistage Sampling, Systematic Sampling, Cluster Sampling.
---------------------- ●● The other non-probability Sampling methods discussed are Convenience
Sampling, Judgement Sampling and Quota Sampling. These methods are
----------------------
also used but the representative character of such samples is not concerned.
----------------------
Keywords
----------------------

---------------------- ●● Sampling: It means selection of a part of the whole (group) with a view to
obtaining information about the whole.
---------------------- ●● Population: It is the aggregate from which a sample is drawn. In statistics,
it refers to any specified collection of objects, people, organisations etc.
----------------------
●● Population Size: It is the total number of units present in the population.
----------------------
●● Sampling Units: They are members of the population.
---------------------- ●● Sampling Frame: It is the list of all the units of the population.
---------------------- ●● Sampling Design: It is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from a given
population.
---------------------- ●● Sample Size: It is the total number of units in the sample.
---------------------- ●● Simple Random Sample: It is a sample in which each unit of the population
has an equal chance of being selected in the sample.
----------------------
●● Statistic: A mathematical value, which summarises a characteristic of a
---------------------- sample.

---------------------- ●● Parameter: A mathematical value which summarises a characteristics of

a population
----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

154 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

 Notes
Self-Assessment Questions
----------------------
1. Define Population and Sample and explain the necessity of using Sampling
method. ----------------------
2. Discuss the advantages of sampling method over the Census method.
----------------------
3. What is Simple Random Sampling? Describe any one method of drawing
a Simple Random Sample from a Population. ----------------------

4. What is Sampling? Why it is important? Give necessary characteristics of ----------------------

a good sample.
----------------------
5. Explain what is meant by Stratified Random Sampling and Cluster
Sampling giving illustrations. ----------------------
6. Discuss the importance of sampling frame. What are the possible errors ----------------------
resulting from a faulty Sampling frame?
----------------------
Answers to Check your Progress ----------------------
Check your Progress 1 ----------------------
Fill in the blanks.
----------------------
1. A population is defined as the totality of all possible values of a particular
characteristic for a specified group of objects. ----------------------
2. The selected part, which is used to ascertain the characteristics of the ----------------------
population, is called sample.
----------------------
3. The process of learning about the population on the basis of a sample
drawn from it is known as sampling. ----------------------
Check your Progress 2 ----------------------
State True or False.
----------------------
1. False
----------------------
2. True
3. True ----------------------

Check your Progress 3 ----------------------

Multiple Choice Multiple Response. ----------------------
1. Which of the following sampling methods are not based on probability?
----------------------
ii. Quota Sampling
----------------------
iv. Convenience Sampling
----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

Sampling and Sampling Technique 155

 Notes Check your Progress 4
Multiple Choice Single Response.
----------------------
1. When selecting a sample for the “sample design”, the sample represent
----------------------
iii. A segment of the whole that best represent the set
----------------------

---------------------- Suggested Reading

---------------------- 1. Bryman, Allan & Bell Emma. 2003. Business Research Methods. Oxford
University Press.
----------------------
2. Cooper, Donald, Schindler Pamela. 2006. Business Research Methods.
---------------------- Tata McGraw Hill Companies.
3. Kothari C.R. 1985. Research Methodology – Methods & Techniques.
----------------------
New Age International Publishers.
----------------------
----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

156 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

Observation
UNIT

8
Structure:

8.1 Introduction
8.2 Definition of Observation
8.3 Features of Observation
8.4 Importance of Observation
8.5 Types of Observation
8.6 Advantages and Disadvantages of Observation
8.7 Limitations of Observation
8.8 Difficulties in Observation
Summary
Keywords
Self-Assessment Questions
Answers to Check your Progress
Suggested Reading

Observation 157
 Notes
Objectives
----------------------
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
----------------------
• Assess the importance of observation in research work
----------------------
• Distinguish between routine observations and scientific observations
---------------------- • Apply a proper observational technique in a given situation
----------------------

---------------------- 8.1 INTRODUCTION

---------------------- “Science begins with observation and must ultimately return to observation
for its final validation”. (Goode and Hatt)
----------------------
Observation is probably the oldest method used by human being in
---------------------- scientific investigation. We are very familiar with observations since we are
constantly engaged in observation of things, objects, processes and even
---------------------- thoughts. This is the basic method of obtaining information about everything
around us. Take an example of a child at home. The child’s eyes are constantly
----------------------
moving in all directions to learn from what he/she can see. The observation
---------------------- enhances the knowledge of the child which, in turn, helps the child to
understand the environment and to make proper adjustments within it. The
---------------------- root cause of observation is basically curiosity of the child. This behaviour of
observation among children is not confined to childhood. We learn new things
----------------------
through observation. Scientists make new discoveries; discover new or better
---------------------- theories through observation. There is a difference in our observation and that
of scientists. Observation is not merely seeing things, activities or situations,
---------------------- but it is carefully, minutely watching the various occurrences in the universe
with a purpose of deriving certain results. Therefore, all the observations are not
----------------------
scientific observations. Observation becomes a scientific tool for the researcher
---------------------- to the extent that it serves a formulated research purpose, planned systematically,
is related to some theoretical proposition, is recorded methodically and is
---------------------- subjected to checks and counterchecks and to control its reliability and validity.
However, the history of science has good evidence of valuable discoveries
----------------------
founded on haphazard, unsystematic and very casual observations that had no
---------------------- relation to any pre-designed and established research purpose. Sir Alexander
Fleming himself has said that the discovery of Penicillin, the wonder drug was
---------------------- accidental. Same is said about the discovery of radium. However, this does not
belittle the importance or the role of observations in research.
----------------------
The data that is sought by the social researchers is many a time obtained
---------------------- through direct observations. Direct observation of the behaviour is not the
only method by which the social researcher can obtain data. Interviews,
----------------------
questionnaires, records also under certain conditions, replace and supplement
---------------------- observations by the researcher. John Dollard had said, “The primary research
instrument would seem to be the observing human intelligence trying to make
---------------------- sense out of human experience.”

158 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

8.2 DEFINITION OF OBSERVATION Notes
i. In the word of Oxford Concise Dictionary “Observation is a systematic ----------------------
and deliberate study through the eye of spontaneous occurrences at the
time they occur. The purpose of observation is to perceive the nature ----------------------
and extent of significance interrelated elements within complex social ----------------------
phenomena, culture patterns or human conduct.”
ii. Oxford Concise Dictionary says “Observation means accurate watching, ----------------------
noting of phenomena as they occur in nature with regard to cause and ----------------------
effect of mutual relations”. Thus, in observation, an attempt is made
to discover casual and other relations between facts of phenomenon. ----------------------
Secondly, phenomenon is watched realistically and precisely and the
facts are written down. ----------------------

Meaning of Observation ----------------------

Scientific study depends ultimately upon the observer. As science ----------------------
develops, its hypothesis requires more precise data. In the physical science
the observer’s senses are “standardised” by the use of mechanical devices. ----------------------
However, the observer is always a variable to be taken into account. In case of
----------------------
Sociology, a lot of information must be gathered before a genuine experiment
can be designed and both participant and non participant observations are used ----------------------
for this purpose. Science begins with observation and must ultimately return to
observation for its final validation. People restrict the concept of ‘observation’ ----------------------
to watching, but this is too narrow a view: it also involves listening and reading.
----------------------
It means the careful and systematic watching of facts as they occur in course of
nature. In a strict sense, observation implies the use of the eyes rather than of ----------------------
the ears and voice. It is the classic method of scientific enquiry. Our knowledge
of the world is built upon other people’s observations. We accept a whole mass ----------------------
of knowledge collected through careful as well as careless, casual and at times
----------------------
unscientific observation.
A slight variation in this procedure is an indirect oral investigation ----------------------
where data are collected through indirect sources. Persons who are likely to
----------------------
have information about the problem are interrogated and on the basis of their
answers, primary data becomes available. Most of the Commissions of Enquiry ----------------------
or Committees appointed by Government collects primary data by this method.
The accuracy of the primary data collected by this method depends largely upon ----------------------
the type of persons interviewed and hence these persons have to be selected
----------------------
very carefully.
----------------------
8.3 FEATURES OF OBSERVATION
----------------------
The following are the features of observation:
----------------------
i. Eye Observation: Observation is done through the medium of eyes. A
trained observer never trusts the hearsay. He puts his trust only in that ----------------------
which he has seen with his own eyes and only if a report is a first-hand
----------------------

Observation 159
 Notes evidence of our eyes. It is said, “Half believe what you see and do not
believe at all what you hear”. The evidence of eyes is most trustworthy of
---------------------- all evidences.
---------------------- ii. Aim: Every scientific observation has its own aim. The aim can be
verification of hypothesis, discovery of certain facts or the knowledge of
---------------------- casual relations inherent in a phenomenon. Accordingly, observation is
always purposeful and the object is discovery of casual relations between
----------------------
various observations of phenomenon.
---------------------- iii. Planning: Observation needs a well- organised and systematic effort. In
the planning of an observation, certain equipments and instruments are
----------------------
required, so also different types of apparatus are used. Control is not an
---------------------- essential feature of observation because observation can be made even
when no control over the subject-matter is exercised.
----------------------
iv. Recording: Memory is deceptive. Hence, no scientific method
---------------------- much reliance on memory is placed. A great deal of what we learn is
forgotten and even most vivid impressions are blurred with the passage
---------------------- of time. Hence, all impressions are suitably recorded simultaneously
or immediately after. The general method of keeping record is writing
----------------------
down the impressions. But now-a-days the actual impressions are tape
---------------------- recorded or Video camera is used. The greatest benefit of recording is that
the possibility of making error is zero. A tape is a permanent record in
---------------------- which actual words are recorded. A camera can record more truthfully an
event than even human eye. Besides camera photo is a fairly permanent
----------------------
record which can be multiplied. Again photo observation, unlike the eye,
---------------------- is repeatable. The delineation of moods of man, topography of a physical
feature, movements of a ballerina and many other phenomena require
---------------------- considerable amount of observation for proper interpretation. This is not
possible by human eye when the events are unfolding themselves but a
----------------------
photo record of such things can be watched at leisure and the expressions
---------------------- in it studied carefully. In the modern social research, extensive use of
tape recorder, camera and similar other devices is being made. This helps
---------------------- a lot in correct observation and maintenance of fairly reliable records.
The powerful movie camera of modern days penetrates into depths of the
----------------------
subjects.
---------------------- Observation, as a method of data collection in social science has the
---------------------- following characteristics:
i. Physical and Mental Activity: Observation involves sense organs of the
---------------------- investigator. He sees and hears things, objects etc. and keeps in mind or
---------------------- records the same for careful study and analysis later on. He sees and hears
many things but needs to screen those that are pertinent to his study.
---------------------- ii. Purposive and Selective: Observation is not casual. It is made for the
---------------------- specific purpose of noting things relevant to the research study. The
researcher narrows down the range of his activities only to the area of his
---------------------- relevance to study. So all that is heard or seen does not form observation.

160 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

iii. Exactness: Observation should be exact and be based on standardised Notes
tools of research such as precision tools, observation schedule etc.
----------------------
iv. Cause and Effect Relationships: Observation must try to establish
cause and effect relationship in the phenomenon under study. It must ----------------------
grasp significant events or phenomenon that effect social relations of the
participants. ----------------------
v. Direct Study: Observation is the only method of collecting reliable ----------------------
primary data and is therefore an essential scientific method in which the
researcher makes a direct study of the situation, event or a phenomenon. ----------------------

----------------------
Check your Progress 1
----------------------
Multiple Choice Multiple Response.
----------------------
1. Which of the following statement regarding observation method of
collecting data is true? ----------------------
i. Subjective bias is eliminated if observation is done accurately. ----------------------
ii. It is the most commonly used method in studies relating to
behavioral studies. ----------------------
iii. The information provided by this method is very huge. ----------------------
iv. It is faster than other methods.
----------------------
2. Which of the following are features of observations?
----------------------
i. Purposive and selective
ii. Indirect study ----------------------
iii. Aim ----------------------
iv. Expensive
----------------------

----------------------
8.4 IMPORTANCE OF OBSERVATION
----------------------
Observation is said to be a classical method of making a scientific
inquiry. The body of knowledge of various natural and physical sciences such ----------------------
as psychology, biology, plant ecology etc. has been built upon through centuries
----------------------
of systematic observation. Much of our knowledge about human beings is also
accumulated only through ‘observation’. In fact, observation is indispensable ----------------------
for research. It also plays a significant role in formulating and testing hypothesis
in social sciences. Webb has pointed out that all social research begins and ends ----------------------
with observation. Behavioural researchers observe interactions among small
----------------------
groups, political researchers observe behavioural pattern of the political leaders
and political institutes, anthropologists study through observation of simple ----------------------
societies. The National Geographic Magazine’s study of wild life is totally
based on observations. You can see how observation studies are carried out in ----------------------
TV serials.
----------------------

Observation 161
 Notes Observation –a technique of data collection
Goode and Hatt have rightly said that science begins with observation.
----------------------
Observation becomes scientific when
---------------------- ●● It is planned deliberately
---------------------- ●● It is serving as a formulated research purpose
●● It is systematically recorded
----------------------
●● It is subjected to checks and controls of validity and reliability
---------------------- Process of Observation
---------------------- Observation involves three processes (a) Sensation (b) Attention (c) Perception
---------------------- ●● Sensation: Sensation is gained through the sense organs, which depend
upon physical alertness of the observer.
---------------------- ●● Attention or concentration: This is largely a matter of will power and
---------------------- adequate training experience.
●● Perception: It comprises the interpretation of sensory reports. Thus,
---------------------- sensation merely reports the facts as observed but perception enables the
---------------------- mind to recognise the facts.
Such a process of observation serves the purpose of:
----------------------
●● Studying collective behavior and complex social situation
---------------------- ●● Understanding the whole and the part in their inter-relation
---------------------- ●● Following up of individual units composing the situation and

---------------------- ●● Getting the out of the way details of situation.

Modern sciences have main root in observation. Science starts with
---------------------- observation and returns to observation for its final validation. We can say that,
observation is the oldest technique and still it is equally useful in collecting
----------------------
certain types of data.
----------------------
Activity 1
----------------------

---------------------- 1. Observe a child in three stages: From birth to 4 months, 5 months to 8

months and 9 months to 12 months. See what the child does and write
---------------------- down what the child has learnt in each period of observation.
---------------------- 2. Observe your friend (new) for a period of six months with respect
to his behaviour towards you and write down how you interpret his
---------------------- behaviour.
---------------------- 3. Observe how electricity is consumed in your house by your family
members for 15 days; can you suggest methods of saving electricity
---------------------- on the basis of the family members’ method of using electricity? List
---------------------- the methods of saving electricity along with relevant observations you
had made.
----------------------

162 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

8.5 TYPES OF OBSERVATION Notes
Observation may take many forms. It includes most casual, uncontrolled ----------------------
experiences as well as most exact film records. There are many observational
techniques and each has its own merit and limitations. But factors such as ----------------------
alertness and preferences of the researcher, his range and depth of knowledge
----------------------
and goals set for research project determine the pattern of observation.
With reference to the role of an investigator, it is classified into ----------------------
(a) participant observation and (b) non-participant observation. With reference ----------------------
to the mode of observation, it is classified into (c) direct observation and
(d) indirect observation and with respect to the adopted system of observation, ----------------------
it is classified into (e) controlled observation and (f) uncontrolled observation.
----------------------
Some theories have classified them into following categories:
----------------------
1. Casual and Scientific observation
2. Natural and Contrived observation ----------------------
3. Subjective and Objective observation ----------------------
4. Direct and Indirect observation ----------------------
5. Participant and Non participant observation
----------------------
6. Structured Observation and Unstructured observation
----------------------
7. Controlled observation and Non Controlled observation
1. Casual and Scientific Observations: An observation may be either casual ----------------------
or scientific. The difference between casual and scientific observation
----------------------
occurs without any previous preparation and it is, therefore, a matter of
chance that the right thing is observed at the right time and in the right ----------------------
place. Scientific observation, on the other hand, is carried out with the
help of tools of measurement. Hence, all observations are not scientific ----------------------
observations.
----------------------
2. Natural and Contrived Observation: Natural observation occurs when
behaviour is observed while it is taking place in a normal setting. For ----------------------
example, watching the customers that enter a general store before they
----------------------
either leave or make a purchase. In natural observation, no attempt is
made to manipulate the behaviour of the observed. These studies help us ----------------------
to improve our collection of a particular data or adjust the environment so
as to make it more congenial to the customers. ----------------------
In an actual study utilising contrived observation, an unshaven observer ----------------------
dressed in usual clothes entered a departmental stores; then observed how
many minutes it took before a sales person arrived to wait on him. The ----------------------
average was nearly ten minutes. However, when the same individual was ----------------------
dressed in sports coat and slacks, he had the good fortune to be waited on
for an average of just five minutes, a significant reduction. This enabled ----------------------
the researcher to conclude that the attentiveness of sales persons is a
function of customer dress. ----------------------

Observation 163
 Notes 3. Subjective and Objective Observation: In every observation there are
two components – the object (or what is observed) and the subject (or
---------------------- the observer). It may be that sometimes one may have to observe one’s
own immediate experience. That is called subjective observation or self
---------------------- observation or introspection. On the other hand, in many investigations,
---------------------- the observer is an entity apart from the thing observed. Observation of
this type is objective observation or retrospection. In recording social
---------------------- data, objective observation is more appropriate as compared to subjective
observation.
----------------------
4. Direct and Indirect Observation: The direct method describes the
---------------------- situation in which the observer is physically present and personally
monitors what takes place. Indirect observation is the term used to describe
----------------------
studies in which the recording is done by mechanical, photographic or
---------------------- electronic means.
Direct observation means the observation of behaviour as is actually
----------------------
taking place. This is relatively straightforward .Suppose we are interested
---------------------- in noting down the interest of viewers of a firm. Direct observation can
be made to record the degree of interest viewers express on say, a film or
---------------------- a T.V. serial. If viewers found on Television serial that advertisements are
disturbing, they may try to put off the T.V. Similarly, they may be more
----------------------
conscious of the time. In an actual research situation, we could obtain a
---------------------- relative measure of interest in a serial or lecture by selecting sample of
audience for such an evaluation.
----------------------
In comparison, indirect observation involves observing the results of
---------------------- behaviour that has already happened. This is a novel approach that enables
the researcher to use a great deal of ingenuity to obtain information.
---------------------- For example, what type of soap is used by many in a locality can be
found out by observing the wrappers of the same. Similarly, what type
----------------------
of mineral water is liked by a majority of customers of a store can be
---------------------- found by counting the empty bottles. The exercise may be repeated for a
significantly reasonable period to establish a particular fact and provide
---------------------- for sampling errors. Hence, the garbage collectors are said to know more
about the purchasing habits of the people in a locality than the determined
----------------------
survey researchers.
---------------------- Secondly, data and other published records is another source of information
---------------------- for studies involving indirect observation. This is called content analysis
and involves systematic noting down of specified features that are present
---------------------- or absent in the material under examination.

---------------------- 5. Participant and Non-participant observation: Observation can also be

classified in to participant observation and non participant observation.
---------------------- When observers participate with the activities of the group under study,
it is known as participant observation. For example, if the researcher
---------------------- wants to study the behaviour of college students, it will be easier to study
---------------------- the students in their natural circumstances if they enroll themselves as

164 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

 members of the college. When the observer does not actually participate Notes
in the activities of the group to be studied, but simply be present in the
group, it is known as non-participant observation. The observer in this ----------------------
method makes no efforts to make his influence or to create a relationship
between him and the group. ----------------------

In participant observation, the degree of participation depends ----------------------

largely on the nature of the study and the practical demands of the
----------------------
situation. Studies involving interpersonal relationships make it imminent
to participate in the study. This type of observation helps to (i) Get ----------------------
spontaneous and unopposed picture of life and persons (ii) enables the
researcher to get wider information, because he becomes a member of the ----------------------
community or group being observed. (iii) See that the observer is able to
----------------------
watch the behaviour of the group in natural circumstances. This enables
the researcher to understand their feelings, ideas, hopes and fears. All this ----------------------
leads to increase the depth of the study.
----------------------
Participant observation has three limitations
i. The longer the period, greater resource and susceptibility to lose ----------------------
objectivity as the method involves study from close quarters.
----------------------
ii. The researcher must be accepted by one and all in the group. Even
the slightest non- acceptance brings down the quality of the research ----------------------
work. ----------------------
iii. The researcher may lose objectivity in the process for several
reasons. He may take sides or he may participate emotionally ----------------------
thereby losing the objectivity required for the study. ----------------------
Non- participant observation
----------------------
In non-participant observation, the researcher does not actually participate
in the activities of the group to be studied. The researcher makes no attempt ----------------------
to influence or to create a relationship between him and the group.
----------------------
The difference between participant and non-participant observation is a
matter of degree. ----------------------
Merit of this method: ----------------------
i. The researcher can maintain purely impartial status and be free ----------------------
from factionalism.
ii. He can adopt a scientific attitude and look at the happenings only ----------------------
from that perspective. ----------------------
However, the greatest drawback with this method is that
----------------------
i. The member of the group (i.e. those under observation) may
become suspicious of the presence of the researcher and hence may ----------------------
not display their natural behaviour.
----------------------
ii. Under non- participant observation, the observer observes only those
activities that take place before him. He is unable to understand ----------------------

Observation 165
 Notes them in proper sequence, unless he actively participates with the
group.
----------------------
6. Structured observation and Unstructured observation: The structured
---------------------- observation is characterised by a careful definition of the units to be
observed, information to be recorded, the selection of pertinent data
---------------------- for observation and standardisation of conditions of observation. The
unstructured observation is diametrically opposed to the structure
----------------------
observation.
---------------------- Structured observation is made as per plan. The type of activities
and characteristics to be identified and recorded is decided in advance.
----------------------
Structured observation is facilitated by the use of data collection
---------------------- instruments that are also structured.
In unstructured observation, the observer is
----------------------
i. Free to note down whatever he or she deems relevant to the situation
---------------------- being studied.
---------------------- ii. This type of observational method is highly applicable to exploratory
research, in which ideas and hypothesis are to be generated for
---------------------- subsequent and more conclusive examination.
---------------------- Of the two types, observation is more susceptible to bias on the part of the
observer. The researcher, if using this method must be very resourceful
---------------------- to utilise the freedom existing in the method for increasing the value and
---------------------- quality of the data.
7. Controlled observation and Non-controlled observation: Observation
----------------------
may be controlled or uncontrolled. When the observation is made in the
---------------------- natural surroundings and the activities are performed in their usual course
without being influenced or guided by any external force, it is known as
---------------------- simple or uncontrolled or natural observation. Following kinds of control
devices are generally used to carry out controlled observation:
----------------------
●● Detailed observation plan
----------------------
●● Observation schedule
---------------------- ●● Term observation
---------------------- ●● Use of control groups
●● Use of hypothesis
----------------------
●● Use of sociometric scales
---------------------- ●● Use of mechanical appliances
---------------------- Controlled Observation

---------------------- Controlled observation limits the bias of the individual observer, partly
by making the subjects feel the situation as natural, but the control may
---------------------- be more effective through the application of mechanical synchronising
devices, team observation, film recording, schedule and inventories,
---------------------- development of elaborate categories for locating and coding observed

166 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

 behaviour in a quick manner. Controlled observation improves the Notes
precision of the research results rarely. In the words of Goode and
Hatt, most of the knowledge which people have about social relations ----------------------
is derived from uncontrolled observation whether participant or non-
participant. Even when science has a considerable growth, the simple ----------------------
forms of looking and listening are not suspended. They contribute to the ----------------------
basic varied stock of knowledge about social relations and they are the
principal data gathering techniques for many modern investigations. Life ----------------------
situations can be adequately studied under controlled observations.
----------------------
Check your Progress 2 ----------------------

State True or False. ----------------------

1. In recording social data, subjective observation is more appropriate ----------------------
as compared to objective observation.
----------------------
2. Controlled observation improves the precision of the research results.
3. Under non-participant observation observer observes only those ----------------------
activities that take place before him ----------------------
4. Unstructured type of observational method is highly applicable to
exploratory research ----------------------

5. Controlled observation limits the bias of the individual observer, ----------------------

partly by making the subjects feel the situation as natural
----------------------

----------------------
8.6 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF
OBSERVATION ----------------------

Advantages of Observation ----------------------

●● Observation is the most direct means of data collection. It makes it possible ----------------------
to study behaviour as it occurs. The human behaviour can be best studied
by this method only. ----------------------
●● Data collected under this method is more accurate and reliable, as it is ----------------------
collected as first-hand perception. The data is also objective.
●● Observation improves opportunities for analysing the contextual ----------------------
background of behaviour. Verbal response can be validated and/or ----------------------
compared with behaviour transfer observation.
●● Observation reduces dependability on response of respondents who may ----------------------
not be willing to respond accurately. ----------------------
●● Observation has less bias involved than that of questioning, as it is not that
demanding. ----------------------
●● Through observation, we can register the complete phenomena as it occurs ----------------------
and have an insight in to all aspects of the problem.
----------------------

Observation 167
 Notes ●● With the use of modern gadgets, observations can be done continuously
and over long period to increase the reliability and accuracy.
---------------------- Disadvantages of Observation
---------------------- However, observations cannot be used like situations indiscriminately. It
has also limitations or disadvantages as follows:
----------------------
●● Opinions and attitudes cannot be studied by observations.
----------------------
●● The observations, recently requiring equipments, are becoming costlier.
---------------------- ●● Sampling theory is ruled out, as in interviewing or mailing, in observation
method also.
----------------------
Qualities of Observation Technique
---------------------- Following are qualities of the observation technique:
---------------------- ●● It is quite easy and requires less training to become a trained observer.
---------------------- ●● It is based on actual and firsthand experience; its data is more realistic than
the data of those techniques which use indirect and secondary source of
---------------------- information.
---------------------- ●● The observation method is common to almost all sciences.
●● The conclusions of observation are more reliable than non-observational
---------------------- conclusions because they are based on first hand perception by the eyes
---------------------- and can be verified by anyone by visual perception.
●● In all social sciences, the method of observation is the basis to formulate
---------------------- hypothesis.
---------------------- ●● Observation is the basis of verification of hypothesis. The problem presents
itself and resolves itself through observation. Only by actually seeing the
---------------------- phenomenon we know the nature of the problem and form a guess about
---------------------- the possible means of resolving it.
Observation is a classic technique of investigation in social science.
---------------------- According to G. H. Moser, “Observation can fairly be called the classic
method of scientific inquiry.” In social sciences, the technique of observation is
----------------------
becoming progressively sophisticated with the use of cameras, tape recorders
---------------------- and other mechanical appliances. The addition of mechanical appliances in
observation has rendered it more scientific and reliable than before and it may
---------------------- fairly be hoped that in future, observation will become completely scientific and
will prove to be a very useful technique.
----------------------
Instrumental aid in field of observation
----------------------
Instruments such as the (a) Camera (b) Stopwatch (c) Light-meter (d)
---------------------- Audio-meter (e) SET –meter (f) Audio and Video-tape recorders (g) Mechanical
Counters (h) and other devices like detailed field notes, check lists, maps,
---------------------- schedules, score cards, socio metric scales etc. make observations more precise
---------------------- than mere sense observations.

----------------------

168 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

8.7 LIMITATIONS OF OBSERVATION Notes
Although widely used in social research, observation has also certain ----------------------
limitations and drawbacks. It means some of the occurrences may not be
open to observation. The spontaneous occurrence of an event often cannot be ----------------------
predicted so that the observer can be present. The period of waiting for such
----------------------
occurrences is time consuming and emotionally exhausting. The observer must,
therefore keep such limitations and drawbacks of observation method in mind ----------------------
while using it for data collection.
----------------------
1. Observations are not useful at all while studying the past problems. One
needs to rely on documents available or narrations from individuals. ----------------------
2. Observations cannot be used to suit your way. One has to wait for the
----------------------
phenomenon or event to take place; hence time involved is more.
3. The mental and notional factors that cause social phenomenon are not ----------------------
perceivable and hence unobservable e.g. sentiments and prejudices, likes
----------------------
and dislikes are emotional and intellectual factors can be inferred and not
observed. ----------------------
4. The major limitation is the actual presence of the observer himself vis-a-
----------------------
vis the event to occur is unknown.
5. Many occurrences which a social researcher encounters, cannot be ----------------------
observed because these may be microscopic, may be indefinite; may not
occupy any definite space or occur at any definite time; or these may be ----------------------
of future. Moreover, it is not feasible for social researchers to be present ----------------------
wherever a new event takes place.
6. Observation and observable are neither co-extensive nor coeval. All ----------------------
relevant facts and events exhibit themselves. If these events occur ----------------------
in the absence of the observer, the question of their being observed is
irrelevant. Similarly, if the researcher is not able to exercise control over ----------------------
the circumstances, he cannot produce them at will. At the same time, he
cannot afford to wait indefinitely for these to occur. All these clearly show ----------------------
that the observation and the observable are not synchronous. ----------------------
7. Some persons cannot reveal their true behaviour if they are observed and
they know this fact. However, this defect is not unavoidable. Shrewd ----------------------
observer can overcome this by either concealing the fact from the observed ----------------------
individual or by creating absolute confidence in him.
8. The conclusions based on observation are not very reliable, because in ----------------------
observation it is necessary to depend upon human tact and resourcefulness ----------------------
alone. Though man’s capacity for accurate perception and understanding
is great, it is far from perfect. ----------------------
9. For observation we have to depend upon our eyes we can never be sure
----------------------
if what we are observing is the same as it appears to our eyes. A good
researcher knows how to perceive truthfully and avoid pitfalls common ----------------------
to ordinary perception. But most people are liable to deceptions which
characterise visual perception. ----------------------

Observation 169
 Notes 10. The full answer cannot be obtained by observation alone. Observation
must be supplemented by other methods of study.
----------------------
11. We cannot complete our investigation through observation in a short
---------------------- period. The slowness of observation method results in decreasing of
interest among both the observer and the observed.
----------------------
12. The technique of observation is very expensive - being a long-drawn
---------------------- process and at times requiring group observation. Moreover, for reaching
the observed and establishing a rapport with them requires more money
---------------------- and time.
----------------------
Check your Progress 3
----------------------
Fill in the blanks.
----------------------
1. Observation is the most direct means of __________________.
---------------------- 2. The human behaviour can be best studied by __________ method of
---------------------- data collection.

----------------------
8.8 DIFFICULTIES IN OBSERVATION
----------------------
Three main causes of distorted observation are:
---------------------- 1. Those due to the inadequacies of our sense-organs;
---------------------- 2. Those due to the interdependence of observation and inference; and
---------------------- 3. Those typical to the social sciences, i.e. those due to the impossibility
of observing human beings without influencing their actions and being
---------------------- influenced by them.
---------------------- 4. Inadequacies of our Sense Organs: Our sense organs operate in a variable,
erratic and selective manner. Psychologists have conducted experiments
---------------------- which have shown that what man perceives on a particular occasion
depends greatly on his state of mind and body at that time. There is a
----------------------
wealth of evidence to show that it is thoroughly unsafe to rely on the
---------------------- everyday observation.
(i) Observation and Inference: Observation and inference are inseparable.
----------------------
Anything that impinges on our senses has a meaning for us largely to the
---------------------- extent we relate it to what we already know. Without any frame to start
---------------------- with, new experiences are isolated, unidentifiable and meaningless. The
research worker with no frame of reference sees much, but identifies little.
---------------------- The researcher with too rigid a frame of reference sees only such things
as confirm his preconceptions. Thus, we are faced with the very awkward
---------------------- and serious difficulty. There are various possible ways of coming to grips
---------------------- with this difficulty. One way is to ignore it. If our observations are not
very objective, they are, able to prove to our personal satisfaction that
---------------------- what we see is true. There is the danger that non-controlled observation is

170 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

 likely to give us the feeling that we know more than we actually do, about Notes
what we have seen.
----------------------
(ii) Observer-Caused Effects: The researcher’s effort to study a phenomenon
always affects the phenomenon and is most likely to change it. The observer ----------------------
is invariably a part of the same environment as is the phenomenon he is
studying. Therefore, the observer like all other aspects of the environment ----------------------
cannot but influence the phenomenon. The observer effect in medical
----------------------
examination straddles the physical and social sciences; for example,
when a doctor takes a patient’s blood pressure, fear or excitement may ----------------------
force blood pressure far above the actual level.
----------------------
Summary ----------------------
●● Observation is the prime and most important method. We have an ----------------------
experience that each one of us is constantly engaged in the process of
observations. But that is not enough; the observations must be collected ----------------------
in a scientific manner for drawing any relevant conclusions from them.
We have discussed that compared to other methods of data collection, how ----------------------
observational method has distinct advantages. No method is really perfect. ----------------------
●● We have seen that the observational method do have certain disadvantages
and limitations. However, that does not upset large scale of results of the ----------------------
researcher. In fact, the disadvantages are too many in social – science ----------------------
research, where emotions, sentiments, prejudices, likes and dislikes cannot
be created. ----------------------
●● In spite of genuine disadvantages and limitations, this method finds ----------------------
extensive use not only in social research today but also in other scientific
research probably because the observations used as scientific tools is best ----------------------
suited to draw inferences in research studies.
----------------------
Keywords ----------------------

●● Observation: This is the observed value of a variate or it is the process of ----------------------

getting information.
----------------------
●● Observational Error: This refers to an error of observation but sometimes
occurs as meaning a response error. ----------------------

----------------------
Self-Assessment Questions
----------------------
1. How can you define ‘Observation’? Explain the process of observation.
----------------------
2. List different types of observations and give an illustration of each
3. Discuss the merits and demerits of the ‘Observational technique of data ----------------------
collection’
----------------------
4. Give briefly the importance of observations in social research.
----------------------

Observation 171
 Notes 5. You have in your organisation a product that needs to be packed in
containers of small size by workmen. How do you establish the standard
---------------------- time for packing a single container? Discuss the method in detail.
----------------------
Answers to Check your Progress
----------------------
Check your Progress 1
---------------------- Multiple Choice Multiple Response.
---------------------- 1. Which of the following statement regarding observation method of
collecting data is true?
----------------------
i. Subjective bias is eliminated if observation is done accurately.
----------------------
ii. It is the most commonly used method in studies relating to behavioral
---------------------- studies.

---------------------- 2. Which of the following are features of observations?

i. Purposive and selective
----------------------
iii. Aim
----------------------
Check your Progress 2
---------------------- State True or False.
---------------------- 1. False

---------------------- 2. False
3. True
----------------------
4. True
----------------------
5. True
---------------------- Check your Progress 3
---------------------- Fill in the blanks.

---------------------- 1. Observation is the most direct means of data collection.

2. The human behaviour can be best studied by observation method of data
---------------------- collection.
----------------------
Suggested Reading
----------------------

---------------------- 1. Bryman, Allan & Bell Emma. 2003. Business Research Methods. Oxford
University Press.
---------------------- 2. Cooper, Donald, Schindler Pamela. 2006. Business Research Methods.
---------------------- Tata McGraw Hill Companies.
3. Kothari C.R. 1985. Research Methodology – Methods & Techniques.
---------------------- New Age International Publishers.
----------------------

172 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

The Interview Method
UNIT

9
Structure:

9.1 Introduction
9.2 Definition and Meaning of Interview
9.3 Types of Interview
9.4 Advantages of the Interview Method
9.5 Major Limitations of the Interview Method
9.6 The Process of Interview
9.7 Prerequisites of a Successful Interview
Summary
Keywords
Self-Assessment Questions
Answers to Check your Progress
Suggested Reading

The Interview Method 173

 Notes
Objectives
----------------------
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
----------------------
• Assess the importance of the interview method
----------------------
• Interview people
---------------------- • Identify the types of questions to be asked or not to be asked
----------------------

---------------------- 9.1 INTRODUCTION

---------------------- Earlier we have discussed in details the methods of data collection and
also studied basic concepts of sampling and sampling methods that play a
----------------------
key role in any type of research. In the last unit, you have noticed, explains
---------------------- the fundamental and most familiar method of data collection, namely
‘Observation’. In this unit, we introduce in detail a verbal method of collecting
---------------------- data, namely the Interview – Technique. The observational techniques, as seen
in the previous unit, are understandably not so effective in giving information in
----------------------
formation about persons’ perceptions, beliefs, feelings, motives, anticipations,
---------------------- future plans or past and private behaviours. The observational techniques are
also restricted to non-verbal acts. The interview method, however, is quite
---------------------- effective in giving information about all the aspects mentioned in earlier lines.
G.W. Allport says “If you want to know how people feel, what they remember,
----------------------
what they experience what their emotions and motives are and the reasons for
---------------------- acting as they do – why not ask them?”
Human behaviour, we have seen in case of a child – is mostly non-verbal
----------------------
in the initial one or two years of life. The human beings, later on, engage
---------------------- themselves in oral-verbal acts. Later on, they are able to move to written-verbal
acts as part of the social system they live in. Both the above acts have two great
---------------------- advantages: (a) An infinite variety of meaningful information can be yielded
and (b) they can be easily stored. Somehow, more importance is attached to
----------------------
non-verbal than verbal acts. The assumption underlying this is that non- verbal
---------------------- acts are more real and basic.

---------------------- Even then, the oral-verbal techniques of data collection are indeed fruitful
sources of rich human behavioural data. The interview method discussed in
---------------------- this unit in one verbal method of securing data. Another one is a Questionnaire
method which we shall discuss in the next unit.
----------------------

---------------------- 9.2 DEFINITION AND MEANING OF INTERVIEW

---------------------- The interview method of collecting data involves presentation of oral-
verbal stimuli and reply in terms of oral-verbal responses.
----------------------
“The interview constitutes a social situation between two persons, the
---------------------- psychological process involved requiring both individuals mutually respond

174 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

through the social research. The purpose of the interview calls for a varied Notes
response from the two parties concerned.”
----------------------
- Vivien Palmar
“Interviewing is fundamentally a process of social interaction i.e. ----------------------
exchange of thoughts, ideas, views, opinions and experiences. It is not only the
----------------------
words spoken which matter but also the gestures, glances, facial expressions,
pauses, modulation of voice, rate of speech etc. which also matter a lot.” ----------------------
- W.I. Goode and P.K. Hatt
----------------------
“Interview is an effective informal non-verbal conversation initiated for
specific purpose and focussed on certain planned content areas.” ----------------------

- P.V. Young ----------------------

“Personal interviewing is the two way purposeful conversation initiated by ----------------------
an interviewer to obtain information that is relevant to some research purpose.”
----------------------
- C. William, B. Mory
“In an interview, two persons are not merely present at the same phase but ----------------------
also affect each other emotionally and intellectually.”
----------------------
The interview approach involves a person designated as the interviewer
asking questions (mostly) in a face-to-face contact (generally) to the other ----------------------
person or persons, designated the interviewee/s who give answers (mostly) to ----------------------
these questions. It does not mean, as the term ‘mostly’ in the brackets suggests,
that all the time it is the interviewer who asks questions. On rare occasions, the ----------------------
interviewee may also ask certain questions and the interviewer responds to the
questions. In any case, it is certain that the interviewer initiates the interaction ----------------------
(interview) and the interviewee is at the receiving end. ----------------------
Interview may be said to be one of the most commonly used technique
(usually employed with other techniques of data collection but also on occasions, ----------------------
singly) of data collection in studies of human behaviour. The reassessment of ----------------------
the qualitative interviews has helped the interview method attain tremendous
importance in contemporary research in the field of social and behavioural ----------------------
science.
----------------------
Meaning of Interview Technique
----------------------
The interview technique is the most important and powerful tool for data
collection in social research. The interview technique is a verbal method of ----------------------
securing data especially in the field research connected with the social problems.
It is a direct method of enquiry. The person who is interviewing is called the ----------------------
Interviewer or Interrogator and the person who is giving interview is called the
----------------------
Interviewee or Respondent or Informant.
An interview is usually a non-reciprocal relationship between the ----------------------
individuals concerned, that is, one party desires to get information for a particular
----------------------
or specific purpose. It is certain that the interviewer initiates the interaction
(interview) and the interviewee is at the receiving end. ----------------------

The Interview Method 175

 Notes This forms one of the important methods of data collection. It involves
systematic conversation between an interviewer/investigator and the respondent
---------------------- for getting relevant information for a specified research problem. It is said
that the respondents’ facial expressions, bodily gestures etc. also help to learn
---------------------- important things, his answers to the problem under study.
---------------------- Observational methods are less effective in giving information about a
person’s perception, attitudes, beliefs, feelings, motivations etc. To obtain such
----------------------
information, the interview method is very effective. Interview, can be a main
---------------------- method of collecting data, can also become a supplementary one to observation
method. It is also capable of collecting a wide range of data from demographic
---------------------- to social characteristics, to future intentions of a person. It also seems to be
superior as people prefer to talk than to write. In fact, the most confidential
----------------------
of the information can be obtained by this method. It helps probing into the
---------------------- problem deeply and to get correct answers to the same. It also helps to get
clarification for many replies containing relevant information.
----------------------
The interview is the most widely used method of gathering information
---------------------- in the field. No other approach enables the investigator to obtain so much
information and yet remain so flexible.
----------------------
Objectives of Interview
---------------------- The objectives of interview are twofold:
---------------------- i. To exchange ideas and experience and
---------------------- ii. To elicit (collect) information
The main purpose of interview as a tool of data collection – field procedure–
----------------------
is to gather data extensively and intensively. The objectives of interview may
---------------------- be exchange of ideas and experiences eliciting information pertaining to a very
wide range of data in which the interviewee may wish to rehearse his past,
---------------------- define his present and canvass his future possibilities.
----------------------
9.3 TYPES OF INTERVIEW
----------------------
The types of interviews have been classified by social scientists according
---------------------- to various criteria. The main types of interviews are as below:
---------------------- I. According to formality
a. Formal Interview: Under this, the interviewer presents a set of
----------------------
proper defined questions and notes down the answers of informant
---------------------- according to prescribed rules.

---------------------- b. Information Interview: In this type, the interviewer has full freedom
to make suitable alterations in the questions to suit a particular
---------------------- situation. In formal interview, he may revise the order or paraphrase
the questions to suit the needs of the respondents.
----------------------
II. According to number
---------------------- There are two types of interviews according to the number:

176 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

 a. Personal interview: Under personal interview a single individual Notes
is interviewed. This helps to establish close personal contracts
between the interviewer and the interviewee and by its means, ----------------------
detailed knowledge about intimate and personal aspects of the
individual can be obtained. ----------------------

b. Group interview: It is the opposite of the personal, because in ----------------------

group interview two or more persons are interviewed. The first is
----------------------
aimed at probing into the inner life and feelings of an individual and
the group interview is suited for gathering routine information. The ----------------------
former is uneconomical of time and money. The latter economises
both time and money, but compared with the former, the knowledge ----------------------
gained through the latter is very superficial and of routine nature.
----------------------
III. According to purpose
----------------------
The interviews have also been classified by the purpose for which they
are held. Following are the various types of this classification: ----------------------
a. Diagnostic Interview: This type of interviewers tries to understand ----------------------
the cause or causes of a malady. In clinical psychology and
psychoanalysis, the preliminary interviews with the patients are ----------------------
held with a purpose to grasp the nature and cause of the disease.
----------------------
b. Treatment Interview: If the cause of psychological malady is
diagnosed as non- physical, further interviews are held to bring to ----------------------
the notice of the patient that his malady is due to mental, complex
or faulty style of life. These interviews are called ‘treatment ----------------------
interviews’. ----------------------
c. Research Interview: These interviews are held to gather information
pertaining to certain problem. The questions to be asked to gather ----------------------
the desired information are predetermined and by asking them of ----------------------
the informants the data is collected.
----------------------
d. Interviews to fulfill curiosity: These interviews, as the name
implies, are held to satisfy some questions lurking in the mind of a ----------------------
scientist.
----------------------
IV. Classification according to the period of contact
a. Short contact interview: For filling up schedules, tables, etc., a ----------------------
single sitting of small duration suffices (sufficient). Therefore, in ----------------------
research of this type of short contact, interviews are sufficient.
b. Prolonged contact interview: In contact with research by schedule ----------------------
the case history method requires prolonged interviews. ----------------------
V. Classification according to subject matter
----------------------
a. Qualitative interview: The qualitative interviews are about complex
non-quantifiable subject matter. For example, interviews held for ----------------------
case studies are qualitative because the interviewer has to range
----------------------
over past, present and future to know enough about a case.

The Interview Method 177

 Notes b. Quantitative Interview: The quantitative interviews are those in
which certain set facts are gathered about a large number of people.
---------------------- The census interviews are its example.
---------------------- c. Mixed Interview: In certain interviews, both types of data – the
routine and specialised – is sought, some of it is quantifiable while
---------------------- some is not, therefore it is known as mixed interview.
---------------------- VI. Classification according to role
a. Non-directive interview or free or unstructured interview:
----------------------
This is a type of interview in which the interviewer exercises no
---------------------- control, provides no direction and has no brief or predetermined set
of questions to ask. The informant is left free to narrate as well as
---------------------- explain his experience.
---------------------- b. Focused interview: The main function of this type of interview is
to focus attention on the given experience of the respondent and its
---------------------- effects. The interviewer knows in advance the aspects of a question
---------------------- he has to cover. The focussed interview has been used effectively
in the development of hypotheses about the aspects of specific
---------------------- experience that may expectedly lead to changes in attitude on the
part of those exposed to experience.
----------------------
c. Repeated interview: This type of interview is eminently suited to
---------------------- trace the development of processes and to determine the factors or
attitudes which are behind a given behaviour pattern or situation.
----------------------
The other classification is made as follows:
----------------------
1. Structured Interview
---------------------- 2. Unstructured Interview
---------------------- 3. Focused Interview

---------------------- 4. Clinical Interview

5. In-depth Interview
----------------------
We will discuss these in details.
----------------------
1. Structural Interviews
---------------------- Such interviews involve the use of a set of pre-determined questions and
highly standardised techniques of recording. The reason for standardisation is
----------------------
to ensure that all respondents reply to the same questions; that is, any given
---------------------- question has the same meaning for all the respondents. These interviews
mostly involve the use of fixed, alternative questions. The alternative questions
---------------------- or close-ended questions are those in which the responses of the subjects are
limited to certain fixed, pre-designated alternatives. These alternatives may
----------------------
simply be ‘yes’ or ‘no’ or may consist of a series of anticipated replies out of
---------------------- which the respondent picks any one or more which is closest to his position.
Structured interviews may also involve the use of open-ended questions but the
---------------------- questions and their order are pre-determined. The interviewer is, however, free

178 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

to repeat the question if the reply is not to the point. Generally, the interviewer Notes
has no freedom to waive a question except to get clarification of the subject’s
responses and these questions must be non-directive or non- suggestive. ----------------------
2. Unstructured Interviews ----------------------
In a non-structured interview, the interviewer is allowed a much greater
----------------------
freedom to ask any supplementary questions or if the situation so demands to
omit certain questions, to change the sequence of questions and if need be, to ----------------------
offer explanations and clarifications. The interviewer has much greater freedom
to record the responses according to his own frame of judging significance, ----------------------
relevance and convenience. He is free to include some aspects and exclude
----------------------
others from his record, highlight certain responses and ignore or underplay
others. Granted such freedom, the interviewer has both advantages as well as ----------------------
disadvantages.
----------------------
Unstructured interviews are characterised by a far too greater flexibility of
approach to questioning the respondents. Compared to the structured interview, ----------------------
the non-structured ones involve relatively much lesser standardisation of
relevant techniques and operations. Consequently, the investigator is never ----------------------
certain as to what the respondents will give out as information.
----------------------
Interviewers who fall in this category do not follow a system or list of pre-
determined questions. Respondents are encouraged to relate freely and frankly ----------------------
their concrete experience with little or no directions from the interviewer. The ----------------------
respondents are allowed the freedom to talk on whatever events seem significant
to them, to provide their own definitions of the social situation, report their own ----------------------
foci of attention and reveal their attitudes and opinion as they deem it.
----------------------
The unstructured interview, if properly utilised, helps to bring out the
effective and value- laden aspects of subject’s responses and to determine the ----------------------
personal significance of his attitudes. Such interviews permit a free flowing
account of the personal and social contexts of beliefs and feelings. This type of ----------------------
interview achieves its designated purpose depending on the extent to which the ----------------------
subject’s responses are spontaneous rather than forced; specific, concrete and
self revealing. ----------------------
Such flexibility frequently results in lack of comparability between one ----------------------
interview and another. Further, analysis of the unstructured responses is much
more difficult and time- consuming than that of the structured responses secured ----------------------
during the structured interviews.
----------------------
The non-structured interviews usually demand deep knowledge and skill
on the part of the interviewer. The interviewer is expected to possess not only ----------------------
the general skill and capacity demanded of any sympathetic listener, but also
----------------------
the specific ability to adopt temporarily the beliefs and attitudes of each of his
informants. ----------------------
The collection of material by such a flexible means is inevitably slow
----------------------
and normally only a small sample can be expected to be covered. Due to the
unrestricted range of subjects on which the respondents may desire to discuss, it ----------------------

The Interview Method 179

 Notes is very difficult to articulate the recorded responses of different interviews into
a single scheme.
----------------------
Such interviews facilitate free and uninhibited responses from the
---------------------- respondents; the informant has the facility to be much more open and articulate.
In explanatory formulative studies, such interviews are indeed the central
---------------------- technique of collecting information. As Johan Galtung says, “The advantage
of unstructured response is to be unprecise; that they permit the unexpected
----------------------
response.”
---------------------- Such interviews also have the advantage of leaving a favourable impact
on the informant who will have acquired, in the process of interview, a certain
----------------------
element of skill in self analysis and thus be in full sympathy with the subject
---------------------- matter as also with the substance of the interview record.
The major merits of the structured interviews, these being the
----------------------
comparability of interview records, uniformity which facilitates bringing these
---------------------- different records into some unified conceptual scheme affording dependable
basis generalisation. Being more economical, structured interviews afford a
---------------------- larger coverage in terms of respondents. Lastly, they demand lesser skills on
the part of the interviewer.
----------------------
We now consider some of the major types of unstructured interviews and
---------------------- partially structured interviews.
---------------------- 3. Focused Interview
---------------------- The objective of this type of interview is to focus attention on the given
experience of the respondent and its possible effects. The interviewer knows in
---------------------- advance the aspects of a question he has to cover. The list of aspects is derived
from his formulation of the research- problem, from hypothesis based on a
---------------------- psychological or sociological theory, from his knowledge of the situation or
---------------------- the experience in which the respondent has participated. Thus, the interviewer
has a definite framework of topics to be covered but he has complete freedom
---------------------- to decide the manner and the sequence in which the questions would be asked.
The interviewer has freedom to explore reasons and motives to probe further
---------------------- in directions he thinks would afford clues. In such interviews, although the
---------------------- respondent is free to express completely his own line of thought, the direction
of the interview is mainly in the hands of the interviewer.
----------------------
The focused interviews have been used effectively in the development of
---------------------- hypotheses about the aspects of specific experience that may expectedly lead to
change in attitude on the part of those exposed to experience.
----------------------
Obviously, the more detailed a researcher’s knowledge of the situation in
---------------------- which the person being interviewed has participated and the more specific his
hypothesis, the more precisely he can outline in advance the questions to be
---------------------- covered in course of the interview.
---------------------- 4. The Clinical Interview

---------------------- This type is similar to the focused interview, the primary difference between

180 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

them being that the clinical interview is concerned with broad underlying Notes
feelings or motivations or with the course of individual’s life experience, rather
than with the effects of the specific experience, as in the focused interview. As ----------------------
in the focused interview, the interviewer knows in advance what aspects of
feelings or experience he wants the respondent to talk about but the method ----------------------
eliciting information is more or less completely left to his discretion. The most ----------------------
common types of clinical interviews are those conducted during social work in
psychiatric clinics and in prison administration. ----------------------
5. In-depth Interview ----------------------
An in-depth interview is intensive and a very searching one to the study
----------------------
of individual respondent’s opinions, emotions, attitudes, conviction etc. It aims
at soliciting unconscious as well as extremely personal feelings and emotions. ----------------------
It is a sort of probing at large. It requires a high degree of skill, training for the
investigator research / interviewer. ----------------------
Problems in Interviews ----------------------
The main problems are as follows: ----------------------
a. The Inadequate response is judged by partial response, silent response,
irrelevant response and inaccurate response. This results, perhaps, due to ----------------------
non-understanding the problem or lack of knowledge to respond. ----------------------
b. The non-response results due to non-availability, refusal, incapacity or
inaccessibility. ----------------------

This reduces the effective sample size and its representativeness. There is ----------------------
no real substitute to improve upon this except call-backs.
----------------------
Interviews can be covered individually, directly or on telephones. The latter
is helpful when study is small time at disposal is too short, when respondents ----------------------
are mostly telephone holders or when respondents are too wide spread to be
----------------------
called back. But telephonic interview has several disadvantages – cannot cover
wide range of information, respondent cannot be studied, other aids are not ----------------------
useful, not informative for long and / or complex surveys and perhaps high
limitations if respondents are based in rural areas. ----------------------
In many industrial problems, a method known as Group Interview is ----------------------
followed. The method consists of a group of people having common interests led
by an interviewer to have free discussions on subject of interest. The interviewer ----------------------
serves as a guide. The information is generated through self-administered ----------------------
questions. It finds application in studying public reactions to various public
amenities, welfare schemes, in finding solution to industries procedure, either ----------------------
new or complex. The data is generated fast and can form the base to take any
exploratory research project. ----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

The Interview Method 181

 Notes
Check your Progress 1
----------------------
Multiple Choice Single Response.
----------------------
1. What is true regarding personal interview method of data collection?
---------------------- i. The information provided by this method is very limited.
---------------------- ii. It never introduces systematic errors.
iii. It is very expensive and time consuming especially when the
----------------------
sample is large.
---------------------- iv. It is faster than other methods.
---------------------- 2. What is true regarding telephone interview method of data collection?
i. It plays important part in industrial surveys.
----------------------
ii. It is faster than other methods and recall is easy.
---------------------- iii. Surveys are restricted to respondents who have telephone
---------------------- facilities.
iv. All the above
----------------------

---------------------- 9.4 ADVANTAGES OF THE INTERVIEW METHOD

---------------------- Advantages
---------------------- 1. The interview is a more appropriate technique for revealing information
about complex, emotionally-laden subjects or for probing the sentiments
----------------------
underlying an expressed opinion.
---------------------- 2. The language of the interview can be adapted to the ability or educational
level of the person interviewed. Therefore, it is comparatively easy to
----------------------
avoid misinterpretations or misleading questions.
---------------------- 3. The personal interviews, compared to questionnaires, usually yield a high
percentage of returns.
----------------------
4. The interview method can be made to yield perfect sample of the general
---------------------- population because practically everyone can be reached and can respond
---------------------- to this approach. The observational approach is also subject to limitations
because many things or facts cannot be observed on the spot.
---------------------- 5. The information secured through interviews is likely to be more correct
---------------------- compared to that secured through other techniques. The interviewer who
is present on the spot can clear up the seemingly inaccurate or irrelevant
---------------------- answers by explaining the questions to the informant. If the informant
deliberately falsifies replies, the interviewer is able to effectively check
---------------------- them and use special devices to verify the replies.
---------------------- 6. Scoring and test devices can be used by the interviewer as experimenter.
At the same time, visual stimuli to which the informant may react can be
----------------------
presented.

182 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

7. The use of interview method ensures greater number of returns compared Notes
to other methods. Returned visits to complete items on the schedule or to
correct mistakes can usually be made without annoying the informant. ----------------------
8. The interviewer can usually control the person or persons who will answer ----------------------
the questions. This is not possible in the mailed questionnaire approach. If
so desired and warranted group discussions may also be held. ----------------------
9. A personal interview may take long enough to allow the informant to ----------------------
become oriented to the topic under investigation. Thus, recall of relevant
information is facilitated. The informant can be made to devote more ----------------------
time if, the interviewer is present on the spot to elicit and record the
----------------------
information. The advantageous aspect of interview being that face-to-face
contact provides enough stimulation to the respondent to probe deeper ----------------------
within himself.
----------------------
10. The interviewer can collect supplementary information about the
informant’s personal characteristics and environment which is often of ----------------------
great value in interpreting results. Interview is a much more flexible
approach, allowing for posing of new questions or check questions if ----------------------
such a need arises. Its flexibility makes the interview a superior technique
----------------------
for the exploration of areas where there is little basis for knowing what
questions to ask and how to formulate them. ----------------------
11. The interviewer can observe the facial expressions and gestures etc. of ----------------------
the informants. The facility of such observations helps the interviewer
to evaluate the meaning of the verbal replies given by informants. For ----------------------
example, hesitation, particular inhibitive reactions etc. may give rise to
certain doubts about the reliability of the responses and the interviewer ----------------------
may then ask indirect questions to verify his doubts. ----------------------
12. The interviewer may catch the informant off his guard and thus secure the
most spontaneous reactions than would be the case if mailed questionnaire ----------------------
were used. ----------------------
13. The interview method allows many facilities which aid on the spot
adjustments and ensure rich response material. The interviewer can ----------------------
carefully sandwich the questions about which the informant is likely to ----------------------
be sensitive. The interviewer can also change the subject by observing
informant’s reactions or give explanations if the interviewee needs them. ----------------------
In other words, a delicate situation can usually be handled more effectively
by personal interview method. ----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

The Interview Method 183

 Notes
Check your Progress 2
----------------------
State True or False.
----------------------
1. The use of interview method ensures greater number of returns
---------------------- compared to other methods.
---------------------- 2. Interview method calls for a high degree of skill on the part of the
interviewer.
----------------------

---------------------- Activity 1
----------------------
1. You are chosen as the party leader in a city where the elections are
---------------------- to be held for the city corporation members. The party bosses have
given all the powers to you to select the candidates amongst your
---------------------- party members to stand for party candidates for election. How would
you select them through method of interview? List your questions to
----------------------
be asked in the interview.
---------------------- 2. You are the Director of a Management institute offering degree
course in Business Management. You have to select students for the
----------------------
sanctioned strength of the MBA class from the applicants which are
---------------------- twice the number of seats to be filled for admission to the MBA course.
Present a minimum question list lingering in your mind that you will
---------------------- use in interviewing these candidates.
----------------------
9.5 MAJOR LIMITATIONS OF THE INTERVIEW METHOD
----------------------

---------------------- 1. As for cost, energy and time, the interview approach poses a heavy
demand. The transportation cost and the time required to cover addresses
---------------------- in a large area as also possibility or non-availability or ‘not at home’, may
make the interview method uneconomical and often not.
----------------------
2. The efficacy of interviews depends on a thorough training and skill of
---------------------- interviewers on a rigorous supervision. Failing this, data recorded may be
inaccurate and incomplete.
----------------------
3. If an interviewer has a certain bias, he may unconsciously devise questions
---------------------- so as to secure confirmation of his views - thereby disturbing the returns.
---------------------- 4. The presence of the interviewer on the spot may over stimulate the
respondent. He may also get emotionally involved with the interviewer
---------------------- and give answers that he anticipates would please the interviewer. It is
also possible that the interviewer’s presence may inhibit free responses
----------------------
because there is no anonymity. The respondent may hesitate to give
---------------------- correct answers for the fear that it would adversely affect his image. Some
fear of this information being used against him may grip him.
----------------------

184 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

5. The organisation required for selecting training and supervising a field Notes
staff is more complex for this method.
----------------------
6. Costs per interview are higher when field investigators are employed.
This is especially so when the area to be covered is widely spread out. ----------------------
7. The personal interview usually takes more time. The interviewer cannot
----------------------
check the free flow of the respondent’s replies for fear that it may disrupt
the ‘rapport’. Added to this is the time spent for journeys to and fro to the ----------------------
addresses and the possibility of not always being able to meet them.
----------------------
8. Effective interview presupposes proper rapport with the respondent and
controlling of interview atmosphere in a manner that would facilitate free ----------------------
and frank responses. This is often a very difficult requirement; it needs
time, skills and often resources. Secondly, it is not always possible for the ----------------------
interviewer to judge whether the interview atmosphere in how it should
----------------------
ideally be and whether or not ‘rapport’ has been established.
9. Interviewing may also introduce systematic errors. If the interviews are ----------------------
conducted at their homes during the day, a majority of informants will ----------------------
be housewives. Now if the information is to be obtained from the male
members, most of the field work will have to be done in the evening or ----------------------
on holidays. If this be the case, only a few hours can be used per week for
interviewing. ----------------------

10. Many actions which human beings carry out are not easily verbalised, but ----------------------
easily observed. Through observation a social process may be followed
as it, develops. Verbal techniques such as interview may give valuable ----------------------
reports but not always. ----------------------

9.6 THE PROCESS OF INTERVIEW ----------------------

After the preparatory stage, the actual process of the interview begins. It ----------------------
passes through the following phases: ----------------------
1. Introduction: During interview, the interviewer should first of all
introduce himself. The preparation of written letter of introduction is ----------------------
better than the verbal introduction. The letter gives confidence regarding ----------------------
the genuineness of the interviewer. This should be signed by a senior
official of the organisation and besides introducing the interviewer it must ----------------------
make explicit the aim and the object of the research and should make
an earnest appeal of co-operation. If interviewee wishes to know more ----------------------
about the interviewer or the research project, his curiosity should be fully ----------------------
satisfied. Sometimes the interviewee wishes to know about his selection
from many persons of similar status, he may be told that his choice means ----------------------
that research organisation greatly values his co-operation and thinks him
better placed to do the job than the others. If the interviewee is called ----------------------
in the research organisation or office, the process of introduction is ----------------------
completed while fixing interview and there won’t be any need for further
introduction while holding actual interview. ----------------------

The Interview Method 185

 Notes 2. Object of the interview: Once the introduction formally gets over, the
interviewer must explain to the interviewee the nature of the research
---------------------- project and what is expected to be achieved by it in clear and intelligible
terms. The interviewer should not speak lies or exaggerate the value
---------------------- or worth of the project so that the interviewee may become more co-
---------------------- operative: but his response may also suffer from the corresponding
exaggeration or he may find it difficult to believe that mere interview can
---------------------- create such revolutionary changes.
---------------------- 3. Interview: In the beginning, serious atmosphere has to be induced. If the
atmosphere becomes light-hearted, the concentration of both interviewer
---------------------- and interviewee would sag. Hence, the interviewer should begin asking
question seriously and listen patiently to the answer. The temptation to
----------------------
interfere in the middle should be curbed. When the interviewee has to
---------------------- say something then only the interviewer should make his comment, if
required.
----------------------
4. Free atmosphere: Once the interview has begun in a solemn atmosphere,
---------------------- relaxation may be permitted to encourage interviewee to open. He should
be encouraged to talk freely. If the atmosphere is relaxed and interviewer
---------------------- can create confidence in the interview, he may reveal his secrets. Proper
approach, honesty and integrity of the interviewer can win over the
----------------------
interviewee to tell what he normally would not.
---------------------- 5. Help: Sometimes the interviewee remains silent. He tries hard to remember,
but he finds it difficult to remember. In such cases, an appropriate hint
----------------------
from the interviewer can be very useful. It can join the broken link in the
---------------------- memory chain.

---------------------- 6. Research questions: Sometimes the interviewee wishes to skip over

certain questions. He does not like to reply to them e.g. income sources,
---------------------- marital affair etc. In such cases, the interviewee must be assured that the
purpose of interviewer is not to be probe his life to demean his character
---------------------- or harm him in anyway. Actually, the questions are asked purely in the
---------------------- interest of research and that his co-operation would help the cause of
research.
---------------------- 7. Encouragement: For maintaining sustained interest in the interview,
---------------------- the interviewee should not be allowed to feel discouraged due to certain
incoherence in his talk or pauses of long silence. He should be given
---------------------- a boost to his morale by the interviewer. He should be told that he is
providing very useful information; he should not worry for the same.
---------------------- However, while encouragement is essential and desirable, it should not
---------------------- result in to flattery. An intelligent interviewer tries to maintain balance
between the two extremes of flattery and rebuff.
---------------------- 8. Direction: If respondents are telling about their personal experience
---------------------- they tend to reproduce everything in detail and garnish it with their
imagination too then they are indulging in the orgy of non-stop talking.
---------------------- Under these circumstances, the task of bringing them back on track is

186 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

 extremely delicate. As they are in tension, any direct interference will Notes
offend them and they may leave the place. Hence, interviewer should bear
them patiently and wait for opportunity to turn the direction of talks in the ----------------------
desired course. This job needs great tact.
----------------------
9. Note-taking: Certain jottings have to be done simultaneously with the
process of interview as it is not desirable to rely upon memory exclusively ----------------------
and make notes of the interview after it is over. Here also a balance has
----------------------
to be maintained between making notes continuously and not making
notes. It is expected to take notes while the interviewee is talking only. ----------------------
When he has finished his talk, interviewer should take an abbreviated
note and proceed with the set of next questions. Hence, the notes should ----------------------
be taken between brief pauses and between two questions. However, with
----------------------
advancement in modern techniques of research the use of tape-recorder,
voice recorder, video film is ideal for making notes. ----------------------
10. Concluding: If an interview cannot be completed in one sitting or its
----------------------
purpose needs more sitting, it is necessary to break off the interview at
such times when there are signs of fatigue in the interview. The interviewer ----------------------
should be called again and in the resumed sitting he should be given a
resume of the previous day’s interview. But if one sitting is enough for the ----------------------
interview, the interviewer should ask the interviewee at the end if he has
----------------------
anything more to tell. The interviewee should be given a firm assurance
that his interview is strictly confidential. ----------------------
11. Report: After the conclusion of the interview, the report about it should
----------------------
be immediately committed to writing. Otherwise, any deferment of this
would increase the possibility or errors. The report should be full and ----------------------
detailed. It should not only contain summary of the interview but also the
mental and emotional state of the interviewee. ----------------------

----------------------
Check your Progress 3
----------------------
Multiple Choice Multiple Response.
----------------------
1. Which of the following are the phases of interview?
i. Direction ----------------------
ii. Training ----------------------
iii. Survey
----------------------
iv. Note-taking
----------------------
9.7 PREREQUISITES OF A SUCCESSFUL INTERVIEW ----------------------
1. Study Design: The quality of interviewing depends upon a proper design. ----------------------
No valid and useful data can be collected even by the most skilled
interviewer, if the schedule of questions is inadequate or unrelated to the ----------------------
objective of the research. ----------------------

The Interview Method 187

 Notes 2. Encouragement: Interviewing is an art governed by scientific principles.
The interviewer’s art consists of creating atmosphere which will encourage
---------------------- the interviewee to raise frank opinion / replies without fear of his attitudes
being revealed to others. The answers will be in such case reliable and
---------------------- valid.
---------------------- 3. Friendly Atmosphere: The basic requirement of successful interviewing
is to create a friendly atmosphere, one of trust and confidence that will put
----------------------
the respondent at case.
---------------------- 4. Characteristics of Interview: The Interviewer’s manners should be
courteous, friendly, unbiased and conversational. He must balance
----------------------
himself between talkativeness and timidity, between being grim and being
---------------------- effusive. He should keep the direction of interview in his hands only,
discourage irrelevant conversation and try to understand the respondent
---------------------- vis-à-vis the purpose of interview.
---------------------- 5. Questions: The sequence of questions should not be changed. Varying
this order will change the respondent’s frame of reference since each
---------------------- question sets up a frame of reference for the following question.
---------------------- 6. Pre-Test: A pre-test on interviewers helps to equip them with the
knowledge of exact objective of each question. He therefore must ensure
---------------------- that the respondent gives a complete answer.
---------------------- 7. Bias: The bias introduced during the interview should be minimal. The
bias is introduced due to (i) Respondents’ perception of the interviewer
---------------------- and (ii) Interviewers’ perception of the respondent. Remember, here
---------------------- perception points to the manner in which the relation between the
interviewer and respondent is influenced and modified by their respective
---------------------- expectations, wishes and personality structure.
---------------------- 8. Objective: The objective must be crystal clear so that the interview
successfully ends. This must be clear enough to the interviewer to frame
---------------------- appropriate questions and must similarly be well understood by the
respondents to give proper detailed replies e.g. If an interview is arranged
---------------------- for recruiting a person in a given ‘post’ the interviewers must look for all
---------------------- characteristics required by the post present in the respondent and if he
finally suits. In addition, he should try to find out what other characteristics
---------------------- the respondent possesses and whether they are, in any way, helpful.
----------------------
Summary
----------------------
●● In this unit, we have extensively discussed a verbal technique, namely the
---------------------- Interview technique for collecting very important data for research. There
is also another verbal technique, namely the Questionnaire. This we will
---------------------- discuss in the next unit. The major difference between the interview and
---------------------- the questionnaire method is that the former involves presentation of oral
verbal stimuli and reply in oral verbal responses, whereas the questionnaire
---------------------- method involves presentation of written verbal response.

188 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

●● In this unit, we have explained that whereas the observational methods Notes
are mostly restricted to non-verbal acts like clapping, nodding, smiling,
manipulating things etc., helping to understand behaviour and describing it ----------------------
as it occurs, the methods really are not that effective in giving information
about human beliefs, perception, feelings, motives, future plans and so on. ----------------------
But the interview method is quite effective in giving such information. ----------------------
●● We have explained, therefore, the whole gamut of steps leading to a
good/successful interview. We have also mentioned herewith very much ----------------------
in details how and what type of questions he should put, how he should ----------------------
make the atmosphere in the interview conducive to correct replies from the
respondent for success of carrying out the research. ----------------------
●● Like any other method, this method also has a few disadvantages as well ----------------------
as some limitations such as high cost, more time, sometimes distorted
information, bias and creeped-in inaccuracies and incompleteness. ----------------------
Nevertheless, this method has been powerful and popular in social research
and it has also taken a significant position in other fields of research. ----------------------
----------------------
Keywords
----------------------
●● Interview: A structured interaction between two people - an interviewer
whose task is to obtain information – and a respondent whose function is ----------------------
to provide this information. ----------------------

Self-Assessment Questions ----------------------

----------------------
1. Discuss interview as a technique of data collection.
2. Describe the role of interview method of data collection for a successful ----------------------
research.
----------------------
3. List down all the steps necessary to successfully conduct an interview.
----------------------
4. What are the limitations in the use of ‘interview method’ of data collection?
How can you win over these limitations? Explain with an illustration ----------------------
different types of interview methods.
----------------------
5. Write short notes.
----------------------
a. Observational and Interview Method
b. Advantages and Disadvantages of Interview Method ----------------------
c. Types of Interviews ----------------------
d. Pre-requisite for good Interview ----------------------
6. You are called for an interview in connection with your application sent
to a company for the post of Chief Executive (Finance or Operations or ----------------------
Marketing or HRD: Choose only one). List out what questions you would ----------------------
be asked in your interview by the company. Justify them.
----------------------

The Interview Method 189

 Notes Answers to Check your Progress
---------------------- Check your Progress 1

---------------------- Multiple Choice Single Response.

1. What is true regarding personal interview method of data collection?
----------------------
iii. It is very expensive and time consuming especially when the sample
---------------------- is large.
---------------------- 2. What is true regarding telephone interview method of data collection?
iv. All the above
----------------------
Check your Progress 2
----------------------
State True or False.
---------------------- 1. True
---------------------- 2. True
---------------------- Check your Progress 3
Multiple Choice Multiple Response.
----------------------
1. Which of the following are the phases of interview?
----------------------
i. Direction
----------------------
iv. Note-taking
----------------------

----------------------
Suggested Reading

---------------------- 1. Bryman, Allan & Bell Emma. 2003. Business Research Methods. Oxford
University Press.
---------------------- 2. Cooper, Donald, Schindler Pamela. 2006. Business Research Methods.
---------------------- Tata McGraw Hill Companies.

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

190 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

The Questionnaire Method
UNIT

10
Structure:

10.1 Introduction
10.2 Meaning and Purpose of a Questionnaire
10.3 Types of Questionnaires
10.4 Formulation of a Questionnaire / Schedule
10.5 Guidelines for Questionnaire Items
10.6 Questionnaire – Choice, Wording etc.
10.7 Advantages and Disadvantages of Questionnaires
10.8 Pre-testing a Questionnaire
10.9 A Model Questionnaire
Summary
Keywords
Self-Assessment Questions
Answers to Check your Progress
Suggested Reading

The Questionnaire Method 191

 Notes
Objectives
----------------------
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
----------------------
• Explain how powerful the ‘Questionnaire Method’ in data collection
---------------------- is, particularly for large scale social research problems
---------------------- • Identify a good ‘Questionnaire’ in relation with the objective of a
given research problem
----------------------
• Explain the implications of the sequence, language and type of
---------------------- questions framed in your questionnaire

---------------------- 10.1 INTRODUCTION

----------------------
In the previous units, we have narrated that the observational methods
---------------------- are less effective in giving out information about individuals’ feelings, beliefs,
motives, expectations etc. However, with the interview method discussed in
---------------------- the previous unit and the questionnaire method which will be discussed in this
unit we can procure proper information of individuals. In certain books the
----------------------
word ‘schedule’ is commonly used. We treat ‘Questionnaire’ and ‘Schedule’ as
---------------------- synonyms. Technically, they can be, differentiated. A questionnaire consists of
a number of questions printed or typed in a definite order on a form which are
---------------------- mailed to respondents. They are expected to read, understand and reply them
in writing, totally unaided. A schedule also has a proforma containing a set of
----------------------
questions. The researcher / interviewer puts to respondents the question from
---------------------- the proforma in the order of questions listed and records the replies given by the
respondents. Sometimes, these schedules are given to the respondents to fill up
---------------------- with explanation, if necessary.
---------------------- In this unit, we discuss this Questionnaire method in details. How it affords
great facilities in collecting data from large, diverse and widely scattered group
---------------------- of people. Johan Galtung has summarised distinctly the characteristics of this
---------------------- method as ‘written – verbal stimulus’ and ‘written-verbal response’.

---------------------- 10.2 MEANING AND PURPOSE OF A QUESTIONNAIRE

---------------------- A questionnaire consists of a number of questions printed (or typed) in
a definite order on a form (or set of forms).The form/s are usually mailed to
----------------------
the respondents who are expected to read and understand the questions and
---------------------- reply to them in writing in the relevant space provided for the purpose on the
said form/s. The respondent has to answer the questions on his own i.e. totally
---------------------- unaided.
---------------------- The questionnaire method has been defined by different sociologists in
different ways. According to Bogardus, “A questionnaire is a list of questions
---------------------- sent to a number of persons to answer. It secures standardised results that can be
---------------------- tabulated and treated statistically”. Thus, a questionnaire is a form prepared and

192 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

distributed to secure responses to certain questions. It is a device for securing Notes
answers to questions by using a form which the respondents files by himself.
----------------------
Questionnaire is a set of questions, a systematic list of questions
which is sent to the respondent who answers these questions and returns the ----------------------
questionnaire to the researcher. Prof Hsin Pao Yang says, “In its simplest form,
the questionnaire consists of a schedule of questions sent by mail to the persons ----------------------
on a list or in a simple survey.” The persons to whom the Questionnaires are sent
----------------------
are called respondents, who are to send their answers to researcher. Bogardus
remarks that Questionnaire is a list of questions handed over to different persons ----------------------
who are to answer the questions. Purpose of a Questionnaire
----------------------
1. To collect information from the respondents who are scattered in a vast
area. ----------------------
2. To achieve success in collecting reliable and dependable data.
----------------------

10.3 TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRES ----------------------

●● Structured/standardised questionnaire ----------------------

●● Unstructured/non-structured questionnaire ----------------------
A. Structured Questionnaire: A Structured Questionnaire is that in which
----------------------
the questions are definite. Additional questions are restricted only in case
of more detailed response. The questions are presented in same wording ----------------------
and in the same order for having proper response.
----------------------
The form of questions may be either closed or open it means categorical or
free. The question is set in advance. In closed question, fixed alternatives ----------------------
answers are given so respondent can choose appropriate one. In this
question the response is limited to stated alternatives. These alternatives ----------------------
may be form of Yes or No. Open end questions are designed to allow free
----------------------
response on the subject where the issue is identified. The respondent is
given the opportunity to answer the question on his own reference. ----------------------
B. Non-Structured Questionnaire:
----------------------
When the characteristics as explained above are not present in the
questionnaire it is known as unstructured on non-structured questionnaire. ----------------------
Where pre decided cannot serve the purpose of our research study than ----------------------
researcher is provided freedom for farming on the spot questions to
get appropriate response. Mostly in this case of interview on the sport ----------------------
questions are asked. In this process interviewer is provided with the
guidelines about information is to obtained, than based on scope provided ----------------------
he will have to frame the question and replies to this can be recorded ----------------------
by him. When research problem is being first explored the unstructured
questions have more effectively. ----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

The Questionnaire Method 193

 Notes The questionnaire is also divided into different types on the basis of nature
of the questions therein. The various types are as follows:
----------------------
i. Open-ended Questionnaire: In this case, the respondent is free to
---------------------- express his views and ideas rather than being limited to state certain
alternatives. The method is used for making intensive studies of limited
---------------------- number of cases. The main characteristics of open-ended questions are
that they merely raise an issue but do not provide or suggest any structure
----------------------
for the respondent’s reply. The respondent can answer such questions in
---------------------- his own way and frame of reference. Sometimes these questions are used
in standardised interviews. In such cases, the questions and their order
---------------------- are pre-determined. The only thing to remember is that the interviewer
should try to encourage the respondent to talk really freely and in totality
----------------------
in response to the questions and make verbal record of his replies.
---------------------- ii. Close-ended Questionnaire: In this type, the responses are limited to the
stated alternatives. One of the alternatives is simply YES or NO.
----------------------
iii. Mixed Questionnaire: In this, the questions are both close and open
---------------------- ended.
---------------------- They are promoted mostly in social research and are useful and popular
in this field of research.
----------------------
iv. Pictorial Questionnaire: This is comparatively rarely used. In this,
---------------------- pictures are used to promote interest in answering questions. This finds
an application extensively in studies of social attitudes and prejudices in
---------------------- children.
---------------------- Advantages and Disadvantages
---------------------- Closed Questions
Advantages:
----------------------
1. Closed questions are simple to administer, quick and inexpensive to
---------------------- analyse. They are more efficient.
---------------------- 2. Alternatives replies help to understand the clear meaning of the question.

---------------------- 3. Closed question requires respondent to make judgment about the

alternatives
----------------------
Disadvantages
---------------------- 1. It may force statement of opinion on the issue.
---------------------- 2. Many respondents may not have clear opinion on issue.

---------------------- 3. Closed questions are ill-equipped to reveal issue.

4. There question do not provide for respondent frame of reference.
----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

194 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

Open Questions Notes
Advantages:
----------------------
1. It is used as an exploratory tool before opinion research objectives has
been clearly defined. ----------------------
2. Opinion of researcher is not force on respondent through suggestive ----------------------
answers.
----------------------
3. In complex issue open ended questions are desirable.
Disadvantages ----------------------

1. Different respondent are likely to make different interpretations quite ----------------------

different from researcher.
----------------------
2. There is possibility that some of the questions may go undetected.
----------------------
Kinds of Questionnaire Items
The information sought by questionnaire may be classified under three ----------------------
heads:
----------------------
Information: The following items are included under this category:
Questionnaire case, cross-reference questionnaire number, name of survey, ----------------------
name of agency sponsoring the survey, name of individual or family interviewed, ----------------------
sex of informant, relationship of informant to family head, address of the
case, telephone numbers, interviewer’s name or initials, co- operation of the ----------------------
informant and notes as to the confidential treatment of returns.
----------------------
Background: The following items may be included under this category:
Age of the head of the family and family members, marital status, education, ----------------------
religion, political preference, union membership, family size and composition,
occupation of the dead of the family or of the respondent, employment, family ----------------------
income, socio-economic status etc. ----------------------
Subject: The informant may be asked a direct question on the facts as he
----------------------
understands or remembers them. Certain information can be obtained easily by
asking straightforward questions. First there are ‘information questions’. When ----------------------
knowledge about the topic is definitely correlated with the opinions held, these
information questions are particularly important. ----------------------
A second approach is of ‘seeking advice’. The informant is usually ----------------------
flattered by the fact that his advice is considered important. This approach has
been used effectively in a study of factors associated with family size. ----------------------
Another approach is the ‘exploratory questions’. In questions of this ----------------------
type, the informant is given a sufficient background of information about the
survey topic to enable him to make sensible judgment. These find application in ----------------------
opinion polls.
----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

The Questionnaire Method 195

 Notes
Check your Progress 1
----------------------
Multiple Choice Single Response.
----------------------
1. Researchers use both open-ended and closed-ended questions to
---------------------- collect data. Which of the following statements is true?
i. Open-ended questions directly provide quantitative data based
----------------------
on the researcher’s predetermined response categories
---------------------- ii. Closed-ended questions provide quantitative data in the
participant’s own words
----------------------
iii. Open-ended questions provide qualitative data in the
---------------------- participant’s own words
iv. Closed-ended questions directly provide qualitative data in the
----------------------
participants’ own words
---------------------- 2. Which data Open-ended questions provide primarily?
i. Confirmatory data
----------------------
ii. Qualitative data
---------------------- iii. Predictive data
---------------------- iv. None of the above

----------------------
10.4 FORMULATION OF A QUESTIONNAIRE / SCHEDULE
----------------------
A number of considerations should be borne in mind while designing
---------------------- a schedule or questionnaire. Careful planning, the physical design of the
---------------------- questions, careful selection and phrasing of the questions definitely affect the
number of returns as also the meaning and accuracy of the findings.
----------------------
The success depends mainly on the skill and insight with which the list of
---------------------- questions is formulated. These questions should be unequivocal and intelligible.
The following considerations should be kept in mind while formulating a
---------------------- questionnaire:
---------------------- 1. Every questionnaire is an appeal in which the aim and purpose of the
enclosed questionnaire is set forth and sincere co-operation of the respondent
---------------------- is obtained. The appeal should be short, clear and direct, establishing the
genuineness of the research and its utility for all a concerned. The long
----------------------
and wordy appeals encourage the respondents. Though the appeal must
---------------------- be short, it must have the following characteristics.
The appeal must be stated clearly by the individuals or organisations
----------------------
undertaking the research. If the research is government aided, the fact
---------------------- should be clearly mentioned. The quality of paper and printing should
be good, papers of superior quality and clear printing and get up of high
---------------------- order brings interest in it. Shabby and defective printing creates bad
impression.
----------------------

196 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

 i. The appeal should be made in clear terms. The aim and purpose of Notes
the proposed study and the benefits likely to be accrue from it. The
heading or title of the research should be self explanatory. ----------------------
ii. The appeal should be such that the respondents get motivated and ----------------------
realise the validity and utility of the research project. The working
of appeal develops interest among the respondents. It may be ----------------------
helpful if the respondent is told that his co- operation/contribution
----------------------
is likely to make difference in the world of knowledge and he can
feel proud. ----------------------
iii. An offer be made to the respondent that their names will be kept
----------------------
anonymous and that all steps will be taken to ensure that no one
comes to know anything about them. This precaution is necessary ----------------------
where information regarding private life or income etc. is required.
----------------------
2. The physical appearance of the questionnaire affects the co-operation
the researcher receives. In a mailed questionnaire, an attractive looking ----------------------
questionnaire is a plus point for co-operation. Conversely, an un-attractive
one may cause the recipient to put it aside. ----------------------
3. The choice of words is an important consideration. The information must ----------------------
grasp the spirit of the question rather than its precise wording.
----------------------
4. In inquiries of certain aspects, it is important that certain questions follow
certain others so that a proper “set” is developed. Special attention must ----------------------
be given to the sequence of the items/questions.
----------------------
5. The purpose of the questions may be to ascertain facts, to test the
‘knowledge’ of the informant or discover his benefits or attitudes. If ----------------------
opinions are desired, care must be exercised to see that the questions do
not just bring out only the points of facts. ----------------------

6. If the questionnaire is to be used for a periodic survey, the questions ----------------------

should be designed with a view to uniformity and comparability results.
----------------------
7. Questions must be so designed that analysis is facilitated to the extent the
information is in a form which is readily amenable to classification and ----------------------
tabulation.
----------------------
8. In addition to appeal, the questionnaire must carry a list of instructions for
filling it up and dispatching it. The respondent should not be penalised for ----------------------
the return postage. It should be pre-paid. ----------------------
9. The questions should be divided into groups and each group should have
a number of questions which are mutually inter-related. The order of ----------------------
questions should be such that the first should lead to the second. The ----------------------
second may depend upon the first; otherwise the order of questions will
cease to be systematic and will become chaotic. ----------------------
10. To have a desired response, it is necessary to formulate the questions ----------------------
clearly and precisely. There should be no ambiguity and no dubiousness
about them. They should lend themselves to a single interpretation. ----------------------

The Questionnaire Method 197

 Notes The best method is to ensure that the questionnaire does not have any
misleading or confusing questions, it should first be tried on a selected
---------------------- group of individuals and suitable modifications may be made in questions
on the basis of the experience with the select group.
----------------------
11. The questionnaire should be attractive. The attractiveness of a
---------------------- questionnaire is determined by the prestige of the researcher, of research
organisation and the form and style of the questionnaire. Besides, if the
----------------------
research project is aided by the government, its prestige increases.
---------------------- Physical Appearance of Questionnaire
---------------------- 1. Size: The size of questionnaire and schedule depends upon the scope and
items to be included. Large size in suitable for mail survey questionnaire
---------------------- where as small size is recommend for schedule. Therefore size should be
cumbersome for respondent.
----------------------
2. Proper quality and colour: The durability is one of the requirements of
---------------------- preserving records. Light colour and smooth surface is desirable for paper
---------------------- to be used for questionnaire or schedule.
3. Items arrangement in questionnaire: Questions should be properly
---------------------- arranged. If the question is depended on answer of earlier one than it
---------------------- should be given proper place
Schedule and Questionnaire Schedule is also a set of questions which
---------------------- is filled in by investigator who is made responsible to collect information.
---------------------- The investigator approach to the respondent and record the response of the
respondent. In some cases respondent is encourage to record the answers to the
---------------------- questions with the help of investigator.
---------------------- The success of this method is based on selections and training of
investigator, to collect information. Investigator must have competency for
---------------------- cross examination if necessary, investor’s personal qualities like honesty hard
working will improve the quality of the work. This system is very useful for
----------------------
extensive enquiries. It is very expensive still normally adapted by state and
---------------------- large organisation. Census survey is conducted by this method.
Distinction between Schedule and questionnaire
----------------------
Schedule Questionnaire
---------------------- 1. Filled in by investigator 1. Filled in by respondent
---------------------- 2. More expensive 2. Less expensive
3. Low non-response 3. High non-response
---------------------- 4. Identify of respondent is know 4. Identify of respondent is not clear.
5. Process is fast as the information 5. Process is sow as respondent
---------------------- collected and filled by do not return questionnaire
investigator. immediately
----------------------
6. In schedule information 6. A useful only where respondent
---------------------- is collected from illiterate is Co-operative and literate.
respondent.
----------------------

198 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

Schedule Questionnaire Notes
7. Coverage is restricted to visit of 7. Wide converge of investigation
investigator. is possible. ----------------------
8. More accurate information can 8. Risk of collecting wrong
----------------------
be collected. information
9. Success related to honesty and 9. Success of this method relates to ----------------------
competence of investigator quality of questionnaire.
10. Physical appearance will not 10. Good physical appearance will ----------------------
affect the response. have better response.
----------------------
Choice of Questions
----------------------
1. The questions having direct bearing on problem of research study should
be included in set of questions. ----------------------
2. The question whose answers cannot have effectively or accuracy should
----------------------
be avoided.
3. The question should be included with an eye on requirement of analysis. ----------------------

4. The questions related to personal information should be are avoided. ----------------------

5. Only radial question should be asked. ----------------------
6. Questions with inaccurate response should be avoided.
----------------------
Wording of questions Due care should be taken for formulating questions.
Responses are based on the questions only. Greater care should be taken while ----------------------
wording of question. In which opinion is to be expressed or actual information
----------------------
is to be provided. If question is beyond the understanding of respondent than
suggestive answer will help than for response. ----------------------

10.5 GUIDELINES FOR QUESTIONNAIRE ITEMS ----------------------

----------------------
The investigator should first find the extent to which the desired data are
already available in published reports and decide whether all or part of the ----------------------
needed data can be obtained through a formal questionnaire. The entire process
of questionnaire-construction is divided into following steps: ----------------------
1. Information to be obtained ----------------------
2. Type of questionnaire to be used ----------------------
3. Writing a first draft
----------------------
4. Re-examining and revising questions
----------------------
5. Pre-testing and editing the questionnaire
6. Specifying procedure for its use ----------------------
Sequence of Questions ----------------------
It is essential to examine the sequence in which questions are to be asked. ----------------------
Refusal and misunderstanding can be avoided by a proper arrangement of
questions. Questions should be arranged logically. The question arrangement ----------------------

The Questionnaire Method 199

 Notes makes it possible to determine the directions of the response. The opining
questions should arouse human interest. The respondent then is less likely to
---------------------- refuse to co-operate.
---------------------- The opining questions should be easy to answer. Questions which might
embarrass the informant should be placed in the middle or at the end of the
---------------------- questionnaire. Questions on economic status or those that test the knowledge of
the respondent and those of an intimate personal nature should be put at the end.
----------------------
Questions seeking personal information should be put at the end and questions
---------------------- to which the information may be sensitive should not be put at the extreme end
because this may create wrong impressions and make it difficult to question
---------------------- him/her later. Since, there is a likelihood of the male-informant losing interest
as he proceeds to fill in the questionnaire, important questions should advisedly
----------------------
be put at the beginning.
----------------------
10.6 QUESTIONNAIRE – CHOICE, WORDING ETC.
----------------------
Wording Questions: Some suggestions
----------------------
1. Simple words which are expectedly familiar to all informants should be
---------------------- employed.
---------------------- This should be done without making the questions appear too elementary
for educational level. This is often possible and it is here that art of
---------------------- question-framing comes in. A question that contains long, dependent or
conditional clauses may confuse the informant.
----------------------
2. Formulate the questions so that it yields the exact information needed.
---------------------- The more specific the question, the greater the usability of the answer to
it for tabulation purposes.
----------------------
3. Avoid multiple-meaning questions. Such items that will give rise to
---------------------- confusion should be formulated as two or more questions.
---------------------- Guidelines for wording questions The researcher must pay attention to
following point while wording question.
----------------------
1. Use simple and familiar words to avoid confusion.
----------------------
2. Formulate question in such way that will provide required information.
---------------------- 3. The questions having multiple meaning should be avoided.
---------------------- 4. Ambiguity make question complicated so avoid the use of such ambiguous
word.
----------------------
5. Leading question may produce biased answer. Question should be worded
---------------------- in such manner in which untruthful answer may be avoided.

---------------------- 6. Catch words emotional word or danger words should not be used in
questions.
----------------------
7. The use of phrases may reflect up on the understanding of informant. They
---------------------- found to answer the question as they understand and feel about situation.

200 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

 So the phrases should be rarely used. Notes
8. The question must allow all possible response. The provision should also
----------------------
be made for indefinite answers like do not know.
9. The alternatives should be realistic in multiple- choice question. The ----------------------
make alternative meaningful, they are to be phrased in terms of concrete
----------------------
situations.
10. The amount of writing required in questionnaire and schedule should be ----------------------
reduced to minimum.
----------------------
11. A few questions should also be designed which can checked the accuracy
and consistency of information. ----------------------

12. The use of questions which invites response to values should be avoided. ----------------------
13. Proper justification should be made in case of any unreasonable question. ----------------------

10.7 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF ----------------------

QUESTIONNAIRES ----------------------
Advantages ----------------------
Let us now discuss the typical advantages of the questionnaire as compared
----------------------
to other major methods of collecting data for research.
1. Less skill and training: In so far as the questionnaire is usually mailed ----------------------
to the respondents and contains specific, clear-cut directions, the persons ----------------------
charged with the collection of data need not exert themselves on offering
additional explanations or instructions. It is obvious that the questionnaire ----------------------
technique does not call for any special skills or training on the part of
investigators in the field. ----------------------

2. Economical: Since the questionnaire approach makes it possible to cover, ----------------------

at the same time, a large number of people spread over a large territory, it
is decidedly more economical in terms of money, time and energy. Other ----------------------
methods do not afford such a facility. ----------------------
3. Standardisation: The questionnaire is an impersonal technique.
----------------------
Uniformity from one measurement situation to another is provided by
virtue of its standardised workings of questions, standardised sequence of ----------------------
questions and fixed or standardised instructions for recording responses.
This alleged uniformity, viewed from the psychological angle, is often ----------------------
more illusory than real. A given question, in spite of its ‘standardised’
----------------------
wording, could have different meanings for different persons. Careful
trial-testing and helping respondents understand the questions in the ----------------------
course of administration may, however, go a long way towards ensuring
uniformity of questions in the questionnaire and as such, making the ----------------------
replies comparable.
----------------------
4. Anonymity: The respondents have a greater confidence that they will not
be identified as holding a particular view or opinion. The subjects feel freer ----------------------

The Questionnaire Method 201

 Notes to express views. There is often a marked difference between the replier
to the questionnaire and those to the interviews. This difference stems
---------------------- from the element of anonymity that is characteristic of the questionnaire
approach. Anonymity is not, however, the best method of eliciting frank
---------------------- reply at all times. Complex issues like familial adjustment which are
---------------------- bound to have strong emotional overtones may not be inquired into by
means of the anonymous tool that a questionnaire is.
----------------------
5. Less Pressure: The questionnaire places less pressure on the respondents
---------------------- for immediate response. The subject can consider each point carefully
before actually putting his reply in writing. If there is some kind of
---------------------- pressure for time on the subject, he may reply with the first thought
that comes to his mind. It should, however, be noted that pressure on
----------------------
the subject for immediate response has a certain advantage in situations
---------------------- where spontaneous responses matter.
Disadvantages
----------------------
Disadvantages or limitations of the questionnaire are as follows:
----------------------
1. Limited Response: The major limitation of the questionnaire is that
---------------------- it can be administered only on subjects with a considerable amount of
education. Complex questionnaire which requires elaborate written
---------------------- replies can be used on a very small percentage of population. It is seen
---------------------- that even the highly educated persons have little facility for writing and
very few have the motivation and the patience to write as much as they
---------------------- might speak out. When burden of writing and of maintaining interest on
the subjects is quite heavy, the number of questions that may be asked and
---------------------- the fullness of response are severely limited.
---------------------- 2. Low Returns: In a mailed questionnaire, the proportion of returns is
usually low; it may sometimes be as low as 10%. The factors that affect the
---------------------- returns are the sponsoring agency, the attractiveness of the questionnaire,
---------------------- its length, nature of the accompanying appeal, the ease of filling up
the questionnaire and of mailing it back, inducements for replying and
---------------------- the kind of people to whom questionnaire is sent etc. A considerable
proportion does not return the questionnaire.
----------------------
3. Lack of Checking on Replies: In a questionnaire, if the respondent
---------------------- misinterprets a question or writes his reply unintelligibly, there is very
little that can be done to correct this. In this approach there is no facility for
---------------------- repeating questions, explaining them or seeking clarification of a particular
---------------------- response. In questionnaire approach, the validity of respondent’s reports
can hardly be appraised. The researcher here is in no position to observe
---------------------- the gestures and expressions of the respondents. He cannot follow- up the
inconsistencies or contradictions in the replies.
----------------------
4. Limited Success: The success of the questionnaire approach depends
---------------------- upon the ‘sense of responsibility’ among the subjects. A serious attempt
at filling up the questionnaire format presupposes the awareness on
----------------------
the part of the subjects - their responsibility to the larger institution of

202 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

 science. Only then may responsible help be forthcoming. Such awareness Notes
is difficult to come by.
----------------------
5. Limited Flexibility: A significant limitation of the questionnaire is that
the researcher is not in a position to vary the stimuli or social atmosphere ----------------------
impinging upon the subjects according to his designs. Certain other
approaches to data collection do allow this facility to a greater or lesser ----------------------
extent. The interviewer, for instance, can within limits, vary the nature of
----------------------
the stimuli or atmosphere as he questions the subjects. Such a flexibility
characteristic of the interview is conspicuously absent in the questionnaire. ----------------------
This flexibility is indeed a very valuable asset. The questionnaire has
been likened to presentation before subjects of stimuli in the manner of a ----------------------
painting various shades of colour spread over the canvas. In other words,
----------------------
the interview method involves presentation, one after the other, of stimuli
in the continuum of time whereas in the questionnaire, these are presented ----------------------
in space.
----------------------
6. Lack of Personal Contact: There is no provision in this method for
coming face to face with the respondents. However, much a research may ----------------------
try to simplify and rationalise his questionnaire it is difficult to avoid each
and every technical term. Even if this can be done the aim and object of ----------------------
the questionnaire can be much better explained personally than through
----------------------
the appeal. Lastly, in the absence of personal contact, very little can be
done to persuade the respondents to fill up the questionnaire. ----------------------
7. Possibility of Wrong Answers: A respondent may not really understand
----------------------
in question or may give the answer casually. In both cases misleading
information may be provided. ----------------------
8. Useless in Depth-problems: If a problem needs deep and long study, ----------------------
then the questionnaire method is of limited use.
----------------------
Check your Progress 2
----------------------
Multiple Choice Multiple Response. ----------------------
1. What is true regarding collection of data through questionnaire?
i. Bias of interviewer is present ----------------------
ii. Respondents have adequate time to give well thought out ----------------------
answers
----------------------
iii. There is low cost even when the universe is large
iv. It is faster than other methods of data collection ----------------------
2. What are the demerits of questionnaire method?
----------------------
i. Low rate of return of duly filled in questionnaire
ii. It can be sued only when respondents are educated and cooperating ----------------------
iii. It is economical ----------------------
iv. The control over questionnaire may be lost once it is sent
----------------------

The Questionnaire Method 203

 Notes 10.8 PRE-TESTING A QUESTIONNAIRE
---------------------- The pretest is a valuable indicator of the effectiveness of a questionnaire to
collect data. The pre-testing of a questionnaire consists in selecting, approaching
---------------------- and interviewing a small segment in the same manner to be followed in the full
scale operation and then analysing the results in the light of the objectives of
----------------------
the study. We can understand from the pretest whether the replies provided the
---------------------- type of information needed or whether the respondents are misinterpreting any
of the questions. In addition, results obtained in a pretest can at times suggest
---------------------- new idea or hypothesis worthy of further examination.
---------------------- If a pretest indicates any change of importance, a further pretest may be
warranted to review the questionnaire. Thus, the mere fact that the wording of a
---------------------- question originally misunderstood has been changed does not itself ensure of clarity
---------------------- of the new form. A few interviews with the new question form are highly desirable.
Pretests are sometimes conducted in an informal manner.
----------------------
---------------------- 10.9 A MODEL QUESTIONNAIRE
---------------------- This questionnaire is prepared by a soap manufacturing company
manufacturing the bath soap ‘S’.
----------------------
Dear Respondent,
----------------------
This is a portion programmed for the completion of a MBA degree of a
---------------------- University. The aim of this survey is to study the habits of people in Pune city
and to assess their response in comparison with soap ‘S’. I shall be thankful to
---------------------- you if you can spare some time and fill up this questionnaire truly in details. The
work is of academic interest and your name and views will be kept in secrecy.
----------------------
Thank you,
----------------------
Yours faithfully,
---------------------- A. B. C.
---------------------- (Name of the Researcher)
---------------------- THE QUESTIONNAIRE
Part I
----------------------
Respondent’s Name :
---------------------- Age :
Sex : Male: _ _________ Female ___________
---------------------- Education : Below Matric ____ Matriculation but Under graduate _____
Graduate ________ Post Graduate ______
---------------------- Diploma ________ Other (specify) _____
---------------------- Profession : Student _________ Housewife _ _______
Service _________ Business __________
---------------------- Retired _______ Not employed ______

----------------------

204 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

Monthly Income Less than Rs. 5000_ _______________ Notes
Rs. 5,001/- Rs. 10,000/-_ ___________
----------------------
Rs. 10,001/- Rs. 20,000/-_ __________
----------------------
Rs. 20,001/- Rs. 40,000/-_ __________
More than Rs. 40,000/-_____________ ----------------------

Part B ----------------------
(1) Name the toiled soaps you know. ----------------------
i) ii) iii) iv) v) vi)
----------------------
(2) Which toilet soap you are using now?
----------------------
Brand ‘S’________________
Specify if other_ __________ ----------------------

(3) How do you come across the name of soap you use? ----------------------
i) Through Friend______________ ii) Through Relations_ ______ ----------------------
iii) Through T.V. Advt.___________ iv) Throuogh Radio Advt._ ___
----------------------
v) Through paper media_ ________ vi) Through posters_ ________
----------------------
vii) Specify if through any other____
(4) Where do you purchase your bath soap? ----------------------

Retailer________________________ Departmental Stores__________ ----------------------

Chain Stores____________________ Super Market_______________ ----------------------
Specify if any other______________
----------------------
(5) You buy your soap from the above place, because it is...
----------------------
Less costly_____________________ Near residence______________
As a prestige_ __________________ Specify if other______________ ----------------------

(6) What characteristics your liked in the soap you use? ----------------------
Colour_ __________ Size_____________ Packing ________ ----------------------
Shape____________ Fragrance_________ Price_ _________
----------------------
Medicinal _ _______ Easy Availability____
----------------------
Specify if other_ _________
Part C ----------------------

(1) Please mention the different soaps you have used during last five years ----------------------
(including soap you are using now)
----------------------
1) 2) 3) 4)
----------------------

----------------------

The Questionnaire Method 205

 Notes (2) If your current soap production is stopped, to which other soap you
would’s yourself to? (Mention only two in order of priority)
----------------------
1) 2)
---------------------- (3) What have you considered while making this change? (specify top three
reas their order)
----------------------
Price_________________________ Easier availability___________
----------------------
Closeness of Quality with________ No particular reason_ ________
---------------------- Specify one, it other_____________
---------------------- (4) Name the characteristics you would like to look into while selecting your
bath
----------------------
(5) What special characteristics (qualities) you know are attached with
---------------------- various you have mentioned in reply to the earlier question?
---------------------- Soap Characteristics
----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

---------------------- (6) Please specify upto three major characteristics you appreciate about the
different soaps you have used in past five years.
----------------------
Soap Characteristics
----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------
Part D
----------------------
(1) Have you heard about soap ‘S’? Yes________ No ________
----------------------
(2) If ‘yes’, what is the source? Specify
---------------------- (3) Have you used the soap ‘S’ Yes________ No ________
---------------------- (4) If you have used this soap ‘S’ even once, please mention your impressions
about it:
----------------------
Excellent __________ Very Good _________ Average ________ OK __
----------------------
Not good _________
----------------------

206 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

(5) Can you please specify reasons for your response to question above? Notes
i) ________________ ii) ________________
----------------------
iii) ________________ iv) ________________
----------------------
(6) If your answer in previous question is other than ‘Excellent’, what would
you suggest to make the products ‘Excellent’? ----------------------
Low price ___________ Better quality ___________ ----------------------
(7) if your answer to above question is ‘Better Quality’, What quality is in
your mind? ----------------------

Fragrance _____ Color _____ Shape _______ Medicinal _______ ----------------------

Specify if any other _________ ----------------------
(8) if the soap you now is other than soap ‘S’, what are the characteristics of
----------------------
the go up that you use the same?
Price ______ Fragrance ________ Size _________ Shape ________ ----------------------
Colour ______ Packing __________ Specify if any other __________ ----------------------
(9) If you have not used soap ‘S’, mention your version of the most ideal bath ----------------------
soap by clearly mentioning the various characteristics.
----------------------
Price _____ Fragrance _____ Colour ______ Size _______
Medicinal ________ ----------------------
(10) Do you want to say anything else on the issue? ----------------------
Yes _______ No ________ ----------------------
(11) If ‘Yes’, say so in a few lines.
----------------------
Activity 1 ----------------------

1. Your company selected you to find out why employees have been ----------------------
recently leaving your company. Work out a Questionnaire to be pre- ----------------------
tested and in the light of the results obtained, how would you like to
modify your questionnaire? ----------------------
2. A local newspaper wants to ascertain to what extent the inclusion of ----------------------
‘local programme events’ would increase its local circulation. Please
prepare a questionnaire to collect relevant information. ----------------------

----------------------
Summary ----------------------
●● There are several forms of data collection methods. Out of that we have so ----------------------
far discussed two very common methods, namely Observation technique
and Interview technique. ----------------------
●● This unit gives a detailed outline of the third common and powerful ----------------------

The Questionnaire Method 207

 Notes technique, namely Questionnaire technique, which is very common in
social research, marketing research and the various Government studies
---------------------- concerning economics, finance and administration.
---------------------- ●● Though appearing simple, this technique is counting on skill and
knowledge of the researcher or investigator towards framing of questions
---------------------- in the Questionnaire. We have discussed here how the wording, sequence
and the number of questions incorporated into the questionnaire result in
---------------------- acquiring correct, accurate and desired information for a research study.
---------------------- ●● We have also learnt in this unit that the questions are of various types,
each having its own place and importance in getting accurate information
---------------------- and therefore we have stressed on designing a questionnaire that should,
---------------------- wherever and whenever necessary include all types of questions, keeping
in view that finally the results / replies of these various types of questions
---------------------- need to be subjected to proper analysis and desired conclusions thereof.

---------------------- ●● A model questionnaire is also included in the text for students’ guidance
and some activities are also listed so that the students can confirm whether
---------------------- their acquired knowledge is correct.
●● It is advisable and useful to always pre-test any questionnaire to understand
----------------------
drawbacks, lacunae etc. which can be rectified. This may result in having the
---------------------- Questionnaire better designed, well suiting to reach the desired objective.

----------------------
Keywords
----------------------
●● Questionnaire: A document consisting of a list of questions, copies of
---------------------- which are sent to number of people / organisations who are invited to
provide answers.
----------------------
●● Questionnaire Design: This refers to a formulated series of questions
---------------------- which are used for getting information on special points. The function of
questionnaire is measurement and its specification should state the main
---------------------- variables to be measured
----------------------
Self-Assessment Questions
----------------------
1. What do you understand by a Questionnaire? What considerations should
---------------------- be kept in mind while designing a Questionnaire?
---------------------- 2. Write short notes on:
---------------------- a. Sequence in questions
b. Wording in questions
----------------------
c. Choice of questions
----------------------
3. What are the guiding considerations in the construction of questionnaire?
---------------------- Explain.

---------------------- 4. The Maratha Chamber of Commerce has selected you to ascertain the

208 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

 reaction to the Finance Budget of 2007. Design a suitable questionnaire Notes
to be mailed to collect information in this case.
----------------------
5. You are interested in finding out problems of railway commuters in
Mumbai. Design a suitable questionnaire to be used in studying this ----------------------
problem.
----------------------
6. The editor of a Women’s Magazine is interested in expanding its sales.
Frame a suitable Questionnaire for its readers so as to collect information ----------------------
that will help to increase sales of that magazine.
----------------------
7. You are asked to design a suitable questionnaire that will help getting
information regarding savings habits of people in your city. How do you ----------------------
prepare such a questionnaire?
----------------------
Answers to Check your Progress ----------------------
Check your Progress 1 ----------------------
Multiple Choice Single Response.
----------------------
1. Researchers use both open-ended and closed-ended questions to collect
data. ----------------------

Which of the following statements is true? ----------------------

iii. Open-ended questions provide qualitative data in the participant’s ----------------------
own words
----------------------
2. Which data Open-ended questions provide primarily?
ii. Qualitative data ----------------------
Check your Progress 2 ----------------------
Multiple Choice Multiple Response. ----------------------
1. What is true regarding collection of data through questionnaire?
----------------------
ii. Respondents have adequate time to give well thought out answers
----------------------
iii. There is low cost even when the universe is large
2. What are the demerits of questionnaire method? ----------------------
i. Low rate of return of duly filled in questionnaire ----------------------
ii. It can be sued only when respondents are educated and cooperating ----------------------
iv. The control over questionnaire may be lost once it is sent
----------------------

Suggested Reading ----------------------

1. Cooper, Donald, Schindler Pamela. 2006. Business Research Methods. ----------------------

Tata McGraw Hill Companies. ----------------------
2. Kothari C.R. 1985. Research Methodology – Methods & Techniques.
New Age International Publishers. ----------------------

The Questionnaire Method 209

 Notes

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------
----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

210 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

The Survey Method
UNIT

11
Structure:

11.1 Introduction
11.2 Definitions of Social Survey
11.3 Meaning of Survey
11.4 Objectives of Survey
11.5 Characteristics of Social Survey
11.6 Types of Survey
11.7 Planning a Survey
11.8 Advantages of Survey
11.9 Limitations of Survey Method
11.10 Comparison between Pre-Testing and Pilot Survey
11.11 Survey Trends
Summary
Keywords
Self-Assessment Questions
Answers to Check your Progress
Suggested Reading

The Survey Method 211

 Notes
Objectives
----------------------
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
----------------------
• Distinguish between the observational approach to research and
---------------------- communication approach to research
---------------------- • Describe the major types of communication surveys
• Determine the correct method of survey depending upon the type of
----------------------
research problem and its objective
---------------------- • Assess the importance of pre-testing as well as pilot studies.
---------------------- • Explain the modern trend in outsourcing the survey technique
----------------------
11.1 INTRODUCTION
----------------------
Survey is the technique of investigation through direct observation of
---------------------- a phenomena or systematic gathering of data from population by applying
personal contact and interviews when adequate information about a certain
----------------------
problem is not available in records, files and other sources. At present, it is
---------------------- used in investigations where published data is used. Some authors feel that the
term survey can be applicable only when a direct contact is made and does not
---------------------- include any study from the libraries.
---------------------- The survey is an important tool to gather evidence regarding certain social
problems. Survey is one of the most widely used methods for social research
---------------------- by which quantitative facts about a social phenomenon are collected. The term
social survey indicates the study of social phenomena through a survey of a
----------------------
small sampled population and also to broad segments of the population.
----------------------
11.2 DEFINITIONS OF SOCIAL SURVEY
----------------------
“A social survey is a process by which quantitative facts are collected
----------------------
about the social aspects of a community’s composition and activities.”
---------------------- - Mark Abrams
---------------------- “Social survey is a scientific study of its conditions and need purpose of
presenting a constructive programme of social advance - a method of social
---------------------- interjection checked by statistical measurement and the comparative standards
of the social expert.”
----------------------
- E. W. Burgess
----------------------
“The social survey is a comparative undertaking which applies scientific
---------------------- method to the study and treatment of currently related social problems and
conditions having definite geographic limit and bearing, plus such a spreading
---------------------- of facts, conclusions and recommendations as will make them, as far as
----------------------

212 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

possible, the common knowledge of the community and a force for intelligent Notes
coordinated action”.
----------------------
- Shelly M. Harrison
“This survey is briefly a method of analysis in scientific and orderly form ----------------------
for defined purpose of given social situation of problem or population.”
----------------------
- Herman N. Morse
----------------------
“The sociologist should look upon surreys as way and a supremely useful
one of exploring the field of collecting data around as well as directly on the ----------------------
subject of the study so that problems are brought into focus and points worth
studying are suggested.” ----------------------

- C. A. Moser ----------------------
“Social survey is a fact finding study dealing chiefly with working class, ----------------------
poverty and with the nature and problems of community.”
----------------------
- A. F. Wells
“Survey research is an organised attempt to analyze, interpret and report ----------------------
the present status of a social institution group or area.”
----------------------
- F. L. Whitney
----------------------
“In general, we may observe that social surveys are concerned with
(i) the formulation of a constructive programme of social reform (ii) amelioration ----------------------
of current or immediate condition of a social pathological nature, which have
definite geographic limits and definite social implications and significance ----------------------
(iii) these conditions can be measured and compared with situation which can ----------------------
be accepted as model.”
- P. V. Young ----------------------

----------------------
11.3 MEANING OF SURVEY
----------------------
Communication involves asking questions and receiving a response. This
process can be done in person, by mail or by telephone and in most instances ----------------------
constitute the broad research technique known as Survey. This method involves ----------------------
talking directly to the consumers. There are three main types of Surveys, namely,
(a) the Telephone (b) Mail (c) Personal Interview. In its above forms, the survey ----------------------
method is widely used and it is well known method of acquiring information
through communicating with a group of respondents. Information is obtained ----------------------
from consumers, industrial users, dealers and others who are knowledgeable ----------------------
about the problems at hand. People are asked questions through any of the
above three survey methods. They are asked information either through part of ----------------------
a self contained, ‘one- time’ survey or repetitively as part of a continuing panel.
----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

The Survey Method 213

 Notes 11.4 OBJECTIVES OF SURVEY
---------------------- The objective is to study social conditions, relationships and behaviours
and to provide useful information for the solution of these problems.
----------------------
The main purpose of survey is to get groups classified, generalised and
---------------------- interpreted data for the guidance of practice in the near future as well as to
secure evidence concerning existing situation or current condition, to identify
---------------------- standards or norms to compare present conditions in order to plan the next step.
---------------------- Briefly the objectives of social survey may be as follows:
i. The objective of the social survey is to collect general information and
---------------------- this is not to prove or disprove anything.
---------------------- ii. Surveys are started with any hypothesis. But the data collected through
these surveys may serve as a basis for formulating a hypothesis.
----------------------
iii. Surveys are helpful to researcher to have direct and close contact with
---------------------- the phenomena under study. It provides him with all the details that he
requires.
----------------------
iv. Surveys are conducted to know the opinions and attitudes of people. They
---------------------- include attitude of a person towards any social, economic or political
incident, institution or even a personality. These surveys help to predict
----------------------
public reactions to events which are forthcoming.
---------------------- v. Sometimes surveys are conducted to explain the cause and effect
---------------------- relationship between numbers of variables. The study of cause and effect
relationship may help the researcher in focusing on some aspects of social
---------------------- theories. Thus, it helps in the refinement and expansion of old theories
and in establishing new ones.
----------------------

---------------------- Check your Progress 1

---------------------- Multiple Choice Single Response.
1. Survey method is associated with
----------------------
i. The experiences which have been already realised
---------------------- ii. Those exercises which are continued regularly
---------------------- iii. Those processes which are continued regularly
iv. All of the above
----------------------
2. In comparison, the most cost effective data collection method is
---------------------- usually
i. Observation methods
----------------------
ii. Survey methods
---------------------- iii. Experimental methods
---------------------- iv. Research methods

----------------------

214 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

11.5 CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIAL SURVEY Notes
The following are the characteristics of social survey: ----------------------
1. Surveys are concerned with widely dispersed group of people as against ----------------------
laboratory experiments which tend to be more intensive but on a smaller
group. ----------------------
2. A survey research is a form of planned collection of data for the purpose ----------------------
of description or prediction or for the purpose of analysing relationships
between certain variables. ----------------------
3. The facts collected in a social survey may form the basis of future social ----------------------
research. It may also form the basis of some hypothesis.
----------------------
4. Sample surveys are carried out to make assertion about the distribution of
characteristics in a population. ----------------------
5. A social survey is confined to the study of specific current problems of
----------------------
society, e.g. poverty, unemployment and the purpose of the survey is to
remove social evils. ----------------------
Under survey method, observations and interviews, attitude scales, ----------------------
techniques, small scale experiments etc. are used to collect data.
----------------------
11.6 TYPES OF SURVEY
----------------------
The survey is classified in many ways. Mainly a survey may be
----------------------
1. Factual Survey
----------------------
2. Opinion Survey
3. Interpretive Survey ----------------------

1. Factual Survey: It requires factual information e.g. To a question put to ----------------------

a consumer, “Do you use a mobile telephone ?”, the answer is recorded in
----------------------
one of the two boxes provided against the question – one labeled “YES”
and other “NO”. ----------------------
2. Opinion Survey: In this the opinion of the person interrogated is required
----------------------
to make an evaluation or appraisal or to report his judgment on a particular
method. e.g. “What important thing you will require in a motor-car?” This ----------------------
is considered to have the existence of a specific opinion strongly held
amounting to a fact. ----------------------
3. Interpretive Survey: In this the person interviewed is required to do ----------------------
more than reporting merely a fact or an opinion and acts as an interpreter,
e.g. “Why do you prefer brand ‘A’ car?” Questions of this type result in ----------------------
answers ranging from fact to fantasy.
----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

The Survey Method 215

 Notes Surveys may be classified according to their subject matter, techniques of
data collection, regularity etc.
----------------------
1. General Surveys and Specific Surveys: The survey conducted for
---------------------- collecting general information about any desired population, institution
or phenomena without any particular object or hypothesis is called a
---------------------- general survey. Surveys such as the census of population carried every
tenth year are mostly undertaken by the government to supply regular data
----------------------
on many socio-economic parameters. Specific Surveys are conducted to
---------------------- study specific problems for testing certain theory or hypothesis. Hence,
surveys are more to the point and only information directly related to the
---------------------- particular purpose is collected. Generally, these surveys are of little value
outside the problem for which the data are specifically completed.
----------------------
2. Regular and Ad-hoc Surveys: Regular surveys are repeated after regular
---------------------- time intervals, by permanent machinery created for collecting information.
Many of such surveys are mainly economic surveys. For example, rural
----------------------
credit survey of family budgets. Regular surveys are undertaken where
---------------------- continuous data is required to study the trend of the effect of time upon
the phenomena under investigation. Ad-hoc surveys are undertaken once
---------------------- for all. Such surveys may also be conducted in phases in case the area of
investigation is vast but it would not entitle them to be termed as regular
----------------------
type unless the same information is collected over and over again. Mostly,
---------------------- ad-hoc surveys are conducted for testing a hypothesis or to supplement
some missing information regarding any problem forming the part of
---------------------- research.
---------------------- 3. Preliminary and Final Surveys: A Preliminary survey is known as ‘Pilot
Study’.
----------------------
It occupies the place of fore-running of the final survey. The object
---------------------- of this survey is to get the first hand knowledge of the universe to be
surveyed. It helps a person to be familiar with the problem and the nature
---------------------- of respondents from whom the information is to be collected. This type
---------------------- of survey is very helpful in preparing the schedule or questionnaire and to
organise the survey on proper lines.
---------------------- 4. Census and Sample Surveys: The census survey is the method wherein
---------------------- every single unit in the universe is contacted and information collected
from it where as in a sample survey only a small part of it is taken as
---------------------- representative of the whole and results from it are applied to the whole
universe. Sample surveys are becoming popular these days due to their
---------------------- convenience, time saving and economy.
---------------------- 5. Official, Semi-official or Private Survey: The surveys carried out by the
Government through its departments are termed as official and the surveys
---------------------- conducted by the quasi-government bodies like university, corporation
---------------------- etc. are termed as semi- official surveys.

----------------------

216 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

 A Private survey is made by individuals, associations and institutions etc. Notes
which are non-government agencies.
----------------------
6. Confidential or Public Survey: Confidential survey means a survey in
which results and the information gathered from is kept secret and not ----------------------
revealed to public. While in public survey, the information gathered is
available for public. ----------------------
There are different ways a survey can be carried out. It can be done (a) by ----------------------
telephone (b) by mail or (c) in person or by personal interview. In the present
time, it can be even done (d) by e-mail using the internet. Each method has its ----------------------
own merits and demerits.
----------------------
1. The Telephone Survey: It resembles the personal interview, except
that here the interviewer is stationed at a telephone. This saves time ----------------------
and travelling. The respondents are quickly reached, through widely
----------------------
separated geography. This method can result in more interviews per day
than in any case of personal interviews. There is a greater flexibility ----------------------
than in case of the mail survey. Since the respondents have to reply
immediately, the influence of other individuals is eliminated. As it is not ----------------------
possible to get a representative section of the public, this survey method
----------------------
is restricted to a highly selective and relatively small proportion of the
total population namely telephone subscribers. Naturally, this results in ----------------------
distortion of the sample. There is no possibility of obtaining information
through observation which would enable adequate classification of the ----------------------
respondents such as occupation, age and economic status. This method
----------------------
has an advantage of low cost. In this, facial reactions cannot be observed.
We cannot ensure that all target respondents have an opportunity for ----------------------
selection in the sample. In this method non-response bias is very high.
----------------------
2. The Personal Interview Survey: In this, the questions are asked by face
to face interview. The amount of information which can be secured in ----------------------
such a single interview is much greater than through any other method.
A relatively long questionnaire can be used. The skill of the interviewer ----------------------
can result in the maintenance of interest and co- operation of the person ----------------------
interviewed. It is possible in this technique, to observe characteristics
of the home, neighbourhood, etc. more accurately. The opinions, views, ----------------------
activities can be efficiently classified. The greatest disadvantage of this
method is the cost factor. The time required for planning the interview ----------------------
is also very high. The interviewer bias is a danger. Certain people are ----------------------
difficult to contact. The advantage is that questions can be explained to
respondents and facial reactions or body language can be observed. ----------------------
3. The Mail Survey: In this type of survey, the questionnaire is sent with ----------------------
a covering letter, the letter explaining the purpose of the study. A gift or
incentive is offered often. A reply card or a stamped or pre-post envelope ----------------------
is included to ensure reply being sent. This is an economical method.
Another advantage is that the distribution of interviews covering a wider ----------------------
geographical area within a limited amount of money is possible. The ----------------------

The Survey Method 217

 Notes method eliminates the interviewer’s bias as it eliminates the personal
element. The data obtained is more accurate. It is possible to reach certain
---------------------- people who are hard to get for interview. The respondents get as much
time as possible to answer and therefore the answers are more thoughtful.
---------------------- There is an assurance to give more accurate answers than acceptable ones.
---------------------- It is rather difficult to get a suitable list to cover the universe sought to be
sampled. The mail questionnaire has to be brief and there is no scope for
---------------------- observation in this survey.
---------------------- 4. E-mail Survey: This is at present being used by a select few. But every
potential respondent for the survey may not be using the e-mail or even a
---------------------- computer. Thereafter, this survey does not represent a true sample of the
target population for many products or services. To that extent, the result
----------------------
may be wrong, compared to errors with door- to-door personal interview
---------------------- done with scientific probability sampling.

---------------------- Check your Progress 2

----------------------
State True or False.
---------------------- 1. In Sample survey, every single unit in the universe is contacted and
information collected from it.
----------------------
2. Mostly, ad-hoc surveys are conducted for testing a hypothesis.
----------------------
3. In the telephone survey method, non-response bias is very high.
---------------------- Multiple Choice Single Response.
---------------------- 1. The survey method is classified on the basis of:
---------------------- i. The source of data collection

---------------------- ii. The nature of variable

iii. The measurable group
----------------------
iv. All of the above
----------------------

---------------------- 11.7 PLANNING A SURVEY

---------------------- The main steps involved in planning and execution of a social survey are
---------------------- discussed below:
1. Problem Selection: The selection of a research problem is the most
---------------------- important thing to be decided by the researcher. The selection of a topic
---------------------- is a commitment of one’s time and efforts to a particular direction. The
topic selected should be particularly feasible, manageable and of practical
---------------------- importance. Topics must be decided carefully. The problem selected should
not be new and beyond the reach of the researcher. The problem should
---------------------- be such that the researcher is deeply interested. It will help the researcher
---------------------- to take quick decisions and keep his morale high. While selecting a topic

218 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

 the researcher should also consider the availability of necessary facilities, Notes
equipments, information and the services of his guide as needed for that
type of research. ----------------------
2. Pilot study: The researcher has to conduct a pilot study which will help ----------------------
him to acquaint himself with all the available material and literature in the
field. The researcher should have contacts and consultations with experts ----------------------
or other surveyors to know the techniques and methods used in previous
----------------------
studies, their findings and difficulties/problems.
3. Objectives of study: The common object of social survey is to provide ----------------------
someone with information. The objectives, usually expressed in broad
----------------------
terms, are known as general objectives. These objectives define the area
and the scope of the research but they are few in numbers. ----------------------
4. Specific objectives: At this stage, the broad based general objectives are
----------------------
divided into many specific objectives and the hypothesis to be tested by
the researcher is framed from specific objectives. ----------------------
5. Resources: At the early stage of any survey, it will be necessary to prepare ----------------------
a budget. A researcher should also estimate the staff required for survey
and lay down qualifications of the staff to be required. It will facilitate the ----------------------
researcher to conduct the survey in a smooth manner.
----------------------
6. Sampling: In a social survey, complete coverage of the universe is neither
possible nor advisable. Generally, in such cases a representative sample ----------------------
is to be drawn. At this stage, following decisions must be taken regarding
the sample to be surveyed: (i) What is the population of the survey to be ----------------------
made? (ii) Which type of sample is to be used? (iii) What is the size and ----------------------
design of the sample which is to be drawn to give the required accuracy?
(iv) What is an appropriate sampling unit? (v) Whether the sample drawn ----------------------
is feasible, practical and economical?
----------------------
7. Method of collecting data: The method by which the sample-unit is
to be contacted is decided. Depending upon the nature of the research ----------------------
problem, questionnaires, personal interviews and schedules are prepared
by which the sample is to be contacted and the data are collected from the ----------------------
respondents. ----------------------
8. Investigating staff: The success of the survey depends upon the
----------------------
quality of the investigating staff, who interview the respondents and
collect the required information. The investigating staff should have a ----------------------
friendly relationship with the respondents and put them at total ease. The
interviews with the respondents should not argue or have a dispute with ----------------------
the respondents and should be impartial. He should not try to impose
----------------------
his own opinions on the respondents and has to be a good listener and
recorder of information. In order to conduct the interviews successfully ----------------------
and collect adequate reliable data, the investigators must be pre-trained.
----------------------
9. Organisation of work: After preparing the questionnaire and the training
of the interviewers, arrangements should be made for careful supervision ----------------------

The Survey Method 219

 Notes of the interviewers because in the work, several technical and non-technical
problems may creep in. For dealing with the problems successfully
---------------------- surveyors have to give instructions from time to time. Sometimes the
surveyors have to seek the guidance of the experts to conduct the field
---------------------- work in a successful manner.
---------------------- 10. Scrutiny: After obtaining the information from the field staff, the
information collected should be scrutinised for errors, omissions etc.
----------------------
before they are ready for coding. After the scrutiny of the collected
---------------------- information, the data should be tabulated and coded.
11. Analysis: After tabulation and coding of collected data, the data may be
----------------------
analysed by suitable statistical methods to determine their reliability. The
---------------------- main subject of the analysis is to summarise the complete observations in
such a manner that they yield specific answers to the research questions.
----------------------
12. Reporting: The writing of a research report is the last phase of the social
---------------------- survey. The report should contain a detailed statement of the different
stages of the survey, the type of the estimates obtained along with their
---------------------- precisions. A report is written embodying the survey findings. These
findings are interpreted and policy decisions are suggested.
----------------------

---------------------- 11.8 ADVANTAGES OF SURVEY

---------------------- 1. A survey brings the researcher to come face to face with the realities of
life and see things personally. Thus, the inferences drawn under survey
----------------------
method are not based upon any theory or principle but they are based
---------------------- upon the actual facts of life.
2. Under survey method, a researcher can observe the activities of a group
----------------------
under study from a much closer distance. It helps a researcher to have
---------------------- a better insight into their doings. Under this method, promptness is
assured and lot of supplementary information is also gathered about the
---------------------- respondents.
---------------------- 3. Social surveys play an important role in the formulation of national
policy. They are also regarded as indispensable to mobile the forces of
---------------------- community in order to tackle the socio-economic problems.
---------------------- 4. Survey method is very useful in testing the validity of many theories.
---------------------- 5. The survey method permits greater objectivity, since the data are not
influenced by any one man’s views or beliefs. The use of large number of
---------------------- field workers removes the possibilities of personal bias.
---------------------- 6. Surveys have proved their usefulness in leading to the formulation of
hypothesis. At a more advanced stage, surveys are also helpful in bringing
---------------------- the hypothesis to test.
----------------------

----------------------

220 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

11.9 LIMITATIONS OF SURVEY METHOD Notes
1. Expensive, time consuming and wasteful: Survey method, by and ----------------------
large, is costly, time consuming and wasteful in certain cases where the
objectives are limited. In many cases, the researcher has to appoint many ----------------------
field workers. He has to make necessary arrangements for their training
----------------------
and supervision and also printing of schedules and tabulation of collected
data. All this needs greater amount of money which few can afford. ----------------------
2. Inflexibility: The survey method lacks flexibility. An inadequate or ----------------------
incomplete research design or any change in research design may mean
conducting the fresh survey as there is no other alternative. ----------------------
3. Unsuitable in large areas: The survey method is unsuitable if the number ----------------------
of persons to be surveyed is very large or spread over a large geographical
area. ----------------------
4. Bias: Under survey method, personal bias may vitiate the results. This ----------------------
type of enquiry is liable to too large and injection of the personal element.
The prejudices and the desires of the investigators become unconsciously ----------------------
woven in to the fabric of conclusions.
----------------------
5. In historical retrospect: Survey method is only useful for current
problems and is unsuitable for the problem that requires the study in the ----------------------
historical retrospect.
----------------------
6. Accuracy: Under survey method, it is very difficult to verify the accuracy
of the data collected because accuracy of the data is dependent on honesty, ----------------------
sincerity, personal qualities and unbiased attitude of the enumerators and
----------------------
co-operation of the respondents.
7. Inapplicability of results: Under survey method, most of the surveys are ----------------------
conducted on sample basis. If a sample survey is planned and executed ----------------------
negligently the inferences drawn may be inaccurate and misleading. Its
results may be accurate and applicable to the whole universe if the sample ----------------------
taken is a true representative of the universe, which is a very difficult talk.
----------------------
8. Problems of immediate importance: Social survey method does not
permit more comprehensive and dynamic study of the society. It deals ----------------------
with the problems of immediate importance only.
----------------------
9. Non-Response Error: In most surveys this is a potentially sizeable error.
This happens when respondents are non-reachable or refuse to respond. ----------------------

----------------------
11.10 COMPARISON BETWEEN PRE-TESTING AND
PILOT SURVEY ----------------------

A distinction should be made between a pre-test and pilot survey. ----------------------

Pre-testing is an activity related to the development of the questionnaire or
----------------------
measurement instruments to be used in a survey. In contrast, a pilot survey is a
small scale test of what the survey is to be, including all activities that will go ----------------------
into the final survey.
The Survey Method 221
 Notes Pre-testing a questionnaire answers two questions (i) whether or not we
are asking “good” questions and (ii) whether or not the questionnaire flows
---------------------- smoothly and the question sequence is logical. Generally a pre-test of 30-100
interviews is adequate, provided all the subgroups in the main survey population
---------------------- are covered.
---------------------- The pilot study is designed to ascertain whether all elements in the survey
fit together. Thus, questionnaire pre-testing may be a part of the pilot study but
----------------------
normally it should not be. Pilot survey can help in deciding upon the size of the
---------------------- original sample for the main survey.
Both pre-testing and pilot surveys can provide information helpful in
----------------------
managing some of the sources of potential research errors. In the long run, they
---------------------- can both cause a survey to be more effective and efficient.

---------------------- Check your Progress 3

----------------------
Multiple Choice Single Response.
---------------------- 1. The limitation of the survey data collection methods is that
---------------------- i. They do not deploy a means to measure certain attitudes
---------------------- ii. They do not deploy a means to measure certain behaviors and
are expensive
----------------------
iii. People may not be interested in help and just give any data
---------------------- iv. None of the above
----------------------

---------------------- Activity 1

---------------------- Which method - a personal interview, a telephone survey or a mail survey –

you would use in the following situations?
----------------------
1. A poll of citizens in your city on their preferences among three major
---------------------- political parties in the State to run the city civic body.
---------------------- 2. A survey of states I.T. industrial establishments on their policies for
their staff.
----------------------
3. A poll of rural citizens (men and women) as regards what can be
---------------------- shown and what cannot be shown on various TV channels.

----------------------
11.11 SURVEY TRENDS
----------------------
Now-a-days computer surveying is surfacing at various trade shows,
----------------------
where participants completes survey, while making a visit to a company’s booth
---------------------- or stall, is carried out. A continuous tabulation of results provides a stimulus for
attendees for visiting a specific exhibit as well as giving the exhibits detailed
---------------------- information for evaluating the productivity of the show. A similar application

222 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

can be made where a large group of people come together. Notes
Employee policies and behaviour is now-a-days evaluated constantly by
----------------------
many firms using internet capabilities. Computer questioning to both internal
and external group is possible for institutes of any size. The traditional mail- ----------------------
type surveys can easily be adopted by computer system. The follow-up through
computers is also easy and less costly. ----------------------
We are familiar that many registration procedures are finding applications ----------------------
on World Wide Web. Various universities, through their websites, ask prospective
students about their interest. Today, the customer service procedures, evaluation ----------------------
of planned promotions, needs of customers, job openings, evaluating employee
----------------------
attitudes etc. are being done by various organisations using their web sites.
Commercial suppliers of research services vary from full service ----------------------
operations to specialty consultants. If confidentiality is at stake, the manager
----------------------
or the institute will prefer to bid only a phase of the project e.g. the exploratory
work, design, sampling, data collection or processing and analysis may be ----------------------
contracted separately or as a whole. Research firms also offer special advantages
that their clients do not usually maintain themselves. Centralised- location ----------------------
interviewing, focus group facilities or computer assisted telephone facilities
----------------------
may be particularly desirable for certain research needs. Some vendors have
specially designed software for interviewing and data tabulation. ----------------------
Panel suppliers provide another type of research service with emphasis ----------------------
on longitudinal survey work. By using the same respondents over time, panels
can track trends in attitudes towards products, product adoption or consumption ----------------------
behaviour. Suppliers of panel data can secure information from persons and
telephone interviewing techniques as well as from the mail and mixed models. ----------------------

----------------------
Summary
----------------------
●● For carrying out any research, generally data has to be collected. Data
collection uses the process of either communication or observation. We ----------------------
have discussed earlier in details regarding ‘observational’ techniques
----------------------
of data collection. In this unit, we have our attention on data collection
techniques of process of communication. This unit discusses the ‘Survey’ ----------------------
method in its various forms – a method of acquiring information through
communicating with a group of respondents. Thus, the process can be in ----------------------
person, by mail or by telephone. In fact the internet is a new medium today.
----------------------
All these constitute broad research techniques under the name ‘Survey’.
●● The major advantage of personal interviewing is the ability to explore ----------------------
topics in great depth, to achieve a high degree of interviewer contact and
----------------------
to provide maximum interviewer feasibility for meeting unique situation.
But this method is time consuming, costly and is susceptible to interviewer ----------------------
bias due to its flexibility.
----------------------
●● Two factors cause bias in interviewing. One is non-response – very
common. This is minimised by call backs until an adequate number of ----------------------

The Survey Method 223

 Notes completed interviews are secured. Another is response error, which occurs
when the respondent fails to give a complete answer. The interviewer can
---------------------- contribute to the correction of this problem.
---------------------- ●● Telephone interviewing has recently become popular due to low cost and
wider and increasing network of consumers. The great disadvantage is that
---------------------- quite many telephones are unlisted and directory listing becomes obsolete
rather quickly. There is no limit on the length and depth of interview using
---------------------- the telephone.
---------------------- ●● The mail survey method is quite economical. It can cover a wide
geographical area within reasonable budget and eliminates the interviewer
---------------------- bias. The data is accurate, but there is no presence of flexibility. One more
---------------------- disadvantage with this method is that the mail questionnaire has to be very
brief.
---------------------- ●● Recent trends in survey technique coincides with current practice of
---------------------- outsourcing survey services –partly or fully. Speciality consulting firms
offer software and computer based assistance for telephone and personal
---------------------- interviewing as well as mail and mixed models. Panel suppliers produce
data for longitudinal studies of all varieties.
----------------------

---------------------- Keywords
---------------------- ●● Survey: It means a study of investigation of a population, usually of human
beings e.g. social, economic or political institutions.
----------------------
●● Sample Survey: The term is used for survey that is carried out using the
---------------------- sampling method, i.e. in which a population only is surveyed.

----------------------
Self-Assessment Questions
----------------------
1. Distinguish between response errors and non-response errors.
----------------------
2. Describe an interviewer error.
---------------------- 3. Explain in details a survey method in research. What are its various
forms?
----------------------
4. Explain the merits and demerits of different types of surveys that can be
---------------------- carried out.
---------------------- 5. Write short notes on:

---------------------- i. Merits and limitations of survey method

ii. Different types of surveys
----------------------
iii. Pre-testing and Pilot testing
----------------------
iv. Objects and characteristics of survey method
---------------------- 6. In the following cases, which method would you use to get information?
---------------------- Give reasons.

224 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

 a. A poll of students at Pune University on their preferences between Notes
two student candidates who are running for the post of “Students’
Representative”. ----------------------
b. A survey of pharmacists in the state to secure their opinions ----------------------
concerning the Governments law regarding VAT application to
medicines for common diseases. ----------------------

----------------------
Answers to Check your Progress
----------------------
Check your Progress 1
----------------------
Multiple Choice Single Response.
1. Survey method is associated with ----------------------
i. All of the above ----------------------
2. In comparison, the most cost effective data collection method is usually ----------------------
ii. Survey methods
----------------------
Check your Progress 2
----------------------
State True or False.
1. False ----------------------
2. True ----------------------
3. True ----------------------
Multiple Choice Single Response.
----------------------
1. The survey method is classified on the basis of:
----------------------
i. All of the above
Check your Progress 3 ----------------------
Multiple Choice Single Response. ----------------------
1. The limitation of the survey data collection methods is that ----------------------
i. People may not be interested in help and just give any data
----------------------

Suggested Reading ----------------------

1. Bryman, Allan & Bell Emma. 2003. Business Research Methods. Oxford ----------------------
University Press. ----------------------
2. Kothari C.R. 1985. Research Methodology – Methods & Techniques.
New Age International Publishers. ----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

The Survey Method 225

 Notes

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------
----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

226 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

The Experimental Method
UNIT

12
Structure:

12.1 Introduction
12.2 Definition and Meaning of Experimental Method
12.3 Objectives of Experiment
12.4 What constitutes an Experiment
12.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of Experiments
12.6 How to conduct an Experiment
12.7 Validity in Experimentation
12.8 Basic Principles of Experimentation
12.9 Experimental Designs
Summary
Keywords
Self-Assessment Questions
Answers to Check your Progress
Suggested Reading

The Experimental Method 227

 Notes
Objectives
----------------------
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
----------------------
• Explain how important the experimental designs (methods) are in
---------------------- research
---------------------- • Discuss various assumptions that form a part of various experimental
designs
----------------------
• Describe various experimental designs that help to study the cause
---------------------- and effect relationships amongst variables in research

---------------------- • Select an appropriate design for a given research project

----------------------
12.1 INTRODUCTION
----------------------
---------------------- We have learnt in the previous units about the various types of research. The
two major categories are called Exploratory research and Conclusive research.
---------------------- The exploratory research enables the researcher to generate hypothesis; they are
tested for validity by the conclusive research. The conclusive type of research
---------------------- is further divided into descriptive and experimental. While the descriptive
---------------------- procedure merely tests the hypotheses, the experimental research establishes in
a more effective manner, the cause and effect of relationships among variables.
---------------------- In this unit, we learn about what is meant by an experiment, what the basic
requirements for the experimental designs are, what the different types of
---------------------- designs exist, why experimental methods are so important and other related
---------------------- topics.

---------------------- 12.2 DEFINITION AND MEANING OF EXPERIMENTAL

METHOD
----------------------
Experiments are studies involving intervention by the researchers beyond
----------------------
that requires for measurements. Usually, the intervention is to manipulate
---------------------- some variable in a setting and observe how it affects the subjects being studied
(e.g., physical entities or people). The researcher manipulates the independent
---------------------- or explanatory variable and then observes whether the hypothesised dependent
variable is affected by the intervention.
----------------------
The experiment includes a statement of the problem to be solved – and
---------------------- that is rather difficult. It is very desirable to bring out all the points of view to
establish what the experiment is intended to do. Therefore, a careful statement
----------------------
of the problem gives a long way towards its solution. The choice has to be
---------------------- made about the dependent variable or the variable to be studied when selecting
the variables for an experiment. Are these variables measurable or not? How
---------------------- accurately they can be measured? On the other hand, we have to define the
independent variables or factors that affect the dependent variable. Do we need
----------------------

228 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

to keep these variables constant or need to be tried at different levels? How Notes
can we choose these levels in our experiment? Can these levels be selected
randomly or on equivalent levels? Are these factors varying qualitatively or ----------------------
quantitatively?
----------------------
All these factors lead to what we call as the ‘design’ of our experiment.
This design phase is very important because it means planning an experiment to ----------------------
collect all the information which is relevant to the problem chosen. Therefore,
----------------------
designing an experiment is a complete sequence of various steps taken before
hand. ----------------------
Nature of Experiments
----------------------
Experimentation is a source of getting accurate information. There are two
general types of experimental designs, namely (i) natural and (ii) controlled. ----------------------
A natural experiment is one in which the researcher intervenes to the ----------------------
extent required for measurement and there is no deliberate manipulations of an
assumed causal variable. On the other hand, in a controlled experiment, there ----------------------
are two kinds of interventions that are required (necessary). ----------------------
i. Manipulation of at least one assumed causal variable and
----------------------
ii. Assignment of subjects at random to experimental and control groups.
----------------------
When there is manipulation of variable but there is no random assignment
of subjects, the design is called as “Quasi – experiment”. ----------------------
We must keep in mind that all real experiments have certain things
----------------------
common, namely, the treatments (i.e. assumed causal variables), an outcome
measure (result), units of assignment and some comparison from which change ----------------------
can be inferred and perhaps attributed to the treatment. On the other hand, Quasi-
experiments have treatments, outcome measures and experimental units but do ----------------------
not use random assignment to create the comparisons from which treatment
----------------------
caused change is inferred. Such comparisons depend on groups that differ from
each other in ways other than the presence of a treatment whose effects are ----------------------
being tested.
----------------------
Experiments can be carried out at (i) laboratory scale or (ii) at field scale.
Differences between these levels affect the researcher’s ability to control ----------------------
certain variables and the degree of realism in the two experimental levels. Each ----------------------
level has its own advantages and disadvantages. Therefore, the researcher must
be familiar with both. ----------------------
1. Laboratory Experiments ----------------------
In these experiments, the researcher administers the treatment to subjects
----------------------
in an artificial environment created for the purpose of the experiment. In
these experiments, it is possible for the researches to minimise the unwanted ----------------------
effects of extraneous variables by exercising control and manipulating of
certain variables. In these experiments, one is not very sure how natural ----------------------
are the responses of the subjects concerned or the results on the same.
----------------------

The Experimental Method 229

 Notes The laboratory experiments offer a high level of internal validity because
of elimination of effects of many other extraneous variables that are
---------------------- controlled. But these experiments may become externally invalid because
the conclusions of these experiments cannot be projected to the real world
---------------------- situation. This might be due to different environments in laboratory tests
---------------------- and those done in real world. Similarly, it can be due to subjects differing
substantially in both and may be due to time lack difference.
----------------------
2. Field Experiments
---------------------- These are conducted in ‘real-word’ environment. These provide a very high
degree of external validity. In these experiments, internal validity suffers
----------------------
due to difficulties in manipulating the treatment (s) as also the inability
---------------------- to control the extraneous variables. Comparatively, these experiments are
very costly. They are prolonged over long time and complicated also.
---------------------- Even then field experiments are more commonly approached everywhere.
---------------------- The possibility of invalid sources does discourage experimentation.
However, alternative designs exist which need to be executed cautiously.
----------------------

---------------------- Check your Progress 1

---------------------- Multiple Choice Single Response.

---------------------- 1. In one study on the effect of niacin on cholesterol level, 100 subjects
who acknowledged being longtime niacin takers had their cholesterol
---------------------- levels compared with those of 100 people who had never taken niacin.
In a second study, 50 subjects were randomly chosen to receive niacin
---------------------- and 50 were chosen to receive a placebo.
---------------------- i. The first study was a controlled experiment, while the second
was an observational study.
----------------------
ii. The first study was an observational study, while the second
---------------------- was a controlled experiment.
---------------------- iii. Both studies were controlled experiments.

---------------------- iv. Both studies were observational studies.

----------------------
12.3 OBJECTIVES OF EXPERIMENT
----------------------
The term ‘experimentation’ is used in a number of ways and for a
---------------------- variety of objectives. This should be distinguishable. Some do use the term for
---------------------- measurement and estimation. Experiments may be conducted for the primary
objective of determining the functional form that links some criterion variable
---------------------- to a set of input variables example. A market researcher postulates the sales
response to increasing advertising expenses in a linear or quadratic form. He
---------------------- may test which form best fits. In certain cases, the researcher even does not
---------------------- know what variables are relevant. An experiment may be conducted for the

230 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

purpose of identifying relevant variables as well as their functional forms, the Notes
model that links there variables with the criterion variables under study. The
characteristic that best distinguish experimentation from observational studies is ----------------------
that the former denotes some intervention and control over the factors affecting
the response variables of interest to the researcher. ----------------------

Experimentation permits the establishment of causal relationships. ----------------------

Although we cannot infer causality from simple associations alone, correlation
----------------------
techniques have proved very useful. When association is found, the results of
this preliminary analysis can be to provide possible likely variables to be tried ----------------------
for later experimentation.
----------------------
Ingredients of Experiment
The research process in general has a series of interrelated steps. In a ----------------------
similar manner, an experiment involves interrelated steps. Our concern is
----------------------
primary with defining variables, designing the experimental procedure and
conducting the experiment. ----------------------
All experiments involve three types of variables. First, there is the variable ----------------------
whose effect upon some other variable on which the experiment is designed
to measure. In a causal study this variable is the presumed cause. This is the ----------------------
variable that is manipulated, therefore, it is known as the treatment, although
it is often referred to as an independent variable. Experiments often involve ----------------------
more than one treatment variable. When this is the case, the researcher may be ----------------------
interested in observing the effects of combinations of treatment variables, in
addition to the effect of each one individually. In short, there may be interaction ----------------------
effects. Interaction refers to the situation where the response to changes in the
level of one treatment variable is dependent on the level of some other treatment ----------------------
variable(s) in the experiment. For example, suppose we design an experiment to ----------------------
measure the effects of price and advertising on the sales of a product. Not only
will each of these two marketing variables, independent of the other, have an ----------------------
effect on sales, but the combination of the two may also have a separate effect.
----------------------
The second broad type of variable in an experiment is the effect of
interest. This is the outcome or dependent variable. In the preceding price and ----------------------
advertising example, the dependent variable was product sales.
----------------------
The last category of variables consists of those variables other than the
manipulated independent variable(s) that could influence the observed effects ----------------------
(i.e. dependent variable). These are known as extraneous variables and unless
controlled adequately they are the source of error(s) in the experiment. These ----------------------
will be discussed in a later section of this unit. ----------------------
Steps of an Experiment
----------------------
1. Measurement
----------------------
2. Subjects
3. Control Techniques ----------------------

4. Manipulation ----------------------

The Experimental Method 231

 Notes 5. Experimental Design
6. Experimental Procedures
----------------------
a. Instructions
----------------------
b. Instruments
---------------------- c. Apparatus
---------------------- Measurement, Manipulation and Experimental Procedures
---------------------- A critical aspect of all experiments is measurement. Our concern at this
point is with the operational problems of measurement. The concepts, levels
---------------------- and techniques of measurement and scaling are all important.
---------------------- In an experiment, it is the outcome or dependent variable that is measured.
Generally, the operational measures used can be classified into verbal,
---------------------- electromechanical and direct measures. Verbal measures include spoken and
written responses. Electromechanical measures include those obtained from
----------------------
devices that measure such things as eye movements of advertising readership,
---------------------- pupil dilation and responses to sensory stimuli obtained from using a psycho
galvanometer or stethoscope. Such devices are used in laboratory experiments.
---------------------- Direct measures are illustrated by the amount of sales or profit, units of a product
that are sold or consumed and actual behaviour of people under the conditions
----------------------
of the experiment.
---------------------- Now an experimental treatment must be capable of variation. There are
three ways in which variations in the independent variable can be achieved.
----------------------
First, there is the presence versus absence technique. This approach requires
---------------------- that the treatment be given to one group of subjects while another group does
not receive the treatment. For example, one group of people could be shown
---------------------- a new advertisement and their responses to an attitude measurement could
be compared with the same type of response from a group that did not see
----------------------
the advertisement. Second, the amount of a variable can be manipulated and
---------------------- different amounts are administered to different groups. This technique is used
in such experiments as those where different prices for products are ‘tested’
---------------------- and the outcome ‘units unsold’ is measured. Finally, the type of variable can
be manipulated. For example, a company interested in the effect of image on
----------------------
some outcome measure could conduct an experiment by running a series of
---------------------- advertisements, each of which was designed to convey a different image of its
product. Regardless of whether the dependent variable was attitude or sales,
---------------------- variation was generated in the type of image conveyed.
---------------------- As with any approach to research, all phases of an experiment should
be carefully planned in advance. After decisions have been made concerning
---------------------- measurement, research subjects, experimental design, control techniques and
---------------------- manipulation, there is the need to plan everything. This includes the setting
of the experiment, physical arrangements, any apparatus that will be used and
---------------------- its operation, data collection forms, instructions, recording of the dependent
variable and so forth.
----------------------

232 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

Classical versus Statistically Designed Experiments Notes
We are aware about the laboratory scientist who carefully fixes all factors
----------------------
(or treatment variables) assumed to affect the outcome of the experiment except
the one whose effect is to be measured. If several factors are under study, the ----------------------
scientist then proceeds to fix all factors except the second one under study and
so on, until the effect of each factor is measured. ----------------------
Two things go wrong with the ‘varying one factor at a time’ approach. ----------------------
First, this procedure is inefficient since other experimental designs yield
more information per observation. Second, the procedure does not enable the ----------------------
researcher to measure any interactions that may exist among the experimental
----------------------
factors. For example, suppose that a laboratory scientist is attempting to study
the effect of temperature and reagent concentration on the amount of copper ----------------------
deposited (per unit of time) on a steel bar. If the scientist holds the temperature
constant, we assume that so many additional milligrams of copper are deposited ----------------------
per increase of five percentage points in the electrolytic concentration. Similarly,
----------------------
holding the concentration of the electrolytic solution constant while varying
the temperature results in so many milligrams of copper deposited per unit of ----------------------
time. If however, the milligrams deposited per unit change in temperature differ
among levels of electrolytic concentration, the ‘varying one factor at a time’ ----------------------
approach will not reveal this tendency.
----------------------
12.4 WHAT CONSTITUTES AN EXPERIMENT ----------------------

The experiment includes a statement of the problem to be solved. It is ----------------------

actually difficult to frame properly and takes long time. A careful statement of
----------------------
the problem goes a long way towards its solution.
While selecting the variables for an experiment, choice has to be made as ----------------------
to the dependent variable or variables to be studied. Whether these variables are
----------------------
measurable? How accurately can they be measured? If they are not measurable,
what type of response is expected from them? What are the types of results? Yes ----------------------
no type, go or no go type? How the results are distributed?
----------------------
Defining independent variables or factors, which affect the dependent or
response variable also is a must. Do these factors need to be kept constant or ----------------------
need to be raised at certain levels? How the levels of factors are to be chosen in
the experiment? At random levels or equivalent levels? Do the factors need to ----------------------
be varied qualitatively or quantitatively?
----------------------
All these go in making the definition of an experiment or design of an
experiment. The design phase of any experiment is of vital importance. In ----------------------
any experiment, the experimenter is attempting to draw certain inferences or ----------------------
make a decision about some hypothesis or ‘hunch’. In a scientific approach,
an experimenter always formulates a ‘hypothesis’ and then verifies it directly ----------------------
or by their consequences. To verify the hypothesis, one needs to collect data.
Designing an experiment means planning an experiment so that information will ----------------------
be collected which is relevant to the problem in hand. Design of an experiment ----------------------

The Experimental Method 233

 Notes is therefore, a complete sequence of various steps taken before hand to ensure
the appropriateness of data.
----------------------
How data is collected? How many observations should be taken? How
---------------------- large a difference is to be detected? How much variation is present? What
amount of risk can be tolerated? All these questions are very closely related
---------------------- to sample size to be decided for an experiment. An arbitrary or large size of
sample is many a time chosen but the cost consideration is also very important.
----------------------
The experiments also need to be run in a random order to avoid introduction
---------------------- of bias. Some variables need to be controlled, some cannot be controlled.
Randomisation of experimental runs tends to average out the effect of these
---------------------- uncontrollable variables. It also permits the experiments to proceed as if the
errors of measurement are independent- a common assumption in most statistical
----------------------
analysis.
---------------------- Once the experiment is finalised and a randomised procedure is agreed
upon, a mathematical model can be set up which should describe the experiment.
----------------------
This model will show the response variable as a function of all factors, which
---------------------- are to be studied and any restrictions imposed in the experiment due to the
method of randomisation.
----------------------
Analysis
---------------------- This step includes data collection, data reduction and the computation of
---------------------- certain test statistics to be used in making decisions about various aspects of
an experiment. The analysis usually involves calculations of test statistic such
---------------------- as t, F, Chi Square and the corresponding decision rules for testing hypothesis
about the given mathematical model. Once the test statistic has been computed,
---------------------- decisions must be made. The decisions/results should also be used as feedback
---------------------- to design a better experiment, once certain hypothesis seems tenable.
Outline of Experiment
----------------------
I. Experiment
----------------------
1. Make a clear statement/objective of experiment
---------------------- 2. Make a choice of dependent variable/response factor
---------------------- 3. Decide those factors, which are to be varied

---------------------- 4. Select the different levels of these factors

5. Choice is qualitative or quantitative
----------------------
6. Variables from fixed number or random one
----------------------
II. Designs
---------------------- 1. Decide the number of observations to be taken
---------------------- 2. Order in which experiments will be carried out

---------------------- 3. Randomisation method to be used

4. Selection of mathematical model to describe experiment
----------------------

234 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

III. Analysis Notes
1. Collection of data and processing
----------------------
2. Computation of test statistics
----------------------
3. Interpretation of results for the experiment
----------------------
12.5 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF
----------------------
EXPERIMENTS
----------------------
Advantages
1. The foremost advantage is the researcher’s ability to manipulate the ----------------------
independent variable. ----------------------
2. Contamination from extraneous variables can be controlled more
----------------------
effectively than in other designs. This helps the researcher isolate
experimental variables and evaluate their impact over time. ----------------------
3. The convenience and cost of experimentation are superior to other
----------------------
methods. These benefits allow the experimenter opportunistic scheduling
of data collection and the flexibility to adjust variables and conditions that ----------------------
evoke extremes not observed under routine circumstances.
----------------------
4. Replication – repeating an experiment with different subject groups and
conditions leads to the discovery of an average effect of the independent ----------------------
variable across people, situations and times.
----------------------
5. Researcher can use naturally occurring events and, to some extent, field
experiments to reduce subjects’ perceptions of the researcher as a source ----------------------
of intervention or deviation in their everyday lives.
----------------------
Disadvantages
1. The artificiality of the laboratory is the main disadvantage of the ----------------------
experimental method. ----------------------
However, many subjects’ perception of a contrived environment can be
----------------------
improved by investment in the facility.
2. Generalisation from non-probability samples can pose problems despite ----------------------
random assignment.
----------------------
3. In spite of the low cost of experimentation, many applications of
experimentation far outrun the budgets for other primary data collection ----------------------
methods. ----------------------
4. Experimentation is most effectively targeted at problems of the present
or immediate future. Experimental studies of the past are not feasible and ----------------------
studies about intentions or predictions are difficult. ----------------------
5. Management research is often concerned with the study of people. There
are limits to the types of manipulations and controls that are ethical. ----------------------

----------------------

The Experimental Method 235

 Notes
Check your Progress 2
----------------------
State True or False.
----------------------
1. The advantage of experiment is the researcher’s ability to manipulate
---------------------- the independent variable.
---------------------- 2. The convenience and cost of experimentation are inferior to other
methods.
----------------------
3. Experimentation is most effectively targeted at problems of the
---------------------- present or immediate future.

----------------------
12.6 HOW TO CONDUCT AN EXPERIMENT
----------------------
In a well-executed experiment, researchers must complete a series of
---------------------- activities to carry out their craft successfully. Although the experiment is the
---------------------- premier scientific methodology for establishing causation, the resourcefulness
and creativeness of the researcher are needed to make the experiment live up to
---------------------- its potential. There are seven activities the researcher must accomplish to make
the endeavor successful. They are as follows:
----------------------
1. Choice of Variable
---------------------- A research problem can be conceptualised as a hierarchy of questions
---------------------- starting with a management problem. The researcher’s task is to translate
problems into question or hypothesis that best states the objectives of the
---------------------- researcher. Depending on the complexity of the problem, investigative
questions and additional hypotheses can be created to address specific
---------------------- facets of the study or data that need to be gathered. Further, we mentioned
---------------------- that a hypothesis is a relational statement because it describes a relationship
between two or more variables. It must also be operationalised.
----------------------
The number of variables in an experiment is constrained by the project
---------------------- budget, the time allocated, the availability of appropriate controls and
the number of subjects being tested. For statistical reasons, there must be
---------------------- more subjects than variables
---------------------- 2. Levels of Treatments

---------------------- The Treatment levels of the independent variables are the distinctions the
researcher makes between different aspects of the treatment conditions.
---------------------- For example, if salary is hypothesised to have an effect on employees
exercising stock purchase options, it might be divided into high, middle
---------------------- and low ranges to represent three levels of the independent variable.
---------------------- The levels assigned to an independent variable should be based on
simplicity and common sense.
----------------------
Under an entirely different hypothesis, several levels of the independent
---------------------- variable may be needed to test order-of-presentation effects. Here we use

236 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

 only two. Alternatively, a control group could provide a base level for Notes
comparison. The control group is composed of those who receive the
experimental treatment [manipulation of independent variable(s)]. ----------------------
3. Experimental Environment ----------------------
The researcher ought to find out nature of extraneous variables and the
----------------------
need for their control. Extraneous variables can appear as differences in
age, gender, race, dress, communications competence and many other ----------------------
characteristic of the presenter, the message or the situation. These have
potential for distorting the effect of the treatment on the dependent ----------------------
variable and must be controlled or eliminated. However, we are practically
----------------------
concerned with environmental control, holding constant the physical
environment of the experiment. ----------------------
Other forms of control involve subjects and experimenters. When subjects
----------------------
do not know if they are receiving the experimental treatment, they are
said to be blind. When the experimenters do not know if they are giving ----------------------
the treatment to the experimental group or to the control, the experiment
is double blind. Both approaches control unwanted complications such as ----------------------
subjects’ reactions to expected conditions or experimenter influence.
----------------------
4. Choice of Experimental Design
----------------------
Unlike the general descriptors of research designs mentioned earlier,
experimental designs are unique to the experimental method. They ----------------------
serve as positional and statistical plans to designate relationship
between experimental treatments and the experimenter’s observations ----------------------
or measurement points in the scheme of study. In the conduct of the ----------------------
experiment, the researchers apply their knowledge to select one design
that is best suited to the goals of the research. Judicious selection of the ----------------------
design improves the probability that the observed change in the dependent
variable was caused by the manipulation of the independent variable and ----------------------
not by another factor. It simultaneously strengthens the generalisation of ----------------------
results beyond the experimental settings.
5. Subjects Allocation ----------------------

The subjects selected for the experiment should be representative of the ----------------------
population to which the researcher wishes to generalise.
----------------------
The procedure for random sampling of experimental subjects is similar in
principle to the selection of respondents for a survey. The researcher first ----------------------
prepares a sampling frame and then assigns the subject for the experiment
----------------------
to groups using randomisation. Systematic sampling may be used if the
sampling frame is free from any form of periodicity that parallels the ----------------------
sampling ratio. Since the sampling frame is often small, experimental
subjects are recruited; thus they are a self-selecting sample. However, if ----------------------
randomisation is used, those assigned to the Experimental group are likely
----------------------
to be similar to those assigned to the control group. Random assignment
to the group is required to make the groups as comparable as possible with ----------------------

The Experimental Method 237

 Notes respect to the dependent variable. Randomisation does not guarantee that
if a pretest of the group was conducted before the treatment condition,
---------------------- the group would be pronounced identical; but it is an assurance that those
differences remaining are randomly distributed.
----------------------
When it is not possible to randomly assign subjects to groups, matching
---------------------- may be used. Matching employs a non-probability quota sampling
approach. The object of matching is to have each experimental and control
----------------------
subject matched on every characteristic used in the research.
---------------------- 6. Tests, Pilot Tests
---------------------- The procedure for this stage is similar to those of other forms of primary
data collection. Pilot testing is intended to reveal errors in the design
---------------------- and improper control of extraneous or environmental conditions. Pre-
testing the instruments permit refinement before the final test. This
----------------------
is the researcher’s best opportunity to revise scripts, look for control
---------------------- problems with laboratory conditions and scan the environment for factors
that might confound the results. In field experiments, researchers are
---------------------- sometimes caught off guard by events that have a dramatic effect on
subjects: the experiment should be timed so subjects are not sensitised to
----------------------
the independent variable by factors in the environment.
---------------------- 7. Analysis
---------------------- If adequate planning and pre-testing have occurred, the experimental data
will take an order and structure uncommon to surveys and unstructured
---------------------- observational studies. Data from experiments are not easy to analyse;
---------------------- they are simply more conveniently arranged because of the levels of the
treatment condition, pretests and posttests and the group structure. The
---------------------- choice of statistical techniques is comparatively simplified.
----------------------
12.7 VALIDITY IN EXPERIMENTATION
----------------------
In experimentation, there is always a question about whether the results are
---------------------- true, whether they are valid? Validity means whether a measure accomplishes
its claim. While there are several different types of validity, the two major types
---------------------- are
---------------------- 1. Internal validity: Do the conclusions we draw about a demonstrated
experimental relationship truly imply cause?
----------------------
2. External validity: Does an observed causal relationship generalise across
---------------------- persons, settings and times?
---------------------- Each type of validity has specific threats we need to guard against.
Threats to internal validity:
----------------------
1. History: During the time that an experiment is taking place, some events
---------------------- may occur that confuse the relationship being studied e.g. the impact of
---------------------- an extraneous event that takes place between present measurement and
post measurement of the dependent variables.
238 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods
2. Maturation: Changes may also occur within the subjects that are a Notes
function of the passage of time and not specific to any particular event.
These are of special concern when the study covers a long time, but they ----------------------
may also be factors in tests, that are as short as an hour or two.
----------------------
3. Testing: The process of taking a test can affect the scores of a second test.
The experience of taking the first test can have an effect that influences ----------------------
the results of the second test.
----------------------
4. Instrumentation: This threat to internal validity results from changes
between observations in measuring instruments or in observer. Using ----------------------
different questions at each measurement is an obvious source of potential
----------------------
trouble, but using different observers or interviewers also threatens
validity. ----------------------
5. Selection: An important threat to internal validity is the differential
----------------------
selection of subjects for experimental and control groups. Validity
considerations require that the groups be equivalent in every respect. If ----------------------
subjects are randomly assigned to experimental and control groups, this
selection problem can be largely overcome. Additionally, matching the ----------------------
members of the groups on key factors can enhance the equivalence of the
----------------------
groups.
6. Statistical Regression: This factor operates especially when groups have ----------------------
been selected by their extreme scores. ----------------------
7. Experiment Mortality: This occurs when the composition of the study
groups changes during the test. ----------------------

All the threats mentioned to this point are generally, but not always, dealt ----------------------
with adequately in experiments by random assignment.
----------------------
Threats to External Validity: Among the major threats to external validity are
the following interactive possibilities. ----------------------
1. The Reactivity of Testing on X: The reactive effect is one of sensitising ----------------------
subject by the pretest so they respond to the experiment stimulus in a
different way. ----------------------
2. Interaction of Selection and X: The process by which test subjects ----------------------
are selected for an experiment may be a threat to external validity. The
population from which one selects subjects may not be same as the ----------------------
population to which one wishes to generalise results. ----------------------
3. Other Reactive Factors: The experimental settings themselves may
have a biasing effect on a subject’s response to X. An artificial setting can ----------------------
obviously give results that are not representative of larger population. ----------------------
Problems of internal validity can be solved by the careful design of
experiments, but this is less true for problems of external validity. External ----------------------
validity is largely a matter of generalisation, which, in a logical sense, is an ----------------------
inductive process of extrapolating beyond the data collected. In generalising,
we estimate the factors that can be ignored and that will interact with the ----------------------

The Experimental Method 239

 Notes experimental variable.

---------------------- Check your Progress 3

----------------------
State True or False.
---------------------- 1. External validity is concerned with the interaction of the experimental
treatments with other factors and the resulting impact on abilities to
----------------------
generalise to times, settings or persons.
---------------------- 2. Problems of external validity can be solved by the careful design of
experiments.
----------------------
3. Internal validity is largely a matter of generalisation,
----------------------

----------------------
12.8 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF EXPERIMENTATION
----------------------
Randomisation, replication and local control are three basic principles of
---------------------- experimentation.

---------------------- 1. Randomisation
Simple precaution of randomisation will suffice to guarantee the validity
----------------------
of the test of significance by which the result of the experiment is to be
---------------------- judged. With randomisation, the factors or groups of factors under study
tend to be comparable with respect to known as well as unknown factors
---------------------- affecting the results and guarantees that statistical tests will have valid
significance level. Thus, randomisation makes the test valid by making it
----------------------
appropriate to analyse the data.
---------------------- 2. Replication
---------------------- It means repetition of the experiments. Repetition of experiments more
often help to reduce the experimental error. This means that it helps to
---------------------- increase the sensitivity of the experiment.
---------------------- 3. Local control

---------------------- This is to help the experiment to be balanced. It is to make the results

of the experiments efficient. This is done through amount of balancing,
---------------------- grouping of the experimental units and blocking also. The use of local
control reduces the magnitude of experimental errors that are estimated.
----------------------

---------------------- 12.9 EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS

---------------------- A number of experimental designs have been developed to overcome and
reduce the various sources of invalidity. Experimental designs can be categorised
---------------------- into two broad groups – classical and statistical. Classical designs consider the
---------------------- impact of only one independent variable at a time, whereas statistical designs
allow for examining the impact of two or more independent variables.
----------------------

240 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

1. Classical Designs Notes
The major types of classical designs can be classified as pre-experiment,
----------------------
quasi-experiment and true experiment. Pre-experimental designs are
so called because there is a total absence of control such that they are ----------------------
of minimal value in establishing causality. Quasi-experimental designs
involve control but there has not been random assignment of subjects, ----------------------
as there is for true experiments. Where any given design fits will depend
----------------------
on whether the treatment variable has been deliberately manipulated,
the nature of control and whether there has been random assignment of ----------------------
subjects to experimental groups.
----------------------
2. Statistical Designs
For the most part, statistical designs are ‘after-only’ designs in which there ----------------------
are at least two treatment levels. In addition, such designs can examine
----------------------
the effects of more than one independent variable. Two principal aspects
of statistical designs are (a) the experimental layouts by which treatment ----------------------
levels are assigned to test objects and (b) the techniques that are used to
analyse the results of the experiment. We briefly discuss now the major ----------------------
types of layouts used to obtain data. The analysis techniques are known
----------------------
generically as analysis of variance and covariance.
Extensions of true experimental designs ----------------------
In this unit, we will address those experimental procedures that will ----------------------
permit management to study more than one level of an independent variable.
There are four designs that address themselves to this issue: (a) Completely ----------------------
randomised design (b) Randomised block design (c) Latin square design and (d) ----------------------
Factorial design. We will present only an overview of each of these designs in
this section. Statistical calculations for these procedures will not be discussed. ----------------------
1. Completely Randomised Design ----------------------
The completely randomised design is the simplest of these experimental
----------------------
designs and is a procedure used when the researcher is interested in
investigating the effect of one independent variable. The researcher is ----------------------
making an assumption that there are no differences in the test units and
as a result, all the test units are treated alike and are randomly assigned ----------------------
to test groups. In other words, the researcher is saying that there are no
----------------------
existing extraneous factors that could possibly affect the outcome.
Table 12.1: The Layout of a Completely Randomised Design ----------------------
Treatment Levels ----------------------
Showrooms High Price Medium Price Low Price Total
n Xn1 Xn2 Xn3 ----------------------
Treatment means X1 (bar) X2 (bar) X3 (bar) X (bar)
----------------------
As an example, we could use the design if we wish to sell automobile and
do not know what the most effective price is. We could test three different ----------------------
price levels – high, medium and low – and record the sales from each.
----------------------

The Experimental Method 241

i
 Notes To set up this experimental situation, test units {show-rooms} would be
randomly assigned to the three treatment variables reflecting the different
---------------------- price levels. The design is laid out in Table 12.1 symbolically, n represent
the number of show-rooms assigned to each of the treatment level, Xn1 is
---------------------- the dependent variable measurement value for a given n test unit exposed
---------------------- to the ith treatment level and X is the average for all test units exposed to
the ith treatment level. The analysis would focus on the average number of
---------------------- automobiles sold at each price level.
---------------------- Table12.1 shows the application of this example when the researcher
selects sample of nine show-rooms and then randomly assigns them to
---------------------- groups of three price-level. Each group of stores would receive their
treatment level for a prescribed time period; then the results would be
----------------------
analysed by comparing the average sales levels for each treatment group
---------------------- to determine whether differences observed could have occurred by chance
rather than as a result of the experimental treatments. The statistical
---------------------- techniques used to analyse the results of this type of experimental design
is referred to as analysis of variance.
----------------------
Table 12.2: Application of the Completely Randomised Design
----------------------
Treatment Levels
---------------------- High Price Medium Price Low Price
Nine Showrooms Sales for S. Sales for S. Sales for S.
---------------------- assigned randomly room 5 room 1 room 7
Sales for S. Sales for S. Sales for S.
----------------------
room 3 room 6 room 8
---------------------- Sales for S. Sales for S. Sales for S.
room 9 room 2 room 4
---------------------- Treatment means Average sales Average sales Average sales
for treatment 1, for treatment 2, for treatment
----------------------
X1 X2 3, X3
---------------------- However, this design does not take into consideration the influence
---------------------- of possible extraneous factors such as competitor’s prices, weather
conditions, size of show- rooms and so on. This design presupposes that
---------------------- these possible extraneous factors have an equal influence on the test
units. This could be a dangerous assumption to make. This design is used
---------------------- because of its simplicity and is inexpensive to conduct.
---------------------- 2. Randomised Block Design
---------------------- The randomised block design is an extension of the completely randomised
design. In the randomised block design, however, the researcher has
---------------------- identified a single extraneous factor that he or she thinks might affect
the test units’ response to the treatment. Therefore, the researcher will
----------------------
attempt to isolate that extraneous factor by blocking out its effects. In the
---------------------- previous example under completely randomised design, there were three
price levels tested in various show-rooms. No allowance was made by
---------------------- the researcher for the difference in the type of store in which the product

242 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

 was sold such as district stores, city show rooms and special show rooms. Notes
The type of showrooms could be an important influence on the actual
sales of the product. The randomised block design permits the researcher ----------------------
to separate one extraneous factor from the total experimental error, thus
providing a truer picture of the treatment’s impact on sales. By grouping ----------------------
test units in to homogeneous blocks on the basis of a relevant characteristic ----------------------
(type of show-rooms), one knows that the source of extraneous variation
may be accounted for. ----------------------
3. Latin Square Design ----------------------
In the randomised complete block design, the effect of a single factor
----------------------
was removed. It is occasionally possible to remove the effects of two
factors simultaneously in the same experiment by using the Latin Square ----------------------
design. In order to use the Latin Square Design, however, it is necessary to
assume that no interaction exists between the treatment effect and either ----------------------
block effect. Additionally, the number of treatments must be equal to the
----------------------
number of categories for each of the two factors.
The Latin Square may be used when there are two major extraneous factors. ----------------------
It is convenient to consider two blocking factors as forming rows and
----------------------
columns of a table. Each factor is divided into three levels to provide nine
trials – each showing the unique combination of two blocking variables. ----------------------
Treatments are then randomly assigned to those cells so that given treatment
appears only once in each row and column. Due to this, the Latin square ----------------------
must have the same number of rows, columns and treatments.
----------------------
A limitation of the Latin Square is that it assumes that there is no
interactive effect between treatments and blocking factors. We, therefore, ----------------------
cannot determine the relationship among types of detergents, different ----------------------
mixing methods and different plants. Had we to consider this, we would
need 27 cells – each level of each of the three factors with each level of ----------------------
the other two factors which may be time consuming and costly. The Latin
Square Design is most economical if one is not interested in interactions. ----------------------
This is also powerful than the Randomised Block Design. ----------------------
4. Factorial Design
----------------------
Many a times a researcher can use a single experiment advantageously
to study two or more different kinds of treatments. For example, in ----------------------
investigating a performance of two types of seeds, he may wish to vary
the level of fertiliser used during the experiment. If he chose three levels ----------------------
of fertiliser – low, medium and high – one factor would be ‘type of seed’, ----------------------
the second factor ‘level of fertiliser’. A factorial design, with two factors,
would consist of employing all six treatments formed by using each type ----------------------
of seed with each level of fertiliser. Factorial designs can involve more
than two factors; however, we consider here the case of two factors only. ----------------------

The characteristic of the factorial design is that every level of one factor ----------------------
is used in combination with every level of the other factor. The design is
----------------------
effective for studying the two factors in combination. This implied that

The Experimental Method 243

 Notes factorial designs are appropriate in finding out whether interactions exist
between the factors.
----------------------
Some factors can be measured quantitatively and different levels for
---------------------- them are chosen on an ordered scale; level of fertiliser, dosage level and
temperature are all factors of this type. Other factors involve no obvious
---------------------- underlying continuum and can be said to be qualitative; drug and type of
seed are factors of the second type.
----------------------

---------------------- Check your Progress 4

---------------------- Multiple Choice Single Response.
---------------------- 1. Which of the following are important in the design of experiments?
a. Control of confounding variables
----------------------
b. Randomisation in assigning subjects to different treatments
---------------------- c. Replication of the experiment using sufficient numbers of
subjects
----------------------
i. a and b
---------------------- ii. a and c
iii. b and c
----------------------
iv. a, b and c
---------------------- 2. In designing an experiment, blocking is used
---------------------- i. To reduce bias
ii. To reduce variation
----------------------
iii. As a substitute for a control group
---------------------- iv. As a first step in randomisation
---------------------- 3. Consider an experiment to investigate the efficacy of different
insecticides in controlling pests and their effects on subsequent yield.
---------------------- What is the best reason for randomly assigning treatment levels
(spraying or not spraying) to the experimental units (farms)?
----------------------
i. Randomisation makes the analysis easier because the data can
---------------------- be collected and entered into the computer in any order.
ii. Randomisation is required by statistical consultants before they
---------------------- will help you analyze the experiment.
---------------------- iii. Randomisation implies that it is not necessary to be careful
during the experiment, during data collection and during data
---------------------- analysis.
---------------------- iv. Randomisation will tend to average out all other uncontrolled
factors such as soil fertility so that they are not confounded with
---------------------- the treatment effects.
----------------------

----------------------

244 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

 Notes
Activity 1
----------------------
A firm wants to test three different proposals, proposal 1, proposal 2 and
----------------------
proposal 3 for its consumer product brand on a sample of 50 people. The
response is measured on 0-11 scale, minimum 0 indicating ‘no interest’ and ----------------------
11 indicating ‘high interest’ in using the TV advertised brand. How will
you evaluate the three proposals by carrying out a completely randomised ----------------------
design? State your Null hypothesis and underlying assumptions.
----------------------

----------------------
Summary
----------------------
●● In this unit, we have discussed the experimental method of research as a
way to collect data for the solution of the research problem. ----------------------
●● We have explained how experiments are studies involving intervention ----------------------
by the researcher beyond that required for measurement. The usual
intervention is to manipulate a variable (independent variable) and observe ----------------------
how it affects the things / subjects being studied (the dependent variable).
----------------------
●● We have discussed here that this experimental method reveals several
advantages such as ----------------------
●● Ability to uncover causal relationships (ii) provision for controlling ----------------------
extraneous variables along with environmental factors (iii) replicating the
findings to rule out any idiosyncratic or other isolated results and viability ----------------------
to explicit naturally occurring events.
----------------------
●● We have also brought up the disadvantages of this method in relation
to other methods. Some of them are (i) high cost and time involved ----------------------
(ii) restrictions to current and future predictions and not past. Questions of
internal and external validity were addressed in details. ----------------------
●● In addition to the meaning and importance of experimental methods, we ----------------------
have listed step wise approach to carrying out experiments. The basic
factors of a good experimental design, namely randomisation, replication ----------------------
and local control were explained. We concluded the unit by explaining four ----------------------
important and commonly used designs, namely completely randomised
design, randomised block design, the Latin Square design and factorial ----------------------
designs without discussing the detailed statistical aspects.
----------------------
Keywords ----------------------
●● Treatment: In experimentation, this refers to a stimulus which is applied ----------------------
to observe effect on experimental situation.
----------------------
●● Validity: In statistics, correspondence between what a measuring device is
supposed to measure and what is really measured. ----------------------
●● Factor: In statistics, it denotes a quantity under examination in an
----------------------
experiment as a possible cause of variation.

The Experimental Method 245

 Notes ●● Interaction: When the effect of a change of one variable differs for different
levels of another variable, there is said to be an interaction between them.
---------------------- ●● Hypothesis: In scientific investigation, it is a tentative statement
---------------------- ascertaining a relationship between certain facts to be tested empirically
for either verification or rejection.
----------------------

---------------------- Self-Assessment Questions

---------------------- 1. Distinguish between observation method and experimental method.

2. Explain the various steps involved in carrying out an experiment.
----------------------
3. List out the main advantages and disadvantages of experiments.
----------------------
4. What type of experimental design would you recommend in each of the
---------------------- following cases:

---------------------- a. A consumer product manufacturing company wants to estimate the

effect of advertising media – T.V. and Newspapers on increase of
---------------------- sales of its new shaving cream.
---------------------- b. It is claimed that the rate of packing cigarette in usual containers
show a rise if light music is played over company’s local address
---------------------- system. How this can be ascertained?
---------------------- 5. Describe briefly some potential problems you see in your organisation
wherein there is enough scope for experimentation. Briefly state the
---------------------- problem and what design you would select? Give reasons.
----------------------
Answers to Check your Progress
----------------------
Check your Progress 1
----------------------
Multiple Choice Single Response.
---------------------- 1. In one study on the effect of niacin on cholesterol level, 100 subjects who
acknowledged being longtime niacin takers had their cholesterol levels
----------------------
compared with those of 100 people who had never taken niacin. In a
---------------------- second study, 50 subjects were randomly chosen to receive niacin and 50
were chosen to receive a placebo.
----------------------
ii. The first study was an observational study, while the second was a
---------------------- controlled experiment.

---------------------- Check your Progress 2

State True or False.
----------------------
1. True
---------------------- 2. False
---------------------- 3. True

----------------------

246 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

Check your Progress 3 Notes
State True or False.
----------------------
1. True
----------------------
2. False
3. False ----------------------
Check your Progress 4 ----------------------
Multiple Choice Single Response. ----------------------
1. Which of the following are important in the design of experiments?
----------------------
a. Control of confounding variables
----------------------
b. Randomisation in assigning subjects to different treatments
c. Replication of the experiment using sufficient numbers of subjects ----------------------

iv. a, b and c ----------------------

2. In designing an experiment, blocking is used ----------------------
ii. To reduce variation
----------------------
3. Consider an experiment to investigate the efficacy of different insecticides
in controlling pests and their effects on subsequent yield. What is the best ----------------------
reason for randomly assigning treatment levels (spraying or not spraying)
----------------------
to the experimental units (farms)?
iv. Randomisation will tend to average out all other uncontrolled ----------------------
factors such as soil fertility so that they are not confounded with the ----------------------
treatment effects.
----------------------
Suggested Reading ----------------------
1. Bryman, Allan & Bell Emma. 2003. Business Research Methods. Oxford ----------------------
University Press.
----------------------
2. Cooper, Donald, Schindler Pamela. 2006. Business Research Methods.
Tata McGraw Hill Companies. ----------------------
3. Kothari C.R. 1985. Research Methodology – Methods & Techniques. ----------------------
New Age International Publishers.
----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

The Experimental Method 247

 Notes

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------
----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

248 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

Scaling Techniques and Attitudes Measurement
Techniques UNIT

Structure: 13
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Attitudes, Attributes and Beliefs
13.3 Attitudes Measurement
13.4 Choice of Data Collection and Measurement Techniques
13.5 Scaling Techniques
13.6 Types of Scales
13.7 The Semantic Differential Scale
13.8 Selection of an Approximate Scale
13.9 Limitations of Attitudes Measurement Scales
Summary
Keywords
Self-Assessment Questions
Answers to Check your Progress
Suggested Reading

Scaling Techniques and Attitudes Measurement Techniques 249

 Notes
Objectives
----------------------
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
----------------------
• State the research problems that utilise the tools of attitude
---------------------- measurement
---------------------- • Assess which scaling technique can be used for a given research
problem
----------------------
• Explain the various attitude measurement scales, along with their
---------------------- strengths and limitations

----------------------
13.1 INTRODUCTION
----------------------
An attitude is as an enduring disposition to respond consistently to specific
---------------------- aspects of the world, including actions, people or objects. One way to understand
---------------------- an attitude is to break it down into its components. Consider this brief statement:
“Sally likes shopping at Wal-Mart. She believes the store is clean, conveniently
---------------------- located and has low prices. She intends to shop there every Thursday.” This
simple example demonstrates attitude’s three components: affective, cognitive
---------------------- and behavioural. The affective component refers to an individual’s general
---------------------- feelings or emotions toward an object. Statements such as “I really like my
Corvette,” “I enjoy reading new Harry Potter books,” and “I hate cranberry
---------------------- juice” reflect an emotional character of attitudes. A person’s attitudinal feelings
are driven directly by his/her beliefs or cognitions. This cognitive component
---------------------- represents an individual’s knowledge about attributes and their consequences.
---------------------- One person might feel happy about the purchase of an automobile because she
believes the car “gets great gas mileage” or knows that the dealer is “the best in
---------------------- New Jersey.” The behavioral component of an attitude reflects a predisposition
to action by reflecting an individual’s’ intentions.
----------------------
There are a number of management decisions which are taken in an
---------------------- organisation, from time to time. The decisions may relate to recruiting or
dismissing of employees, opening or discontinuing of a plan, acquisition or
----------------------
disposal of material / machines, etc. Some of the decisions are taken on the basis
---------------------- of data for which units of measurement are capable of statistical manipulation.
Such data refer to quantitative parameters. However, certain decisions rely on
---------------------- behavioural data or data that cannot be manipulated. The units of measurement
are not interchangeable and are not susceptible to regress statistical analysis.
----------------------
The major area of utilisation of such data lies in the disciplines of marketing
---------------------- and personnel where the interest lies in knowing the attitudes or opinions of
the respondents e.g., a manufacturer of a shampoo may wish to know what
---------------------- most appeals to the user. This knowledge of attitudes could result in decisions
which would be sensible and effective. Some illustrations of managerial
----------------------
decisions which rely on attitude measurement are product positioning and
---------------------- market segmentation, etc. The problem for a researcher is now to measure these
qualitative and attitudinal changes occurring among the respondents.
250 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods
13.2 ATTITUDES, ATTRIBUTES AND BELIEFS Notes
Each object, product or service is supposed to be composed of certain ----------------------
characteristics that fulfill certain needs of its user. These needs can be
psychological, physical or social in nature. Attributes are these characteristics ----------------------
of the object under study. The word belief refers to judgments made by a user
----------------------
regarding the object possessing certain attributes or not. Attributes refers to
predisposition or mental state of an individual towards a product, attribute or ----------------------
an idea about the object. It also implies mental readiness to act in a particular
manner and influence the individual behaviour towards the object / group or ----------------------
persons under consideration. The overall attitude of an individual is built up
----------------------
mainly due to
a. His belief about the attributes possessed by an object, ----------------------

b. His preferences for those attitudes and ----------------------

c. The relative importance of each attribute to the individual’s decision ----------------------
making process.
----------------------
Attitudes are considered to have both strength and direction. Attitudes
of the consumers vary about the products they use and services they obtain. It ----------------------
also differs in intensity. The study of attitudes is important – be it in physics,
commerce or management, because it is the human beings who influence the ----------------------
environment around them. These human beings automatically develop attitudes
----------------------
regarding the issue they come across.
----------------------
Check your Progress 1
----------------------
State True or False.
----------------------
1. Attributes are those characteristics that fulfill psychological, physical
and social needs of its user. ----------------------

2. Attitude has both strength and direction. ----------------------

3. Attribute is built up due to preferences for those attributes. ----------------------

----------------------
13.3 ATTITUDES MEASUREMENT
----------------------
Techniques for Measuring Attitudes
----------------------
A remarkable variety of techniques has been devised to measure attitudes.
This variety stems in part from lack of consensus about the exact definition of ----------------------
the concept. In addition, the affective, cognitive and behavioral components
of an attitude may be measured by different means. For example, sympathetic ----------------------
nervous system responses may be recorded using physiological measures to ----------------------
quantify affect, but they are not good measures of behavioral intentions. Direct
verbal statements concerning affect, belief or behavior are used to measure ----------------------
behavioral intent. However, attitudes may also be interpreted using qualitative
techniques. Research may assess the affective (emotional) components of ----------------------

Scaling Techniques and Attitudes Measurement Techniques 251

 Notes attitudes through physiological measures such as galvanic skin response
(GSR), blood pressure and pupil dilation. These measures provide a means
---------------------- of assessing attitudes without verbally questioning the respondent. In general,
they can provide a gross measure of likes or dislikes, but they are not extremely
---------------------- sensitive to the different gradients of an attitude. Obtaining verbal statements
---------------------- from respondents generally requires that the respondents perform a task such as
ranking, rating, sorting or making choices.
----------------------
1. Ranking: A measurement task that requires respondents to rank order a
---------------------- small number of stores, brands or objects on the basis of overall preference
or some characteristic of the stimulus.
----------------------
2. Rating: A measurement task that asks the respondent to estimate the
---------------------- magnitude or the extent to which some characteristic exists. A quantitative
score results. The rating task involves marking a response indicating one’s
---------------------- position using one or more attitudinal or cognitive scales.
---------------------- 3. Sorting: A sorting task might present the respondent with several
different concepts printed on cards and require the respondent to classify
---------------------- the concepts by placing the cards into groups (stacks of cards).
---------------------- The next major issue in attitude measurement is the choice of the data
collection and measurement technique.
----------------------

---------------------- 13.4 CHOICE OF DATA COLLECTION AND

MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES
----------------------
Next important consideration is the choice of data collection and
---------------------- measurement techniques. Major data collection techniques include
---------------------- ●● Observation
---------------------- ●● Questionnaire
●● Interview
----------------------
The approaches to measuring attitudes are as follows:
---------------------- i. Self – report inventories
---------------------- ii. Using psychological measures like galvanic scale response
---------------------- iii. Projective techniques like the thematic perception test
Self – report inventories are also known as attitude scales. They involve
----------------------
presenting the subjects with a list containing favourable and unfavourable
---------------------- statements about the research topic and ask whether they agree or disagree with
each of them. Most attitude measurement methods use self – report techniques.
---------------------- They only differ in terms of the way the scales are constructed and used.
---------------------- The weaknesses of the self- report measures are that,

---------------------- i. The results are limited to what individuals know about their attitudes.
ii. The validity of the verbalised attitudes is really questionable.
----------------------

252 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

 Finally, the last issue pertains to cost and accuracy desired in the Notes
measurement. All these types of measurements are never free of accuracy.
----------------------
Many authors classify the attitude measurement methods in many ways.
They are classified in terms of: ----------------------
i. Subject matter
----------------------
ii. Scaling techniques
----------------------
iii. Scale function
iv. Levels of measurement ----------------------

v. Number of dimensions ----------------------

Some only classify as: ----------------------
i. Rating scales
----------------------
ii. Scaling techniques
----------------------
We discuss in brief all.
a. Subject matter ----------------------

Scales are designed to measure ----------------------

i. Attitude ----------------------
ii. Social distance
----------------------
iii. Socio – economic status
----------------------
iv. Other variables
b. Scaling techniques ----------------------

In terms of these, scales can be classified into: ----------------------

i. Arbitrary scales ----------------------
ii. Judgment scales ----------------------
iii. Item Analysis scales
----------------------
iv. Rating scales
----------------------
v. Ranking scales
vi. Cumulative scales ----------------------
vii. Factorial scales ----------------------
c. Scale Function ----------------------
Scales are said to have either predictive power or reproducibility.
Predictive scales are those which have power to predict, e g. Aptitude ----------------------
tests. Reproductive scales are such that when a set of data is arranged in ----------------------
such a way that if the research is given a single score, he can reproduce
all items in the scale. ----------------------

----------------------

Scaling Techniques and Attitudes Measurement Techniques 253

 Notes d. Levels of Measurement
Scales are classified as Nominal, Ordinal, Interval and Ratio Scales.
----------------------
e. Number of Measurements
----------------------
In this classification, scales are either uni-dimensional or multi-
---------------------- dimensional. The former measures only one attribute of an object or
a subject e.g. opinion, attitude etc. and the latter measures several
---------------------- dimensions of an object.
---------------------- Let us briefly look at a few important ones.

----------------------
13.5 SCALING TECHNIQUES
----------------------
Scaling techniques are more sophisticated methods to measure the
---------------------- attitudes of respondents. Rating scales require the respondent to react to a
stimulus consisting of a single statement or question. The response, therefore,
---------------------- is very limited. The scaling techniques, however, involve a group of questions
or statements to provide a more complex view of the respondent’s overall view
----------------------
of his attitude. C.A. Moser and G. Kalton had said, “Scaling methods come
---------------------- into play essentially when one wishes to utilise simultaneously a number of
observations on each respondent.”
----------------------
Concept of Scaling
---------------------- Scaling involves assigning numbers to various degrees of opinion, attitude
---------------------- and other abstract things like brand image, quality etc. We not only try to assess
opinions of the respondents but also measure the intensity of it. A scale is a
---------------------- continuum consisting of a set of statements, logically related to the attitude
under study. A number of observations can be used to study the attitude of each
---------------------- respondent simultaneously on the scale. The scale must satisfy the principles
---------------------- of measurements. It must satisfy the characteristics of homogeneity, linearity,
validity and reliability.
---------------------- The rating scales and attitude scales both have the object of assigning
---------------------- individuals to positions with different numerical values in order to make possible
the distinctions of degree. Let us now consider some of the major types of rating
---------------------- scales in which the rater places the person or object being rated at some point
along the continuum, a numerical value being assigned to each point.
----------------------
1. Graphic Rating Scales: This perhaps is the most widely used rating
---------------------- scale. In this type, the rater indicates his ratings by simply making a pre
chosen mark at the appropriate point on a line of statements that runs
----------------------
from one extreme. Scale-points with brief descriptions may be indicated
---------------------- along the line, their function being to help the rater in localising his
rating. The following scale may illustrate a graphic rating scale. Let us
---------------------- say the characteristic we wish to ascertain is peoples’ views with regard
to participation of workers in the management.
----------------------

----------------------

254 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

 Feel strongly Generally Is ambivalent; Generally Strongly feels Notes
that workers feels that partly favours, feels workers that workers
should be workers partly should not should not ----------------------
allowed full should be disfavours be given be allowed to ----------------------
participation (in given an workers’ opportunity of participate
management) opportunity. participation. participation. ----------------------
One of the major advantages of these scales is that they are relatively ----------------------
easy to use and provide scope for fine discriminations of degree. Extreme
statements that are not likely to be used should be avoided. Secondly, ----------------------
descriptive statements should be ordered to correspond as closely as
possible, to the numerical points on the scale. ----------------------
2. Itemised Rating Scales: These are known as numerical scales. In this ----------------------
type, the rater selects one of the limited numbers of categories that
are ordered in terms of their scale positions. Scales with five or seven ----------------------
categories have generally been employed but some have used even as ----------------------
many as eleven points.
3. Comparative Rating Scales: In this category of rating scales, the ----------------------
positions on the scale are defined in terms of a given population, a group ----------------------
or in terms of people with known characteristics. The rater/respondent,
for example, may be called upon to indicate whether an individual’s ----------------------
problem-solving skill or some other attribute most closely resembles that
of Mr. X or Mr. Y or Mr. Z etc., all of whom may be known to him (the ----------------------
rater), in the matter of skill or attribute. On the other hand, a rater may be ----------------------
asked to estimate the ability of an individual to do a certain kind of work
in the context of the ability to total group of persons engaged in the above ----------------------
kind of work and whom the rater has known. The rater then may indicate
whether the individual is more capable than 10% of them or 20% of them, ----------------------
etc. ----------------------
4. Rank Order Scale: Here the rater is required to rank subjects/persons
----------------------
specifically in relation to one another. It indicates which person rates the
highest in terms of the characteristic being measured, which person is ----------------------
next highest and so on.
----------------------
In the rating scales, the rater may himself be the subject to be rated. This
is called self-rating. Self-ratings have certain typical advantages. The individual ----------------------
(rater himself) is often in a better position to observe and report his feelings,
opinions, etc. than anyone else is. But if the individual is not aware of his ----------------------
biases, beliefs or feelings or is aware of such feelings but does not wish to
----------------------
express them for certain reasons (such as fear or image conservation) then self-
rating procedure may prove to be of little value. It must be reckoned that an ----------------------
individual’s conception of what constitutes a particular position, say extreme
position, may be quite different from that of the others making comparable self- ----------------------
ratings. Despite these feelings, self-ratings have proved useful in measurement
----------------------
of attitudes.
----------------------

Scaling Techniques and Attitudes Measurement Techniques 255

 Notes Some of the cautions that should be ideally paid attention to in constructing
and using the rating scales are described below:
----------------------
There is a possibility that if more than one characteristic of a person is to
---------------------- be judged, the rater may carry over a generalised impression of the person from
one rating to the next.
----------------------
Another type of error is ‘generosity error’. Here the tendency of the rater
---------------------- is to overestimate the desirable qualities or subjects whom he likes. Murray and
associates have identified ‘contrast error’ in which the rater has a tendency to
---------------------- see others as the opposite of himself in a trait. Yet another error emanates from
the tendency of the raters to avoid making extreme judgments and to assign
----------------------
individuals to the more moderate categories.
---------------------- Number of Scale Points
---------------------- How scale positions or categories are to be used in the rating scale will
depend on the degree of differentiation one would desire in measurement; this
---------------------- in turn would be directed by the research purpose of hypothesis. The following
---------------------- factors also affect the above decisions:
a. the discriminative ability of the raters (their training and experience)
----------------------
b. the kind of characteristic to be judged
----------------------
c. the conditions under which ratings are to be made
---------------------- In many studies, ratings are made during the process of analysis by coders
who have studied the data secured from the field. Here the reliability of ratings
----------------------
can be substantially improved by having several raters work as a team making
---------------------- independent judgements, comparing their ratings, discussing discrepancies etc.

---------------------- The ‘simplicity’ of rating scales commands their use to many a researcher.
The rating scale has a wide range of application. They can be used in connection
---------------------- with data collected by any method e.g., observation, interview, documents or
projective techniques etc.
----------------------
Validity of Rating Scale
---------------------- Validity of rating scales is perhaps the most significant problem arising
---------------------- in the use of such scales. Investigators in general have assumed that their rating
scales are valid when the following conditions are present
----------------------
a. When the characteristic being measured are relatively ‘objective’, that is,
---------------------- their meaning could be uniformly understood by different raters.
b. The ratings are actually made under optimal ‘desired’ conditions e.g.,
----------------------
well-constructed scales, trained raters, specified common frames of
---------------------- reference etc.
Attitude Scales
----------------------
A second type of technique for registering difference of degree consists
---------------------- of questionnaire constructed in a manner that the scope of an individual’s
---------------------- response places him on a scale. In this approach, the individual does not directly

256 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

describe himself in terms of his position on the dimension in question; rather he Notes
expresses his agreement or disagreement with a number of statements relevant
to the issue. On the basis of his responses, he is assigned a score or numerical ----------------------
value. The score a person gets indicates his position on the dimension. Since
this technique has been generally used in the measurement of attitudes, we can ----------------------
appreciate the rationale behind entitling this section ‘attitude scales’. ----------------------
It has been said that the attitude scales are constituted of various statements
----------------------
or items relevant to an issue (like nationalisation of insurance, co-education,
inter- caste marriages etc.). The individual subjects respond in a particular ----------------------
manner to these statements. To these modes of response, particular scores are
assigned. What criteria are used in selecting statements or items for inclusion in ----------------------
an attitude scale? There are two such criteria.
----------------------
13.6 TYPES OF SCALES ----------------------

The basis of attitude measurement is that there are underlying dimensions ----------------------
along which individual attitudes can be ranged. To understand and follow the
above, we should know the measurement characteristics. Since the measurement ----------------------
is based on numbers, the properties of numbers are relevant. They are (a) identify ----------------------
(equality) (b) rank order (c) additivity. Now, numbers are ordered. Distance
between numbers is also ordered. The number has a unique origin indicated by ----------------------
zero. There are many types of scales and scaling techniques. We have to choose
the appropriate one to our problem of research. The combination of the above ----------------------
three characteristics, namely order, distance and origin, give rise to four levels ----------------------
of measurement for a dimension or a continuum. They are:
----------------------
Levels Characteristics
i. Nominal No order, distance or origin ----------------------
ii. Ordinal Order but no distance or origin
----------------------
iii. Interval Order and distance but no origin
iv. Ratio Order, distance and origin ----------------------

1. Nominal Scale ----------------------

This is the simplest and elementary scale of measurement. It identifies the ----------------------
categories in to which individuals, objects or events can be classified. The
categorisation is done in to number of subclasses by assigning numerals ----------------------
or any other symbols which are mutually exclusive, e.g. the typical
----------------------
applications of the nominal scale is in classification by social class, ‘like
or dislike’, ‘yes or no’ etc. It is a way of classification rather than an ----------------------
arrangement along a continuum. If we give numbers like 1 to represent
Hindi, 2 to Urdu and 3 to the rest languages in a national survey, the ----------------------
numbers do not have any meaning to indulge in any meaningful calculations
----------------------
on these numbers. This is the least powerful out of the four scales. The
statistical operation of counting the number of cases (frequency) in each ----------------------
class or category is possible and can be subjected to statistical tests.
----------------------

Scaling Techniques and Attitudes Measurement Techniques 257

 Notes 2. Ordinal Scale
This scale allows the respondent to rank some alternatives from least to
----------------------
most on a continuum. Ranks are assigned in ascending or descending
---------------------- orders depending upon the category. The numbers indicate rank only and
do not carry any implication of the distance, e.g., the distance between 1
---------------------- and 2 may or may not be equal to the distance between 2 and 3 and the
like. In this, only the statistical measures of median and mode can be
----------------------
computed. This scale, therefore, tells whether one is more or less compared
---------------------- to others. Various relationships may be used for ranking like, ‘Greater
than, more than’ etc. The rank order classification may be based on either
---------------------- one or composite properties. For example, we consider several variables
like education, occupation, income etc. if we have to rank individuals
----------------------
in an economic survey. We have to assign relative weights to each such
---------------------- variable and arrive at a composite score. Individuals can be ranked on
the basis of composite scores. The procedures used for construction of
---------------------- ordinal scales include rank order, rating and paired comparisons.
---------------------- 3. Interval Scale
This scale allows interpreting not only the order of the scale – scores but
----------------------
also the distances between them - an added advantage over the Nominal
---------------------- and Ordinal scales. Interval scales permit certain mathematical procedures
previously untenable with Nominal and Ordinal scales. Interval scales
---------------------- are quicker for completion and provide powerful measurement and can
be subjected to use of powerful statistical techniques such as tests of
----------------------
significance, correlation etc.
---------------------- 4. Ratio Scale
---------------------- This is the highest level of measurement and the most ideal. This is suitable
for measuring properties which have zero points. For example, age,
---------------------- weight, area, distance, income, price, market share all have a zero point.
---------------------- Due to the presence of absolute zero value, all operations in arithmetic are
possible on the scale, the numbers on which indicate actual amounts. A
---------------------- weight of 30 kg. is double that of weight 15 kg. These scales are not used
in social science research as behavioural or psychological properties such
---------------------- as leadership, participation, aptitudes, satisfaction etc. do not have true
---------------------- zero points.
Variables that can be measured at a ratio level can also be measured at an
---------------------- interval, ordinal and nominal levels. Properties that can be measured at
---------------------- a higher level can also be measured at a lower level, but not vice versa.
All statistical techniques usable at nominal, ordinal and interval levels are
---------------------- usable with ratio scales. In addition, geometric and harmonic means and
coefficients of variation can also be carried out.
----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

258 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

Other Scales Notes
●● Arbitrary Scale
----------------------
This is constructed by arbitrarily assigning numerical values to the
responses to a set of questions appropriate in a given attribute. The values ----------------------
are summed up to obtain the attribute scale, e.g., a teacher’s image among
his students can be measured with following factors. ----------------------

How do you regard your teacher’s reputation? ----------------------

i. As a person knowing his subject: Bad……......Excellent ----------------------
ii. As a person caring for his student: Bad …….. ..Excellent
----------------------
iii. As a person of teaching style: Bad………..Excellent
----------------------
iv. As one who attends student difficulties: Bad………..Excellent
Each of these can be scored from 0 to 4 according to the degree favourable ----------------------
to the response. The total score of all respondents for item is made and evaluated ----------------------
or all scores can be added and overall image is worked out.
----------------------
●● Judgment Scale
In this scale the interest lies in scaling respondents and not statements. A ----------------------
large number of statements are constructed and a number of judges are asked
----------------------
to evaluate these and determine the relevance to the topic area, the clarity and
the degree of favouritism towards the object. The most widely used scale is ----------------------
“Thurstone Differential Scale.”
----------------------
This consists of printing statements on some cards and asking the judges
to sort the statements into 11 groups (sometimes 7 groups). The extreme groups ----------------------
represent the most favourable and the most unfavourable statements. The
judges are asked to make intervals between the groups equal. The mean rating ----------------------
of the judges is taken as the scale point for each item. Irrelevant and ambiguous
----------------------
statements are dropped. The item selected for the final scale are such that
●● Each item has a small standard deviation of ratings over judges and ----------------------
●● The mean ratings spread evenly from one end to the other on rating scale. ----------------------
The administration of the scale for the measurement of the attitude of a
----------------------
respondent needs the later to mark only the items with which he agrees. The
score for the respondent is then taken as the scale value of the medium item or ----------------------
the average scale value of the items. In Thurstone Scale, there are odd positions
totaling 1, though sometimes 7 or 9 are present. Thurstone, method finds wide ----------------------
application in developing differential scales that are utilised to measure attitudes
----------------------
towards varied issues etc. These scales are most appropriate and reliable when
used for measuring a single attitude. Only it has a cumbersome procedure and ----------------------
decisions are subjective. These scales are time consuming to construct, but
simple to administer and score. ----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

Scaling Techniques and Attitudes Measurement Techniques 259

 Notes ●● Item analysis Scale
The summative model assumes that the individual items in the scale are
---------------------- monotonically related to the underlying attributes and a summation of the item
---------------------- scores is related linearly to the attitude. In this scale, one obtains the total score
by adding scores on individual items. The scoring is reversed for statements
---------------------- implying negative attitude. Instead of having just ‘agree’ and ‘disagree’ in
the scale, we can have intensities varying from ‘strongly agree’ to ‘strongly
---------------------- disagree’. The scale consists of a number of statements which express either
---------------------- a favourable or an unfavourable attitude towards the object of study. The
respondent is asked to record his response to each statement on a 5 point scale
---------------------- (indirectly 5 degrees of agreement). Values 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 are adopted so that
1 is for least favourable degree and 5 for most favourable degree. For negative
---------------------- items, the direction is reversed. Each respondent’s attitude score is summed up
---------------------- to obtain his score. Hence the name ‘Summated Scale.’ See the example:
Strongly Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly
----------------------
Agree Disagree
---------------------- Negatively 1 2 3 4 5
---------------------- Expressed
Positively 5 4 3 2 1
---------------------- Expressed
---------------------- Analyse the responses and select for the scale those items which most
---------------------- clearly differentiate between the highest and the lowest scores. The high scores
can be assumed to be with favourable attitudes and the low scores can be taken
---------------------- as having the least favourable attitudes. If the statement is a good one, the mean
score for favourable group is expected to be greater than the mean score of the
---------------------- unfavourable group. The statement is dropped from the scale for which the mean
---------------------- score across the two groups are more or less equal. The high group is taken as
top 25% of all the total score and the low group as lowest 25%. Alternatively,
---------------------- the respondents can be divided into qualities and the median score for each item
for the highest 25% and the lowest 25% of scale values is calculated. The screen
---------------------- statements are randomly listed and ordered on the scale form, the positive and
---------------------- negative being mixed. The respondents are asked to indicate their degree of
agreement with the items on the scale and the total score is generated as the sum
---------------------- of all his scores on each statement. The summated scales are easy to construct,
are very reliable and can be adopted to the measurement of many different
---------------------- kinds of attitudes.
---------------------- ●● Rating Scales
---------------------- There are many types of rating scales used in research. Rating means
measuring an attribute of objects or persons by judgment on a continuum. It
---------------------- gives a measure of one’s actual position on the judgment continuum. It can be
either Graphic rating scale or Itemised scale.
----------------------

----------------------

260 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

a. Graphic Rating Scale Notes
This is a very simple yet highly useful scale. In this, a respondent is asked
----------------------
to indicate his attitude by placing a mark at some point along a continuum that
includes the entire range of possible ratings. Graphic scales can be comparative ----------------------
and non comparative. When the opinion of respondent is sought to be obtained
without reference to a particular product, it becomes a non-comparative scale; ----------------------
otherwise comparative scale, e.g. is Vajradanti tooth- paste reasonably priced or
----------------------
not uses non-comparative scale, but is Vajradanti toothpaste reasonably priced
or not in comparison with Colgate uses comparative scale. ----------------------
b. Itemised Rating Scale
----------------------
The rating scale is similar to that of graphic one except that the respondent
is asked to choose from a fixed number of categories (5 to 7), instead of placing ----------------------
a mark on the continuum. The categories are listed in a graded manner, e.g.,
----------------------
how do you feel about the teaching of Mathematics by the teacher.
Thoroughly Satisfied Somewhat Somewhat Dissatisfied Thoroughly ----------------------
Satisfied Satisfied Dissatisfied Dissatisfied ----------------------

It is always better to identify two extremes and rate the scale as indicated ----------------------
below. ----------------------
Example: How was the buffet dinner at the reception?
----------------------
Excellent Hopeless
+3] 1] [0] [-1] 3] ----------------------

The researcher should take care to frame the response in a balanced ----------------------
manner. Usually the number of favourable categories should be equal to the
----------------------
number of unfavourable categories.
●● Ranking Scales ----------------------
In this scale, the respondents are asked to rank the response on objects ----------------------
or persons in the order of priority w. r. t. some attribute e.g., ranking T.V. serial
according to the best story. This is purely on an ordinal scale that describes ----------------------
the most favoured or disfavoured attributes but does not highlight about the
----------------------
distance between any of item. Ranking, therefore, tells us the order of sequence
e.g., please rank the following bath soaps in order of priority on the basis of ----------------------
your satisfaction w.r.t. their fragrance: Ganga, Sandlewood, Lux, Liril and
Moti. There are following ranking methods: ----------------------
i. Simple Ranking ----------------------
ii. Paired Comparison Rating Scale
----------------------
iii. Constant Sum Rating Scale
----------------------
iv. Fractionation Rating Scale
----------------------

----------------------

Scaling Techniques and Attitudes Measurement Techniques 261

 Notes I. Simple Ranking
In this, the respondents are asked to rank their choices as 1, 2, 3,…
----------------------
E.g., in a consumer survey, respondents may be asked to rank certain
---------------------- attributes like price, fuel, efficiency (mileage), colour, the brand’s image,
accessories provided on a two- wheeler. The ranks are given scores as
---------------------- follows. The first rank gets a score of 5, second a score of 4……and the
like. For every attribute the rank score is multiplied by the frequency and
----------------------
summed up. The total indicates the comparative ranking of the attributes.
---------------------- II. Paired Comparison Rating Scale
---------------------- In the paired comparison rating scale, the respondent is asked to select
the better one between the two in each pair. As example, a sample of 100
---------------------- individuals may be asked to select the better of the two specialised courses
to be selected at the MBA degree course. The specialised courses are
----------------------
a. Production Management
----------------------
b. Marketing Management
---------------------- c. Material Management
---------------------- d. Finance Management
---------------------- e. Personnel Management
There will be ten paired combinations given by, ab, ac, ad, ae, bc, bd, be,
----------------------
cd, ce and de. If 100 respondents are asked to prefer from each of these 10
---------------------- pairs, there will be 100 X 10 =1000 total responses. The total responses
for each of the five courses can be evaluated and based on this frequency,
---------------------- ranks can be allotted to each course.
---------------------- III. Constant Sum Rating Scale

---------------------- In this scale, the respondent is asked to allocate a given number of score
(or called points) among the subjects according to some attributes. Usually
---------------------- the given score is
---------------------- 100. Some also prefer 10 e.g., there are five brands of motor cars, namely
Opel, Cielo, Tata, Ford, Maruti. They are to be ranked with reference to
---------------------- their fuel efficiency. Total score being 100 within which they are to be
ranked. Suppose the score ranked by one person is as follows:
----------------------
Make : Opel Cielo Tata Ford Maruti Total
---------------------- Score (Points) : 20 15 30 20 15 100
---------------------- It means Tata Car is the best with respect to fuel consumption and is
perhaps twice as good as that of Maruti or Cielo. This technique is used
---------------------- in situations where items for consideration are only few.
---------------------- IV. Fractionation Rating Scale

---------------------- In this method of measuring attitudes, respondents are provided with a

reference alternative. On the basis of this, they are required to allot the
---------------------- points to the remaining subjects or items.

262 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

 For example, in the above example, suppose the ‘fuel efficiency’ of TATA Notes
car is assumed to have a score of 100, how the other cars will be given the
scores? ----------------------
V. Cumulative Scale ----------------------
This falls into the category of deterministic attitude measurement
----------------------
technique. Some call them scalorgrams. The basic assumption is that
each statement has a perfect relationship with a particular dimension of ----------------------
the attitude being investigated. e.g., let us consider a study where one is
interested in investigating the voter’s attitude to the country’s economic ----------------------
development. The questions related to this can be:
----------------------
Yes No
i Economic Development will lead the country to --- --- ----------------------
prosperity ----------------------
ii Economic Development will increase the living standard --- ---
iii All of us must vote for the party having E.D. on agenda --- --- ----------------------
A respondent answering Yes to Q1, would, with high probability, answer
----------------------
Yes to Q2 If he answers ‘No’ to Q1 but ‘Yes’ to Q2, he will have a high
probability of answering ‘Yes’ to subsequent questions. Any set of items ----------------------
that produce a pattern of responses as described is called a GUTTMAN
SCALE. This scale is applied to only dichotomous data. The construction ----------------------
of this scale is time consuming and requires effort and due to other
----------------------
drawbacks also, it has become impartial and is rarely used.
VI. Factorial Scales ----------------------
This is developed to identify multi-dimensions of a complex attitude. ----------------------
Factor analysis is a statistical technique. It evaluates inter-correlations
among all items in a scale to uncover the latent factors. With the help ----------------------
of factor analysis, we can examine a set of developed attitude items in ----------------------
order to eliminate items that do not belong and to keep those that have
high loading on the attitude to be measured. It also shows that a unified ----------------------
attitude (complex), in fact, breaks up into several independent factors.
Factor analysis is very laborious. ----------------------

The way in which a scale discriminates among individuals depends on the ----------------------
way in which the scale is formulated and the method of scoring employed.
In some, scale is formulated and the method of scoring employed. In ----------------------
some scales, the statements/items form a gradation of such nature that ----------------------
the individual agrees with only one or two of these and disagrees with
the remaining statements on either side of those agreed to. Such scales in ----------------------
which a person’s response fixes his positions are called the Differential
scales. In other type of scales, the individual indicates his agreement ----------------------
or disagreement with each statement and his total score is computed ----------------------
by adding scores assigned to his responses to each of the statements
comprising the scale. Such scales may be called Summated scales. Yet ----------------------
another type of scales is set up in such a way that the statements or items
----------------------

Scaling Techniques and Attitudes Measurement Techniques 263

 Notes form a cumulative series. Principally, an individual whose attitude is, at a
certain point, on the dimension being measured, will answer favourably
---------------------- all the items on one side of this point and answer unfavourably all those
on the other side of this point. These are called Cumulative scales. Let us
---------------------- discuss each of these types of scale.
---------------------- ●● ifferential Scales (Thurstone scale): These scales for the measurement
D
of attitudes are closely associated with the name of L.L. Thurstone;
----------------------
hence are often called Thurstone-type scales. Thurstone – type scale
---------------------- consists of a number of statements whose position on the scale has been
determined by a ranking operation performed by judges who are persons
---------------------- whose judgements about the relative rank of different statements along a
dimension can be relied on. Various methods of securing judgements of
----------------------
scales –position have been used, viz. the method of paired comparison,
---------------------- the method of equal appearing intervals etc.
The method of equal – appearing intervals is most commonly used in the
---------------------- construction of this scale. This procedure is as under:
---------------------- In selecting the statements for the scale and assigning scores to them, the
following procedure is used : (a) The researcher gathers a large number
----------------------
of statements conceived as related to the attitude being investigated (b)A
---------------------- large number of judges working independently, are requested to classify
these statements into eleven categories or piles. Each of the judges is
---------------------- requested to place in the first pile the statements which he thinks are
most unfavourable to the issue (or, most progressive or most permissive,
----------------------
depending upon the dimension along which the statements are to be
---------------------- placed); in the second pile, those he considers next most unfavourable
and proceeding thus, in the eleventh pile, the statements he considers most
---------------------- favourbale. The sixth position on this continuum is defined as the point at
which the attitude is ‘neutral’. The first pile (i.e. statement rated as most
----------------------
unfavourable) carries the score of 11 while the statements assigned in the
---------------------- last pile carry a value of 1 (each). (c) The scale value of any one statement
is computed as the mean or median position to which it is assigned by
---------------------- the group of judges. Statements that have too broad a scatter, that is,
whose evaluation by different judges varies very widely, are discarded as
----------------------
ambiguous or irrelevant. (d)A final selection of statements is made, taking
---------------------- evaluated items or statements that spread out evenly along the scale from
one extreme position to the other (scale values like 10.3, 9.4, 8.4, 7.5, 6.4,
---------------------- 5.3, 4.5, 3.4, 2.6 and 1.5) may be included in the scale to be administered.
---------------------- The resulting scale is thus a series of statements, usually about twenty,
the position of each statement on the scale having been determined by the
---------------------- judges’ classification. The subjects are asked during the administration of
the scale questionnaire to check mark the statement or statements with
----------------------
which they agree or to check two or three statements that are closest to
---------------------- their position.
Of course, the scale values are not shown on the questionnaire and the
----------------------

264 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

 statements are usually arranged in a random order. The mean (more Notes
preferably the median) of the scale values of the items the individual
checks is interpreted as indicating his position on the scale of favourable- ----------------------
un-favourable attitude (or any other dimension) toward a given issue.
----------------------
The Thurstone method of equal-appearing internals has been widely used.
Such scales have been utilised to measure attitudes towards varied issues ----------------------
such as war, religion and various ethnic groups. The Thurstone-type
----------------------
scale has also been adopted for the analysis of documentary data such as
newspaper editorial. ----------------------
The Thurstone scale is most appropriate and reliable if the scale is
----------------------
measuring just a single attitude and not a complex of attitudes. If the
responses of an individual scatter widely over statements having scale- ----------------------
value differing widely, his attitude score is not likely to have the same
meaning as a score with little scatter. The scattered responses may also be ----------------------
interpreted to mean that the subject has no clear attitude towards the issue
----------------------
or that his attitude is not organised in a manner assumed by the scale.
Several objections have been raised against the Thurstone-type scale. The ----------------------
major ones may be listed as under:
----------------------
●● The procedure involved in constructing such a scale is very cumbersome.
----------------------
●● Another justified criticism of this scale is that, since a subject’s score is the
mean or median of the scale-values of several statements he checks, there ----------------------
is the likelihood that the same total score obtained by different persons
may express different attitudinal patterns. ----------------------
●● The statements comprising the scale have a reference to varied dimensions ----------------------
of an issue and hence cannot really occupy different positions on a single
continuum. ----------------------
●● The scale values assigned to statements are influenced by the attitude of ----------------------
judges themselves to a great extent .Thurstone-type scale, despite this
weakness, may be said to constitute a reasonably satisfactory ordinal ----------------------
scale. In practice, if individuals agreed with only a few contiguous items
----------------------
on the scale, the Thurstone scale would provide highly satisfactory ordinal
scales since in this case the score would have a clearer meaning. ----------------------
●● Summated Scales: (Likert scale): A summated scale just consists of
----------------------
a series of statements to which the subject is asked to react. The main
difference between the two is that unlike the differential scale, only ----------------------
such statements as seem to be either definitely favourable or definitely
unfavourable towards a given issue are used in the scale (the intermediate ----------------------
shades being excluded). The respondent /subject indicates his agreement or
----------------------
disagreement and degree thereof with each item. Each response is given a
numerical value corresponding to its favourableness or unfavourableness. ----------------------
The summation of the scores of individual’s responses to all the separate
statements gives his total score. This score represents his position on the ----------------------
continuum of favourable-unfavourableness towards an issue.
----------------------

Scaling Techniques and Attitudes Measurement Techniques 265

 Notes The type of summated scale most frequently used in the study of social
attitudes follows the pattern devised by Likert. Therefore, it is customarily
---------------------- referred to as the Likert-type scale. In this scale, the subjects are asked to
respond to each of the statements in terms of several degrees of agreement or
---------------------- disagreement; for example, (I) strongly approve (II) approve (III) undecided
---------------------- (IV) disapprove (V) strongly disapprove. We can see that these five points
constitute the scale; at one end of the scale is strong approval, at the other end
---------------------- is strong disapproval and between them lie intermediate points. The subject
indicates with reference to each statement where he stands on this scale. Each
---------------------- point on the scale carries a score or a value. Response indicative of the most
---------------------- favourable attitude (strongly approve) is given the highest score 5 or + 2 while
the one conveying most unfavourable attitude (strongly disapprove) is given the
---------------------- least score, i.e. 1 or 2. The following will make it clear.
---------------------- Statement No. I: Workers participation in management
I II III IV V
----------------------
Strongly Approve Undecided Disapprove Strongly
---------------------- approve disapprove
5 (or +2) 4 (or +1) 3 or (0) 2 (or -1) 1 (or - 2)
---------------------- Of course, the score values corresponding to the scale positions do not
---------------------- appear on the questionnaire supplied to respondents.
The procedure for constructing a Likert-type scale is as follows:
----------------------
a. The researcher assembles a large number of statements considered relevant
---------------------- to the attitude being investigated, which are either clearly favourable or
clearly unfavourable.
----------------------
b. The statements are administered to a small sample of subjects. The subjects
---------------------- indicate their response to each item by checking one of the categories of
approval or disapproval on the scale below each statement.
----------------------
c. The responses to various items are scored in such a way that a response
---------------------- indicative of the most favourable attitude is given the highest score (or
---------------------- highest positive score). Whether ‘approve’ or ‘disapprove’ is a favourable
response vis-à-vis an issue depends on the content and wording of the
---------------------- statement. For example, with reference to the following statement, its
disapproval by a subject will indicate favourable attitude toward the issue.
----------------------
Statement No. II: Workers participation in management
----------------------
I II III IV V
---------------------- Strong Approval Undecided Disapproval Strong
approval disapproval
---------------------- 1 (or - 2) 2 (or -1) 3 or (0) 4 (or +1) 5 (or +2)
---------------------- We note that in the above illustration, the order or scale values of the
positions have been reversed. Comparing it with the scale used for statement
---------------------- No. I, we find that for statement No. I the position I (strong approval) had
the scale value of 5 (or +2), the same position as used for statement No.
----------------------

266 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

 II has the scale value of 5 (or +2). This is quite understandable, because Notes
the person who strongly disapproves statement No. II, which, in terms of
content, is the opposite of statement No. I, i.e. expresses unfavourable ----------------------
view about co-education.
----------------------
d. The next step is to compute the total score of the individual by adding his
item-scores (i.e. scores received for separate statements). ----------------------
e. In the end, the responses are analysed to determine which of the statements ----------------------
discriminate clearly between the high scorers and the low scorers on the
total scale. ----------------------
In other words, the researcher tries to identify the items which have a high ----------------------
discriminatory power. The items with low discriminatory power or those that do
not show a substantial correlation with the total score are eliminated to ensure ----------------------
that the questionnaire is internally consistent, that is, every item or statement is
----------------------
related to the same general attitude.
The Likert- type scale has several advantages over the Thurstone scale. ----------------------

●● It permits the use of items that are not related to the attitude being ----------------------
studied. This is so because in the Likert method any statement that is
found empirically consistent with the total score can be included. Unlike ----------------------
Thurstone type scale, there is no necessity of agreement among judges ----------------------
that restricts the statements to content which is obviously related to the
attitude being studied. ----------------------
●● The Likert type scale is generally considered simpler to construct. At ----------------------
least, the procedure of construction is less cumbersome.
●● It is likely to be more reliable than a Thurstone type scale comprising the ----------------------
same statements. The Likert type scale permits the expression of several ----------------------
degrees (usually five) on the continuum of agreement-disagreement,
where the Thurstone type scale allows for a choice between only two ----------------------
alternative responses, i.e. acceptance or rejection.
----------------------
●● The range of responses permitted to a statement in the Likert type scale
provides more precise information about the individual’s opinion on the ----------------------
issue.
----------------------
We note that the Likert type scale does not provide a basis for saying how
much more favourable one is compared to another or for measuring the amount ----------------------
of change after some experience or exposure. Thus, the Likert scale does not
rise to a stature higher than that of an ordinal scale. ----------------------
One major weakness of the Likert scale is that the total score of an ----------------------
individual has little clear meaning because many patterns of responses to the
various statements may end in the same score. We have noted this in regard to ----------------------
the Thurstone type scale. But this lacuna applies with even greater force to the ----------------------
Likert type scales, since they provide a greater number of response possibilities.
So in Likert scale, as in the Thurston type scale, the meaning of identical total ----------------------
scores of two or more persons may be markedly different.
----------------------

Scaling Techniques and Attitudes Measurement Techniques 267

 Notes ●● Cumulative Scale: Guttman Scale: Cumulative scales like the earlier
scales are made up of a series of items with which the respondent indicates
---------------------- agreement or disagreement. The distinctive feature of a cumulative scale
is that the items therein are ordered or related to one another in such a way
---------------------- that an individual who replies favourably to item No. 3 also automatically
---------------------- replies favourably to items No. 2 and No. 1 and one who replies favourably
to item No. 4 also reacts favourably to item Nos. 3, 2 and 1 and so on.
---------------------- Thus, all individuals who react to a given item favourably have higher
scores on the total value scale than the individuals who react to those
---------------------- items unfavourably. The individual’s score is computed by counting the
---------------------- number of items he answers favourably. This score places him on the
scale of favourable-unfavourable attitude provided by the relationship of
---------------------- the items to one another.
---------------------- ●● The Bogardus scale: This was a scale of the cumulative type. The social
distance scale which has become a classic technique in the measurement
---------------------- of attitudes towards ethnic or racial groups lists a number of relationships
to which members of a given ethnic group might be admitted. The
---------------------- respondent is asked to indicate for specified ethnic or racial group the
---------------------- relationships to which he would be willing to admit members of each
group. This attitude is measured by the closeness of relationship that he
---------------------- is willing to accept or the social distance that he would like to maintain.
---------------------- The Borardus scale is illustrated below:
Sr. Relationship I would Hindu Christian Sikh Muslim
----------------------
No. accept
---------------------- 1 To close relation by 1 1 1 1 1
marriage
---------------------- 2 To my club as personal 2 2 2 2 2
friend
---------------------- 3 To my place as 3 3 3 3 3
---------------------- neighbours
4 To employment in my 4 4 4 4 4
---------------------- occupation
5 To citizenship in my 5 5 5 5 5
---------------------- country
---------------------- 6 As visitors only in my 6 6 6 6 6
country
---------------------- 7 Shall exclude from my 7 7 7 7 7
country
----------------------
The respondent is directed either to circle or tick off each of the
---------------------- classifications to which he could be willing to admit the average member
of a particular ethnic, racial or nationality group. The answers are to
---------------------- reflect the respondent’s first feeling reactions.
---------------------- In the above scale, it is reasonable to expect that the respondent who ticks
off 3 in relation to Sikh i.e. indicating his willingness to have them as his
---------------------- neighbors, would ordinarily also tick off 4 and 5 i.e. accepting them as

268 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

 employees in his occupation and accepting them as citizens in his country. Notes
But he would not tick off 6 and 7, because these are statements connoting
exclusion. If an individual does not tick off 3, then it is reasonable ----------------------
to expect that he will not tick off 1 and 2, since these are statements
indicating even closer relationships (marriage and friendship) compared ----------------------
to 3 (neighborhood). ----------------------

Check your Progress 2 ----------------------

----------------------
Multiple Choice Single Response.
1. If a baseball coach calculates batting averages, what scale would be ----------------------
used?
----------------------
i. Interval scale
ii. Ratio scale ----------------------
iii. Nominal scale
----------------------
iv. Ordinal scale
2. According to the text, most of the outcome/dependent variable ----------------------
characteristics and attributes measured in educational research ----------------------
probably exist at which level of measurement?
i. Nominal ----------------------
ii. Ordinal ----------------------
iii. Interval
iv. Ratio ----------------------
3. An ordinal scale is: ----------------------
i. The simplest form of measurement
----------------------
ii. A scale with equal intervals between adjacent numbers
iii. A rank-order scale of measurement ----------------------
iv. A scale with an absolute zero point ----------------------
4. Which of the following is the correct order of four levels of
measurement? ----------------------
i. Ordinal, nominal, ratio, interval ----------------------
ii. Nominal, ordinal, interval, ratio
----------------------
iii. Interval, nominal, ordinal, ratio
iv. Ratio, interval, nominal, ordinal ----------------------

----------------------
13.7 THE SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL SCALE ----------------------
The semantic differential is actually a series of attitude scales. This ----------------------
popular attitude measurement technique consists of getting respondents to react
to some concept using a series of seven-point bipolar rating scales. Bipolar ----------------------
adjectives—such as “good” and “bad,” “modern” and “old fashioned,” or ----------------------

Scaling Techniques and Attitudes Measurement Techniques 269

 Notes “clean” and “dirty”—anchor the beginning and the end (or poles) of the scale.
The subject makes repeated judgments about the concept under investigation on
---------------------- each of the scales.
---------------------- The semantic differential technique originally was developed as a method
for measuring the meanings of objects or the “semantic space” of interpersonal
---------------------- experience. Researchers have found the semantic differential versatile and
useful in business applications. The validity of the semantic differential depends
----------------------
on finding scale anchors that are semantic opposites. This can sometimes prove
---------------------- difficult. However, in attitude or image studies simple anchors such as very
unfavorable and very favorable work well.
----------------------
For scoring purposes, a numerical score is assigned to each position on
---------------------- the rating scale. Traditionally, score ranges such as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 or –3,
–2, –1, 0, +1, +2, +3 are used. Many business researchers find it desirable to
---------------------- assume that the semantic differential provides interval data. This assumption,
although widely accepted, has its critics, who argue that the data have only
----------------------
ordinal properties because the numerical scores are arbitrary. Practically
---------------------- speaking, most researchers will treat semantic differential scales as metric (at
least interval). This is because the amount of error introduced by assuming the
---------------------- intervals between choices are equal (even though this is uncertain) is fairly
small.
----------------------
A respondent’s total score is the measure of his attitude, e. g. the following
---------------------- example gives citizens’ attitudes towards their three Prime Ministers N, I and R.
---------------------- +3 +2 +1 0 -1 -2 -3
1 Progressive N IR Behind time
---------------------- 2 Democratic N I R R Autocratic
---------------------- 3 Reliable N 1 Unreliable
4 Clean N 1 R Dirty
---------------------- 5 Nationalistic I N R Selfish
Score : N = 13, I = 9, R = -7
----------------------

---------------------- 13.8 SELECTION OF AN APPROXIMATE SCALE

---------------------- A number of different techniques which are available for the measurement
of attitudes have been discussed earlier in details. Each one has its own strength
----------------------
and weakness. Generally every technique discussed earlier can be used for
---------------------- the measurement of any characteristics of attitudes. But not all techniques are
suitable for all purposes. The stage and the size of the research project play a
---------------------- major role in the selection of the scale. Further care has to be taken to estimate
the cost of developing and implementing the instrument, the reliability, validity
----------------------
as well as the necessary statistical analysis.
---------------------- The Likert scale is used for item analysis. For specific attitudes, the
Semantic differential scale is very appropriate. Generally, Thurstone scale and
----------------------
Semantic differential scales are preferred for preliminary investigations.
----------------------

270 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

13.9 LIMITATIONS OF ATTITUDES MEASUREMENT Notes
SCALES
----------------------
1. To date, we have not been developed any suitable models that describe the
role of attitudes in behaviour. This has culminated into high limitations of ----------------------
these tests. That is – we do emphasise on describing attitudes rather than ----------------------
predicting behaviour.
----------------------
2. Scaling techniques are used extensively in psychology, social science and
marketing areas. The readers should be aware of the limitations of current ----------------------
scaling techniques as far as their applicability to marketing is concerned.
There has been more progress in the construction of scales or measuring ----------------------
attitudes along a single dimension than in dealing with more cases of
----------------------
multi-dimensional attitudes.
3. Secondly, little has been done on the development of anything like a ----------------------
general theory of individual buyer behaviour that is tenable in terms
----------------------
of empirical findings from psychological and sociological studies. The
development of anything close to a general theory will require validation ----------------------
of scaling techniques by behavioural type measures under experimentally
controlled conditions. ----------------------
4. Prediction from attitudes scales preference settings need to be transformed ----------------------
into measures of more direct inference to the marketer.
----------------------
Activity 1 ----------------------

1. To what type of scale you will attribute the following responses? ----------------------
Sr. Responses Scale ----------------------
No.
----------------------
1 Mobile set A looks better than mobile set B
2 Does your car have power steering wheel? – Yes or No ----------------------
3 Awareness of three colour print marriage invitation card
4 The Celsius scale for measuring temperature ----------------------
5 Assignment of number of cricket players ----------------------
2. A researcher wishes to compare two hotels on the following attributes:
Convenience of location; Friendly personnel; Value for money. ----------------------
a. Design a Likert scale to accomplish this task.
----------------------
b. Design a semantic differential scale to accomplish this task.
c. Design a graphic rating scale to accomplish this task. ----------------------
3. How will you use a semantic differential scale to compare the profile ----------------------
of three Management Training Institutes in your state?
----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

Scaling Techniques and Attitudes Measurement Techniques 271

 Notes Summary
---------------------- ●● Managerial research incorporates factors very much related to human
nature and behaviour. Man by nature is predisposed to products/objects,
----------------------
ideas etc. These predispositions mean attitudes.
---------------------- ●● We have discussed the role of attitude measurement and scale in
managerial research. The beginning was made by underlying the need of
----------------------
quantifying attitudinal data.
---------------------- ●● Efforts were made, therefore, to explain the key words like attributes,
beliefs and attitudes. Critical issues were then discussed. Thereafter, we
----------------------
described different types of scales – Nominal, Ordinal, Interval and Ratio.
---------------------- ●● After discussing these main scales, a good discussion was made as regards
the prominent scales of attributes viz. Thurston’s equal appearing interval
---------------------- scale, Guttman Scale, Likert scale – known as semantic differential scale
---------------------- etc.
●● We did touch the points as to how the selection of an appropriate attitude
---------------------- measurement scale can be made. Finally, the limitations of these tools
---------------------- have also mentioned.

---------------------- Keywords
----------------------
●● Attributes : Characteristics of the object, under investigation
---------------------- ●● Beliefs : Judgements made by a user regarding the object possessing
certain attributes or not
----------------------
●● Attitude : Predisposition of individuals towards the attributes of an object
---------------------- ●● Measurement : The process of obtaining information, which can be
---------------------- subjected to analysis
●● Scale : A collection of statements which can be used for measuring
---------------------- attitudes
---------------------- ●● Respondent/Subject : Person on whom an attitude measurement scale is
administered
----------------------
●● Bipolar adjectives : A pair of words which have opposite meanings
----------------------

----------------------
Self-Assessment Questions

---------------------- 1. Distinguish Attitudes, Attributes and Beliefs from each other.

2. Describe in general, attitude measurement methods.
----------------------
3. Describe various types of scales along with their major characteristics.
----------------------
4. Discuss various ranking scales. Give illustration for each of them.
---------------------- 5. What is Semantic differential scale? Give an example where it can be
used.
----------------------

272 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

6. Distinguish between rating and ranking. Notes
7. Which is a better attitude measurement technique? Why?
----------------------
Answers to Check your Progress ----------------------

Check your Progress 1 ----------------------

State True or False. ----------------------
1. True
----------------------
2. True
----------------------
3. False
Check your Progress 2 ----------------------

Multiple Choice Single Response. ----------------------

1. If a baseball coach calculates batting averages, what scale would be used? ----------------------
ii. Ratio scale
----------------------
2. According to the text, most of the outcome/dependent variable
characteristics and attributes measured in educational research probably ----------------------
exist at which level of measurement? ----------------------
ii. Ordinal
----------------------
3. An ordinal scale is:
----------------------
iii. A rank-order scale of measurement
4. Which of the following is the correct order of four levels of measurement? ----------------------
ii. Nominal, ordinal, interval, ratio ----------------------

----------------------
Suggested Reading
----------------------
1. Bryman, Allan & Bell Emma. 2003. Business Research Methods. Oxford
University Press. ----------------------
2. Cooper, Donald, Schindler Pamela. 2006. Business Research Methods. ----------------------
Tata McGraw Hill Companies.
----------------------
3. Kothari C.R. 1985. Research Methodology – Methods & Techniques.
New Age International Publishers. ----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

Scaling Techniques and Attitudes Measurement Techniques 273

 Notes

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------
----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

274 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

Data Presentation, Processing and Analysis
UNIT

14
Structure:

14.1 Introduction
14.2 Editing of Data
14.3 Coding of Data
14.4 Classification of Data
14.5 Tabulation of Data
14.6 Graphical Representation of Data
14.7 Analysis of Data
14.8 Interpretation of Data
14.9 SPSS Statistics for Students: The Basics
14.9.1 Features of SPSS
14.9.2 Layout of SPSS
14.9.3 SPSS Menus and Icons
14.9.4 Basic Steps in Data Analysis
14.9.5 The SPSS Windows and Files
14.9.6 Statistical Procedures
Summary
Keywords
Self-Assessment Questions
Answers to Check your Progress
Suggested Reading

Data Presentation, Processing and Analysis 275

 Notes
Objectives
----------------------
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
----------------------
• Discuss the importance of data presentation
----------------------
• Identify the significance of data classification and tabulation
---------------------- • Explain the ways to process and analyse the data
----------------------
14.1 INTRODUCTION
----------------------
The data, after collection, has to be processed and analysed in accordance
----------------------
with the outline laid down for the purpose at the time of developing the research
---------------------- plan. This is essential for a scientific study and for ensuring that we have all
relevant data for making contemplated comparisons and analysis. Technically
---------------------- speaking, processing implies editing, coding, classification and tabulation of
collected data so that they are amenable to analysis. The term analysis refers
----------------------
to the computation of certain measures along with searching for patterns of
---------------------- relationship that exist among data groups. Thus in the process of analysis,
relationships or differences supporting or conflicting with original or new
---------------------- hypotheses should be subjected to statistical tests of significance to determine
with what validity data can be said to indicate any conclusions.
----------------------
Various Data Processing Operations are:
----------------------
1. Editing
----------------------
2. Coding
---------------------- 3. Classification
---------------------- 4. Tabulation

---------------------- 14.2 EDITING OF DATA

----------------------
This includes inspection of data its correction and modification. Therefore
---------------------- editing means scrutiny of the questionnaire and schedule. There is possibility
of error and omission in the on the part of investigator so the editing help us to
---------------------- minimise such incorrectness. Editing is done at the time of collecting data.
---------------------- The editing can be done at two stages: field editing and central editing.

---------------------- Field Editing: This consists of reviewing the reporting forms by the investigator
for completing or translating what the latter has noted in abbreviated form at
---------------------- the time of interviewing the respondents. This form of editing is necessary in
view of the writing of individuals, which vary from individual to individual and
---------------------- is sometimes difficult for the researcher to understand. While doing so, care
---------------------- should be taken so that the researcher does not correct the errors of omission by
simply guess work.
----------------------

276 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

Central Editing: This should be carried out when all the forms of schedules Notes
have been completed and returned to the headquarters. This type of editing
requires that all the forms are thoroughly edited by a single person in a small ----------------------
study or a small group of persons in case of a large study. The editor may correct
the errors such as wrong entry. Sometimes, inappropriate or missing replies can ----------------------
also be recorded by the editor by reviewing the other information recorded in ----------------------
the schedule. If necessary, the respondent may be contacted for clarification. All
the incorrect replies must be deleted from the schedules. ----------------------
The editor should be familiar with the instructions and the codes given ----------------------
to the interviewers while editing. The new (corrected) entry made by the editor
should be in some distinctive form and they be initiated by the editor. The date ----------------------
of editing may also be recorded on the schedule for any future references.
----------------------

Activity 1 ----------------------

----------------------
Your organisation is conducting a survey to determine the consumption
pattern of food items by households in PUNE. You are responsible for ----------------------
editing the raw data from the questionnaires and analysing the same. A filled
up set of questionnaire have been sent to you. List out the points on which ----------------------
you would like to concentrate while editing the raw data.
----------------------

----------------------
14.3 CODING OF DATA
----------------------
The process of assigning some symbols, either alphabetical or numerals or
both, to the answers is known as coding. The responses then can be recorded into ----------------------
a limited number of classes or categories. The classes should be appropriate to
the research problem being studied, must be exhaustive and mutually exclusive ----------------------
so that the answer can be placed in one and only one cell or a given category. ----------------------
Further, every class must be defined in terms of only one concept.
The coding helps efficient analysis of data. The coding decisions should ----------------------
usually be taken at the designing stage of the research itself so that the likely ----------------------
responses to questions are pre- coded. It may be noted that any errors in coding
should be eliminated altogether or at least be reduced to the minimum possible ----------------------
level.
----------------------
14.4 CLASSIFICATION OF DATA ----------------------

Classification stands for the entire process of sorting out things ‘similar’ from ----------------------
amongst a group of things of different characteristics. In other words, a diverse
heterogeneous data is classified into separate homogenous classes according ----------------------
to the identity of characteristics that exist amongst the different individuals or ----------------------
quantities constituting the data. The process of arranging the data in groups
and classes according to resemblance and similarities is technically called ----------------------
classification.
----------------------

Data Presentation, Processing and Analysis 277

 Notes In classification of data, units having common characteristics are placed
in a class and in this fashion the whole data is divided into a number of classes.
----------------------
Unless and until classified, a data collected is unable to express anything.
---------------------- Classification gives the value of certainty to the data.
After the data has been systematically collected and edited, the first step
----------------------
in presentation of data is classification. Classification is the process of arranging
---------------------- the data according to the points of similarities and dissimilarities. It is like
the process of sorting the mail in a post office where the mail for different
---------------------- destinations is placed in different compartments after it has been carefully
sorted out from the huge heap.
----------------------
Objectives of Classification
----------------------
The main objectives of classifying data are:
---------------------- ●● To condense the entire data in such a way that salient features can be
---------------------- readily noticed
●● To facilitate comparison between attributes of variables
----------------------
●● To prepare data which can be presented in tabular form
---------------------- ●● To highlight the significant features of the data at a glance
---------------------- Types of Classification

---------------------- Some common types of classification are as follows:

1. According to area or region, known as Geographical
----------------------
2. According to occurrence of an event in time, known as Chronological
----------------------
3. According to attributes, known as Qualitative
---------------------- 4. According to magnitudes, known as Quantitative
---------------------- 1. Geographical Classification: In this type of classification, data is classified
according to area or region. For example, when we consider production
---------------------- of rice state wise, this would be called geographical classification. The
listings of individual entries are generally done in an alphabetical order
----------------------
or to emphasise the importance of a particular area or region.
---------------------- 2. Chronological Classification: When the data is classified according to
---------------------- the time of its occurrence, it is known as Chronological Classification.
For example, sales figures of a product for last six years are given below:
---------------------- Year Sales (Rs. Lakhs) Year Sales (Rs. Lakhs)
---------------------- 1992-93 225 1995-96 485
1993-94 330 1996-97 575
----------------------
1994-95 395 1997-98 700
----------------------
1. Qualitative Classification: When the data is classified according to some
---------------------- attributes which are not capable of measurement, it is known as qualitative
classification. In a simple (or dichotomous) classification, an attribute is
---------------------- divided into two classes, one possessing the attribute and the other not

278 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

 possessing it. For example, we may classify population on the basis of sex Notes
i.e. male and female. Similarly, we can have manifold classification when
an attribute is divided so as to form several classes. For example, the ----------------------
attribute- education can have different classes such as primary, secondary,
higher secondary. ----------------------

2. Quantitative Classification: When the data is classified according ----------------------

to some characteristics that can be measured, it is called quantitative
----------------------
classification. For example, the employees of a company may be
classified according to their length of service. Since quantitative data is ----------------------
characterised by different numerical values, the data represents the values
of a variable. Quantitative data may be further classified into one or two ----------------------
types namely, discrete or continuous. Discrete data refers to quantitative
----------------------
data that is limited to certain numerical values of a variable. The number
of employees in an organisation and the number of patients in a hospital ----------------------
are examples of discrete data.
----------------------
Continuous data can take all values of the variable. For example, the data
relating to density, weight, distance and volume are examples of continuous data. ----------------------
The quantitative classification becomes the basis for frequency distribution.
----------------------
When the data is arranged into groups or categories according to properly
established divisions of the range of the observations, such an arrangement in ----------------------
tabular form it is called frequency distribution. In a frequency distribution, raw
data is represented by distinct groups which are known as classes. The number ----------------------
of observations that fall into each of the classes is known as frequency. Thus, a
----------------------
frequency distribution has two parts, on its left there are classes and on its right
there are frequencies. ----------------------
When data is described by a continuous variable, it is called continuous ----------------------
data and when it is described by a discrete variable, it is called discrete data.
The following are the two examples of discrete and continuous frequency ----------------------
distributions.
----------------------
No. of Employees No. of Companies Age (Years) No. of Employees
110 37 20-25 13 ----------------------
150 45 25-30 32 ----------------------
200 70 30-35 48
240 105 35-40 57 ----------------------
450 48 40-45 28 ----------------------
560 15 45-50 12
----------------------
Discrete frequency distribution Continuous frequency distribution
----------------------
Characteristics of a Good Classification
Classification is a very important preliminary in a statistical investigation. ----------------------
However, a good classification should have certain following characteristics: ----------------------
1. The object of enquiry lies in ideality of a classification. The data, thus
----------------------
classified must be objective oriented.

Data Presentation, Processing and Analysis 279

 Notes 2. Classification of data should be homogeneous. The data that is kept in a
particular class should be homogeneous.
----------------------
3. Classification of data should be simple, very clear and without any
---------------------- ambiguity.
4. Classification should be stable and it should not be changed frequently to
----------------------
provide reliable results and inferences that are satisfactory.
---------------------- 5. Classification of data should be such as it may be changed according to new
situation and circumstances. A rigid classification fails to correct results.
----------------------

---------------------- 14.5 TABULATION OF DATA

---------------------- After the classification of data, they are presented in the form of tables
so that the qualities and characteristics implicit in them may be explicit. In
----------------------
fact, classification and tabulation are inter-related and inter-dependent. Data are
---------------------- classified which may be presented in the form of tables. Then only they can be
used in research.
----------------------
Meaning of ‘Tabulation’
---------------------- Tabulation simply means presenting a data through tables. It is next to
---------------------- classification in the process of statistical investigation. To be more precise
‘Tabulation is an orderly arrangement of data in columns and rows’
---------------------- Tabulation is the final stage in collection and compilation of data and is a
---------------------- sort of stepping stone to the analysis and interpretation of figures. In deciding
about the type of tabulation, one has to keep in mind the nature, scope and the
---------------------- object of enquiry. Tabulation of data should be done in such a form that it suits
the nature and object of the research investigation.
----------------------
Statistical data can be presented in the form of tables and graphs. In the
---------------------- tabular form, the classification of data is made with reference to time or some
other variables. The graphs are used as a visual form of presentation of data.
----------------------
The tabulation is used for summarisation and condensation of data. It aids
---------------------- in analysis of relationships, trends and other summarisation of the given data.
The tabulation may be simple or complex. Simple tabulation results in one-way
----------------------
tables, which can be used to answer questions related to one characteristic of
---------------------- the data. The complex tabulation usually results in two way tables, which give
information about two interrelated characteristics of the data; three way tables
---------------------- which give information about three interrelated characteristics of data.
---------------------- Following are the important characteristics of a table:

---------------------- i. Each table should have a clear and concise title to make it understandable
without reference to the text. This title should always be just above the
---------------------- body of the table. Some prefer to put this below the table.

---------------------- ii. It should be given a distinct number to facilitate easy reference.

iii. It should have captions (column headings) and stubs (row headings) and
---------------------- they should be clear and brief.

280 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

iv. The unit of measurements used must always be indicated. Notes
v. Source of sources from where the data in the table have been obtained
----------------------
must be indicated at the bottom of the table.
vi. Explanatory footnotes, if any, concerning the table should be given ----------------------
beneath the table along with reference symbol.
----------------------
vii. Abbreviations should not be used.
----------------------
viii. It should be logical, clear, accurate and as simple as possible.
ix. The arrangement of the data categories in a table may be chronological, ----------------------
geographical, alphabetical or according to magnitude to facilitate ----------------------
comparison.
x. Finally, the table must suit the needs and requirements of the research ----------------------
study. ----------------------
Different types of Statistical Tables
----------------------
Statistical tables are of following types:
----------------------
1. Simple and Complex tables
2. One way tables ----------------------

3. Two way tables ----------------------

4. Three way tables ----------------------
5. Manifold tables
----------------------
We give below the description of these tables with examples.
----------------------
Simple and Complex tabulation
Tabulation of data can be either simple or complex. Tabulation which ----------------------
gives information about more groups of independent questions is known ----------------------
as Simple tabulation. Tabulation which shows the division of data in two or
more categories and gives information about one or more sets of inter-related ----------------------
questions is known as Complex table.
----------------------
One-way Table
----------------------
This is made on the basis of just one quantity or characteristic. Therefore,
it is called a one way table. Examples of such tabulation are the classification ----------------------
of classes on the basis of population, distribution of students on the basis of
subjects of their study, etc. Construction of simple tables is easy. An example of ----------------------
such a table is as follows:
----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

Data Presentation, Processing and Analysis 281

 Notes Table 14.1: One-way Table
Students studying in the various faculties in a University
----------------------
Sr. No Class Number of Students
---------------------- 1. Commerce
---------------------- 2. Arts
3. Science
----------------------
4. Law
---------------------- 5. Computer Science
6. Engineering
----------------------
7. Medicine
---------------------- Total
---------------------- Two-way Table

---------------------- Two way tables give information about two interrelated characteristics
of a particular phenomenon. For example, the number of students given in
---------------------- previous table if divided on the basis of sex, the table would become a two way
table, because it would give information about two characteristics i.e. (i) Class
---------------------- (ii) Sex-wise distribution of students in various class intervals or marks.
---------------------- Table 14.2: Two-way Table
---------------------- Students studying in the various faculties in a University

---------------------- Class Number of Boys Number of Girls Total

1 Commerce
---------------------- 2 Arts
---------------------- 3 Science
4 Law
---------------------- 5 Computer science
---------------------- 6 Engineering
7 Medical
---------------------- Total
---------------------- In this table, students have been classified on the basis of class and sex.
---------------------- Let us now see the three way table.
Three-way Table
----------------------
This table is also known as treble tabulation. A three way table answers
---------------------- questions relating to three inter-related characteristics of a given data.
----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

282 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

 Table 14.3: Three-way Table Notes
Students studying in the various faculties in a University
----------------------
(Sex-wise and on the basis of residence)
Number of Student ----------------------
Sr. Class BOYS GIRLS TOTAL
----------------------
No. Rural Urban Total Rural Urban Total Rural Urban Total
1. Commerce ----------------------
2. Arts
3. Science ----------------------
4. law
5. Computer ----------------------
Science ----------------------
6. Engineering
7. Medical ----------------------
Total
----------------------
The above three-way table can provide us information about
1. Students studying in various faculties in a University ----------------------

2. The distribution of these students sex-wise ----------------------

3. The distribution of the students on the basis of residence ----------------------
Manifold table
----------------------
A higher-order table gives information under several main heads and
sub-heads to question relating to a number of interrelated characteristics. If ----------------------
in the above table additional information is given about civil conditions of the ----------------------
students it would become a four-way table and similarly, tables can be of higher
order, say five-way and so on. All such tables are known as manifold or higher ----------------------
order tables.
----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

Data Presentation, Processing and Analysis 283

 Notes Following illustration will make the point clear:
Students studying in various faculties of a University, sex-wise, on the
----------------------
basis of marital conditions and residences can be tabulated as below.
---------------------- Number of Student
Resi- Class BOYS GIRLS TOTAL
---------------------- dence Married Unmarried Total Married Unmarried Total Married Unmarried Total
Rural 1
----------------------
2
---------------------- 3
4
---------------------- 5
6
---------------------- 7
Total
---------------------- Urban 1
2
---------------------- 3
4
---------------------- 5
6
---------------------- 7
Total
---------------------- Total 1
2
----------------------
3
---------------------- 4
5
---------------------- 6
7
---------------------- Grand-
Total
---------------------- The above table gives information about a large number of inter-related
---------------------- questions relating to the students, namely about students studying in various
faculties of a University, sex-wise distribution, marital conditions and residence-
---------------------- wise. Manifold tables are very useful in presenting population census data.
---------------------- Advantages of Tabulation
The main object of tabulation is to arrange the answers of questions with
----------------------
which enquiry is concerned, in easily accessible form. The important advantages
---------------------- of tabulation are as follows:
1. It avoids the necessity of repeating headings and duplicating items.
----------------------
2. It makes data possible to show group relations and bring out comparisons.
----------------------
3. It saves space and time.
----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

284 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

 Notes
Check your Progress 1
----------------------
Multiple Choice Single Response.
1. Which of the following is not a data processing operation? ----------------------
i. Classification ----------------------
ii. Coding
iii. Decoding ----------------------
iv. Editing ----------------------
2. Editing is an operation carried in the analysis of data step of the
research process; it involves: ----------------------
i. Arranging data in groups on the basis of common characteristics ----------------------
ii. Examining the collected raw data to detect errors and correct
them ----------------------
iii. Summarising raw data and displaying them in compact form
----------------------
for further analysis
iv. All the above ----------------------
3. Classification is an operation carried in the analysis of data step of the
research process, involving ----------------------
i. Arranging data in groups on the basis of common characteristics ----------------------
ii. Examining the collected raw data to detect errors and correct
them ----------------------
iii. Summarising raw data and displaying them in compact form ----------------------
for further analysis
iv. All the above ----------------------
4. Tabulation is an operation carried in the analysis of data step of the
----------------------
research process; it involves
i. Arranging data in groups on the basis of common characteristics ----------------------
ii. Examining the collected raw data to detect errors and correct
them ----------------------
iii. Summarising raw data and displaying them in compact form ----------------------
for further analysis
iv. All the above ----------------------

----------------------
Activity 2 ----------------------

Prepare a blank table to show the following: ----------------------

1. Two categories of four wheelers: Imported and Indian ----------------------
2. Two categories of same: Petrol run, Diesel run ----------------------
3. Four types of colours: Black, White, Blue and Red
----------------------

----------------------

Data Presentation, Processing and Analysis 285

 Notes 14.6 GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF DATA
---------------------- Several types of graphs or charts are used to present statistical data. Of
them, the following are commonly used: bar chart, two dimensional diagrams,
---------------------- pictograms, pie-charts and arithmetic charts or line charts.
---------------------- Charts of frequency distribution which cover both diagrams and graphs
are useful because they enable a quick interpretation of the data. A frequency
---------------------- distribution can be presented by a variety of methods. The following four
---------------------- popular methods of charting frequency distribution are discussed in detail.
1. Bar Diagram: Bar diagrams are most popular. One can see numerous
---------------------- such diagrams in newspapers, journals, company reports and even
---------------------- on television to depict different characteristics of data. For example,
population, per capita income, sales and profits of a company can be
---------------------- shown easily through bar diagrams. It may be noted that a bar is a thick
line whose width is shown to attract the viewer. A bar diagram may be
---------------------- either vertical or horizontal.
---------------------- In order to draw a bar diagram, we take the characteristic (or attribute)
under consideration on the X-axis and the corresponding value on the
----------------------
Y-axis. It is desirable to mention the value depicted by the bar on the top
---------------------- of the bar.
To explain the procedure of drawing a bar diagram, we have taken the
----------------------
yearly sales figures (in Crore Rupees) of a company.
---------------------- 8000
7000
Yearly Sales in Rs. Lakhs

---------------------- 7000
---------------------- 6000
5500
---------------------- 5000
4500
----------------------
4000 3600
---------------------- 3250
3000 2750
----------------------
2000
----------------------
1000
----------------------
0
---------------------- 2001 2002 2003 2003 2004 2005
---------------------- YEAR
Fig. 14.1 (a): Histogram with Equal Class Intervals
----------------------
2. Histogram: One of the most commonly used and easily understood
---------------------- methods for graphic presentation of frequency distribution is histogram.
A histogram is a series of rectangles having areas that are in the same
----------------------
proportion as the frequencies of a frequency distribution.

286 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

 To construct a histogram, we take the class limits of the variables on the Notes
horizontal axis and on the vertical axis or Y-axis we take the frequencies
of the class internals shown on the horizontal axis. If the class intervals ----------------------
are of equal width, then the vertical bare in the histogram are also of
equal width. On the other hand, if the class intervals are unequal, then ----------------------
the frequencies have to be adjusted according to the width of the class ----------------------
interval. To illustrate a histogram when class internals are equal, let us
consider the following example. ----------------------
No. of Marks No. of Students No. of Marks No. of Students ----------------------
10-20 15 50-60 25
----------------------
20-30 22 60-70 20
30-40 35 70-80 16 ----------------------

40-50 30 80-90 7 ----------------------

In this example, we may observe that class intervals are of equal width. Let ----------------------
us take class internals on the X-axis and their corresponding frequencies
on the Y-axis. On each class interval (as base), erect a rectangle with ----------------------
height equal to the frequency of that class. In this manner, we get a series
of rectangles each having a class interval as its width and the frequency ----------------------
as its height as shown below: ----------------------
40
35 ----------------------

----------------------
30
30 ----------------------
25
No. of Students

----------------------
22
20 ----------------------
20
15 ----------------------

----------------------
10
10 ----------------------
5
----------------------

0 ----------------------
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
No. of Marks obtained ----------------------

Fig. 14.1 (b): Histogram with Equal Class Intervals ----------------------

It should be noted that the area of the histogram represents the total ----------------------
frequency as distributed throughout the different classes.
----------------------
When the widths of the class intervals are not equal, then the frequencies
must be adjusted before constructing the histogram. ----------------------

Data Presentation, Processing and Analysis 287

 Notes The following example will illustrate the procedure:
Monthly No. of Monthly No. of
----------------------
Income (Rs.) Employees Income (Rs.) Employees
---------------------- 1000-1500 5 3500-5000 12
---------------------- 1500-2000 12 5000-7000 8
2000-2500 15 7000-8000 2
----------------------
2500-3500 18
----------------------
As can be seen in above example, the class intervals are of unequal width
---------------------- and hence we have to find out the adjusted frequency of each class by
taking the class with the lowest class interval as the basis of adjustment.
---------------------- For example, in the class 2500-3500, the class interval list 1000 which
---------------------- is twice the size of the lowest class interval, i.e. 500 and therefore the
frequency of this class would be divided by two, i.e. it would be 18/2
---------------------- = 9. In a similar manner, the other frequencies would be obtained. The
adjusted frequencies for various classes are given below.
----------------------
Monthly No. of Monthly No. of
---------------------- Income (Rs.) Employees Income (Rs.) Employees
---------------------- 1000-1500 5 3500-5000 4
1500-2000 12 5000-7000 2
----------------------
2000-2500 15 7000-8000 1
----------------------
2500-3500 9
---------------------- The histogram of the above distribution is shown below:
20
----------------------
No. of Employees

---------------------- 15
15
---------------------- 12

---------------------- 10 9

----------------------
5
5 4
----------------------
2
1
----------------------
0
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000
----------------------
Monthly Income in Rs.
---------------------- Fig. 14.2: Histogram with Unequal Intervals
---------------------- It may be noted that a histogram and a bar diagram look very much alike
but have distinct features. For example, in a histogram, the rectangles are
----------------------
adjoining and can be of different width whereas in bar diagram it is not
---------------------- possible.

288 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

3. Frequency Polygon: The frequency polygon is a graphical presentation Notes
of frequency distribution. A polygon is a many sided closed figure. A
frequency polygon is constructed by taking the mid-points of the upper ----------------------
horizontal side of each rectangle on the histogram and connecting these
mid-points by straight lines. In order to close the polygon, an additional ----------------------
class is assumed at each end, having a zero frequency. To illustrate the ----------------------
frequency polygon of this distribution is shown below.
40 ----------------------

----------------------

30 ----------------------

----------------------
No. of Students

20 ----------------------

----------------------
----------------------
10
----------------------

----------------------
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
----------------------
No. of Marks

Fig. 14.3: Frequency Polygon ----------------------

If we draw a smooth curve over these points in such a way that the area ----------------------
included under the curve is approximately the same as that of the polygon,
----------------------
then such a curve is known as frequency curve.
The histogram is usually associated with discrete data and a frequency ----------------------
polygon is appropriate for continuous data. But this distinction is not
----------------------
always followed in practice and many factors may influence the choice of
graph. ----------------------
The frequency polygon and frequency curve have a special advantage
----------------------
over the histogram particularly when we want to compare two or more
frequency distributions. ----------------------
4. Ogive or Cumulative Frequency Curve: An ogive is the graphical ----------------------
presentation of a cumulative frequency distribution and therefore when
the graph of such a distribution is drawn, it is called Cumulative Frequency ----------------------
Curve or Ogive. There are two methods of constructing ogive, viz.
----------------------
i. Less than ogive
----------------------
ii. More than ogive
i. Less than Ogive: In this method, the upper limit of the various ----------------------
classes is taken on the X-axis and the frequency obtained by the
----------------------

Data Presentation, Processing and Analysis 289

 Notes process of cumulating the preceding frequencies on the X-axis. By
joining these points we get less than ogive. Consider the example
---------------------- relating to no. of Marks obtained data.
---------------------- No. of Marks No. of Students No. of Marks Cumulative
10-20 15 Less than 20 15
---------------------- 20-30 22 Less than 30 37
30-40 35 Less than 40 72
---------------------- 40-50 30 Less than 50 102
---------------------- 50-60 25 Less than 60 127
60-70 20 Less than 70 147
---------------------- 70-80 16 Less than 80 163
80-90 7 Less than 90 170
---------------------- 200

---------------------- 180
160
----------------------
140
No. of Students

----------------------
120
---------------------- 100

---------------------- 80
60
----------------------
40
----------------------
20
---------------------- 0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
----------------------
No. of Marks
---------------------- Fig. 14.4: Less than Ogive
---------------------- ii. More than Ogive: Similarly, more than ogive or cumulative
frequency curve can be drawn by taking the lower limits on X-axis
---------------------- and cumulative frequencies on the Y-axis. By joining these points,
we get more than ogive. The table for this case is shown below:
----------------------
No. of Marks No. of Students No. of Marks Cumulative
---------------------- Frequency
---------------------- 10-20 15 More than 10 170
20-30 22 More than 20 155
---------------------- 30-40 35 More than 30 133
40-50 30 More than 40 98
---------------------- 50-60 25 More than 50 68
60-70 20 More than 60 43
----------------------
70-80 16 More than 70 23
---------------------- 80-90 7 More than 80 7

----------------------

290 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

 200 Notes
180
----------------------
160
----------------------
140
----------------------
No. of Students

120

100 ----------------------

80 ----------------------
60 ----------------------
40
----------------------
20
----------------------
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
----------------------
No. of Marks
----------------------
Fig. 14.5: More than Ogive
The shape of less than ogive curve would be a rising one whereas the ----------------------
shape of more than ogive curve should be falling one. ----------------------
The concept of ogive is useful in answering questions such as: How many
----------------------
students are having marks less than 52 or more than 24 or between 24 and 52?
----------------------
Check your Progress 2
----------------------
State True or False.
----------------------
1. A frequency polygon is the graphical presentation of a cumulative
frequency distribution. ----------------------
2. The histogram represents the total frequency as distributed throughout ----------------------
the different classes.
3. Frequency polygon is appropriate for continuous data. ----------------------

----------------------
14.7 ANALYSIS OF DATA ----------------------
Analysis is placing the collected data in some order or format so that ----------------------
the data acquire a meaning. Raw data become information only when they are
placed in a meaningful form. Interpretation involves drawing conclusions from ----------------------
the gathered data
----------------------
The most crucial aspects of research are the analysis and interpretation
of data. It is considered to be highly skilled and technical job, which should be ----------------------
carried out only by the researcher himself or under his close supervision. The ----------------------
analysis of data requires on the part of the researcher a thorough knowledge
about the data, judgment skill, ability of generalisation and familiarity with the ----------------------
background objectives and hypothesis of the study.
Data Presentation, Processing and Analysis 291
 Notes Meaning of ‘Analysis’ of Data
Analysis means the computation of certain measures or indices along
----------------------
with searching for patterns of relationship that exists among data group.
---------------------- Just collection of data cannot be the aim of any research activity but with
the help of collected data a researcher tries to draw the conclusions, makes
----------------------
generalisation, establishes relationship between two or more variables and tests
---------------------- the hypothesis etc. In the process of analysis of data, some statistical methods
are used to make data meaningful and self explanatory. The process of analysing
---------------------- of data makes the data to speak about themselves.
---------------------- Analysis means the determination of certain indices or measures along
with searching for pattern of relationship that exists among the data group.
----------------------
Analysis of data is to be made with reference to the object of the study
---------------------- and its possible effect on the scientific discovery. An analysis is with reference
to the research problem at hand or the hypothesis. Some authors consider
---------------------- processing as a necessary pre-requisite for analysis. But many feel that analysis
---------------------- of data involves processing. In other words, these two operations can be made
simultaneously.
---------------------- Willinson and Bhandarkar say, “Analysis of data involves a number of
---------------------- closely related operations that are performed with the purpose of summarising
the collected data and organising these in such a manner that they will yield
---------------------- answer to the research questions or suggest hypothesis or questions”.

---------------------- John Gatting had made a distinction between analysis of data and the
processing of data. According to him, processing of data refers to concentrating,
---------------------- recasting and dealing with the data so that they are as amenable to analysis as
possible, while analysis of data refers to seeing the data from the point of view
---------------------- of hypothesis of research questions and the prevailing theories and drawing
---------------------- conclusions that are amenable to formulation of theory.
Purpose and Procedure for Analysis
----------------------
According to Leon Festinger and Daniel Katz, the purpose of scientific
---------------------- analysis and interpretation of data are as follows.
---------------------- a. It should be productive.

---------------------- b. Be readily disposed to quantitative treatment.

c. Has significance for some systematic theory.
----------------------
d. Can serve as a basis for broader generalisation beyond the immediate
---------------------- content of the facts under study.
---------------------- Analysis and interpretation of data is one of the most important steps-in
research processes. After collection, the data has to be processed and analysed in
---------------------- accordance with outline laid down of the research project for the pre-determined
purpose at the time of developing the research plan.
----------------------

----------------------

292 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

Procedure for Analysis Notes
The following three main tasks are to be performed, if the collected data
----------------------
are to be used in the most effective manner.
i. An intensive review must be made of all the data collection for the project ----------------------
with reference to the research study’s objectives and hypotheses.
----------------------
ii. These data are then analysed with the help of the suitable techniques
selected earlier. ----------------------
iii. The results emerging from these analyses are then related to the study’s ----------------------
hypothesis and objectives.
----------------------
Steps in Analysis
While analysing the research data the analyst/researcher is engaged in a ----------------------
series of routine procedures which have to be undertaken in a sequential manner. ----------------------
According to Herbert Hyman, following are the steps in the analysis:
----------------------
i. The data corresponding to each aspect of the phenomenon that have
ii. Been conceptualised are tabulated for the aggregate group and provide a ----------------------
general statistical or quantitative description.
----------------------
iii. The data are similarly tabulated for each sub-group that is regarded as
significant and provide the differential quantitative description desired. ----------------------
iv. Different modes of consolidating data for many separate aspects of the ----------------------
phenomenon are employed to provide statistical descriptions.
----------------------
v. All these data are then examined in the context of related phenomena so
as to improve the evaluation of the findings. ----------------------
vi. A variety of qualitative, non-statistical measures are used to supplement ----------------------
the quantitative description wherever necessary.
----------------------
Types of Analysis
The analysis may be descriptive, casual, co-relative or inferential analysis. ----------------------
A. Descriptive Analysis ----------------------
This is largely the study of distribution of one variable. This analysis is ----------------------
called one dimensional analysis. This analysis shows the benchmark data
and measures the state or condition at any particular time. This analysis is ----------------------
the prelude to bivariate and multivariate analysis.
----------------------
Such a study provides profiles of companies, work group, persons and
other subjects. This type of analysis may be in respect of one variable ----------------------
(unidimensional analysis), two variables (bivariate analysis) or more than
two variables (multivariate analysis). ----------------------

For example: The management of a commercial bank wanted to study ----------------------

the pattern of monthly salary of its employees. The frequency distribution
----------------------
of the employees’ salary is shown in the following table.
----------------------

Data Presentation, Processing and Analysis 293

 Notes Frequency Distribution of Monthly Salary of Employees
Monthly Salary (Rs.) Number of Employees
----------------------
1,000 - 4,999 44
---------------------- 5,000 - 9,999 23
10,000 - 29,999 17
---------------------- 30,000 - 49,999 15
50,000 - 69,999 12
---------------------- 70,000 - 89,999 5
---------------------- 90,000 and above 3
Generally, the method of descriptive analysis is used in historical research.
---------------------- Following are the important techniques which are used in ‘Descriptive
---------------------- Analysis’.
i. Bivariate Analysis: Bivariate analysis means the analysis
---------------------- concerned with two variables. The bivariate analysis is placing the
---------------------- collected data in to tabular form so that the real meaning of these
data can be obtained. The starting point of a bivariate analysis is
---------------------- to develop simple dimensional data. Then put the data in to two or
more categories. This technique is very with a survey.
----------------------
ii. Sequential Analysis: The data, presented in a table with one factor
---------------------- at a time and analysed thereafter is known as sequential analysis.
---------------------- iii. Multivariate Analysis: Multivariate analysis or multivariate
techniques may be defined as the collection of methods for analysing
---------------------- in which dependent variable is represented in terms of several
independent number of observations which are available to define
----------------------
such relationship. In short, techniques that consider the various
---------------------- relationships among variables are termed multivariate analysis or
multivariate techniques.
----------------------
a. Multivariate Analysis of Variance: This technique is used
---------------------- when several metric dependable are involved in a study along
with many non-metric explanatory variables.
----------------------
b. Multi Regression Analysis: This technique is appropriate
---------------------- when there is a single variable, which is a function of a
number of other explanatory variables. The main object of
---------------------- multiple regression technique is to predict the variability
---------------------- of the dependent variable based on its covariance with all
the independent variables. The main advantage of multiple
---------------------- regression is that it allows one to utilise more of the information
available to us to estimate the dependent variable resulting in
---------------------- more accuracy in determining relationship.
---------------------- c. Canonical Correlation Analysis: In this technique,
simultaneous prediction is made to predict a set of criterion
---------------------- variables from the joint co-variance with a set of explanatory
---------------------- variable. This technique can be successively employed in

294 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

 case of both measurable and non-measurable variables for Notes
the purpose of simultaneously predicting a set of independent
variables from their joint co-variance with a set of independent ----------------------
variables.
----------------------
d. Multi Discriminate Analysis: This analysis is considered as
an important technique of classifying individuals or objects ----------------------
into one or two or more mutually exclusive and exhaustive
----------------------
groups on the basis of a set of independent variable. The
discriminate analysis provides a predictive equation. This ----------------------
equation measures the relative importance of each variable.
Good multiple discriminate analysis is also a measure of ----------------------
the ability of the equation to predict actual class groups
----------------------
concerning the dependent variables.
B. Casual Analysis ----------------------
This involves the study of how one or more variables affect changes ----------------------
in another variable. It is a study of the functional relationship existing
between two or more variables. Casual analysis is also termed as ----------------------
regression analysis. It is more important in experimental researches. The
----------------------
casual analysis explains how one variable affects another. Some external
factor produces a change in the dependent variable. We may also analyse ----------------------
to find out whether two variables, i.e. dependent and independent co-vary.
There are different ways by which we might determine whether such ----------------------
correlation does exist or not. The casual analysis is done with the help of
----------------------
statistical tools.
C. Correlative Analysis ----------------------

The correlation analysis is concerned with two or more variables to ----------------------

determine co- relation between two or more variables.
----------------------
Correlation analysis studies the joint variation of two or more variables
to determine the amount of correlation between two or more variables. ----------------------
In order to study, understand and control the relationships between the
variables, correlation analysis is more important. ----------------------

D. Inferential Analysis ----------------------

Inferential analysis is concerned with the various tests of significance for ----------------------
testing hypothesis to determine which validity data can be said to reveal
some conclusion. It is also concerned with the estimation of population ----------------------
values. On the basis of inferential analysis, task of interpretation i.e. the
----------------------
task of drawing inferences and conclusions is done.
Statistical Tools in Analysis Researches ----------------------
Without proper understanding of the statistical methods, the researcher ----------------------
can do nothing effective. The methods of statistics are useful in an over
widening range of human activities in any field of thought in which ----------------------
numerical data may be had. However, detailing out all this is beyond the ----------------------
scope of this book.

Data Presentation, Processing and Analysis 295

 Notes
Check your Progress 3
----------------------
Fill in the blanks.
----------------------
1. The data presented in a table with one factor at a time and analysed
---------------------- thereafter is known as _________________.
---------------------- 2. ______________ means the analysis concerned with two variables.
3. _____________ is concerned with various tests of significance for
----------------------
testing hypothesis to determine which validity data can be said to
---------------------- reveal some conclusion.

----------------------
14.8 INTERPRETATION OF DATA
----------------------
After the collection and analysis of data, the researcher has to interpret
---------------------- the results from the analysis that he has done. In doing so, researcher has to
exercise extreme care failing which misleading and wrong interpretation may
----------------------
be drawn and the object of the research investigation may be spoiled.
---------------------- Interpretation means drawing inference from the collected facts after the
---------------------- analytical study. According to C. William Emory, “Interpretation has two major
aspects namely establishing continuity in research through linking the results of
---------------------- a given study with those of another and the establishment of some relationship
with the collected data. Interpretation is the device through which the factors
---------------------- that seem to explain what has been observed by researcher in the course of the
---------------------- study can be better understood. Interpretation provides a theoretical conception
which can serve as a guide for further research.”
---------------------- Need and Importance of Interpretation
---------------------- Due to following reasons, interpretation is necessary in research process.
---------------------- i. Only through the interpretation, the researcher can think of what his
findings are and why they are. He can make others aware of the real
---------------------- importance of his research investigation.
---------------------- ii. The researcher can well understand the abstract principle behind his own
findings and can link his findings with those of other studies having the
---------------------- same abstract principle through interpretation.
---------------------- iii. Interpretation opens new avenues of intellectual adventure and stimulates
the quest for more knowledge through further research.
----------------------
iv. Interpretation establishes the explanatory concepts that can serve as a
---------------------- guide for future research studies.

---------------------- v. Interpretation is involved in the transition from explanatory to experimental

research, because the interpretation of research study often results in to
---------------------- forming hypothesis for new experimental research.
----------------------

296 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

Importance of Interpretation Notes
The researcher can understand the abstract principle that works beneath
----------------------
his findings through interpretation. The researcher can link up his findings
with those of other studies having relationship with the established concept. ----------------------
Interpretation also helps the researcher to establish concepts, which will form
the basis of future research. Besides, the interpretation enables the people to ----------------------
know the real importance of his research findings. In exploratory study the
----------------------
interpretation leads to formulate a hypothesis or to develop a new research
problem. ----------------------
Errors in Interpretation
----------------------
Errors may arise in the process of interpretation of data. Hence, it is essential
that the researcher should be very careful and cautious in the interpretation of ----------------------
data. These errors may be due to following reasons:
----------------------
a. False Generalisation: When the researcher draws conclusions about the
whole by only studying a part of it, such type of mistakes arise. It is not ----------------------
always necessary that whatever is true of the particular part must be true ----------------------
of the whole also. To make valid generalisation about the whole, it is
essential to know the movements recorded in various parts of the universe ----------------------
because there is a possibility that in one part, the movement may be in one
direction while in the other part, it may be in reverse direction. In such ----------------------
cases, conclusions drawn on the basis of the study of a particular part may ----------------------
not be applicable to the universe.
b. Wrong Interpretation of the Statistical Measures: Though the average ----------------------
is considered as a representative of the universe, it does not mean that it ----------------------
may be true for all items (the universe). Sometimes interpretations are
misleading and incorrect. The mistakes in the interpretation of data may ----------------------
also arise because of wrong interpretation of statistical measures, such as
mean, percentage, variation etc. ----------------------

c. Effects of Wrong Interpretation: Interpretation of data is a very difficult ----------------------

task. A researcher should always remember the limitations of statistics in
interpreting the data. Statistics generally do not indicate the entire story ----------------------
of a phenomenon. Statistical conclusions are always based on certain ----------------------
assumptions and risks. These assumptions in many cases do not hold good
and faulty conclusions are drawn. Wrong interpretation of statistical data ----------------------
promotes distrust about statistics and people may lose faith in statistics or
look at them with suspicion. ----------------------

Precautions in Interpretation ----------------------

Correct interpretation requires a high degree of skill, care, judgment ----------------------
and objectivity on the part of the researcher. The following points should be
considered by a researcher for proper interpretation. ----------------------
1. The use of inappropriate statistical techniques, inadequate sample size ----------------------
and faulty calculations make the result spurious. For example, in a chi-
square test analysis, in each cell single digit response shall be avoided. ----------------------

Data Presentation, Processing and Analysis 297

 Notes This happens when more respondents are included for the study.
2. The data should be adequately large and unbiased and should reflect good
----------------------
homogeneity.
---------------------- 3. Researcher must never lose sight of the fact that his task is to make
sensitive observations of relevant assurances and to identify and disengage
----------------------
the factors which are initially hidden.
---------------------- 4. The interpretation task needs more skill on the part of researcher. The
quality of research does not depend on how much data has been collected
----------------------
but on how the researcher has interpreted it.
----------------------
14.9 SPSS STATISTICS FOR STUDENTS: THE BASICS
----------------------
The abbreviation SPSS stands for Statistical Package for the Social
----------------------
Sciences. It is a popular software package for statistical calculations and
---------------------- a comprehensive system for analysing data. SPSS package consists of a set
of software tools for data entry, data management, statistical analysis and
---------------------- presentation. SPSS integrates complex data and file management, statistical
analysis and reporting functions. SPSS can take data from almost any type of
----------------------
file and use them to generate tabulated reports, charts and plots of distributions
---------------------- and trends, descriptive statistics and complex statistical analysis.
14.9.1 Features of SPSS
----------------------
1. It is easy to learn and use.
----------------------
2. It includes a full range of data management system and editing tools.
---------------------- 3. It provides in depth statistical capabilities.
---------------------- 4. It offers complete plotting, reporting and presentation features.
---------------------- 5. The help module gives quick reference to statistical concepts with a brief
description. So it is like a ready reckoner.
----------------------
14.9.2 Layout of SPSS
---------------------- The Data Editor window has two views that can be selected from the
---------------------- lower left hand side of the screen. Data View is where you see the data you are
using. Variable View is where you can specify the format of your data when you
---------------------- are creating a file or where you can check the format of a pre-existing file. The
data in the Data Editor is saved in a file with the extension .sav.
----------------------
The data editor offers a simple and efficient spreadsheet like facility
---------------------- for entering data and browsing the working data file. To invoke SPSS in the
window environment, select the appropriate SPSS icon. There are different
---------------------- types of windows in SPSS.
---------------------- Data Editor: This window displays the contents of the data file. One can
create new data files or modify existing ones. The data Editor window opens
----------------------
automatically when one starts SPSS session. One can have only one data file
---------------------- open at a time. This editor provides two views of the data.

298 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

i. Data view: Displays the actual data values or defined value labels. Notes
ii. Variable view: Displays variable definition information including defined
----------------------
variable and value labels, data type etc.
The other most commonly used SPSS window is the SPSS Viewer ----------------------
window which displays the output from any analyses that have been run and
----------------------
any error messages. Information from the Output Viewer is saved in a file with
the extension .spo. ----------------------
Finally, there is the Syntax window which displays the command language
----------------------
used to run various operations. Typically, you will simply use the dialog boxes
to set up commands and would not see the Syntax window. The Syntax window ----------------------
would be activated if you pasted the commands from the dialog box to it or if
you wrote you own syntax. Syntax files end in the extension .sps. ----------------------
14.9.3 SPSS Menus and Icons ----------------------
You have to review the options listed under each menu on the Menu Bar ----------------------
by clicking them one at a time. Follow along with the below descriptions.
●● File includes all of the options you typically use in other programs, such as ----------------------
open, save, exit. Notice, that you can open or create new files of multiple ----------------------
types as illustrated to the right.
●● Edit includes the typical cut, copy and paste commands and allows you ----------------------
to specify various options for displaying data and output. ----------------------
●● Click on Options and you will see the dialog box to the left. You can
use this to format the data, output, charts, etc. These choices are rather ----------------------
overwhelming and you can simply take the default options for now. ----------------------
●● View allows you to select which toolbars you want to show, select font
size, add or remove the gridlines that separate each piece of data and to ----------------------
select whether or not to display your raw data or the data labels. ----------------------
●● Data allows you to select several options ranging from displaying data
that is sorted by a specific variable to selecting certain cases for subsequent ----------------------
analyses. ----------------------
●● Transform includes several options to change current variables. For
example, you can change continuous variables to categorical variables, ----------------------
change scores into rank scores, add a constant to variables, etc.
----------------------
●● Analyse includes all of the commands to carry out statistical analyses and
to calculate descriptive statistics. Much of this book will focus on using ----------------------
commands located in this menu.
----------------------
●● Graphs include the commands to create various types of graphs including
box plots, histograms, line graphs and bar charts. ----------------------
●● Utilities allow you to list file information which is a list of all variables, ----------------------
there labels, values, locations in the data file and type.
●● Add-ons are programs that can be added to the base SPSS package. You ----------------------
probably do not have access to any of those. ----------------------

Data Presentation, Processing and Analysis 299

 Notes ●● Window can be used to select which window you want to view (i.e., Data
Editor, Output Viewer or Syntax). Since we have a data file and an output
---------------------- file open.
---------------------- ●● Select Window/Data Editor. Then select Window/SPSS Viewer.
●● Help has many useful options including a link to the SPSS homepage, a
---------------------- statistics coach and a syntax guide. Using topics, you can use the index
---------------------- option to type in any key word and get a list of options or you can view
the categories and subcategories available under contents. This is an
---------------------- excellent tool and can be used to troubleshoot most problems.

---------------------- These Icons directly under the Menu bar provide shortcuts to many
common commands that are available in specific menus.
---------------------- Exiting SPSS
---------------------- To close SPSS, you can either left click on the close button located on the
upper right hand corner of the screen or select Exit from the File menu. You
---------------------- may choose any one of these approaches.
---------------------- ●● A dialog box like the one below will appear for every open window asking
you if you want to save it before exiting.
----------------------
●● You almost always want to save data files. Output files may be large, so
---------------------- you should ask yourself if you need to save them or if you simply want
to print them.
----------------------
14.9.4 Basic Steps in Data Analysis
----------------------
1. Get your data into SPSS: You can open a previously saved SPSS data
---------------------- file, read a spread sheet, database or text data file or enter your data
directly in the Data Editor.
----------------------
2. Select a procedure: Select a procedure from the menus to calculate
---------------------- statistics or to create a chart.
3. Select the variables for the analysis: The variables in the data file are
----------------------
displayed in the dialog box for the procedure.
---------------------- 4. Run the procedure: Results are displayed in the Viewer.
---------------------- Hence, SPSS is a comprehensive and flexible statistical analysis and
data management solution. SPSS can take data from almost any type of file
---------------------- and use them to generate tabulated reports, charts, and plots of distributions
---------------------- and trends, descriptive statistics, and conduct complex statistical analyses.
SPSS is available from several platforms; Windows, Macintosh, and the UNIX
---------------------- systems.
---------------------- You will find SPSS customers in virtually every industry, including
telecommunications, banking, finance, insurance, healthcare, manufacturing,
---------------------- retail, consumer packaged goods, higher education, government, and market
research.
----------------------

----------------------

300 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

Let us try to understand it with the help of these steps: Notes
When SPSS is first started you are presented with a dialog box asking you to
----------------------
open a file:
----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------
----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

Typically you start your SPSS session by opening the data file that you need to ----------------------
work with.
----------------------
14.9.5 The SPSS Windows and Files
----------------------
SPSS Statistics has three main windows, plus a menu bar at the top. These
allow you to (1) see your data, (2) see your statistical output, and (3) see any ----------------------
programming commands you have written. Each window corresponds to a
separate type of SPSS file. ----------------------

Data Editor ----------------------

The Data Editor lets you see and manipulate your data. You will always ----------------------
have at least one Data Editor open (even if you have not yet opened a data set).
When you open an SPSS data file, what you see is a working copy of your ----------------------
data. Changes you make to your data are not permanent until you save them
(click File, Save or Save As). Data files are saved with a file type of .sav, a ----------------------
file type that most other software cannot work with. When you close your last ----------------------
Data Editor you are shutting down SPSS and you will be prompted to save all
unsaved files. ----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

Data Presentation, Processing and Analysis 301

 Notes

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------
----------------------
To open a different data set, click File, Open, Data. (It is also possible to
---------------------- open some non-SPSS data files by this method, such as Excel, Stata, or SAS
files.) SPSS lets you have many data sets open simultaneously, and the data set
----------------------
that you are currently working with, the “active” data set, is always marked
---------------------- with a tiny red “plus” sign on the title bar. In order to avoid confusion it is
usually a good strategy to close out any Data Editors you’re done using.
----------------------
Output Viewer (.spv files)
---------------------- As you ask SPSS to carry out various computations and other tasks, the
results can show up in a variety of places. New data values will show up in the
----------------------
Data Editor. Statistical results will show up in the Output Viewer.
----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------
The Output Viewer shows you tables of statistical output and any graphs
----------------------

302 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

you create. By default it also show you the programming language for the Notes
commands that you issued (called “syntax” in SPSS jargon), and most error
messages will also appear here. The Output Viewer also allows you to edit and ----------------------
print your results. The tables of the Output Viewer are saved (click File, Save or
Save As) with a file type of .spv, which can only be opened with SPSS software. ----------------------

As with Data Editors, it is possible to open more than one Output Viewer ----------------------
to look at more than one output file. The “active” Viewer, marked with a tiny
----------------------
blue plus sign, will receive the results of any commands that you issue. If you
close all the Output Viewers and then issue a new command, a fresh Output ----------------------
Viewer is started.
----------------------
Syntax Editor (.sps files)
If you are working with the SPSS programming language directly, you ----------------------
will also open a Syntax Editor.
----------------------

----------------------
----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

The Syntax Editor allows you to write, edit, and run commands in the ----------------------
SPSS programming language. If you are also using the menus and dialog boxes, ----------------------
the Paste button automatically writes the syntax for the command you have
specified into the active Syntax Editor. These files are saved as plain text and ----------------------
almost any text editor can open them, but with a file extension of .sps.
----------------------
As with the other types of windows, you can have more than one Syntax
Editor open and the “active” window is marked with a tiny orange plus sign. ----------------------
When you paste syntax from dialog boxes, it goes to the active Syntax Editor. If
you close out all your Syntax Editors and then paste a command, a fresh Syntax ----------------------
Editor is opened. ----------------------
Issuing Commands
----------------------
Unless you command SPSS to do something, it just sits there looking
at you. In general commands may be issued either through menus and dialog ----------------------
boxes that invoke the programming language behind the scenes, or by typing
----------------------
the programming language in a Syntax Editor and “running” the commands.
Dialog Boxes ----------------------
Although each dialog box is unique, they have many common features. ----------------------

Data Presentation, Processing and Analysis 303

 Notes A fairly typical example is the dialog box for producing frequency tables (tables
with counts and percents). To bring up this dialog box from the menus, click on
---------------------- Analyze, Descriptive Statistics, and Frequencies.
----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------
----------------------

---------------------- On the left is a variable selection list with all of the variables in your data
set. If your variables have variable labels, what you see is the beginning of
---------------------- the variable label. To see the full label as well as the variable name [in square
---------------------- brackets], hold your cursor over the label beginning. Select the variables you
want to analyze by clicking on them (you may have to scroll through the list).
---------------------- Then click the arrow button to the right of the selection list, and the variables are
moved to the analysis list on the right. If you change your mind about a variable,
---------------------- you can select it in the list on the right and then click the arrow button to move
---------------------- it back out of the analysis list. On the far right of the dialog are several buttons
that lead to further dialog boxes with options for the frequencies command. At
---------------------- the bottom of the dialog box, click OK to issue your command to SPSS, or Paste
to have the command written to a Syntax Editor.
----------------------
If you return to a dialog box you will find it opens with all the specifications
---------------------- you last used. This can be handy if you are trying a number of variations on
your analysis, or if you are debugging something. If you’d prefer to start fresh
---------------------- you can click the Reset button.
---------------------- Working with the Data Editor
---------------------- The main use of the Data Editor is to show you (a portion of) the data
values you are working with. It can also be used to redefine the characteristics
---------------------- of variables (change the type, add labels, define missing values, etc.), create
new variables, and enter data by hand.
----------------------
The Data Editor gives you two views of your data set: a Data View and
---------------------- a Variable View, selected by clicking on the appropriate tab in the lower left
corner of the window.
----------------------

----------------------

304 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

 Notes

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------
----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------
Data View
----------------------
In the Data View, the data are laid out in the standard rectangular format
for statistical software. Each row represents a unit of observation, sometimes ----------------------
also referred to as a “record” or in SPSS as a “case.” The case (observation)
number in the leftmost column is assigned automatically and is not saved as ----------------------
data. Each column represents a variable. All of the data in a column must be of ----------------------
the same “type,” either numeric or string (also called “character”).
Each data cell holds a data value. If data are missing, they are displayed ----------------------
as a period (“.”) or as a blank (“ “). Data values may be displayed as either ----------------------
the actual value or as a “formatted” value. For example, a data value about a
person’s income might be 15000, while its formatted value might be shown ----------------------

Data Presentation, Processing and Analysis 305

 Notes as “$15,000.” Formats can also take the form of value labels, for instance,
data recorded as 1’s and 2’s might be labeled as “Male” and “Female.” While
---------------------- formatting makes it easier to interpret results, it is important to remember that
the data values are what SPSS actually processes. In particular, when you set up
---------------------- a command that requires you to specify one or more data values, you use values
---------------------- and not formatted values.
You can switch the Data View between formatted and unformatted data
----------------------
by clicking on the Value Labels button on the Toolbar, the fourth button from
---------------------- the right. You can also see the actual values for a given variable by clicking on
it and then looking at the bar just above the data. The box to the left indicates
---------------------- the observation number and variable selected, e.g. 1:sex, while the center box
shows you the actual value, e.g. 2.
----------------------
Data values can be edited or added by typing them directly into the Data
---------------------- View. To enter data, type in the actual data value. However, aside from very
small data sets for class exercises, you should almost never need to do this.
----------------------
Variable View
----------------------
In the Variable View you can see and edit the information that defines
---------------------- each variable (sometimes called “meta-data”) in your data set: each column of
the Data View is described by a row of the Variable View.
----------------------
The first attribute of each variable is its Name. The variable name is how
---------------------- the data column is identified in the programming language, and in order for
the programming language to work gracefully variable names have to abide
---------------------- by certain restrictions: names must begin with a letter, and may be made up of
---------------------- characters, numerals, non-punctuation characters, and the period. Capitalization
is ignored. Variable names may be up to 64 characters long. Other restrictions
---------------------- may apply – no coupons please. Variable names may be added or changed
simply by typing them in.
----------------------
The basic variable types are either numeric or string. However, just to
---------------------- make things confusing, SPSS allows you to select among several different
standard formats for displaying numeric data (e.g. scientific notation, comma
---------------------- formatting, currencies) and calls it Type. You set the variable type by clicking
---------------------- in the column, then clicking on the gray button that appears and working in a
dialog box.
----------------------
The Label attribute allows you to give each variable a longer description
---------------------- that is displayed in place of the variable name, analogous to value labels for
data values. The Values attribute allows you to create a list of value labels.
---------------------- Often several variables will share a common set of value labels, and in this
window you can copy and paste value label sets. Variable labels are set by
----------------------
typing them in, value labels work through a dialog box.
---------------------- The Missing attribute is a place for you to designate certain data values
that you want SPSS to ignore when it calculates statistics. For instance, in survey
----------------------
data it is common practice to record a data value of “8” when a respondent says
---------------------- “I don’t know” in response to a question, and you can have SPSS treat the 8’s
in a variable as if they were missing data.
306 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods
 The other attributes, Width, Decimals, Columns, Align, Measure, and Notes
Role, are minor settings related to data display. Although Measure (level of
measurement) is statistically a very important concept, it has little meaning ----------------------
within the SPSS software.
----------------------
Working with the Output Viewer
----------------------
The Output Viewer collects your statistical tables and graphs, and gives
you the opportunity to edit them before you save or print them. The Output ----------------------
Viewer is divided into two main sections, an outline pane on the left, and a
tables pane on the right. When you print your output, it is the tables pane that is ----------------------
printed.
----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------
----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

When SPSS creates output (tables, syntax, error messages, etc.) it adds ----------------------
them to the tables pane as “objects,” and each object is noted in the outline
pane. Individual objects may be opened and edited, deleted, hidden, rearranged, ----------------------
or printed. To select an object to work with, you can either click on it in the ----------------------
tables pane, or click on the corresponding entry in the outline pane. A red arrow
appears next to the object in both panes. ----------------------
To edit objects, double-click on them in the tables pane. Depending on ----------------------
whether you are trying to edit a simple object like a title (which is just a box
with some text in it), or something more complicated like a table or a graph, ----------------------
you may be able to simply change the object in the Output Viewer, or another
----------------------
window may open. Except for editing the look of graphs, it will often be easier
to edit your output by exporting it to Microsoft Word first, but in principle you ----------------------
can change anything you can see in your output, down to deleting columns and
changing numbers. (But if your intent is to fake your results, you should attend ----------------------
our Simulations workshop for better methods of doing this.)
----------------------
To delete objects, select them in either pane and use the Delete key.
----------------------
To hide objects, double-click on the icon for each object in the outline
pane. To make them visible, just double-click again. You can hide a whole ----------------------

Data Presentation, Processing and Analysis 307

 Notes section of the outline by clicking on the minus sign to the left of the group in
the outline pane. Hidden objects are not printed, but are saved with the output
---------------------- file.
---------------------- To rearrange objects, select the object (or group of objects) in either
pane, and drag them until the red arrow points to the object below which you
---------------------- want them to appear.
---------------------- To export your output, you go through a special procedure. In the Output
Viewer click File, Export to invoke the Export dialog box. There are three main
---------------------- settings to look at. First, pick the type of file to which you want to export: useful
file types include Excel, PDF, PowerPoint, or Word. Next, check that you are
----------------------
exporting as much of your output as you want, the Objects to Export at the top
---------------------- of the dialog. If you have a part of your output selected, this option will default
to exporting just your selection, otherwise you typically will export all your
---------------------- visible output. Finally, change the default file name to something meaningful,
and save your file to a location where you will be able to keep it, like your U:\
----------------------
drive.
---------------------- Once your options are set, click OK.
----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------
Working with the Syntax Editor
---------------------- Learning SPSS programming syntax is a separate topic; the fundamentals

308 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

are addressed in our SSCC training workshops. But you don’t have to memorize Notes
a whole new language in order to paste and run SPSS syntax.
----------------------
The fundamental unit of work in the SPSS language is the command:
think of commands as analogous to well-formed sentences. In this language, ----------------------
commands begin with a keyword and end with a period. Commands should
begin in the leftmost column in the editor. If they are wrapped onto more than ----------------------
one line, the continuing lines should begin with a blank space. Capitalization
----------------------
does not matter. The Syntax Editor displays syntax that SPSS cannot interpret
in red type. ----------------------
Like the Output Editor, the Syntax Editor has two panes. The tables pane
----------------------
on the right is what is actually saved in the .sps file.
----------------------

----------------------

----------------------
----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------
Running syntax: To have SPSS actually carry out your command(s), you
----------------------
must “run” them. Click Run, and then one of the menu options. There is also
an icon on the Toolbar to run your program, a right-facing triangle. You can run ----------------------
all the commands in the editor, or select a group of commands and run just that
(be careful that you highlight full commands, from the first keyword through ----------------------
the final period). You can also run the “current” command, which is whatever
----------------------
command the cursor is located within.
Pasting and running: From most dialog boxes you have the option of ----------------------
“pasting” commands instead of simply running them. SPSS then writes the ----------------------
command into a Syntax Editor. The syntax tends to be verbose, specifying
many options that are the defaults--syntax you write yourself tends to be much ----------------------
shorter and simpler. After you have pasted a command, you still need to run it
to get any output. ----------------------

14.9.6 Statistical Procedures ----------------------

After entering the data set in Data Editor, we are ready to analyse it. The ----------------------
Analyse option has the following sub options.
----------------------
●● Reports
●● Descriptive Statistics ----------------------
●● Custom Tables ----------------------

Data Presentation, Processing and Analysis 309

 Notes ●● Compare means
●● General Linear Model(GLM)
----------------------
●● Correlate
---------------------- ●● Regression
---------------------- ●● Log linear
●● Classify
----------------------
●● Data Reduction
----------------------
●● Scale
---------------------- ●● Non parametric tests
---------------------- ●● Time Series
●● Survival
----------------------
●● Multiple Response
---------------------- We may refer this screen shot for a better understanding:
----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

---------------------- Hence, SPSS is a comprehensive and flexible statistical analysis and data
management solution. SPSS can take data from almost any type of file and
----------------------
use them to generate tabulated reports, charts, and plots of distributions and
---------------------- trends, descriptive statistics, and conduct complex statistical analyses. SPSS is
available from several platforms; Windows, Macintosh, and the UNIX systems.
----------------------
You will find SPSS customers in virtually every industry, including
---------------------- telecommunications, banking, finance, insurance, healthcare, manufacturing,
retail, consumer packaged goods, higher education, government, and market
---------------------- research.

310 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

 Notes
Check your Progress 4
----------------------
Multiple Choice Single Response.
----------------------
1. SPSS stands for
i. Statistical Package for the Social Sciences ----------------------
ii. Statistical Package for the Social Studies
----------------------
iii. Statistical Package for the Social Survey
iv. Statistical Program for Social Sciences ----------------------
2. In SPSS, what is the “Data Viewer”? ----------------------
i. A table summarising the frequencies of data for one variable
----------------------
ii. A spreadsheet into which data can be entered
iii. A dialog box that allows you to choose a statistical test ----------------------
iv. A screen in which variables can be defined and labeled ----------------------
3. The data in the Data Editor is saved in a file with which extension?
i. .sps ----------------------
ii. .spo ----------------------
iii. .sav
----------------------
iv. .sas
----------------------
Summary ----------------------

●● We have described in the earlier units, the various methods of data ----------------------
collection. In this unit we have discussed how research data can be
----------------------
meaningfully presented through use of tables and charts. A frequency
distribution is the major tabular summary of discrete as well as ----------------------
continuous data. The frequency distribution can show the actual relative
and cumulative frequencies helpful for interpreting data. They can be ----------------------
presented in the form of frequency histograms (bar charts) frequency
----------------------
polygon. The two types of ogive curves depicting cumulative frequencies
are also explained as far as their interpretation is concerned. ----------------------
●● We have also narrated the importance of data processing. The importance
of coding data before any processing along with editing has been ----------------------
emphasised. Similarly, how voluminous data needs to be classified is also ----------------------
shown in this unit. The various aspects of classification, summarisation
and presentation of data are narrated. ----------------------
●● Finally, how analysis of data can lead to correct interpretation of data has ----------------------
been discussed. The errors of interpretation cannot be ignored and due
help of a skilled statistician is a must for the researchers. ----------------------
●● The details of statistical tools in the use of data analysis and interpretation ----------------------
is not given since that is huge and beyond the scope of this book.
----------------------

Data Presentation, Processing and Analysis 311

 Notes Keywords
----------------------
●● Bar Chart: A thick line of the height of the bar which is proportional to
---------------------- the magnitude of the variable they present
●● Class Interval: align Width of the class
----------------------
●● Discrete Data: Data in which the variable takes certain numerical values
---------------------- ●● Continuous Data: Data in which the variable takes any value between
---------------------- any other two values, however small
●● Frequency Distribution: It is a tabular presentation where a number of
---------------------- observations with similar or closely related values are put in the group.
---------------------- ●● SPSS: Statistical Package for the Social Sciences

----------------------
Self-Assessment Questions
----------------------
1. Define importance if editing, coding, classification, tabulation and
---------------------- presentation of data in the context of research program, in brief.
---------------------- 2. Define the different aspects of classification of data. What problems you
anticipate in classification and how they can be handled?
----------------------
3. Write various characteristics of a good table.
---------------------- 4. What are Ogive curves? Point out their role. Describe the construction of
Ogive curves with an illustration.
----------------------
5. Write a short note on SPSS.
----------------------

---------------------- Answers to Check your Progress

---------------------- Check your Progress 1

---------------------- Multiple Choice Single Response.

1. Which of the following is not a data processing operation?
----------------------
iii. Decoding
----------------------
2. Editing is an operation carried in the analysis of data step of the research
---------------------- process; it involves:
ii. Examining the collected raw data to detect errors and correct them
----------------------
3. Classification is an operation carried in the analysis of data step of the
---------------------- research process, involving
---------------------- i. Arranging data in groups on the basis of common characteristics

---------------------- 4. Tabulation is an operation carried in the analysis of data step of the

research process; it involves
---------------------- iii. Summarising raw data and displaying them in compact form for
---------------------- further analysis

312 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

Check your Progress 2 Notes
State True or False.
----------------------
1. False
----------------------
2. True
3. True ----------------------
Check your Progress 3 ----------------------
Fill in the blanks. ----------------------
1. The data presented in a table with one factor at a time and analysed
----------------------
thereafter is known as sequential analysis.
2. Bivariate analysis means the analysis concerned with two variables. ----------------------
3. Inferential analysis is concerned with various tests of significance for ----------------------
testing hypothesis to determine which validity data can be said to reveal
some conclusion. ----------------------
Check your Progress 4 ----------------------
Multiple Choice Single Response. ----------------------
1. SPSS stands for
----------------------
i. Statistical Package for the Social Sciences
----------------------
2. In SPSS, what is the “Data Viewer”?
ii. A spreadsheet into which data can be entered ----------------------
3. The data in the Data Editor is saved in a file with which extension? ----------------------
iii. .sav ----------------------

----------------------
Suggested Reading
----------------------
1. Bryman, Allan & Bell Emma. 2003. Business Research Methods. Oxford
University Press. ----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

Data Presentation, Processing and Analysis 313

 Notes

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------
----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

314 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

 SECTION - II

STATISTICAL
QUANTITATIVE METHODS
Arranging Data to convey Meaning
UNIT

1
Structure:

1.1 Introduction
1.2 Definitions of Various Terms
1.3 Data Classification / Tabulation
1.4 Cumulative Frequency Distribution
1.5 Tabulation of Data
1.6 Diagrammatic Representation
1.7 Graphical Representation
Summary
Keywords
Self Assessment Questions
Answers to Check your Progress
Suggested Reading

Arranging Data to convey Meaning 315

 Notes
Objectives
----------------------
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
----------------------
• Explain the origin of statistics
----------------------
• Show how to arrange the data
---------------------- • State need and significance of diagrammatic representation
---------------------- • Discuss the histogram / frequency distribution

---------------------- • Elaborate on the frequency curve / ogive curve

----------------------
1.1 INTRODUCTION
----------------------
Every day we come across a lot of information in the form of facts,
---------------------- numerical figures, tables, graphs, etc. These are provided by newspapers,
magazines, televisions and other means of communication. These may relate to
----------------------
cricket records, averages, temperature of cities, various economic figures like
---------------------- expenditures in various sectors, polling results and so on. These facts and figures,
which are numerical otherwise, are collected with specific purpose called data.
---------------------- Data is plural form of the Latin word datum. Of course, the word data is not
new to you. Our world is becoming more and more information oriented. So it
----------------------
becomes essential for us to know how to extract meaningful information from
---------------------- such data. This extraction of meaningful information is studied in a branch of
mathematics is called Statistics.
----------------------
The word Statistics refers either to quantitative information or to a method
---------------------- dealing with quantitative information.

---------------------- Croxton and Cowden have a very simple and concise definition of
Statistics. In their view “Statistics may be defined as the collection, presentation,
---------------------- analysis and interpretation of numerical data.”
---------------------- This definition clearly points out four stages in a statistical investigation,
namely:
----------------------
●● Collection of data.
---------------------- ●● Presentation of data.
●● Analysis of data.
----------------------
●● Interpretation of data.
---------------------- According to the above definition, there are five stages in statistical
---------------------- investigation:
●● Collection: Collection of data constitutes the first step in a Statistical
---------------------- investigation.
---------------------- ●● Organisation: Data collected from published sources are generally in
organised form. However, a large mass of figures that are collected from
---------------------- a survey frequently needs organisation.

316 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

●● Presentation: After the data have been collected and organised, they are Notes
ready for presentation. Data presented in an orderly manner facilitate
statistics. There are two different modes in which the collected data may ----------------------
be presented:
----------------------
i. Diagrams
ii. Graphs ----------------------

●● Analysis: After collection, organisation and presentation the next step is ----------------------
that of analysis. A major part of this is devoted to the methods used in
----------------------
analyzing the presented data, mostly in a tabular form.
●● Interpretation: The last stage in statistical investigation is interpretation, ----------------------
i.e., drawing conclusions from the data.
----------------------
1.2 DEFINITIONS OF VARIOUS TERMS ----------------------
●● Data Collection is a term used to describe a process of preparing and ----------------------
collecting data. Data Collection is nothing more than planning for and
obtaining useful information on key quality characteristics produced by ----------------------
your process. ----------------------
●● Primary data: Data observed or collected directly from first-hand
experience. ----------------------
●● Published data: In primary data collection, you collect the data yourself ----------------------
using methods such as interviews and questionnaires. The key point here
is that the data you collect is unique to you and your research and, until ----------------------
you publish, no one else has access to it.
----------------------
There are many methods of collecting primary data and the main methods
include: ----------------------
1. Questionnaires ----------------------
2. Interviews ----------------------
3. Focus group interviews
----------------------
4. Observation
----------------------
5. Case-studies
6. Critical incidents ----------------------
7. Portfolios. ----------------------
Secondary Data: The data collected in the past or by other parties is called ----------------------
secondary data.
●● paper-based sources – books, journals, periodicals, abstracts, indexes, ----------------------
directories, research reports, conference papers, market reports, annual ----------------------
reports, internal records of organisations, newspapers and magazines.
●● Electronic sources– CD-ROMs, on-line databases, Internet, videos and ----------------------
broadcasts. The main sources of qualitative and quantitative secondary ----------------------
data include the following:

Arranging Data to convey Meaning 317

 Notes ●● Official or government sources.
●● Unofficial or general business sources.
----------------------
Survey: The act of surveying a general view, as from above.
---------------------- ●● To discover what’s going on.
---------------------- ●● To provide an opportunity to discuss key topics with your target population.
---------------------- ●● To prioritise your actions based on objective data.
●● to provide a benchmark.
----------------------
Sample: A sample is a subset of a population.
---------------------- Sampling: It is a Statistical method of obtaining representative data or
---------------------- observations from a group (lot, batch, population or universe).
Sampling Error: An error caused by the selection of a sample instead of
---------------------- conducting a census of the population. Sampling error is reduced by selecting
---------------------- a large sample and by using efficient sample design and estimation strategies
such as stratification, optimal allocation and ratio estimation.
---------------------- Non-Sampling Error: It arises from inaccurate Sampling frame, data clarification
---------------------- or verification methods, reporting or coding of data and/or specifications. It may
also arise from poorly designed survey questionnaires, improper sample allocation
---------------------- and selection procedures and/or errors in estimation methodology.
----------------------
Check your Progress 1
----------------------
State True or False.
----------------------
1. The statistical method used to summarise data depends upon whether
---------------------- the data are qualitative or quantitative.

---------------------- 2. All facts stated numerically are not statistics.

----------------------
Activity 1
----------------------
●● Give five examples of data that you can collect from your day-to-day
----------------------
life.
---------------------- ●● Classify the collected data as primary or secondary data.
----------------------
1.3 DATA CLASSIFICATION/TABULATION
----------------------
Tabulation of data
----------------------
Statistical table is one of the simplest and most instructive devices for
---------------------- summarising data and presenting in a meaning manner. A table is a arrangement
---------------------- of statistical data in columns and rows. Rows are horisontal arrangement
whereas columns are vertical one. The purpose of the table is to simplify the
---------------------- presentation and to facilitate comparison.

318 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

Difference between classification and tabulation Notes
Classification and tabulation goes together. Classification being the first
in tabulation means before the data are put in tabular form they have to be ----------------------
classified. That is, the different items having common characteristics must ----------------------
be brought together. It is only after this step that the data are displayed under
different columns and rows that their relationship can be easily understood. ----------------------
Role of tabulation ----------------------
The importance of tabulation will be clear from the following points:
----------------------
●● Tabulation simplifies complex data: When data are tabulated all
unnecessary details and repetitions are avoided. Data are presented ----------------------
systematically in columns and rows. Hence the reader gets clear idea
about the table data. So there is saving in the time for understanding the ----------------------
data and avoiding all confusions about data. Also the large amount of
----------------------
space is saved because of non-duplication of data.
●● Tabulation facilitates comparison: Since a table is divided into various ----------------------
parts and for each part there are totals and subtotals. The relationship
----------------------
between the parts of data can be viewed easily with the help of tables.
●● Tabulation gives identity to the data: When the data are arranged in table ----------------------
with a title and number they can be uniquely identified and can be used as
----------------------
source of reference in the interpretation of a problem.
●● Tabulation reveals patterns: Tabulation reveal patterns within the figures ----------------------
which cannot be seen in the narrative form. It also facilitate the summation
----------------------
of the figures if the reader requests to check the totals.
Types of Classes: ----------------------
●● Inclusive Type: Here both the upper & lower limit values are included in ----------------------
the class. For example, 0 – 9, 10 – 19, 20 – 29, - - - - - -
●● Exclusive Type: When the variables take continuous values, the classes ----------------------
should be continuous and should not have gaps between them. For ----------------------
example, 0 – 10, 10 – 20, 20 – 30, 30 - 40, - - - - - -, the lower limit value
will be included in the next class. 10 will be included in the 10 – 20 class. ----------------------
For a continuous variable, if inclusive type of classes are given then this ----------------------
type of classes must be converted into the exclusive type by dividing the gap
between two limits i.e. upper and lower equally. For example, in inclusive type ----------------------
class 0 – 9, 10 -19, 20 – 29, here the gap between upper limit of the first class &
lower limit of the next consecutive class (10 – 9 = 1), this ½ is 0.5. So we have ----------------------
to delete 0.5 from the lower limit of the class and add 0.5 to the upper limit of ----------------------
the class. So the conversion of the inclusive type to exclusive type is as follows:
Inclusive type Conversion to Exclusive type Exclusive type ----------------------
0–9 ( 0 - 0.5) – ( 9 + 0.5 ) - 0.5 to 9.5 ----------------------
10 – 19 (10 – 0.5) – (19 + 0.5) 9.5 – 19.5
20 – 29 (20 – 0.5) – (29 + 0.5) 19.5 – 29.5 ----------------------
30 – 39 (30 – 0.5) – (39 + 0.5) 29.5 – 39.5
40 – 49 (40 – 0.5) – (49 + 0.5) 39.5 – 49.5 ----------------------

Arranging Data to convey Meaning 319

 Notes As the values of the upper & the lower limits have changed, that’s why
the new values are the class boundaries.
----------------------
Check your Progress 2
----------------------

---------------------- Multiple Choice Single Response.

1. In exclusive type of classification
----------------------
i. Lower limit is excluded.
----------------------
ii. Upper limit is excluded.
---------------------- iii. Both the limits are excluded.
iv. None of limit is excluded.
----------------------

---------------------- 1.4 CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

----------------------
●● Less than cumulative frequency is the number of observations having less
---------------------- than or equal to the given value or the upper limit of the class. Cumulative
frequency for each class is obtained by addition of the frequencies of all
---------------------- previous classes including itself.
---------------------- ●● More than cumulative frequency is the number of observations having
more than or equal to the given value or the lower limit of the class.
---------------------- Cumulative frequency for each class is obtained by subtracting the
frequencies of the existing classes from the total frequency including
----------------------
itself.
---------------------- Example:
---------------------- CLASS Frequency Less than cumulative F More than cumulative F
0–5 5 5 50
---------------------- 05 – 10 12 17 45
10 – 15 18 35 33
---------------------- 15 – 20 10 45 15
---------------------- 20 – 25 5 50 5

---------------------- 1.5 TABULATION OF DATA

---------------------- Tabulation refers to the systematic arrangement of the data using rows
and columns, which makes it easy to comprehend, compare and use for further
----------------------
analysis and also suitable for Diagrammatic or Graphic representation.
---------------------- A standard statistical table should have the following parts:
---------------------- ●● Table Number : used for ready reference
---------------------- ●● Title : should be brief and self-explanatory
●● Head note : used along with the title
----------------------
●● Captions : column heading must be short with proper measurement
---------------------- ●● Stubs : row heading

320 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

●● Body : numerical information Notes
●● Footnote : if anything we want to add
----------------------
●● Source : if we want to mention
Table Number ----------------------
Title ----------------------
Head Note ----------------------
Stubs Captions
----------------------
Sub head Sub head
Column head Column Column head Column Column head ----------------------
head head
----------------------

----------------------
ß————————————Body——————————à
----------------------
Total
----------------------
Solved Examples:
----------------------
Example 1:
In a sample study about coffee habit in two towns, the following information ----------------------
was received:
----------------------
Town A: Females were 40%; total coffee drinkers were 45% and male non-
coffee drinkers were 20%. ----------------------
Town B: Males were 55%; males non-coffee drinkers were 30% and female ----------------------
coffee drinkers were 20%.
----------------------
Represent the above data in the tabular form.
----------------------
Solution:
Table showing the Coffee Drinking Habit of Town A and B ----------------------
Table showing the Coffee Drinking Habit of Town A and B ----------------------
Attribute Town A Town B ----------------------
Male Females Total Male Females Total
Coffee drinkers 40 5(a) 45 25(c) 15 40(e) ----------------------
Non-coffee drinkers 20 35(b) 55 30 30(d) 60(f)
Total 60 40 100 22 45 100 ----------------------
Figures (a), (b), (c), (d), (e) and (f) are obtained by simple process of ----------------------
deduction after taking into consideration the given information.
----------------------
Example 2:
In a trip organised by a Local college of Delhi University, there were 80 ----------------------
persons, each of whom paid Rs. 150 on an average. There were 60 students ----------------------
each of whom paid Rs.160. Members of the teaching staff were charged at a
higher rate. The number of servants was 8 (all males) and they were not charged ----------------------

Arranging Data to convey Meaning 321

 Notes anything. The number of ladies was 30% of the total of which two was lady
staff member.
----------------------
Tabulate the above information.
---------------------- Solution:
---------------------- Table showing the Type of Participants, according to Sex and
Contribution Made
----------------------
Type of Sex Contribution Total
---------------------- Participants Males Females Total per member Contribution
(Rs.) (Rs.)
---------------------- Students 38 22 60 160 9600
---------------------- Teaching Staff 10 2 12 200 2400
Servants 8 - 8 - -
---------------------- Total 56 24 80 - 12000
Total Contribution = Average contribution ‘x’ no. of persons who joined the trip.
----------------------
= 150 × 80 = Rs. 12000
---------------------- Contribution of the staff per head has been obtained by deducting the
---------------------- contribution of students from the total and dividing the difference by the number
of teaching staff, i.e.
---------------------- (12000) – (60 × 160) 12000 – 9600 2400
= = = = Rs. 200
---------------------- 12 12 12
Example 3:
----------------------
A computer company received a rush order for as many home computers as
---------------------- could be shipped during a six-week period. Company records provide the
following daily shipments.
----------------------
22 65 65 67 55 50 65
----------------------
77 73 30 62 54 48 65
---------------------- 79 60 63 45 51 68 79
83 33 41 49 28 55 61
----------------------
65 75 55 75 39 87 45
---------------------- 50 66 65 59 25 35 53
---------------------- Group these daily shipments figures into a frequency distribution by
inclusive method having the suitable number of classes.
----------------------
Solution:
----------------------
Class Interval Tally Frequency
---------------------- (Number of Computers) (Number of Days)
22-32 |||| 4
---------------------- 33-43 |||| 4
44-54 |||| |||| 9
----------------------
55-65 |||| |||| |||| 14
----------------------

322 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

 Class Interval Tally Frequency Notes
(Number of Computers) (Number of Days)
66-76 |||| | 6 ----------------------
77-87 |||| 5 ----------------------
Total 42
----------------------
Example 4:
The data given below relate to the heights and weights of 20 persons. You ----------------------
are required to form a two-way (Bivariate) frequency table with class interval ----------------------
62” to 64”, 64” to 66” and so on and 115 to 125 lb., 125 to 135 lb. etc.
----------------------
Sr. no. Weight Height Sr. no. Weight Height
1 170 70 11 163 70 ----------------------
2 135 65 12 139 67
3 136 65 13 122 63 ----------------------
4 137 64 14 134 68
5 148 69 15 140 67 ----------------------
6 124 63 16 132 69 ----------------------
7 117 65 17 120 66
8 128 70 18 148 68 ----------------------
9 143 71 19 129 67
10 129 62 20 152 67 ----------------------
Using standard deviation and its coefficient, state whether there is a ----------------------
greater variation in height or weight.
----------------------
Solution:
As per the requirements of the question, the population is to be divided ----------------------
into five classes according to the heights of the persons included in each group ----------------------
and six classes according to the weight. There will be thus 5 x 6=30 cells.
For tabulating information in appropriate cells, first, the row to which ----------------------
the height measurement (say, X) should belong is determined. Afterwards on a ----------------------
consideration of the weight (say, Y), the column in which it should be included
is determined. The tabulation is recorded by tally bars. Thus, the two way table ----------------------
shall be prepared like this:
----------------------
Two-way Frequency Table Showing Weight and Height of 20 persons
----------------------
Weight in
lbs. (Y) ----------------------
Height in 115-125 125-135 135-145 145-155 155-165 165-175 Total
inches (X) ----------------------
62-64 || (2) | (1) 3
----------------------
64-66 | (1) ||| (3) 4
66-68 | (1) | (1) || (2) | (1) 5 ----------------------
68-70 || (2) || (2) 4
70-72 | (1) | (1) | (1) | (1) 4 ----------------------
Total 4 5 6 3 1 1 20
----------------------

Arranging Data to convey Meaning 323

 Notes
Check your Progress 3
----------------------
Fill in the blanks.
----------------------
1. In a statistical table, column headings are known as ______________.
----------------------
2. In a statistical table, row headings are known as _________________.
----------------------

---------------------- 1.6 DIAGRAMMATIC REPRESENTATION

---------------------- The data contained in a table can be presented in more attractive form by
using various diagrams and graphs.
----------------------
Graphing: General Rules
---------------------- 1. A graph is a picture representing data, be sure the picture tells the correct
---------------------- story.
2. “Axis” is singular, axes plural.
----------------------
3. Length of X to Y axis is 3 to 2.
----------------------
4. Each graph tells a slightly different story.
---------------------- Parts of a Graph
---------------------- ●● Vertical axis: This axis is used to show the results variable.
---------------------- ●● The Y-axis
●● The dependent variable
----------------------
●● The predicted variable
---------------------- ●● X axis should begin at zero or be specially marked
---------------------- ●● Origin
●● Horizontal axis: This axis is used to display the first variable of concern.
----------------------
Types of Diagrams
----------------------
i. One Dimensional, i.e. Bar Diagrams
---------------------- A.
---------------------- 1. Simple (Vertical)

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

324 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods
2. Multiple Notes

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------
Following diagrams are based on the following grouped data: ----------------------
Field Agarwal % B’charya % Cordial % Day % ----------------------
Education 3450 20 2500 12 0 0 5000 20
Rent 5500 32 7000 33 10000 24 5000 20 ----------------------
Kirana 4000 23 2000 9 5670 14 5000 20
Transport 1000 6 3690 18 15600 38 5000 20 ----------------------
Other 3390 20 5890 28 10000 24 5000 20
----------------------
Total 17340 21080 41270 25000
B. Sub-divided Bar ----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

C. Percentage Bar ----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

Arranging Data to convey Meaning 325

 Notes ii. Two Dimensional Diagrams

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

---------------------- iii. Three Dimensional Diagrams

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------
----------------------

----------------------

----------------------
1.7 GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION
----------------------
Graphic representation is useful when data related to the frequency
----------------------
distributions or time series is to be represented. The graphs of frequency
---------------------- distribution are as follows:
I. Histogram
----------------------
●● Used with ordinal or discrete cardinal data.
----------------------
●● Tells the story of totally separate but ordered classes.
---------------------- ●● Each rectangle has the same width.
---------------------- ●● For equal class intervals, each class is represented along the X axis with
the same base (of rectangle) which is equal or proportional to the class
---------------------- width.
---------------------- ●● For Unequal classes the classes are drawn along the X axis with the bases
proportional to their class intervals (width). For classes their frequency is
---------------------- divided by a factor = class interval / smallest class interval & the height
of the corresponding rectangle will be drawn proportional to this quantity.
----------------------
The height of each rectangle is proportional to the number of scores in
---------------------- that category can be absolute (f) or relative (p or %).
---------------------- II. Bar Graphs, Pie Charts and Pareto Diagrams
●● Used only with nominal (qualitative) data.
----------------------
●● I t tells the story of totally separate groups which could be arranged in any
---------------------- order.

326 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

●● The vertical spaces between the rectangles imply the lack of order. Notes
III. Frequency Polygon
----------------------
●● Widely used in Psychology and this course.
●● Tell the story of continuous cardinal data. ----------------------
●● Can be absolute (f) or relative (%). ----------------------
IV. Frequency Curve ----------------------
a. Ogive or Cumulative Frequency Curve also called cumulative
distributions ----------------------

●● ells the # or % of scores “at or below” a particular point in

T ----------------------
the distribution
----------------------
●● Use upper limits of classes on X axis not midpoints of intervals
●● Can be absolute (c.f.) or relative (p or %) ----------------------
●● Can be number at or above ----------------------
Types: ----------------------
●● Less Than Ogive
----------------------
●● More Than Ogive
Solved Problems ----------------------
Example 1: ----------------------
Draw a Histogram, a less than Ogive, a more than Ogive and a frequency ----------------------
polygon for the following table:
----------------------
Daily No. of Class Frequency Midpoint Less than More than
wages workers interval ----------------------
CF Pts CF Pts
10-15 7 5 7 12.5 7 (15, 7) 100 (10, 100) ----------------------
15-20 19 5 19 17.5 26 (20, 26) 93 (15, 93)
20-25 15 5 15 22.5 41 (25, 41) 74 (20, 74) ----------------------
25-30 27 5 27 27.5 68 (30, 68) 59 (25, 59) ----------------------
30-40 12 10 (5x2) 12 (12) 35 80 (40, 80) 31 (30, 32)
40-60 12 20 (5x4) 12 (14) 50 92 (60, 92) 20 (40, 20) ----------------------
60-80 8 20 (5x4) 8 (14) 70 100 (80, 100) 8 (60, 8)
----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

Arranging Data to convey Meaning 327

 Notes ●● Histogram and Frequency Polygon:

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------
----------------------

----------------------
●● Less than & more than ogive:
----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

328 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

Example 2: Notes
Draw a pie-chart of the following table:
----------------------
Subject Maths Physics Chemistry Biology Hindi Social English EVS
Studies ----------------------
Marks 90 85 86 80 75 65 81 78
----------------------
Angle 51 48 48 45 42 37 46 44
(Formula for calculation of degree = (marks obtained in one subject * 360) / ----------------------
total marks [Angles are rounded off]
----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------
----------------------

----------------------

Check your Progress 4 ----------------------

State True or False. ----------------------

1. Secondary data is more reliable than primary data. ----------------------

----------------------
Summary
----------------------
●● In this unit we have discussed the techniques of classification and
----------------------
tabulation that help in summerising the collected data and presenting
them in a systematic manner. ----------------------
●● Diagrams and graphs is one of the most convincing and appealing ways in
----------------------
which statistical results can be presented. Evidence of this can be found in
newspapers, magazines, journals, advertisements etc. In the present unit ----------------------
the major types of diagrams and graphs is illustrated.
----------------------
Keywords ----------------------
●● Data: Data is a collection of related observations, facts or figures. ----------------------
●● Raw Data: Data that has not been arranged analyzed or processed by
----------------------
statistical methods.
●● Variable: A variable is any entity that can take on different values. ----------------------
Variable can be discrete or continuous.
----------------------
●● Population: The population or universe represents the entire group of
units which is the focus of the study. ----------------------

Arranging Data to convey Meaning 329

 Notes ●● Data Collection is a term used to describe a process of preparing and
collecting data.
---------------------- ●● Primary Data: Data observed or collected directly from first-hand
---------------------- experience Sample: a sample is a subset of a population.
●● Secondary Data The data collected in the past or other parties called
---------------------- secondary data.
----------------------
Self-Assessment Questions
----------------------
1. Differentiate between the primary and secondary data.
----------------------
2. Explain in brief parts of a table.
---------------------- 3. Explain the inclusive method and exclusive method of classification.
---------------------- 4. Explain various methods of data presentation.
5. Explain the role of Tabulation.
----------------------
---------------------- Answers to Check your Progress

---------------------- Check your Progress 1

State True or False.
----------------------
1. True
---------------------- 2. True
---------------------- Check your Progress 2
Multiple Choice Single Response.
----------------------
1. In exclusive type of classification
---------------------- ii. Upper limit is excluded.
---------------------- Check your Progress 3
Fill in the blanks.
----------------------
1. In a statistical table, column headings are known as Captions.
---------------------- 2. In a statistical table, row headings are known as Stubs.
---------------------- Check your Progress 4
State True or False.
----------------------
1. False
----------------------

----------------------
Suggested Reading

---------------------- 1. Rao, Dr. A.B. Business Statistics. Himalaya Publishing House.

2. Uppreti, D. Encyclopedia of Statistics Volume-I.
----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

330 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

Measures of Central Tendency
(Mean, Median and Mode) UNIT

Structure: 2
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Mean
2.3 Median
2.4 Mode
2.5 Measures of Dispersion
Summary
Keywords
Self-Assessment Questions
Answers to Check your Progress
Suggested Reading

Measures of Central Tendency (Mean, Median and Mode) 331

 Notes
Objectives
----------------------
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
----------------------
• Calculate the Mean, Median and Mode
----------------------
• Explain the need and significance of measures of dispersion
----------------------

---------------------- 2.1 INTRODUCTION

---------------------- Generally it is observed that in frequency distribution, values of the

variable (items) tend to concentrate or cluster around a middle or central
---------------------- part of distribution. This characteristic of statistical data is described as
central tendency. Central tendency, thus, is a tendency in the statistical data
----------------------
to concentrate or cluster around a central value of the same distribution. Any
---------------------- statistical measure which shows the central value of a series or a frequency
distribution around which is most of the items tend to cluster is called a measure
---------------------- of central tendency. There are various methods of summarising data and its
graphical representation. However it becomes essential to condense the data and
----------------------
it is referred an average or central value or measure of tendency it is desired that
---------------------- all the important properties of the observations in the data should be represented
in the average. Average is the value around which most of the observations are
---------------------- clustered, hence this single value itself gives clear idea regarding phenomenon
under study. There are several types of averages used in practice according to
----------------------
the type of data and purpose.
---------------------- Objectives of Average
---------------------- There are two main objectives of averages:

---------------------- 1. A single value that describes the characteristics of the entire group.
Example: The average death rate of Indian women. This shows; in the
---------------------- Indian population what is the death rate of a single women in India.
---------------------- Measures of central value, by considering the collection of data in one
single value, enables us to get a bird’s eye-view of the entire data. Thus
---------------------- one value can represent thousands or millions of values.
---------------------- 2. Give the facility of comparison. By reducing the mass of data to one
single figure, enable comparison to be made. Comparison can be made
---------------------- either at a point of time or over a period of time. Example: the average
death rates of Indian women between 1980-1990 and 1990-2000 were
----------------------
45% and 46.23% respectively. This data show comparison of women’s
---------------------- death rate from 1980-90 and 1990-00 and compare that the women’s
death rate is increased.
----------------------
There are several averages in use; hence it is necessary to discuss the
---------------------- requisites of good or ideal average. The following are the requisites of good
average (characteristics of good measure)
----------------------

332 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

1. It should be simple to understand. Notes
2. It should be easy to calculate.
----------------------
3. It should be based on each and every observations.
----------------------
4. It should be rigidly defined (the definition should not be clumsy or ambiguous)
5. It should have sampling stability. ----------------------

6. It should not be affected by extreme values. ----------------------

7. It should have capacity for further algebraic treatment. ----------------------
Fundamentals of correct averages
----------------------
An average is a single value representing group of values, it is desired that such
a value satisfies the following properties. ----------------------
1. Easy understandable: Statistical method are designed to simplify ----------------------
complexity; it is desirable that an average be such that can be readily
understood. ----------------------
2. Simply computable: An average should not only be easy to understand ----------------------
but also simple to compute. So it can be used widely.
----------------------
3. Rigidly defined: An average should be properly defined so that it has
one and only one interpretation. It should be preferably be defined be an ----------------------
algebraic formula so that if different people compute the average from the
same figure they all get the same answer. ----------------------

4. Based on each and every item of particular series: The average should ----------------------
depend upon each and every item of series so that if any of the items is
----------------------
dropped the average itself is changed.
5. Not be improperly affected by extreme observation: Each and every ----------------------
should influence the value of average, none of the items improperly affect
----------------------
the average.
6. Capable of further algebraic treatment: We should prefer to have an ----------------------
average that could be used for further statistical computation so that its
----------------------
utility is enhanced.
7. Sampling stability: We should prefer to get a value which has what ----------------------
the statisticians call’ sampling stability’. This means that if we pick 10 ----------------------
different groups of college students and compute the average of each
group, we should expect to get approximately the same value. ----------------------
Which average to use? ----------------------
It is clearly understood that no one average can be as best for all situation.
The following points influence the selection of an appropriate average: ----------------------

1. Purpose: the purpose which the average designed to serve. ----------------------

2. Type of data: the type of data available. Are they badly skewed (avoid ----------------------
the mean), gaps around the middle (avoid the median) or unequal in class
interval (avoid the mode). ----------------------

Measures of Central Tendency (Mean, Median and Mode) 333

 Notes Within the framework of statistics, the main requirement is to know what
each average means and then select one that fulfill the purpose in hand.
----------------------

----------------------
2.2 MEAN

---------------------- Arithmetic Mean (Average)

M is defined as X = Sum of all observations

---------------------- A.
Total number of observation
---------------------- x
1. X= (for individual data)
N
----------------------
fx
2. X= ( for ungrouped data)
---------------------- N
fd
---------------------- 3. X=A+ x i (for grouped data)
N
---------------------- Where, d’ = d/i, d = m.p-A or x-A
A is assumed mean, i: common factor
----------------------
Note:
----------------------
i. Assumed mean is taken out of mid-points generally value at center
---------------------- of the column.
ii. ‘i’ is generally Class interval. (If all classes are of equal interval).
----------------------
N1X1 + N2X2
---------------------- 4. Combined mean X1,2= N
5. Weighted mean Xw= SxW there are weights.
----------------------
SW
---------------------- Merits
1. Arithmetic mean is the simplest average to understand and the easiest to
----------------------
compute.
---------------------- 2. Arithmetic mean is based on the value of every item in the series.
---------------------- 3. Arithmetic mean is defined by the rigid mathematical formula with the
result that everyone who computes and gets the same answer.
----------------------
4. Arithmetic mean lends itself to subsequent algebraic treatment better than
---------------------- median or mode.

---------------------- 5. Arithmetic mean is relatively more reliable in the sense that it does not
vary too much when repeated samples are taken from one and the same
---------------------- population.

---------------------- 6. The mean is typically the center of gravity, balancing the values on either
side of it.
----------------------
7. Arithmetic mean is not based on position in the series but it is a calculated
---------------------- value.

----------------------

334 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

Demerits Notes
1. The value of mean depends upon each and every item in the series. That
is very small and very large items; unduly affect the value of the average. ----------------------
2. The value of mean cannot be computed without making assumptions ----------------------
regarding the size of the class interval of the classes.
3. The arithmetic mean is not always a good measure of central tendency. ----------------------
4. The mean provides a “characteristics” value, in the sense of indicating where
most of the values lie, only when the distribution of variable is normal. ----------------------
Solved Examples: ----------------------
Example 1: ----------------------
Find the mean for the following data: 5, 15, 10, 15, 5, 10, 10, 20, 25, 15. There
are 10 observations, then by direct method = Sx/ N ----------------------

Mean = 5 + 15 + 10 + 15 + 5 + 10 + 10 + 20 + 25 + 15 ÷ 10 = 130/ 10 = 13 ----------------------

Example 2: ----------------------
Find the mean for the following data.
----------------------
Marks (x) Number of fx Deviation fd
Students (f) ----------------------
d = x – A i.e. d
=x–6 ----------------------
2 5 10 2–6=-4 - 20
4 6 24 4–6=-2 - 12 ----------------------
6 4 24 6–6=0 0 ----------------------
8 3 24 8–6=2 6
10 2 20 10 – 6 = 4 8 ----------------------
Sf = 20 Sfx = 102 Sfd= - 18
----------------------
Mean = S fx/ N = 102 / 20 = 5.1 by direct method
Mean = A + Sfd / N ----------------------
= 6 + (- 18)/ 20 = 6-0.9=5.1 by assumed mean method ----------------------
Where A = 6 & d= x – A
Example 3: ----------------------
Consider following data about marks obtained by students. ----------------------
Subject Marks percentage Weights wx ----------------------
Maths 90 3 270
Physics 85 3 255 ----------------------
Chemistry 86 3 258
Biology 80 3 240 ----------------------
Hindi 75 2 150
Social Studies 65 1 65 ----------------------
English 81 1 81
EVS 78 1 78 ----------------------
TOTAL 17 1397
----------------------
Arithmetic Mean = 640/8 = 80%
Weighted Arithmetic Mean = 1397/ 17 = 82 ----------------------

Measures of Central Tendency (Mean, Median and Mode) 335

 Notes
Check your Progress 1
----------------------
State True or False.
----------------------
1. Measures of central value condense huge mass of data in one single
---------------------- value.
---------------------- Multiple Choice Single Response.
1. The mean of 16 observations is 25 and 4 is added to each observation.
---------------------- Then the new mean is
---------------------- i. 30
ii. 29
----------------------
iii. 36
---------------------- iv. 25
---------------------- Multiple Choice Multiple Response.
1. Which of the following is true?
---------------------- i. A.M cannot be obtained graphically.
---------------------- ii. A.M cannot be obtained for a frequency distribution with open
end class.
---------------------- iii. A.M cannot be obtained if individual observations are unknown
---------------------- although the sum of observations is known for data set of given
size.
---------------------- iv. A.M can be obtained for qualitative data.
----------------------

---------------------- 2.3 MEDIAN

---------------------- The value of middle most observation is called as median, when data is
arranged in ascending and descending order of magnitude.
----------------------
By definition median refers to middle value in a distribution. Median is called
---------------------- a positional average. The term position refers to the place of a value in a series.

---------------------- Median = value of middlemost observation

In case of individual data, if number of observation is even, median is
---------------------- average of two middlemost observations.
---------------------- For classified data
---------------------- N
– c.f
Median - L + 2 xi
---------------------- f
---------------------- L: lower limit of median class

---------------------- c.f.: cumulative frequency of just previous class to median class.

f: frequency of median class.
----------------------

336 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

i: class interval of median class. Notes
Median class is the in which (N/2) observation lies.
th
----------------------
Note:
----------------------
i. In calculating median for frequency distribution sometimes we may take
definition as median = value of (N/2)th observation (if N is even) and ----------------------
median = value (N+1/2)th observation (if N is odd).
----------------------
ii. In formula, N is replaced by (N+1).
Median (or middle value) is one-half of the items in the distribution have a ----------------------
value the size of the median value or smaller and one-half have a value the size of ----------------------
the median value or the larger. Median breaks the observation into two halves.
For example, if the income of 5 employees is Rs 1500, 1550, 1600, 1700, ----------------------
1750, then the median would be 1600. ----------------------
1500
----------------------
1550
1600 value of middle position of the array ----------------------
1700 ----------------------
1750
----------------------
In the above example, there is odd number of observations. That is why
the calculation of median is simple. But when an even number of observations ----------------------
is listed, there is no single middle position value and the median is taken to be
the arithmetic mean of two middle most items. ----------------------

If the income of 6 employees is Rs 1500, 1550, 1600, 1700, 1750, 1800, ----------------------
then the median would be:
----------------------
1500
1550 ----------------------
1600 ----------------------
There are two middle position values
1700 ----------------------
1750 ----------------------
1800
----------------------
Median = (1600+ 1700)/2
=1650 ----------------------
Note ----------------------
1. When N is odd, the median is an actual value, with the remainder if the ----------------------
series in two equal parts of either side of it.
2. When N is even, the median is the derived figure, i.e. half the sum of ----------------------
middle value. ----------------------

----------------------

Measures of Central Tendency (Mean, Median and Mode) 337

 Notes Steps
1. Arrange the data in ascending or descending order of magnitude.
----------------------
2. In a group composed of an odd number of values such as 5, add 1 to the
---------------------- total number if values and divide by 2.
---------------------- Thus, 5+1 would be 6, which is divided by 2 gives 3- the number of value
starting at either end of numerically arranged groups will be the median value.
----------------------
Formula
---------------------- Median = size of (N+1)/2th item
---------------------- For example: the following data of the wages of 5 workers compute the median
wage
----------------------
Wages (Rs.) 1250 1440 1500 1570 1600
----------------------
Sr. No. wages arranged in
---------------------- ascending order
1 1250
---------------------- 2 1440
3 1500
----------------------
4 1570
---------------------- 5 1600
Median = size of (N+1)/2th item
----------------------
= (5 + 1)/2
----------------------
= 3rd item= 1500
---------------------- Hence, the median wage = Rs 1500
---------------------- Steps of computation of median (discrete series)

---------------------- Steps
1. Arrange the data in ascending or descending order of magnitude.
----------------------
2. Find out the cumulative frequencies.
---------------------- 3. Apply the formula.
---------------------- Median = size of (N+1)/2th item
4. Then find the total which is equal to (N+1)/2th item or the next higher to
---------------------- that and determine the value of the variable corresponding to it from the
cumulative frequency column, that gives the median.
----------------------
Examples:
----------------------
1. Find the value of the median from the following data.
----------------------
Income (Rs) 110 170 90 210 280 120
---------------------- No. of persons 20 25 15 19 8 29
----------------------

----------------------

338 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

Solution: Notes
Calculation of median:
----------------------
Income (ascending order) No. of persons Cumulative frequency
90 15 15 ----------------------
110 20 35
----------------------
120 29 64
170 25 89 ----------------------
210 19 108
280 8 116 ----------------------
Median = size of (N+1)/2th item ----------------------
= (116 + 1)/2 ----------------------
= 58.5 item
th
----------------------
Hence, size of 58.5th item = 120
----------------------
Computation of median (continuous series)
N ----------------------
– c.f
Median - L + 2 xi
f ----------------------
Where
L = lower limit of median class, i.e. the class in which the middle item of the ----------------------
distribution lies ----------------------
c.f. = cumulative frequency of the class previous to the median class
----------------------
f = simple frequency of median class
----------------------
i = class in interval of median class
2. Calculate the median for the following frequency distribution. ----------------------

Marks No. of students Marks No. of students ----------------------

45-50 12 20-25 29
40-45 16 15-20 22 ----------------------
35-40 25 10-15 17 ----------------------
30-35 32 05-10 5
25-30 35 ----------------------
Solution
----------------------
First arrange the data in ascending order.
----------------------
Marks F c.f. Marks F c.f.
05-10 5 5 30-35 32 140 ----------------------
10-15 17 22 35-40 25 165
15-20 22 44 40-45 16 181 ----------------------
20-25 29 73 45-50 12 193 ----------------------
25-30 35 108
----------------------

----------------------

Measures of Central Tendency (Mean, Median and Mode) 339

 Notes Median = size of (N+1)/2th item
= 193/2 = 96.5th item
----------------------
Median lies in the class 25-30
----------------------
So, median = L+ ((N/2-c.f.)/f)*i
---------------------- N
– c.f
Median - L + 2 xi
----------------------
f
----------------------
L= 25, N/2 = 96.5, c.f. = 73, f= 35, i= 35.
---------------------- Median = 25+ ((96.5 - 73)/35) x 5
---------------------- = 28.6

---------------------- Merits
1. The median is useful for distributions containing open-end intervals
---------------------- because these intervals do not enter its computation. Also as the median
---------------------- is affect by the number of rather than the sizes of the items, it is frequently
used in mean as a measure central tendency in cases where such values
---------------------- are likely to misrepresent the mean.
---------------------- 2. Extreme values do not affect the median as strongly as they do the mean.
3. Median is most appropriate average in dealing with qualitative data i.e.
----------------------
where ranks are given.
---------------------- 4. The value of median can be determined graphically whereas the values of
mean cannot be graphically determined.
----------------------
Demerits
----------------------
1. To calculate the median it is necessary arrange data in ascending or
---------------------- descending order.

---------------------- 2. It is not capable of algebraic treatment, i.e. median cannot be used for
determine the combined median of two or more groups as is possible in
---------------------- case of mean.
---------------------- 3. Its value is not determined by each and every observation because it is
positional average.
----------------------
4. Sampling fluctuations affects the value of median than the value of the
---------------------- arithmetic mean.
5. It is unpredictable is the number of items is small.
----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

340 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

 Notes
Check your Progress 2
----------------------
Multiple Choice Single Response.
----------------------
1. When calculating the median of a data set, the first step is
i. Calculate the mean of the middle two items in the data set ----------------------
ii. Arrange the data in an ascending or descending order
----------------------
iii. Determine the relative weights of the data values in terms of
importance ----------------------
iv. None of the above ----------------------

----------------------
2.4 MODE
----------------------
Mode: the value of highest frequency or the most repeated observation is
called as mode. ----------------------
For classified data ----------------------
f1 – f0 ----------------------
Mode - L + xi
2f1 – f0 – f2
----------------------
L: lower limit of modal class
f0: frequency of the class just previous to modal class ----------------------
f1: frequency of modal class ----------------------
f2: frequency of class just after modal class ----------------------
Modal class is the class having highest frequency.
----------------------
The mode is also called as modal value. The mode value is the value in a series
of the observations which occurs with greatest frequency. ----------------------
For example, the mode of the series 6, 10, 16, 10, 8, 10, 18, 6 would be 10, as ----------------------
this value occurs more frequently than the other value.
----------------------
The value, which occurs most often in the data with the highest frequency, is a
mode value. As this statement is quite helpful in interpreting the mode, but it ----------------------
cannot be safely applied to any distribution because of the vagaries of sampling.
----------------------
Calculation of mode
For determine mode, count the number of times the various values repeat ----------------------
themselves and the value occurring number of time is the modal value (mode). ----------------------
1. Calculation of mode (individual data)
----------------------
Calculate the mode from the following data of marks obtained by 10
students. ----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

Measures of Central Tendency (Mean, Median and Mode) 341

 Notes Sr. no. Marks obtained Sr. no. Marks obtained
1 20 6 54
---------------------- 2 54 7 40
3 48 8 36
----------------------
4 24 9 35
---------------------- 5 54 10 62
Solution:
----------------------
Size of item No. of time it occurs Size of item No. of time it occurs
---------------------- 20 1 40 1
24 1 48 1
----------------------
35 1 54 3
---------------------- 36 1 62 1
Total = 10
----------------------
As the item 54 occurs the maximum number of times (3), hence the modal
---------------------- marks are 54.
2. Calculation of mode (discrete series)
----------------------
In the discrete series, mode can be determined by looking to that value of
---------------------- the variable around which the items are most heavily concentrated.
---------------------- For example:

---------------------- Size of garment 28 30 32 34 36 38

No. of persons wearing 12 22 42 77 53 19
----------------------
From the above data, we can say that the modal size is 34 because this
---------------------- value has occurred the maximum number of times, i.e. 77.
---------------------- Selection of Mean, Median and Mode:
To analyse data using the mean, median and mode, we need to use the
----------------------
most appropriate measure of central tendency. The following points should be
---------------------- remembered:
●● The mean is useful for predicting future results when there are no extreme
----------------------
values in the data set. However, the impact of extreme values on the mean
---------------------- may be important and should be considered, e.g. the impact of a stock
market crash on average investment returns.
----------------------
●● The median may be more useful than the mean when there are extreme
---------------------- values in the data set as it is not affected by the extreme values.
●● The mode is useful when the most common item, characteristic or value
----------------------
of a data set is required.
----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

342 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

Solved Examples: Notes
Example 1:
----------------------
An incomplete distribution is given below:
----------------------
Variable 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70
Frequency 10 20 ? 40 ? 25 15 ----------------------
i. You are given that the median value is 35. Find out missing frequency ----------------------
(given the total frequency = 17).
----------------------
ii. Calculate the arithmetic mean of the completed table.
Solution: ----------------------

Let the missing frequency of the class 20-30 be denoted by f and that of ----------------------
40-50 by f.
----------------------
The total frequency = 170
----------------------
The frequencies of the classes other than the missing ones are
(10+20+40+25+15) =110 ----------------------
110 + f1 + f2 = 170
----------------------
Hence f1 + f2 = (170 – 110) =60
----------------------
N
– c.f
Median - L + 2 xi ----------------------
f
----------------------
N 170
Median = Size of th item = = 85th item
2 2 ----------------------
We are given median = 35
----------------------
Hence it must lie in the class 30-40.
Thus the various values known to us are ----------------------

Median = 35, L = 30, N/2 = 85, c.f. = (10 + 20 + f1), i = 10, f2 = 40 ----------------------
Substituting the values in the median formula: ----------------------
85 – (10 + 20 + f1)
35 = 30 + x 10 ----------------------
40
85 – 10 + 20 + f1 ----------------------
35 = 30 + x 10
40 ----------------------
50 – f1
35 = 30 + ----------------------
4
50 – f1 ----------------------
30 + 5 or 55 – f1 = 20 or f1 = 35
4 ----------------------
Since f1 + f2 = 60, f2 shall be 60 – 35 = 35.Thus the missing frequencies ----------------------
are f1 = 35, f2 = 25
----------------------

Measures of Central Tendency (Mean, Median and Mode) 343

 Notes Calculation of Arithmetic Mean
Vaiable f m.p. (m-35) fd
----------------------
0–1 10 5 –3 –30
---------------------- 10–20 20 15 –2 –40
20–30 35 25 –1 –35
---------------------- 30–40 40 35 0 0
40–50 25 45 1 25
---------------------- 50–60 25 55 2 50
---------------------- 60–70 15 65 3 45
N = 170 Sfd = 15
---------------------- Sfd
=A+ ×i
---------------------- N
A = 35, Sfd = 15, N = 170, I =10
----------------------
15
---------------------- = 35 + × 10
170
---------------------- = 35 + .882 = 35.882

---------------------- Hence the arithmetic mean of the completed table is 35.882.

Example 2:
----------------------
The mean annual salary paid to 100 employees of a company was Rs. 5,000. The
---------------------- mean annual salaries paid to male and female employees were Rs. 5,200 and
Rs. 4,200 respectively. Determine the percentage of male and female employed
----------------------
by the company.
---------------------- Solution:
---------------------- Let N1 represent percentage of males and N2 percentage of females so that N1
+ N2 =100
----------------------
We are given 12 =5,000 1 = 5,200, 2 = 4,200.
---------------------- Substituting the values in the formula:
---------------------- N1 1 + N2 2 N1(5,200) +N2(4,200)
= ; 5,000 =
1,2 N1 + N2 100
----------------------
5, 00,000 = 5,200 N1 + [(100 –N1) (4,200)]
----------------------
since N1 + N2 = 100
---------------------- =
N2 = 100 – N1
----------------------
= 5, 00,000 = 5,200 N1 + 4, 20,000 – 4,200 N1
---------------------- 1,000 N1 = 80,000
---------------------- N1 = 80 and N2 = 100 – N1 (100-80) = 20

---------------------- Thus, the percentage of males and females employed is 80 and 20 respectively.

----------------------

344 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

 Notes
Check your Progress 3
----------------------
State True or False.
----------------------
1. Mode is the value that occurs most frequently in the data.
----------------------
2. Value of mode is based on each and every item in a series.
----------------------
2.5 MEASURES OF DISPERSION ----------------------
Definition ----------------------
Dispersion is the measure of the variation of the items. Dispersion or ----------------------
spread is the degree of the scatter or variation of the variable about a central
value. ----------------------
Significance of Measuring Variation ----------------------
Measures of variation are needed for four basic purposes:
----------------------
1. To determine the reliability of an average.
----------------------
2. To serve as a basis for the control of the variability.
3. To compare two or more series with regard to their variability. ----------------------

4. To facilitate the use of other statistical measure. ----------------------

A brief explanation of these points is given below: ----------------------
i. Measures of variation point out as to how far an average is representative
----------------------
of the mass. When dispersion is small, the average is a typical value in the
sense that it closely represents the individual value and it is reliable in the ----------------------
sense that it is a good estimate of the average in the corresponding universe.
On the other hand, when dispersion is large, the average is not so typical ----------------------
and unless the sample is very large, the average may be quite unreliable.
----------------------
ii. Another purpose of measuring dispersion is to determine nature and
cause of variation in order to control the variation itself. In matters of ----------------------
health, variations in body temperature, pulse beat and blood pressure are ----------------------
the basic guides to diagnosis. Prescribed treatment is designed to control
their variation. In industrial production efficient operation requires ----------------------
control of quality variation, the causes of which are sought through
inspection is basic to the control of causes of variation. In engineering ----------------------
problems measures of dispersion are often especially important. In social ----------------------
sciences a special problem requiring the measurement of variability is the
measurement of “in quality” of the distribution of income or wealth, etc. ----------------------
iii. Measures of dispersion enable a comparison to be made of two or more ----------------------
series with regard to their variability. The study of variation may also be
looked upon as a means of determining uniformity of consistency. A high ----------------------
degree of variation would mean little uniformity or consistency whereas
a low degree of variation would mean great uniformity or consistency. ----------------------

Measures of Central Tendency (Mean, Median and Mode) 345

 Notes iv. Many powerful analytical tools in statistics such as correlation analysis,
the testing of hypothesis, analysis of variance, the statistical quality
---------------------- control and regression analysis are based on measures of variation of one
kind or another.
----------------------
Properties of a good measure of variation
----------------------
A good measure of dispersion should possess, as far as possible, the following
---------------------- properties:
i) It should be simple to understand.
----------------------
ii) It should be easy to compute.
----------------------
iii) It should be rigidly defined.
---------------------- iv) It should be based on each and every item of the distribution.
---------------------- v) It should be amenable to further algebraic treatment.
---------------------- vi) It should have sampling stability.

---------------------- vii) It should not be unduly affected by extreme items.

Methods of studying variation/dispersion
----------------------
The following are the important methods of studying variation/dispersion:
----------------------
1. The Range
---------------------- 2. The Interquartile Range and the Quartile Deviation
---------------------- 3. The Mean Deviation or Average Deviation

---------------------- 4. The Standard Deviation

1. Range
----------------------
Range is the simplest method of studying dispersion. It is defined as the
---------------------- difference between the value of the smallest item and the value of the largest
item included in the distribution. Symbolically,
----------------------
Range = L – S
----------------------
Where L = Largest item and
---------------------- S = Smallest item.
---------------------- The relative measure corresponding to range, called the coefficient of
range, is obtained by applying the following formula:
----------------------
L–S
---------------------- Coefficient of Range =
L+S
---------------------- If the averages of the two distributions are about the same, a comparison
---------------------- of the range indicates that the distribution with the smaller range has less
dispersion and the average of that distribution is more typical of the group.
---------------------- The merits and limitations of Range can be numerated here.
----------------------

346 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

Merits Notes
i. It takes minimum time to calculate the value of range. Hence, if one
----------------------
is interested in getting a quick rather than a very accurate picture of
variability one may compute range. ----------------------
ii. Amongst all the methods of studying dispersion, range is the simplest to
----------------------
understand and the easiest to compute.
Demerits ----------------------
Range cannot tell us anything about the character of the distribution ----------------------
within the two extreme observations.
----------------------
i. It is subject to fluctuations of considerable magnitude from sample to sample.
ii. Range is not based on each and every item of the distribution. ----------------------

iii. Range cannot be computed in case of open-end distribution. ----------------------

Uses: Despite serious limitations range is useful in the following cases: ----------------------
(i) Quality Control
----------------------
(ii) Fluctuations in the Share Prices
----------------------
(iii) Weather Forecasts
----------------------
(iv) Everyday Life
2. Interquartile range or quartile deviation ----------------------
The range is based on the two extreme items and it fails to take account ----------------------
of the spread within the range. For this reason limited range is established
might be useful. For this purpose there has been developed a measures called ----------------------
interquartile range, the range which include middle 50% of the distribution, that
----------------------
is one-quarter of the observation as lower end, another quarter of the observation
at upper end of the distribution are excluded in the computing the interquartile ----------------------
range. In other words, interquartile range represents the difference between the
third quartile and the first quartile. ----------------------
Symbolically, ----------------------
Interquartile range= Q3-Q1 ----------------------
Interquartile range is reduced to the form of the Semi- Interquartile range
or quartile deviation by dividing it by two. ----------------------

Quartile Deviation or Q.D. = (Q3-Q1)/2 ----------------------

When quartile deviation is very small, it describes high uniformity or ----------------------
small variation of the central 50% items and high quartile deviation means that
variation among the central deviation items is large. Quartile deviation is an ----------------------
absolute measure of dispersion. The relative measures related to this measures,
----------------------
called the coefficient of quartile deviation, formula as follows, coefficient of
Q.D.=(Q3-Q1)/(Q3+Q1) ----------------------

----------------------

Measures of Central Tendency (Mean, Median and Mode) 347

 Notes Merits
i. It is better to range as measures of dispersion because it has a special
----------------------
utility in measuring variation in case of open end distribution or in this
---------------------- data may be ranked but measures quantitatively.
ii. It is also useful in unreliable distribution.
----------------------
The quartile deviation is not affected by occurrence of extreme values.
----------------------
Demerits
---------------------- i. Quartile deviation ignores 50% items, i.e. the first 25% and last 25%.
---------------------- As a value of quartile deviation does not depend upon every items of the
distribution.
----------------------
ii. It is not capable of mathematical manipulation.
----------------------
iii. Its value is very much affected by sampling fluctuations.
---------------------- 3. Mean deviation
---------------------- The range and interquartile deviation do not show the scatterness around
as average. However, to consider the formation of the distribution we should
---------------------- take the deviation from the average. The two other measures, namely the
---------------------- average deviation and the standard deviation help us in achieving this goal.
The mean deviation is also known as the average. It is the average
---------------------- difference between the items in a distribution and the median or mean of that
---------------------- series. The arithmetic mean is frequently used in calculating the value of average
deviation and that’s why it is called mean deviation.
----------------------
Merits
---------------------- i. Since deviations are taken from a central value, comparison about
formation of different distributions can easily be made.
----------------------
ii. Mean deviation is less affected by the value extreme items then the
---------------------- standard deviation.
---------------------- iii. It is based on each end every items of the data. Consequently change in
the value of any item would change the value of the mean deviation.
----------------------
Demerits
---------------------- i. It is rarely used in sociological studies.
---------------------- ii. It is not capable of further algebraic treatment.
---------------------- iii. This method may not give us very accurate results. The reason is that
mean deviation gives us best results when deviations are taken from
---------------------- median.
---------------------- 4. Standard deviation

---------------------- The standard deviation measures the absolute dispersion. The greater
standard deviation, for the greater will be the magnitude of the deviations of
---------------------- the value from their mean. A small standard deviation means a high degree

348 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

of uniformity of the observation as well as homogeneity of a series a large Notes
standard deviation means just the opposite.
----------------------
Properties of standard deviation:
1. Independent of Change of origin: Standard Deviation is independent of ----------------------
change of origin. In other words, the value of standard deviation remains
----------------------
the same if each of the observations in a series is increased of or decreased
by a non-zero constant value. ----------------------
2. Not Independent of change of scale: Standard Deviation is not independent
----------------------
of change of scale. In other words, the value of standard deviation is also
affected if each of the observations in a series is multiplied or divided ----------------------
by a non-zero constant value. Thus, if Y = X x K where K is a non-zero
constant quantity, then standard deviation of Y = (Standard deviation of ----------------------
X) X K.
----------------------
3. Minimum sum of squares: The sum of squares of deviations of items in
the series from their arithmetic mean is minimum. In other words, the ----------------------
sum of squares of the deviation of items of any series from a value other ----------------------
than the arithmetic mean will always be greater than standard deviation.
4. Standard Deviation of n natural numbers: The standard deviation of n ----------------------
natural numbers can be computed by using the following formula: ----------------------
1
Standard Deviation of n natural numbers = (N2 – 1) ----------------------
12
5. Combined Standard Deviation (σ12): Combined Standard Deviation(σ12) ----------------------
of two groups can be computed by using following formula: ----------------------
N1(1 +d1 ) + N (σ2 + d2 )
2 2 2 2 2
σ 1,2 = ----------------------
N1 + N2
d1 = 1– 1, 2, d2 = 2– 1, 2 ----------------------
Merits ----------------------
i. It is a rigidly defined measure of dispersion. ----------------------
ii. It is based on all the observations.
----------------------
iii. It is capable of being treated mathematically.
----------------------
Demerits
i. As compared to range and quartile deviation etc., it is difficult to ----------------------
understand.
----------------------
ii. It is difficult to compute.
----------------------
iii. It is highly affected by extreme observations.
iv. Since the unit of compare the dispersion of the distribution, when cannot ----------------------
be used to compare the dispersion of the distribution expressed in ----------------------
indifferent units.
----------------------

Measures of Central Tendency (Mean, Median and Mode) 349

 Notes Uses of standard deviation
i. It can be used to compare the dispersion of two or more dispersion when
----------------------
their units of measurements and arithmetic means are same.
---------------------- ii. It is used to test the reliability of mean. A mean less standard deviation is
said to be more reliable.
----------------------
Formulae of measures of variation/dispersion
----------------------
1. Range:
---------------------- R=L–S
---------------------- L: largest observation
---------------------- S: smallest observation
L–S
---------------------- Coefficient of Range = × 100
L+S
---------------------- Note:
---------------------- Generally range is calculated for individual series.
---------------------- 2. Quartile deviation:
Q3 – Q1
---------------------- Q.D =
2
---------------------- Q3 – Q1
Coefficient of Q.D =
Q3 + Q1
----------------------
Q1 = 1st quartile, Q3 = 3rd quartile
----------------------
Q1 = Value of (N/4)th observation when data is arranged in ascending
---------------------- order.
---------------------- For grouped data,
N
---------------------- – c.f
Q1 = L + 4 xi
---------------------- f

---------------------- Q3 = value of (3N/4)th observation when data is arranged in ascending

order
----------------------
For grouped data
---------------------- 3N
c.f
Q3 = L + 4 xi
---------------------- f

---------------------- 3. Mean absolute deviation:
---------------------- |D| f|D|
M.D = OR M.D =
N N
----------------------
D = x-Mean OR x-Median
----------------------

350 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

 M.D M.D Notes
Coeff. of M.D. = OR
Meddian Mean
----------------------
4. Standard Deviation:
----------------------
(x – )2
i. σ=
N ----------------------
ii. For individual series
----------------------
σ = √∑d2/N – (∑d2/N)2
where, d = X – A ----------------------

A = Assumed mean ----------------------

iii. for frequency data ----------------------
σ = √∑fd’ /N – (∑fd’/n) *C
2 2
----------------------
(note:fd’2 = fd’*d’)
----------------------
iv. Combined S.D.
N1 (σ12 + d12) + N2(σ22 + d22) ----------------------
σ 1,2 =
N1 + N2 ----------------------
[d1 = X1 – X1,,2 d2 = X2 – X1,,2 ]
----------------------
Combined mean
----------------------
N1 1 + N2
1, 2 = 2
N1 + N2 ----------------------

5. Coefficient of variation, ----------------------
σ ----------------------
c.v =
----------------------
6. Variance of x
----------------------
Var (x) = σ2
----------------------
Solved Examples:
Example 1: ----------------------
Compute the quartile deviation and coefficient of quartile deviation for the ----------------------
following deviation.
----------------------
Weekly wages No. of workers
(In Rs.) ----------------------
0-100 12
100-200 18 ----------------------
200-300 35
300-400 42 ----------------------
400-500 50
500-600 45 ----------------------
600-700 20
700-800 08 ----------------------

Measures of Central Tendency (Mean, Median and Mode) 351

 Notes Solution:

---------------------- Weekly wages No. of workers Less than CP.

(In Rs.)
---------------------- 0-100 12 12
---------------------- 100-200 18 30
---------------------- 200-300 35 65
300-400 42 107
----------------------
400-500 50 157
----------------------
500-600 45 202
---------------------- 600-700 20 222
---------------------- 700-800 08 230

---------------------- Calculation of Q1

---------------------- N 230
Since = = = 57.5
4 4
---------------------- Q1 lies in the class 200-300
---------------------- Hence
---------------------- N
– Cf
Since = Q1 = L+ 4 L
----------------------
f
57.5 – 30
---------------------- = 200 + × 100
35
---------------------- = Rs. 278.57
---------------------- Calculation of Q3

---------------------- 3N 3 × 230
Since = = 172.5
4 4
----------------------
Q3 lies in the interval 500-600
---------------------- 3N
– Cf
---------------------- Q3 = L+ 4 ×h
f
----------------------
172.5 – 157
= 500 + × 100
---------------------- 45

---------------------- = Rs. 534.44

Q3 – Q1
Quartile Deviation =
---------------------- 2
---------------------- 534.44 – 278.57
=
2
---------------------- = Rs. 127.94

352 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

 Q 3 – Q1 Notes
Coefficient Quartile Deviation =
Q3 + Q1
----------------------
534.44 – 278.57
=
534.44 + 278.57 ----------------------
= 0.315 ----------------------
Example 2: ----------------------
The index numbers of prices of cotton and coal shares for first six months
----------------------
in 2000 were as under:
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May June ----------------------
Cotton 188 178 173 164 172 184
----------------------
Coal 131 130 130 129 129 120
Which of the shares do you consider more variable in price? ----------------------
Solution: For comparison of variability the best measure is coefficient of ----------------------
variation.
----------------------
Month Cotton X2 Coal Y2
(x) (y) ----------------------
Jan 188 35344 131 17161
Feb 178 31684 130 16900 ----------------------
Mar 173 29929 130 16900 ----------------------
Apr 164 26896 129 16641
May 184 33856 120 14400 ----------------------
1059 187293 769 98643
----------------------
For Cotton For Coal
x x ----------------------
Mean = = Mean = ȳ =
n n
----------------------
1059 769 = 176.5
= = ----------------------
6 6 y2
s.d. = σy = – (ȳ)2
= 128.1667 n ----------------------
x2 98643
s.d. = σx = – ( )2 = – (128.1667)2 ----------------------
n 6
187293 = 3.7144 ----------------------
= – (176.5)2
6 σy
C.V. = × 100 ----------------------
= 7.953 |ȳ|
σx 3.7144 ----------------------
C.V. = × 100 = × 100 
| | 128.1667 ----------------------
7.935 = 2.8981%
= × 100  ----------------------
176.8
= 4.5059% ----------------------
Since (C.V) cotton = 4.5059 > (C.V) coal =2.8981 ----------------------

Measures of Central Tendency (Mean, Median and Mode) 353

 Notes ∴ Shares of cotton are more variable in price.
Example 3:
----------------------
Calculate standard deviation of the following data:
----------------------
X 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
---------------------- F 2 7 10 12 15 11 10 6 3
---------------------- Solution:

---------------------- X f fx x- f(x-)2
10 2 20 -4 32
---------------------- 11 7 77 -3 63
12 10 120 -2 40
---------------------- 13 12 156 -1 12
14 15 210 0 0
----------------------
15 11 165 1 11
---------------------- 16 10 160 2 40
17 6 102 3 54
---------------------- 18 3 54 4 48
∑f= 76 ∑fx =1064 f(x – )2=300
----------------------
= 1064 / 76 =14
----------------------
= 300 / 76 = √3.95 = 1.99
---------------------- Example 4:
---------------------- Find the mean and standard deviation of the following observations:
---------------------- X = 2, 5, 7, 8, 13
Transform the above observations such that:
----------------------
i. The mean of the transformed series become 10, while the standard
---------------------- deviation remaining unchanged ;
---------------------- ii. the mean of the transformed series becomes 14 and the standard
deviation becomes double the standard deviation of the given series.
----------------------
Solution:
---------------------- 2 + 5 + 7 + 8 + 13
= =7
---------------------- 5

---------------------- 4 + 25 + 49 + 64 + 169
σ= = – 49 = 3.63
5
----------------------
i. Since the standard deviation is not affected by change of origin, the
---------------------- transformed series with mean 10 and s. d. 3.63 is obtained by adding 3 to
each observation. Thus, the required series is 5, 8, 10, 11, 16.
----------------------
ii. If every observation of the series is multiplied by 2, the mean and s. d. of
---------------------- the new series would be 14 and 7.26. Then, the required series is 0, 6, 10,
12, 22.
----------------------

354 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

Example 5: Notes
The mean and standard deviation of 10 observations are 35 and 2 respectively.
----------------------
Find the changed mean and standard deviation if –
----------------------
i. Each observation is increased by 4 and
ii. Each observation is multiplied by 5. ----------------------
Solution ----------------------
i. When each observation is increased by 4, the mean of the changed ----------------------
observations will also increase and it will become equal to 35 + 4 + = 39.
Since the increasing of all observations by a constant is change of origin, ----------------------
the standard deviation shall not change.
----------------------
Thus the mean and standard deviation when each observation is increased
by 4 would be 39 and 2 respectively. ----------------------
ii. When each observation is multiplied by 5, the mean of the new observations ----------------------
will be 35*5=175 and their standard deviation will be 2*5=10.
----------------------
Example 6:
Obtain range and coefficient range for the following data. ----------------------

Serial Number Value (x) ----------------------

1 26
----------------------
2 20
3 65 ----------------------
4 22
5 30 ----------------------
6 32 ----------------------
7 21
8 37 ----------------------
9 48
----------------------
Solution: Note: Range is used to compare the two distribution in the same
quality. ----------------------

Step 1: Take a largest value (L) = 65 and smallest value (S) = 20 from the (x) ----------------------
column.
----------------------
Step 2: Calculate range from the following formula.
----------------------
Range =Largest value (L) – Smallest Value (S)
Range = L – S ----------------------
= 65 – 20 ----------------------
= 45 ----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

Measures of Central Tendency (Mean, Median and Mode) 355

 Notes Step 3: Calculate the Coefficient of Range the following formula:
Coefficient of range = (Largest value – Smallest value) / (Largest value +
----------------------
Smallest value)
---------------------- Coefficient of R = (L – S) / (L + S)
---------------------- = (65 – 20) / (65 + 20)
= 45 / 85
---------------------- = 0.52
---------------------- In the above example, range is 45 between 9 varieties and its and variation is
0.52.
----------------------
Example 7:
----------------------
Calculate an appropriate measure of dispersion for the following data:
---------------------- Change in Gold Price (x) Number of Days (f)
---------------------- Below 40 12
40-50 13
---------------------- 50-60 25
60 - 70 19
---------------------- 70 & Above 11
---------------------- Solution:

---------------------- Note: Quartile deviation throws light on the variation of distribution. If the
distribution is equally spread then the value of quartile deviation is less and on
---------------------- the other hand the distribution is not equally spread then quartile deviation is
greater.
----------------------
Step 1: Construct a new column namely Cumulative Frequency (cf).
---------------------- Step 2: Fill (cf) column with formula cf (i) = cf (i) + f for observation.
---------------------- Change in Gold Price Numbers of days (f) Cumulative frequency
(x) (cf)
----------------------
Below 40 12 12
---------------------- 40-50 13 25
50-60 25 50
---------------------- 60-70 19 69
70-Above 11 80
---------------------- N = 80
---------------------- Step 3: Make a total of Frequency (f) column and you’ll get the value of N
(total number of observation).
----------------------
Step 4: Calculate Q1 using following formula and then we compare Q1 value
---------------------- with (cf) column value and select the class which have the value closes to Q1.
---------------------- Q1 = [Size of N / 4]th item
= 80/4
----------------------
= 20
---------------------- Q1 class = 40-50

356 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

Step 5: Using above Q1 class we can calculate continuous series Q1 using Notes
following formula.
----------------------
Q1 = L + (((N /4) – cf) /f) i
L = 40, I = 10, f = 15, cf = 10, N = 80 ----------------------
Q1 = 40 + (((80 / 4) – 10) / 15) 10 ----------------------
= 40 + (100/ 15) ----------------------
= 40 + 6.66
----------------------
= 46.66
----------------------
Step 6: Calculate Q3 using following formula and then we compare Q3 value
with (cf) column values and select the class which gave closes to Q3. ----------------------
Q3 = [Size of 3N / 4] item th
----------------------
= (3* 80)/4
----------------------
= 60
Q3 class = 60-70 ----------------------

Step 7: Using above Q3 class we can calculate continuous series Q3 using ----------------------
following formula.
----------------------
Q3 = L + (((3N / 4) – cf) / f) f
----------------------
L = 60, i = 10, f = 20, cf = 50
Q3 = L + (((3N / 4) – cf) /f) f ----------------------
= 60 + (((3*80 / 4) – 50-)/20) 10 ----------------------
= 60 + (100 / 20) ----------------------
= 60 + 5
----------------------
= 65
----------------------
Step 8: Calculate Quartile deviation using following formula.
Quartile deviation = Q3 – Q1 / 2 ----------------------

= (65 – 46.66) /2 ----------------------

= 9.17 ----------------------
Example 8:
----------------------
Mean deviation about mean and median
----------------------
Find the mean deviation about arithmetic mean and median for the data.
31 35 29 63 55 72 37. ----------------------

Solution: ----------------------
Notes: Because of mean deviation variation in the range of quality of products ----------------------
or other qualities such as wages, income, height, weight etc.
----------------------
a. Mean deviation about mean

Measures of Central Tendency (Mean, Median and Mode) 357

 Notes Step 1: Sum all the value in Data (x) column (i.e. ∑X = (31+35+29+63+55+72+37))
Step 2: Make a total of data (x) column and you’ll get value of N (total number
----------------------
of observation) (i.e. N = 7)
---------------------- Step 3: Calculate the Arithmetic mean (A.M.) using following formula
---------------------- A.M. = ∑X / N

---------------------- A.M. = ∑X / N
A.M. = 322 / 7 = 46
----------------------
Step 4: Construct a new column namely |X – A.M.|
----------------------
(Use ІІ bar for taking absolute values)
---------------------- Step 5: Subtract mean (A.M) from the each Data (x) column value and place
it in to the |X – A.M.| Column respectively and make sum of all values in the
----------------------
column.
---------------------- X |X – A.M|
---------------------- 31 15
35 11
---------------------- 29 17
63 17
---------------------- 55 11
72 26
----------------------
37 9
---------------------- Total = 106
Step 6: Calculate M.D about mean using following formula.
----------------------
M.D. about mean = (∑|X – A.M.|) / N
----------------------
= 106 / 7
---------------------- = 15.14
---------------------- b) Mean deviation about median

---------------------- Step 1: Place data in ascending order into the data (x) column.
Step 2: Calculate the median using following formula.
----------------------
Median = [Size of (N+1) / 2]th item (i.e. N = 7)
----------------------
= (7 + 1) / 2 = 4th item
---------------------- Data in ascending order is: 29, 31, 35, 37, 55, 63, 72
---------------------- Median = 37
---------------------- Step 3: Construct a new column namely |X – Median|
Use ІІ bar for taking absolute value
----------------------
Step 4: Subtract Median from the each Data X column values and place it
---------------------- into the |X – Median| column respectively and make sum of all values in that
column.
----------------------

358 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

 X |X – Median| Notes
31 6
35 2 ----------------------
29 8
63 26 ----------------------
55 18
72 35 ----------------------
37 0 ----------------------
Total = 95
Step 5: Calculate M.D. about median using following formula. ----------------------
M.D. about Median = (∑|X – Median| ) / N ----------------------
= 95 / 7 ----------------------
= 13.57
----------------------
Example 9:
----------------------
Two cricketers scored the following runs in innings. Find who is better in
average and who is more consistent player. ----------------------
A 42 17 83 59 72 76 64 45 40 32
----------------------
B 28 70 31 0 59 10 88 21 43 95
Solution: ----------------------

Note: Standard deviation shows the gap between mean and actual values. If the ----------------------
value of S.D is smaller than mean then we can rely on mean for our decision
making. Mean alone cannot show the formation of series so it is better to ----------------------
calculate S.D. to support our decision. The next step of calculation of measures ----------------------
of variation is to calculate coefficient of variation (C.V) it gives the value in
percentage so it becomes easy to understand and compare the two series of ----------------------
same quality or different units of measurement.
----------------------
Step 1: For calculation of S.D. construct two new column namely (xA – A.M.A),
(xA– A.M.B)2 and (xB – A.M.B), (xB – A.M.B)2 respectively. ----------------------
Step 2: Calculate A.M. of A and A.M. of B using following formula. ----------------------
A.M.A = ∑XA / N ----------------------
= 530/10
----------------------
= 53
----------------------
A.M.B = ∑XB / N
= 490/10= 49 ----------------------
A.M.A > A.M.B ----------------------
Therefore Player A is better in average. ----------------------
Step 3: Subtract A.M.A from the each marks (xA) column value and place it
in to the (xA – A.M.A) column respectively and similarly Subtract A.M.B from ----------------------
the each marks (xB) column value and place it in to the (xB – A.M.B) column ----------------------
respectively.

Measures of Central Tendency (Mean, Median and Mode) 359

 Notes Step 4: Make the square of each (XA – A.M.A) column values and place it into
the (xA – A.M.A)2 column respectively and similarly for (XB – A.M.B) column
---------------------- value.
---------------------- Step 5: Make sum of (xA – A.M.A)2 and (xB – A.M.B)2 column for calculation of
S.D.
----------------------
(xA) (xA – A.M.A) (xA – A.M.A)2 (xB) (XB – A.M.B) (xB – A.M.B)2
----------------------
42 -11 121 28 -21 441
---------------------- 17 -36 1296 70 21 441
83 30 900 31 -18 324
---------------------- 59 6 36 0 -49 2401
72 19 361 59 100 10
---------------------- 76 23 529 108 59 3481
---------------------- 64 11 121 82 33 1089
45 -8 64 14 35 1225
---------------------- 40 -13 169 3 -46 2116
32 -21 441 95 46 2116
---------------------- 530 4038 490 13734
---------------------- Step 6: Calculation of σA and σB with their coefficient of variation (C.V.) using
following formula.
----------------------
σA = √(XA – A.M.A)2 / N
----------------------
= √4038 / 10
----------------------
= √403.8
----------------------
= 20.09
----------------------
C.V. (A) = (σa /A.M.A) *100
---------------------- = (20.09/53)*100
---------------------- = 37.91%

---------------------- σB = √(XB – A.M.B)2 / N

---------------------- = √13734 / 10

---------------------- = √1373.4

---------------------- = 37.05
C.V. (B) = (σB /A.M.B) *100
----------------------
= (37.05/49)*100
----------------------
= 75.63%
---------------------- C.V. (A) < C.V. (B)
---------------------- Therefore, player A is more consistent.
----------------------

360 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

Example 10: Notes
For the group of 100 observations, the mean and variance are found to be 60
----------------------
and 25 respectively. For another group of 50 observation the mean is 90 and
variance is 16. Find the S.D of combined group of 150 observations. ----------------------
Solution:
----------------------
Notes: When we know the standard deviation of different series we can calculate
only on S.D. for the combined group. ----------------------
Step 1: Take given values from the above example as follows. ----------------------
N1 = 100, A.M.1 = 60, σ 12 = 25, = 5σ2 =? ----------------------
N2 = 50, A.M.1 = 90, σ = 16, σ2 = 4
2
2
----------------------
Step 2: Calculate the combine mean using following formula
----------------------
A.M.C = (A.M.1 * N1 + A.M.2 * N2) / (N1 + N2)
= (60*100 + 90*50) / (100 + 50) ----------------------
= 10500/150 ----------------------
= 70 ----------------------
Step 3: Calculate the different for respectively mean as follows.
----------------------
d1 = A.MC – A.M.1
----------------------
= 70 – 60
= 10 ----------------------
d2 = A.MC – A.M.2 ----------------------
= 70 – 90 ----------------------
= - 20
----------------------
Step 4: Calculate combined standard deviation using following formula
----------------------
σ1 = √((100 * 25 + 50 * 16) + (100 * 100 + 50 * 400)) /(100 + 50)
----------------------
= √(3300 + 300000) / 150
----------------------

= √33300 / 150 ----------------------

= √222 = 14.89 ----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

Measures of Central Tendency (Mean, Median and Mode) 361

 Notes
Check your Progress 4
----------------------
Multiple Choice Single Response.
----------------------
1. Each observation in a data set having 10 values is 10. Then the mean
---------------------- and standard deviation of this data set are
---------------------- i. Mean=10, Standard Deviation=0
ii. Mean=10, Standard Deviation=10
----------------------
iii. Mean=0, Standard Deviation=10
----------------------
iv. Mean=0, Standard Deviation=0
---------------------- 2. The sum of deviations taken from arithmetic mean is
---------------------- i. Minimum
----------------------
ii. Zero

iii. Maximum
----------------------
iv. None
----------------------

---------------------- Summary
---------------------- ●● I n this unit we have studied the meaning and objectives of measures of
tendency as well as measures of variation.
----------------------
●● ean, mode and median are the three important measures of central
M
---------------------- tendency.
---------------------- ●● Mean is the most popular measure of central tendency where as standard
deviation is the most popular measure of variation.
---------------------- ●● Measures of central tendency and measures of variation plays an important
---------------------- role in the statistical data analysis.

---------------------- Keywords
----------------------
●● Mode: The value (number) that appears the most.
---------------------- ●● ange: The distance between the highest and lowest values in a
R
distribution.
----------------------
●● Standard Deviation: The square root of the variance.
----------------------

---------------------- Self-Assessment Questions

---------------------- 1. Discuss the merits and demerits of median as a measure of central

tendency.
----------------------
2. What are median and mode? Write the difference between them.
----------------------

362 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

3. Define range as a measure of dispersion. Write its advantages and Notes
limitations.
----------------------
4. Describe the other measures of dispersion.
5. What is standard deviation? What are its uses? ----------------------

----------------------
Answers to Check your Progress
----------------------
Check your Progress 1
----------------------
State True or False.
1. True ----------------------
Multiple Choice Single Response. ----------------------
1. The mean of 16 observations is 25 and 4 is added to each observation. ----------------------
Then the new mean is
ii. 29 ----------------------

Multiple Choice Multiple Response. ----------------------

1. Which of the following is true? ----------------------
ii. A.M cannot be obtained for a frequency distribution with open end ----------------------
class.
iii. A.M cannot be obtained if individual observations are unknown ----------------------
although the sum of observations is known for data set of given ----------------------
size.
Check your Progress 2 ----------------------

Multiple Choice Single Response. ----------------------

1. When calculating the median of a data set, the first step is ----------------------
ii. Arrange the data in an ascending or descending order.
----------------------
Check your Progress 3
----------------------
State True or False.
1. True ----------------------

2. False ----------------------
Check your Progress 4 ----------------------
Multiple Choice Single Response. ----------------------
1. Each observation in a data set having 10 values is 10. Then the mean and
standard deviation of this data set are ----------------------

i. Mean = 10, Standard Deviation = 0 ----------------------

2. The sum of deviations taken from arithmetic mean is ----------------------
ii. Zero
----------------------

Measures of Central Tendency (Mean, Median and Mode) 363

 Notes
Suggested Reading
----------------------
1. Gupta, S.P. Statistical Methods.
---------------------- 2. Rao, Dr. A.B. Business Statistics. Himalaya Publishing House.
----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------
----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

364 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

Correlation
UNIT

3
Structure:

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Types of Correlation
3.3 Methods of Correlation
3.4 Association of Attributes
Summary
Keywords
Self-Assessment Questions
Answers to Check your Progress
Suggested Reading

Correlation 365
 Notes
Objectives
----------------------
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
----------------------
• Explain the concept of correlation
----------------------
• Define Karl Pearson correlation coefficient
---------------------- • State the types of correlation and their significance
---------------------- • Describe the association of attributes

----------------------
3.1 INTRODUCTION
----------------------

---------------------- The correlation is one of the most common and most useful statistics. A
correlation is a single number that describes the degree of relationship between
---------------------- two variables.

---------------------- We come across a number of problems involving the use of two or more than
two variables, if two quantities vary in such a way those movements in the other,
---------------------- these quantities are correlated. For example, there exists some relationship between
age of husband and age of wife, price of goods and amount demanded, etc.
----------------------
The degree of relationship between two variables under consideration is
---------------------- measures through the correlation analysis.
---------------------- Correlation coefficient: The measure of correlation called the correlation
coefficient. The correlation analysis refers to the techniques used in measuring
---------------------- the closeness of the relationship between the variables.
---------------------- Definitions
●● According to Croxton and Cowden, “When the relationship is of a
----------------------
quantitative nature, the appropriate statistical tool for discovering and
---------------------- measuring the relationship and expressing it in brief formula is known as
correlation”.
----------------------
●● ccording to Simpson and Kafka, “Correlation analysis deals with the
A
---------------------- association between two or more variables”.
●● According to YaLun Chou, “Correlation analysis attempts to determine
----------------------
the ‘degree of relationship’ between variables”.
---------------------- Thus, correlation is a statistical method which helps us in analysing the
co-variation of the two or more variable.
----------------------
Importance of correlation
----------------------
Correlation is very much used in practical life because of following reasons:
---------------------- 1. With the help of correlation analysis we can measure in one figure the
---------------------- degree of relationship between the variables. We know that the most
of the variables show some kind of relationship. For example, there is
---------------------- relationship between ‘price and supply’, ’demand and price’.

366 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

2. Correlation analysis contributes to the understanding of economic Notes
behaviour, in locating important variables on which others depends,
which is used effective by economist. In business, correlation analysis ----------------------
enables the executive to estimate costs, sales, prices and other variable on
basis of other series may be related. ----------------------

3. Development in the methods of science and philosophy has been increase ----------------------
in the knowledge of correlation.
----------------------
4. The effect of correlation is to reduce the range of uncertainty, the prediction
based on correlation analysis. ----------------------

----------------------
3.2 TYPES OF CORRELATION
----------------------
In Research Methodology of Management, Correlation is broadly
classified into six types as follows: ----------------------
1. Positive Correlation: When two variables move in the same direction ----------------------
then the correlation between these two variables is said to be Positive
Correlation. When the value of one variable increases, the value of other ----------------------
also increases at the same rate.
----------------------
2. Negative Correlation: In this type of correlation, the two variables move
in the opposite direction. When the value of a variable increases, the value ----------------------
of the other variable decreases.
----------------------
3. Perfectly Positive Correlation: When there is a change in one variable
and if there is equal proportion of change in the other variable say Y in ----------------------
the same direction, then these two variables are said to have a Perfect ----------------------
Positive Correlation.
4. Perfectly Negative Correlation Between two variables: X and Y, if the ----------------------
change in X causes the same amount of change in Y in equal proportion ----------------------
but in opposite direction, then this correlation is called as Perfectly
Negative Correlation. ----------------------
5. Zero Correlation: When the two variables are independent and the change ----------------------
in one variable has no effect in other variable, then the correlation between
these two variable is known as Zero Correlation. ----------------------
6. Linear Correlation: If the quantum of change in one variable has a ratio ----------------------
of change in the quantum of change in the other variable then it is known
as linear correlation. ----------------------
Correlation is classified in the three important ways as follows: ----------------------
1. Positive and Negative Correlation ----------------------
2. Simple, Partial and Multiple Correlation
----------------------
3. Linear and Non-linear Correlation.
----------------------

----------------------

Correlation 367
 Notes These are discussed below.
1. Positive and Negative Correlation:
----------------------
Correlation is positive (which is called direct) or negative (which is called
---------------------- inverse) would depend upon the direction of change of the variables.
---------------------- Positive Correlation: If both variables are varying in the same direction, i.e., if
as one variable is increasing the other is also increasing or, if as one variable is
---------------------- decreasing the other is also decreasing, is called as positive correlation.
---------------------- Negative Correlation: If the one variable is increasing; the other is decreasing
or vice versa, is called as negative correlation.
----------------------
The following example shows the difference between positive and
---------------------- negative correlation:
---------------------- I. Positive Correlation:
X: 15 17 19 23 27
----------------------
Y: 12 19 21 27 39
----------------------
II. Negative Correlation:
---------------------- X: 15 17 19 23 27
---------------------- Y: 39 27 21 19 12
----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

---------------------- Perfect Positive Correlation Perfect Negative Correlation

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

---------------------- Low degree of Negative High degree of Positive Correlation

Correlation
----------------------
2. Simple, Partial and Multiple Correlation:
----------------------
The distribution between simple correlation, partial correlation and
---------------------- multiple correlations are based upon the number of variables.

368 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

 Simple correlation: When only two variables are considered it is a problem Notes
of simple correlation.
----------------------
Multiple and partial correlation: When three or more variables are
considered it is a problem of multiple or partial correlation. When three or more ----------------------
variables are considered simultaneously is called multiple correlations.
----------------------
On the other hand, in partial correlation we recognise more than two
variables, but consider only two variables to be influencing each other and other ----------------------
variables are being constant.
----------------------
3. Linear and Non-Linear Correlation:
The distribution between linear and non-linear correlation is based upon ----------------------
the constancy of the ratio of change between the variables. ----------------------
Linear correlation: If the change in one variable accepts a constant ratio to
the change in other variable then the correlation is called as linear correlation. It ----------------------
is clear that the ratio of change between the two variables is the same. If these ----------------------
variables are plotted on graph paper all the points are in the straight line.
For example, consider the following two variables X and Y: ----------------------

X: 15 25 35 45 55 ----------------------
Y: 62 134 198 245 295 ----------------------
Non-linear correlation: If the change in one variable does not accept ----------------------
a constant ratio to the change in the other variable is called as non-linear
correlation. ----------------------
For example, if we double the amount of rainfall, the production of rice ----------------------
would not be doubled.
----------------------
Check your Progress 1
----------------------
Multiple Choice Single Response. ----------------------
1. If the relationship between variables x and y is linear, then the points
----------------------
on the scatter diagram
i. Will fall exactly on a straight line ----------------------
ii. Will fall on a curve ----------------------
iii. Must represent population parameters
----------------------
iv. Must represent by a straight line
2. In a negative’s relationship, ----------------------
i. As x increases, y increases ----------------------
ii. As x decreases, y decreases
----------------------
iii. As x increases, y decreases
iv. Both a and b ----------------------

----------------------

Correlation 369
 Notes 3.3 METHODS OF CORRELATION
---------------------- There are various methods of correlation, which are as follows:

---------------------- 1. Scatter diagram method

2. Graphic method
----------------------
3. Karl Pearson’s Coefficient of correlation
----------------------
4. Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient
---------------------- Scatter diagram method and Graphic Method are based on the knowledge
of diagrams and graphs, whereas Karl Pearson’s Coefficient of correlation,
----------------------
Concurrent deviation method and Method of Least square are the mathematical
---------------------- methods.

---------------------- 1. Karl Pearson’s Coefficient of Correlation

The Karl Pearson’s method popularly known as Pearson’s coefficient
---------------------- of correlation is most widely used in practice. The Pearson’s coefficient of
---------------------- correlation is denoted by the symbol ‘r’.
Correlation Coefficient, r measures the direction and the strength of the
---------------------- linear association between two numerical paired variables.
---------------------- r Interpretation
-1 Perfectly negative correlation
----------------------
0 No correlation
---------------------- 1 Perfectly positive correlation
A formula for computing r is:
----------------------
∑xy
r=
---------------------- N σxσy
---------------------- Here, x = (X – X), y = (Y – Y )

---------------------- σx= standard deviation of series X

σy= standard deviation of series Y
----------------------
N = number of pairs of observations
----------------------
r = correlation coefficient
---------------------- This method is to be applied only where deviations of items are taken from
---------------------- actual mean and not from assumed mean.
The value of r is obtained by above formula will always lie between ±1; it
---------------------- means there is perfect positive correlation between the variables. When r = -1,
---------------------- it means there is perfect negative correlation between the variables. When r = 0,
it means there is no relationship between two variables. But actually the values
---------------------- of r as +1, -1 and 0 are rare. We can get values which lie between +1 and -1 such
as + 0.8, –0.2 etc.
----------------------
The above formula can be transformed to the following form which is
---------------------- easier to apply.

370 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

 ∑xy Notes
r=
√∑ x2 * ∑y2
----------------------
Where, x = (X – X), y = (Y – Y )
----------------------
Steps
----------------------
1. Take the deviations of the X series from the mean of X and denote these
deviations by x. ----------------------
2. Square these deviations and obtain the total that is ∑x .
2
----------------------
3. Take the deviations of the Y series from the mean of Y and denote these
deviations by y. ----------------------
4. Square these deviations and obtain the total that is ∑y2. ----------------------
5. Multiply the deviations of X and Y series and obtain the total that is ∑xy. ----------------------
6. Substitute the values of ∑xy, ∑x and ∑y in the above formula.
2 2
----------------------
Merits
----------------------
1. Karl Pearson’s method is most popular; among the mathematical method
used for measuring the degree of relationship. ----------------------
2. The correlation coefficient summarises in one figure not only the degree ----------------------
of correlation but also the direction that is whether correlation is positive
or negative. ----------------------
Demerits ----------------------
1. As compared with other methods this method takes more time to compute
the value of correlation coefficient. ----------------------

2. The correlation coefficient always assumes linear relationship regardless ----------------------

of the fact whether that assumption is correct or not.
----------------------
3. The value of coefficient is improperly affected by the extreme items.
----------------------
Example
Calculate the correlation between X and Y. ----------------------

X Y X2 Y2 XY ----------------------
3 3 9 9 9
5 4 25 16 20 ----------------------
4 5 16 25 20 ----------------------
6 2 36 4 12
2 6 4 36 12 ----------------------
Total = 20 20 90 90 73
----------------------
Karl Pearson’s Correlation of Coefficient
∑XY – ((∑X * ∑Y)/N) ----------------------
r=
(∑x)2 (∑Y)2

  ∑X2–
N ) * ∑Y2– N 
----------------------

----------------------

Correlation 371
 Notes r = (5(73) – (20) (20))/ √(5(90) – (20)2) * (5(90) – (20)2)
r = – 35 / (7.07*7.07)
----------------------
r = – 35 / 50
----------------------
r = – 0.7
---------------------- 2. Rank Correlation Coefficient
---------------------- We can understand that the biggest disadvantage of the Karl Pearson’s
method is based on the assumptions. It is possible to avoid making any
----------------------
assumption about the populations being studied by ranking the observations
---------------------- according to size and basing the calculations on the ranks rather than original
observations. It does not matter which way the items are ranked, item number
---------------------- may be largest or smallest.
---------------------- Rank correlation coefficient method of finding out the lack of it between
the two variables was developed by the British Psychologist Charles Edward
---------------------- Spearman in 1904. This measure is useful when quantitative measures for
certain factors cannot be fixed, but the individual in a group indicating his or
----------------------
her rank in the group.
---------------------- Formula,
---------------------- 6∑D2
R=1–
N3 – N
----------------------
Where R denotes rank coefficient of correlation and D refers to the
---------------------- difference of rank between paired items in two series. The coefficient value,
interpreted in the same way as Karl Pearson Correlation Coefficient, ranges
----------------------
between +1 and -1. When R is +1 there is complete agreement in the order of
---------------------- the ranks and the ranks are in the same direction. When r is -1 there is complete
agreement in the order of the ranks and they are in opposite directions.
----------------------
Merits of Spearman’s Rank Correlation Coefficient
---------------------- 1. Simple to understand & Easy to apply – Rank Method is simple to
understand and easy to apply as compared to Karl Pearson’s Method.
----------------------
2. Suitable for Qualitative Data – Rank Method can be conveniently used as
---------------------- a measure degree of association between variables which are not capable
---------------------- of being quantifiable but can only be ranked in some other. For example, it
may be possible for the two judges to rank by preference 10 girls in terms
---------------------- of beauty whereas it may be difficult to give them a numerical grade in
terms of beauty.
----------------------
3. Suitable for Abnormal Data – Rank Method can conveniently be used
---------------------- when data are abnormal because rank correlation coefficient is not based
on the assumption of normality of data like Karl Pearson.
----------------------
4. Only method for ranks – Rank Method can be applied even where actual
---------------------- data are given and not the actual data.
---------------------- 5. Applicable even for actual data – Rank method can be applied even where
actual data are given.
372 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods
Limitations Notes
1. Unsuitable for Grouped Data – Rank Method can be applied in case of
----------------------
grouped frequency distribution.
2. Tedious calculations – Calculations become quite tedious where N ----------------------
exceeds 30.
----------------------
3. Approximation – Rank Method’s result is only approximation since actual
data are not taken into account. ----------------------
When Rank Correlation Coefficient is preferred to Karl Pearson’s ----------------------
Coefficient of Correlation –
----------------------
1. The distribution is not normal.
2. The behaviour of distribution is not known. ----------------------

4. Only qualitative data are given and not the actual data. ----------------------
Example ----------------------
From the given data calculate coefficient of Rank Correlation by Spearman ----------------------
formula.
Solution: ----------------------

X Y R1 R2 D = R1 - R2 D2 ----------------------
53 47 8 1 7 49
98 25 1 8 -7 49 ----------------------
95 32 2 6 -4 16 ----------------------
81 37 3 5 -2 4
75 30 4 7 -3 9 ----------------------
61 40 5 3 2 4
59 39 6 4 2 4 ----------------------
55 45 7 2 5 25
----------------------
∑D2=160
6∑D2 ----------------------
R=1–
N3 – N
----------------------
6 * 160 ----------------------
=1–
512 – 8
----------------------
960
=1– ----------------------
512 – 504
----------------------
= 1 – 1.90
----------------------
= – 0.9
----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

Correlation 373
 Notes Merits
1. Rank correlation coefficient method is simpler to understand and easier to
----------------------
apply compared to Karl Pearson’s method.
---------------------- 2. Where the data are of a qualitative nature like honesty, efficiency and
intelligence etc., this method can be used with greater advantage.
----------------------
3. Rank correlation coefficient method is the only methods that can be used
---------------------- where are given the ranks and not the actual data.
---------------------- 4. Even where the actual data given, rank method can be applied for
ascertaining the correlation.
----------------------
Demerits
---------------------- 1. Rank correlation coefficient method cannot be used for finding out
---------------------- correlation in a grouped frequency distribution.
2. Where the number of items exceeds 30 the calculations become quite
----------------------
boring and require a lot of time.
---------------------- When to use Rank Correlation Coefficient?
---------------------- The rank method has following uses:

---------------------- 1. The initial data are in the form of ranks.

2. If N is small (not more than 25 or 30) rank method is sometimes applied
---------------------- to interval data as an approximation to the more time consuming r.
----------------------
Check your Progress 2
----------------------
Multiple Choice Single Response.
----------------------
1. If r = 0, then
----------------------
i. There is a perfect correlation between x and y.
---------------------- ii. x and y are not correlated.
---------------------- iii. There is a positive correlation between x and y
iv. There is a negative correlation between x and y.
----------------------
2. The ranks obtained by 10 students in mathematics and physics in a
---------------------- class test are as follows:

---------------------- Rank in Mathematics: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Rank in Physics: 3 10 5 1 2 9 4 8 7 6
----------------------
The coefficient of correlation between their ranks is:
----------------------
i. .15
---------------------- ii. .224
iii. .625
----------------------
iv. 0
----------------------

374 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

 Notes
State True or False.
1. There are no limits to the value of r. ----------------------
2. Correlation always signifies a cause and effect relationship between ----------------------
the variables.
----------------------

3.4 ASSOCIATION OF ATTRIBUTES ----------------------

In social sciences, we come across certain phenomena which are ----------------------

incapable of quantitative measurement. Blindness, deafness, religion juvenile ----------------------
delinquency, marital status etc. are some phenomena, which are not measurable.
Such characteristics are called attributes. In these cases, one can make only ----------------------
counting of individuals who possess or do not possess these attributes. In other
words what we can do is to state so many individuals are blind or so many non- ----------------------
blind. While dealing with one attribute the classification of data is done on the ----------------------
basis of presence or absence of the attribute. It is also absolutely essential that
a clear-cut definition of the attribute under study is made because only such ----------------------
a definition paves way for the counting of the individuals possessing or not
possessing the attribute. Two attributes are said to be associated only if they ----------------------
appear together in a great number of cades than is to be expected if they are ----------------------
independent. On the other hand, if the number of observed cases is less than the
expected, under assumption of independence, attributes are associated. In order ----------------------
to ascertain whether the attributes are associated or not the following methods
can be used. ----------------------

1. Comparison of observed and expected frequencies Method : The attributes ----------------------

A and B are:
----------------------
i. Independent if actual (AB) = Its expected value which is (A) x (B)
/N ----------------------
ii. Positively associated if (AB) > (A) x (B) / N ----------------------
iii. Negatively associated if (AB) < (A) x (B) / N Similar rules for Ü ----------------------
and B, A and â and Ü and â
However, this method helps in understanding only the nature of association ----------------------
(positive, negative or no association) but not its degree. ----------------------
2. Proportion method: Here we study various proportions to find the
association between two attributes and the attributes A and B are: ----------------------

i. Independent if (AB) /(B) = (A â)/ (â) ----------------------

ii. Positively associated if (AB) /(B) > (A â)/ (â) ----------------------
iii. Negatively associated if(AB) /(B) < (A â)/ (â)
----------------------
Here also we can determine only the nature and not the degree of
association. ----------------------

----------------------

Correlation 375
 Notes 3. Yule’s coefficient of Association: This is the most popular method, which
determines not only the nature but also the degree or extent of association
---------------------- between the two attributes. Yule’s coefficient (Q) is given by,
---------------------- Q = (AB) (Üâ) - (Aâ) (ÜB) / (AB) (Üâ) + (Aâ) (ÜB)
Note that (-1 ≤ Q ≤ +1)
----------------------
i. Independent if Q = 0
----------------------
ii. Perfectly Positive association if Q = + 1
---------------------- iii. Perfectly Negative association if Q = - 1
---------------------- Attributes A & B are
---------------------- i. Independent if (i) )(Üâ) = (Aâ) (ÜB)
ii. Perfectly (Positive) associated (Aâ) (ÜB) = 0
----------------------
iii. Perfectly (Negative) associated (Aâ) (ÜB) = 0
----------------------
---------------------- Summary
---------------------- ●● Correlation is the important statistical tool which is widely used by the
business analysts, economists, policy makers, scientists, management
---------------------- experts and others to measure the amount of similarities and variation.
---------------------- ●● In this unit, we discussed two important methods of correlation, i.e. Karl
Pearson’s coefficient of correlation and Spearman’s Rank correlation
---------------------- coefficient.
----------------------
Keywords
----------------------
●● orrelation Coefficient, r: The quantity r, called the linear correlation
C
---------------------- coefficient, measures the strength and the direction of a linear relationship
between two variables.
----------------------
●● ule’s coefficient of Association B: This is the most popular method
Y
---------------------- which determines not only the nature but also the degree or extent of
association between the two attributes.
----------------------
●● oefficient of colligation: It is denoted by (gamma) Y and is given by Õ
C
---------------------- = 1 - (Aâ) (ÜB)/ (AB) )(Üâ) / 1 + (Aâ) (ÜB)/ (AB) )(Üâ)
---------------------- ●● ontingency Coefficient: The contingency coefficient is also the nominal
C
association which is based on the adjusted chi-square.
----------------------

---------------------- Self-Assessment Questions

---------------------- 1. What is correlation?

---------------------- 2. Distinguish between positive and negative correlation.

3. Explain the significance of coefficient of correlation.
----------------------

376 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

4. Explain association of attributes. Notes
5. Distinguish between the following, giving suitable examples:
----------------------
a. Positive and negative correlation
----------------------
b. Linear and non-linear correlation
----------------------
Answers to Check your Progress
----------------------
Check your Progress 1
----------------------
Multiple Choice Single Response.
----------------------
1. If the relationship between variables x and y is linear, then the points on
the scatter diagram ----------------------
iv. Must represent by a straight line ----------------------
2. In a negative’s relationship
----------------------
iii. As x increases, y decreases
----------------------
Check your Progress 2
Multiple Choice Single Response. ----------------------
1. If r = 0, then ----------------------
ii. x and y are not correlated. ----------------------
2. The ranks obtained by 10 students in mathematics and physics in a class
----------------------
test are as follows:
Rank in Mathematics: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ----------------------
Rank in Physics: 3 10 5 1 2 9 4 8 7 6 ----------------------
The coefficient of correlation between their ranks is: ----------------------
ii. .224
----------------------
State True or False.
----------------------
1. False
2. True ----------------------

----------------------
Suggested Reading
----------------------
1. Gupta, S.P. Statistical Methods.
----------------------
2. Rao, Dr. A.B. Business Statistics. Himalaya Publishing House.
----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

Correlation 377
 Notes

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------
----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

378 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

Probability
UNIT

4
Structure:

4.1 Introduction
4.2 Definitions
4.3 Theorems of Probability
4.4 Binomial Distribution
4.5 Poisson Distribution
4.6 Normal Distribution
Summary
Keywords
Self-Assessment Questions
Answers to Check your Progress
Suggested Reading

Probability 379
 Notes
Objectives
----------------------
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
----------------------
• Explain the concept of probability
----------------------
• Elaborate on the theorems of probability
---------------------- • Discuss binomial distribution
---------------------- • Describe normal distribution and its significance

----------------------
4.1 INTRODUCTION
----------------------
1. Permutation means arrangement; combination means selection.
----------------------
2. Fundamental theorem
---------------------- If there are m ways of doing a thing and for each of these m ways there
---------------------- are associated n ways of doing a second thing, then the total number of ways of
doing both the things is m x n.
---------------------- Example:
---------------------- In a certain hall, there are 3 entrance doors and two exit doors. In how many
ways a person can come in the hall and then come out?
----------------------
Solution:
----------------------
A person can enter through any of the three entrance doors. So there are three
---------------------- ways of entering the hall. After entering the hall, he can come out through any
of the two exit doors. So there are two ways of coming out.
----------------------
Therefore, required number of ways = (3 x 2) = 6
---------------------- 3. Permutations
---------------------- i. Number of permutations of n dissimilar things taking r at time is
---------------------- n!
nPr =
(n – r)!
----------------------
ii. Number of permutations of n dissimilar things, taken all at a time is
---------------------- n
Pn=n!

---------------------- iii. Number of circular permutations of n different things taken all at a time
is (n-1)!
---------------------- iv. number of permutations of n things, taken all at a time, when (p1) are alike
---------------------- of one kind, (p2) are alike of second kind…..(pr) are alike of rth
kind =n! / (p1!) (p2!) … (pr!)
----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

380 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

4. Combinations Notes
i. Number of combinations of n different things taken r at a time is Cr given
n
----------------------
by:
n! n ----------------------
n
Cr = = Pr
(n – r)!r! r!
----------------------
ii. n
C0=1, nCn=1
----------------------
iii. n
Cp=nCqp+q=n or p=q
iv. n
Cr=nCn-r ----------------------

v. n
Cr-1+nCr=n+1Cr ----------------------
vi. Number of combination of n different things taken r at a time when p ----------------------
particular things always occur = n-rCr-p
----------------------
vii. Number of combination of n different things taken r at a time when p
particular things never occur = n-rCr. ----------------------

4.2 DEFINITIONS ----------------------

1. Random experiment: If in each trial of an experiment conducted under ----------------------

identical conditions, the outcome is not only always the same, but may ----------------------
be any of the possible outcomes and then such an experiment is called
random experiment. ----------------------
OR ----------------------
The experiment is said to be a random if
----------------------
a. It is non-deterministic model.
----------------------
b. It is repeatable under same condition.
E.g. drawing a card from pack of playing cards, Tossing of a coin ----------------------

2. Sample space: The set of all possible outcomes in a random experiment ----------------------
is called a sample space. It is denoted by Ω or S, e.g. in tossing of a fair
----------------------
coin,
S= {H, T} ----------------------
In throw of a die, ----------------------
S= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} ----------------------
3. Event: Any subset of a sample space is called as an event. It is denoted
by capital letters such as A, B, C etc. ----------------------

4. Mutually exclusive (disjoint) events: Two events A and B of Ω are said ----------------------
to be mutually exclusive (disjoint) if they do not contain any common
elements (i.e. A∩B =Ø) E.g. In throwing a die, s={1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 } ----------------------

Let the event A = event of getting a number less than 3 = {1, 2} ----------------------
Let the event B = event of getting a number greater than 4 = {5, 6} ----------------------

Probability 381
 Notes As A∩B =Ø A and B are mutually exclusive events.
5. Exhaustive events: The events E1, E2, ------ Ek such that E1UE2U, ----
----------------------
UEk = S are called exhaustive events.
---------------------- 6. Probability: In a random experiment, let S be the sample space and A is
an event.
----------------------
Number of distinct elements in A n(A)
---------------------- P (A) = =
Number of distinct elements in S n(S)
---------------------- 7. Addition theorem:

---------------------- P (AUB) = P (A) + P (B) - P (A∩B)

8. If A and B are mutually exclusive events then
----------------------
P (AUB) = P (A) + P (B) [therefore (A∩B) = Ø]
----------------------
9. Independent events: Two events are said to independent if the occurrence
---------------------- of one does not depend upon the occurrence of the other, e.g. suppose two
fair coins are tossed.
----------------------
Let A = event of getting a tail on first coin
---------------------- B = event of getting a tail on second coin
---------------------- Clearly, the occurrence of tail on second coin does not depend upon the
occurrence of tail on first coin.
----------------------
Therefore, A & B are independent events
----------------------
10. Multiplication theorem: If A and B are independent events, then P
---------------------- (A∩B) = P (A).P (B)
11. Axioms of probability: 1. 0≤ P(A) ≤ 1
----------------------
2. P(S) or P (Ω) = 1
----------------------
3. P (A) + P (A′) = 1
---------------------- 12. Conditional probability: The probability of the occurrence of an event
---------------------- A, when an event B has already occurred, is called the conditional
probability P (A/B)
----------------------
P (A/B) = P (A∩B)
---------------------- P (B)
P (B/A) = P (A∩B)
----------------------
P (A)
----------------------
Check your Progress 1
----------------------

---------------------- Fill in the blanks.

1. Probability ranges from ______to________.
----------------------
2. The order of arrangement is important in ______________.
----------------------

382 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

 4.3 THEOREMS OF PROBABILITY Notes
1. Addition Theorem ----------------------
2. Theorem on Compound Probability ----------------------
3. Bayes’ Theorem
----------------------
These are explained below.
----------------------
1. Addition Theorem P (AUB) = P (A) + P (B) – P (A ∩ B) Where:
P (A) = probability that event A occurs P (B) = probability that event B occurs ----------------------
P (AUB) = probability that event A or event B occurs ----------------------
P (A ∩ B) = probability that event A and event B both occur ----------------------
(a) P (A ∩ B) = 0, for mutually exclusive events i.e. events which cannot
occur together. ----------------------

The addition rule therefore reduces to P (AUB) = P (A) + P (B) ----------------------

(b) For independent events, that is events which have no influence on each ----------------------
other: P (A ∩ B) = P (A) *P (B)
----------------------
The addition rule therefore reduces to
P (AUB) = P (A) + P (B) – P (A) *P (B) ----------------------

Example: ----------------------
Suppose we wish to find the probability of drawing either a king or a ----------------------
spade in a single draw from a pack of 52 playing cards.
----------------------
We define the events A = ‘draw a king’ and B = ‘draw a spade’
Since there are 4 kings in the pack and 13 spades, but 1 card is both a king ----------------------
and a spade, we have: P (AUB) = P (A) + P (B) – P (A ∩ B)
----------------------
= 4/52 + 13/52 – 1/52 = 16/52
----------------------
So, the probability of drawing either a king or a spade is 16/52 (= 4/13).
2. Theorem on Compound Probability ----------------------

For dependent events A and B, the probability of their simultaneous ----------------------

occurrence is P (A and B) = P (A ∩ B) = P (A) x P (A/B)
----------------------
= P (B) x P (A/B)
----------------------
Example:
Suppose we wish to find the probability of drawing either a king or a ----------------------
queen from a pack of 52 playing cards in two consecutive draws when the cards ----------------------
drawn are
i. Not being replaced ----------------------

ii. Being replaced. ----------------------

----------------------

Probability 383
 Notes We define the events A = ‘draw a king’ and B = ‘draw a queen’. Since
there are 4 kings in the pack, P (A) = 4/52.
----------------------
i. If card is not replaced, then 51 cards are left in the pack. Hence drawing
---------------------- a queen from the pack, 4 queens in the remaining 51 cards. Therefore P
(B/A) = 4 / 51. Therefore,
----------------------
P (A ∩ B) = P (A) x P (A/B) = 4 /52 + 4/ 51
---------------------- ii. If card is replaced, then 52 cards left in the pack. Hence drawing a queen from
the pack, 4 queens in the remaining 52 cards. Therefore P (B/A) = 4 / 52.
----------------------
Therefore,
----------------------
P (A ∩ B) = P (A) x P (A/B) = 4 /52 + 4/52 = 8/52 = 2/13
---------------------- 3. Bayes’ Theorem: Bayes’ Theorem is a result that allows new information
---------------------- to be used to update the conditional probability of an event.
Using the multiplication rule, gives Bayes’ Theorem in its simplest form:
----------------------
P (A|B) = P (A ∩ B) / P (B) = P (B|A). P (A) / P (B)
---------------------- Using the Law of Total Probability:
---------------------- P (A|B) = P (B|A). P (A) / P (B | A).P (A) + P (B | A’).P (A’)

---------------------- Where:
P (A) = probability that event A occurs P (B) = probability that event B occurs
----------------------
P (A’) = probability that event A does not occur
----------------------
P (A | B) = probability that event A occurs given that event B has occurred
---------------------- already = P (B|A). P (A) / P (B)
P (B | A) = probability that event B occurs given that event A has occurred
----------------------
already
---------------------- P (B | A’) = probability that event B occurs given that event A has not occurred
---------------------- already
An illustration of Bayes’ Theorem:
----------------------
Suppose you are given two drawers. You cannot see the contents of the drawers,
---------------------- but you are told that one drawer contains two gold coins and the other drawer
contains one gold coin and one silver coin. If someone pulls a coin at random
---------------------- out of drawer A and it turns out to be gold, what is the probability that drawer A
---------------------- is the drawer with two gold coins?
Event Description Probability
----------------------
A Drawer A has two gold coins 0.5
---------------------- B Person chooses a gold coin out of the four coins 0.75
B|A Conditional probability of choosing a gold coin from A 1
----------------------
if it has two gold coins
---------------------- P (A|B) = P (B|A). P (A) / P (B)
---------------------- = (1) * (0.5) / (0.75) = 0.5 /0.75 = 2/3

384 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

 Notes
Check your Progress 2
----------------------
Multiple Choice Single Response.
----------------------
1. Additional theorem states that if two A and B are mutually exclusive,
the probability of occurrence of either A and B is given by ----------------------
i. P (A) + P (B) ----------------------
ii. P (B) x P (A)
----------------------
iii. P (A) – P (B)
iv. P (A) + P (B) + P (AÇB) ----------------------
2. If two events A and B are independent, the probability that they will ----------------------
both occur is given by
----------------------
i. P (A) + P (B)
ii. P (A) x P (B) ----------------------
iii. P (A) – P (B) ----------------------
iv. 0
----------------------

4.4 BINOMIAL DISTRIBUTION ----------------------

A binomial random variable is the number of successes x in n repeated ----------------------

trials of a binomial experiment. The probability distribution of a binomial ----------------------
random variable is called a binomial distribution (Bernoulli distribution).
●● discrete r. v x is said to follow a binomial distribution if its p.m.f. is
A ----------------------
given by P(x)=(xn)px qn-x, x = 0, 1, 2,--------- n , 0<p<1, q=1-p ----------------------
notation: x  B(n,P)
----------------------
where n = no of trials (Repetitions of experiment)
----------------------
p = probability of getting a success in one trial
q = probability of getting a failure in one trial ----------------------
x = no. of success in ‘n’ trials. ----------------------
●● The binomial distribution is useful under following conditions. ----------------------
i. Each trial has exactly two possible outcomes say failure (F) & success (S)
----------------------
ii. Probability of getting a success in one trial should remain constant for all
trials. ----------------------

----------------------
4.5 POISSON DISTRIBUTION
----------------------
It is a limiting process of binomial distribution. Poisson distribution
occurs when there are events, which do not occur as outcomes of a definite ----------------------
number of outcomes.
----------------------

Probability 385
 Notes Poisson distribution is used under the following conditions:
1. Number of trials n tends to infinity or very large
----------------------
2. Probability of success p tends to zero and
----------------------
3. n p = mean m is finite & positive
---------------------- P (r) = e –m m r / r ! r = 0, 1, 2 …
---------------------- P (r) is the probability of getting r successes e is the logarithm’s base i.e. 2.718
9 approx.)
----------------------
∑P (r) = 1
----------------------
For Poisson Distribution E(r) = mean and variance α 2 = m
----------------------
4.6 NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
----------------------
The normal distribution refers to a family of continuous probability distributions
---------------------- described by the normal equation.
---------------------- Characteristics of a Normal Distribution
---------------------- 1. Continuous Random Variable.
2. Mound or Bell-shaped curve.
----------------------
3. The normal curve extends indefinitely in both directions, approaching,
---------------------- but never touching, the horizontal axis as it does so.
---------------------- 4. Uni modal
---------------------- 5. Mean = Median = Mode
6. Symmetrical with respect to the mean: That is, 50% of the area (data)
----------------------
under the curve lies to the left of the mean and 50% of the area (data)
---------------------- under the curve lies to the right of the mean.

---------------------- 7. a. ≈ 68% of the area (data) under the curve is within one standard
deviation of the mean
----------------------
b. 95% of the area (data) under the curve is within two standard
---------------------- deviations of the mean

---------------------- c. 99.7% of the area (data) under the curve is within three standard
deviations of the mean
---------------------- 8. The total area under the normal curve is equal to 1.
---------------------- The Normal Curve
---------------------- The graph of the normal distribution depends on two factors - the mean
and the standard deviation. The mean of the distribution determines the location
---------------------- of the center of the graph and the standard deviation determines the height and
width of the graph. When the standard deviation is large, the curve is short and
----------------------
wide; when the standard deviation is small, the curve is tall and narrow. All
---------------------- normal distributions look like a symmetric, bell-shaped curve, as shown below.

386 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

 Notes

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------
The curve on the left is shorter and wider than the curve on the right, because ----------------------
the curve on the left has a bigger standard deviation.
----------------------
Probability and the Normal Curve
The normal distribution is a continuous probability distribution. This has several ----------------------
implications for probability. ----------------------
●● The total area under the normal curve is equal to 1.
----------------------
●● The probability that a normal random variable X equals any particular
value is 0. ----------------------
●● The probability that X is greater than a equals the area under the normal ----------------------
curve bounded by a and plus infinity (as indicated by the non-shaded area
in the figure below). ----------------------
●● The probability that X is less than a equals the area under the normal ----------------------
curve bounded by a and minus infinity (as indicated by the shaded area in
the figure below). ----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

a ----------------------

Additionally, every normal curve (regardless of its mean or standard ----------------------
deviation) conforms to the following “rule”.
----------------------
●● About 68% of the area under the curve falls within 1 standard deviation
of the mean. ----------------------
●● About 95% of the area under the curve falls within 2 standard deviations ----------------------
of the mean.
----------------------
●● About 99.7% of the area under the curve falls within 3 standard deviations
of the mean. ----------------------
Collectively, these points are known as the empirical rule or the 68-95-
----------------------
99.7 rule. Clearly, given a normal distribution, most outcomes will be within 3
standard deviations of the mean. ----------------------

----------------------

Probability 387
 Notes
Check your Progress 3
----------------------
State True or False.
----------------------
1. When probability of success is very less, normal distribution is used.
----------------------
2. When the random experiment has exact two outcomes, Binomial
---------------------- distribution is used.
Multiple Choice Single Response.
----------------------
1. A and B appeared for an interview for two vacancies, the probabilities
---------------------- of their selection being 1/7 and 1/5 respectively. The probability that
at least one of them is selected is:
----------------------
i. 1/35
----------------------
ii. 12/35
---------------------- iii. 11/35
iv. 24/35
----------------------
2. If p (A) is equal to 0.60, then p (A’) is
----------------------
i. 0.4
---------------------- ii. 0.6
---------------------- iii. 0.84
iv. 1
----------------------

---------------------- Examples of Theorem of Probability

---------------------- Example 1:
---------------------- A card is drawn at random from a well-shuffled pack of 52 cards. Find the
probability of its being a spade or a king.
----------------------
Solution:
---------------------- Here n(S) = 52, where S denotes the sample space.
---------------------- Let A = Event of getting a spade card
---------------------- B = Event of getting a king

---------------------- A ∩ B = Event of getting a king of spade

Now n (A) = 13, n(B) = 4 and n (A ∩ B) = 1
----------------------
n(A) 13 1
\ P (A) = = =
---------------------- n(S) 52 4

---------------------- n(B) 4 1
P (B) = = =
n(S) 52 13
----------------------
n(A ∩ B) 1
and P(A ∩ B) = =
---------------------- n(S) 52

388 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

\ P (a spade or a king) Notes
P(A  B) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A ∩ B)
=
----------------------
1 1 1 13 + 4 – 1 16 4
= + – = = = ----------------------
4 13 52 52 52 13
4 ----------------------
Hence P (a spade or a king) =
13
----------------------
Example 2:
A drawer contains 50 bolts and 150 nuts. Half of bolts and half of the ----------------------
nuts are rusted. If one item is chosen at random what is the probability that it is ----------------------
rusted or is a bolt?
----------------------
Solution:
Let A: Item chosen in rusted. ----------------------
B: Item chosen in bolt ----------------------
Here A and B are non-mutually exclusive events. ----------------------
A ∩ B : Item in a rusted bolt.
----------------------
Total number of bolts = 50
----------------------
\ number of rusted bolt = 25
Total number of nuts = 150 ----------------------
\ Number of rusted nuts = 75 ----------------------
Total number of rusted items = 25 + 75 = 100 ----------------------
P(A  B) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A ∩ B)
----------------------
100 50 25 100 + 50 – 25 5
+ – = = ----------------------
200 200 200 200 8
Example 3: ----------------------
A fair dice is thrown. Write down the sample space. What is the chance
----------------------
that either an odd number or a number greater than 4 will turn up?
Solution: ----------------------
Let S be the sample space connected with the throwing of the dice. Then ----------------------
S = {1,2,3,4,5,6}, \ n(S) = 6 ----------------------
If A be the event that an odd number will turn up and B, be event that a
----------------------
number greater than 4 will turn up, then
Also A ∩ B = A = {1, 3, 5} and B = {5, 6) ----------------------
\ A and B are not mutually exclusive events ----------------------
Now n (A) = 3, n(B) = 2 and n (A ∩ B) = 1 ----------------------

----------------------

Probability 389
 Notes n(A) 3 1
\ P (A) = = =
n(S) 6 2
----------------------
n(B) 2 1
P (B) = = =
---------------------- n(S) 6 3
---------------------- n(A ∩ B) 1
and P(A ∩ B) = =
n(S) 6
----------------------
\ By addition theorem of probability, we have
----------------------
P(A  B) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A ∩ B)
=
---------------------- 1 1 1 3+2–1 4 2
= + – = = =
---------------------- 2 3 6 6 6 3

---------------------- 2
Hence, then required chance is .
3
---------------------- Example 4:
---------------------- a. Two dice are thrown simultaneously. Find the probability of getting sum 9.

---------------------- b. In a single throw of two dice, determine the probability of getting a total
of 2 or 4.
---------------------- Solution:
---------------------- a. Two dice can be thrown in 6*6 = 36 ways.
---------------------- Let A be the event of getting sum 9
Then A = {(3, 6), (4, 5), (5, 4), (6, 3)} = 4 ways
----------------------
n(A) 4 1
---------------------- P (A) = = =
n(S) 36 9
---------------------- b. Two dice can be thrown in 6*6 = 36 ways

---------------------- Here S =
{(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5), (1, 6) ....(6, 1), (6, 2), (6, 3), (6, 4), (6, 5),
----------------------
(6, 6),}
---------------------- Let A be events of getting total of 2 or 4
---------------------- \ A = {(1,1), (1,3), (2,2), (3,1)}

---------------------- n(A) 4 1
Required probability = = =
n(S) 36 9
---------------------- Example 5:
---------------------- A room has 3 lamps. From a collection of 10 light bulb of which 6 bulbs are no
good, a person select 3 at random and put them in socket. What is the probability
---------------------- that he will have light?
----------------------

----------------------

390 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

Solution: Notes
There are 10 bulbs in all and of these 3 can be selected
----------------------
10 × 9 × 8
6
C3 = = 120 ways ----------------------
3×2×1
Thus, n(S) = 120 ----------------------
Let A be the event of getting light. Then A denotes the number of ways in
----------------------
which all no good bulbs are chosen is
6×5×4 ----------------------
6
C3 = = 20
1×2×3 ----------------------
Thus, n(Ā) = 20
----------------------
n(Ā) 20 1
\ P(Ā) = = =
n(S) 120 6 ----------------------

1 5 ----------------------
\ P(A) = 1 – P (Ā) = 1 – =
6 6
----------------------
Example 6:
Numerical on Conditional Probability ----------------------

1. A bag contains 8 white and 3 red balls, if 2 are drawn at random without ----------------------
replacement. Find that- a) Both are white, b) One of each colour.
----------------------
Solution:
----------------------
a. Both are white
Let w1 denote the event of getting a white in the first draw and w2 denote ----------------------
the event of getting white in the second draw. ----------------------
Probability of getting 2 white balls is given by
----------------------
P (w1.w2) = P (w1 ∩ w2)
----------------------
= P (w1) x P (w2/w1)
= (8/11) x (7/10) ----------------------
= (56/110) ----------------------
= 0.50 ----------------------
b. One of each colour
----------------------
Let w denote event of getting a white ball and r denote the event of getting red
ball. ----------------------
P (alternate colour) = P (first w and second r of first r and second w) ----------------------
= P (w ∩ r) + P (r ∩ w)
----------------------
= P (w) × P (r/w) + P (r) x P (w/r)
----------------------
= (8/11 × 3/10) + (3/11 x 8/10)
= 24/55 ----------------------

Probability 391
 Notes Example 7:
Numerical based on Addition Law and independence
----------------------
A and B hit a target with probability of fitting 0.3 and 0.4 respectively. Find the
---------------------- probability that
---------------------- a. The target will be hit

---------------------- b. The target will not be hit.

Solution:
----------------------
a. Probability that the target will be hit
----------------------
P (A) = 0.3, P (B) = 0.4
---------------------- P (A  B) = P (A) + P (B) – P (A ∩ B)
---------------------- = P (A) + P (B) – P (A) x P (B)

---------------------- = 0.3 + 0.4 – 0.3 x 0.4

= 0.7 – 0.12
----------------------
= 0.58
----------------------
b. Probability that the target will not be hit
---------------------- P (target will not be hit) = 1 – P (target will be hit)
---------------------- = 1 – P (A  B)

---------------------- = 1 – 0.58
= 0.42
----------------------

---------------------- Summary
---------------------- ●● Any of the items below are perfectly reasonable ways to interpret a probability.

---------------------- o It is a truth value that allows you to be uncertain, if you wish.

o It describes how much you know about a situation.
----------------------
o It counts how big a specified subset of possible results is, relative to
---------------------- the size of the universe.
---------------------- o It is an estimate of how often something happens under specified
conditions.
----------------------
●● robabilities are not concrete things you can touch. They are almost
P
---------------------- Platonic ideals, properties of a model that you can never measure directly
or exactly, but can only estimate from the data. For instance, there is
---------------------- a very close relationship between probabilities and the frequency at
which events happen, but they are not quite the same thing. They become
----------------------
numerically identical only if you count all events in your universe; until
---------------------- then, you always have a certain amount of sampling error and your
observed frequency will be above or below the probability, depending on
---------------------- whether you were lucky or not when you chose your sample.

392 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

 Keywords Notes

----------------------
●● Formula 1: Compliment: If A and A are complements then P(A)+P(A)=1
●● Formula 2: Addition Rule: P (AUB) = P (A) + P (B) - P (A∩B) ----------------------
●● Formula 3: Mutually Exclusive: If A and B are mutually exclusive then ----------------------
P(A ∩ B)=0 ; so P(A U B)=P(A) + P(B).
----------------------
Self-Assessment Questions ----------------------
1. A committee of four has to be formed from among 3 economists, 4 ----------------------
engineers, 2 statisticians and 1 doctor.
----------------------
a. What is the probability that each of the four professions is
represented on the committee? ----------------------
b. What is the probability that the committee consist of the doctor and ----------------------
at least one economist?
c. The probability that a student is accepted to a prestigious college is ----------------------
0.3. ----------------------
d. If 5 students from the same school apply, what is the probability
that at most 2 are accepted? ----------------------

2. A and B hit a target with probability of hitting as 0.3 and 0.4 respectively. ----------------------
Find the probability that a) The target will be hit b) The target will not be
----------------------
hit.
3. A bag contains 8 white and 3 red balls. If 2 are drawn at random without ----------------------
replacement, find the probability that a) both are white b) one of each
----------------------
colour.
4. A die is thrown; find the probability of getting a) an odd number b) a ----------------------
number which is perfect square.
----------------------

Answers to Check your Progress ----------------------

Check your Progress 1 ----------------------

Fill in the blanks. ----------------------
1. Probability ranges from 0 to 1. ----------------------
2. The order of arrangement is important in permutation.
----------------------
Check your Progress 2
----------------------
Multiple Choice Single Response.
1. Additional theorem states that if two A and B are mutually exclusive, the ----------------------
probability of occurrence of either A and B is given by
----------------------
i. P (A) + P (B)
----------------------

Probability 393
 Notes 2. If two events A and B are independent, the probability that they will both
occur is given by
----------------------
ii. P (A) x P (B)
---------------------- Check your Progress 3
---------------------- State True or False.

---------------------- 1. False
2. True
----------------------
Multiple Choice Single Response.
----------------------
1. A and B appeared for an interview for two vacancies, the probabilities of
---------------------- their selection being 1/7 and 1/5 respectively. The probability that at least
one of them is selected is:
----------------------
iii. 11/35
---------------------- 2. If p (A) is equal to 0.60, then p (A’) is
---------------------- i. 0.4

----------------------
Suggested Reading
----------------------
1. Dhayagude, M.G. Statistical Methods and Quantitative Techniques.
---------------------- Himalaya Publications.
---------------------- 2. Gupta, S.P. Statistical Methods.

---------------------- 3. Uppreti, D. Encyclopedia of Statistics Volume-III.

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

394 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

Queuing Theory
UNIT

5
Structure:

5.1 Introduction
5.2 Input Source of Queue
5.3 Behaviour of the Arrivals
5.4 Service System
5.5 Queue Configuration
5.6 Markov Chains
5.7 Simulation
Summary
Keywords
Self-Assessment Questions
Answers to Check your Progress
Suggested Reading

Queuing Theory 395

 Notes
Objectives
----------------------
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
----------------------
• Explain the concept of queuing theory
----------------------
• Discuss Queue configuration
---------------------- • State what markov chains are
---------------------- • Enumerate various simulation techniques

----------------------
5.1 INTRODUCTION
----------------------

---------------------- A flow of customers from finite/infinite population towards the service

facility forms a queue (waiting line), on account of a lack of capability to serve
---------------------- them all at a time. In the absence of a perfect balance between the service
facilities and the customers, waiting time, waiting time is required either for the
---------------------- service facilities or for the customer’s arrival.
---------------------- The arriving unit that requires some service to be performed is called
customer. The customer may be persons, machines, vehicles etc. Queue (waiting
---------------------- line) stands for the number of customers waiting to be serviced. This does
---------------------- not include the customer being serviced. The process or system that provides
services to the customers is termed as service channel or service facility.
---------------------- What is queuing theory?
---------------------- In many real world applications such as a railways and airlines reservation
counters, bank counters, gas online stations etc. incoming customers become
----------------------
part of the respective queuing system. In fact, waiting for service has become
---------------------- an integral part of our daily life, albeit at a considerable cost most of the times.
However, the adverse impact of the queuing up phenomena can be brought
---------------------- down to a minimum by applying various queuing models.
---------------------- Queuing Theory is a collection of mathematical models of various queuing
systems.
----------------------
It is used extensively to analyse production and service processes
---------------------- exhibiting random variability in market demand (arrival times) and service
times.
----------------------
Queues or waiting lines arise when the demand for a service facility
---------------------- exceeds the capacity of that facility, that is, the customers do not get service
immediately upon request but must wait or the service facilities stand idle and
---------------------- wait for customers.
---------------------- Waiting lines or queues are a common occurrence both in everyday life
and in variety of business and industrial situations. Most waiting line problems
---------------------- are centered about the question of finding the ideal level of services that a firm
---------------------- should provide.

396 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

Application Areas of Queuing System Notes
Example Member of queue Server(s)
----------------------
Bank counter Account holders Counter stack
Traffic Signal Vehicles Signal Point ----------------------
Airport runways Planes Runways
Telephone Booth Customers Telephones ----------------------
Toll gate Vehicles Toll Collector
----------------------
Examples:
●● elf service centre must decide how many service counters should be
S ----------------------
there ----------------------
●● ega marts must decide how many teller windows to keep open to serve
M
customers during various hours of the day. ----------------------

----------------------

----------------------
----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------
Basic components of a queuing system
1. Input or arrival (inter-arrival) distribution ----------------------

2. Output or departure (service) distribution ----------------------

3. Service channels ----------------------
4. Service discipline
----------------------
5. Maximum number of customers allowed in the system
----------------------
6. Calling source or population
7. Customer’s behaviour ----------------------

Characteristics of A Queuing System: ----------------------

Analysis of queuing system involves a study of its different operating ----------------------
characteristics.
----------------------

Queuing Theory 397

 Notes Some of them are:
1. Queue Length (Lq): The average number of customers in the queue
----------------------
waiting to get service. This excludes the customers being served.
---------------------- 2. System Length (Ls): The average number of customers in the system
including those waiting as well as those being served.
----------------------
3. Waiting time in the queue (Wq): The average time for which a customer
---------------------- has to wait in the queue to get service.
---------------------- 4. Total time in the system (Ws): The average total time spent by a customer
in the system from the moment he arrives till he leaves the system. It is
---------------------- taken to be the waiting time plus the service time.
---------------------- 5. Utilisation factor (): It is called proportion of time a server actually
spends with the customers. It is also called traffic intensity.
----------------------

---------------------- 5.2 INPUT SOURCE OF QUEUE

---------------------- An input source is characterised by

---------------------- ●● Size of the calling population

1. The source of customers can be finite or infinite.
----------------------
2. The customers may arrive for service individually or in groups.
---------------------- 3. Customers arrive in the system at a service facility according to
some known schedule or else they arrive randomly.
----------------------
●● Pattern of arrivals at the system
---------------------- 1. The arrival process (or pattern) of customers to the service system
---------------------- is classified into two categories:
a. Static: In static arrival process, the control depends on the
----------------------
nature of arrival rate (random or constant)
---------------------- Static queue disciplines
---------------------- i. If the customers are served in the order of their arrival, then
this is known as the first-in, first-out (FIFO) OR First Come
---------------------- First Serve (FCFS) service discipline.
---------------------- The M/M/1 system is made of a Poisson arrival, one
exponential (Poisson) server.
----------------------
FIFO (or not specified) queue of unlimited capacity and
---------------------- unlimited customer population.
---------------------- ii. Last-In-First-Out (LIFO) OR Last-Come-First-Serve (LCFS)
- Sometimes, the customers are serviced in the reverse order
---------------------- of their entry so that the ones who join the last are served first.
---------------------- b. Dynamic: The dynamic arrival process is controlled by both service
facility and customers.
----------------------

398 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

 Dynamic queue disciplines are based on the individual customer attributes Notes
in the queue.
----------------------
i. Service in Random Order (SIRO): Under this rule customers are
selected for service at random, irrespective of their arrivals in the ----------------------
service system.
----------------------
ii. Priority Service: Under this rule customers are grouped in priority
classes on the basis of some attributes such as service time or ----------------------
urgency or according to some identifiable characteristic and FCFS
rule is used within each class to provide service. ----------------------
Frequently in queuing problems, the number of arrivals per unit of ----------------------
time can be estimated by a probability distribution known as the
Poisson distribution. ----------------------

----------------------
Check your Progress 1
----------------------
Fill in the blanks.
----------------------
1. The average number of customers in the queue waiting to get service
is known as __________. ----------------------

----------------------
5.3 BEHAVIOUR OF THE ARRIVALS
----------------------
1. Patient: If a customer, on arriving at the service system stays in the
----------------------
system until served, no matter how much he has to wait for service is
called a patient customer. ----------------------
2. Impatient: Whereas the customer, who waits for a certain time in the ----------------------
queue and leaves the service system without getting service due to
certain reasons such as a long queue in front of him is called an impatient ----------------------
customer.
----------------------
3. Balking: Some customers even before joining the queue get discouraged
by seeing the number of customers already in service system or estimating ----------------------
the excessive waiting time for desired service decide to return for service
at a later time. In queuing theory this is known as balking. ----------------------

4. Reneging: Customers, after joining the queue, wait for some time and ----------------------
leave the service system due to intolerable delay, so they renege.
----------------------
5. Jockeying: Customers who switch from one queue to another hoping to
receive service more quickly are said to be jockeying. ----------------------
List of variables used in queuing models ----------------------
n Number of customers in the system ----------------------
C Number of servers in the system
Pn(t) Probability of having n customers in the system at a time ----------------------
Pn Steady- state probability of having n customers in the system
----------------------

Queuing Theory 399

 Notes P0 Probability of having 0 customer in the system
Lq Average number of customers waiting in the queue
---------------------- Ls Average number of customers waiting in the system (in the queue
and in the service station)
----------------------
Wq Average waiting time of customers in the queue
---------------------- Ws Average waiting time of customers in the system (in the queue and
in the service station)
---------------------- δ Arrival rate of customers
µ Service rate of the server
---------------------- Ø Utilisation factor of the server
---------------------- δef Effective arrival rate of customers

---------------------- M Poisson distribution

N Maximum number of customers permitted in the system. Also, it
---------------------- denotes the size of the calling source of the customers
GD General Discipline for service. This may be first-in-serve (FIFS),
---------------------- last-in-first-serve (LIFS), random order (RO) etc.
---------------------- Empirical Queuing Models

---------------------- The basic queuing models can be classified into six categories using
Kendall notation which in turn uses six parameters to define a model such as
---------------------- (P/Q/R): (X/Y/Z). The parameters of this notation are:
---------------------- P = Arrival rate distribution
---------------------- Q = Service rate distribution
R = Number of servers
----------------------
X = Service discipline
----------------------
Y = Maximum number of customers permitted in the system
---------------------- Z = Size of the calling source of the customers
---------------------- Example: (M/M/1): (GD/∞/∞) is the model deals with a queuing system
having Poisson arrivals and exponential service time single server, infinite
----------------------
number of customers is permitted in the system with the size of the calling
---------------------- source is infinite.

---------------------- Check your Progress 2

----------------------
Multiple Choice Single Response.
---------------------- 1. In a queuing model, λ=4 hr. and µ=8 hr. What will be the utilisation
factor?
----------------------
i. 2 hr.
----------------------
ii. 4 hr.
---------------------- iii. 0.5 hr.
iv. 1 hr.
----------------------

400 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

5.4 SERVICE SYSTEM Notes
The service is provided by a service facility (or facilities). This may be a ----------------------
person (a bank teller, a barber, a machine (elevator, gasoline pump)) or a space
(airport runway, parking lot, hospital bed), to mention just a few. A service ----------------------
facility may include one person or several people operating as a team.
----------------------
There are two aspects of a service system, configuration and speed. Let us
discuss these. ----------------------

a. The configuration of the service system ----------------------

The customers’ entry into the service system depends upon the queue ----------------------
conditions. If at the time of customers’ arrival, the server is idle, then the
customer is served immediately. Otherwise the customer is asked to join ----------------------
the queue, which can have several configurations.
----------------------
i. Single Server – Single Queue: The models that involve one queue
– one service station facility are called single server models ----------------------
where customer waits till the service point is ready to take him for
----------------------
servicing.
ii. Single Server – Several Queues: In this type of facility there are ----------------------
several queues and the customer may join any one of these but there
----------------------
is only one service channel.
iii. Several (Parallel) Servers – Single Queue: In this type of model, ----------------------
there is more than one server and each server provides the same ----------------------
type of facility.
iv. Several Servers – Several Queues: This type of model consists of ----------------------
several servers where each of the servers has a different queue. ----------------------
v. Service facilities in a series: In this, a customer enters the first
station and gets a portion of service and then moves on to the next ----------------------
station, gets some service, again moves on to the next station and ----------------------
so on and finally leaves the system, having received the complete
service. ----------------------
b. The speed of the service ----------------------
In a queuing system, the speed with which service is provided can be
----------------------
expressed in either of two ways as service rate and as service time.
----------------------
5.5 QUEUE CONFIGURATION
----------------------
The queuing process refers to the number of queues and their respective
----------------------
lengths. The number of queues depends upon the layout of a service system.
Thus there may be a single queue or multiple queues. ----------------------
Length (or size) of the queue depends upon the operational situation such as
----------------------
●● Physical space
----------------------

Queuing Theory 401

 Notes ●● Legal restrictions
●● Attitude of the customers
----------------------
The M/M/1 system is made of a Poisson arrival, one exponential (Poisson)
---------------------- server, FIFO (or not specified) queue of unlimited capacity and unlimited
customer population.
----------------------
M/M/C model is multi server queue model. It is a generalisation of M/M/1.
----------------------
Limitations of queuing theory
---------------------- The assumptions of classical queuing theory are often too restrictive to
be able to model real-world situations exactly. The complexity of production
----------------------
lines with product-specific characteristics cannot be handled with those models.
---------------------- Therefore specialised tools have been developed to simulate, analyse, visualise
and optimise time dynamic queuing line behaviour.
----------------------

---------------------- 5.6 MARKOV CHAINS

---------------------- Markov chain is a discrete-state random process in which the evolution

of the state of the process beginning at a time t (continuous-time chain) or n
---------------------- (discrete-time chain) depends only on the current state X(t) or Xn and not how
the chain reached its current state or how long it has been in that state.
----------------------
A “discrete-time” random process means a system which is in a certain
---------------------- state at each “step”, with the state changing randomly between steps.
---------------------- Definition: A Markov transition matrix is a square matrix describing the
probabilities of moving from one state to another in a dynamic system. In each
---------------------- row are the probabilities of moving from the state represented by that row, to
the other states. Thus the rows of a Markov transition matrix each add to one.
----------------------
Sometimes, such a matrix is denoted by something like Q (x’ | x) which can be
---------------------- understood this way: that Q is a matrix, x is the existing state, x’ is a possible
future state and for any x and x’ in the model, the probability of going to x’
---------------------- given that the existing state is x, are in Q.
----------------------
Check your Progress 3
----------------------
State True or False.
----------------------
1. A Markov transition matrix is a square matrix describing the
---------------------- probabilities of moving from one state to another in a static system.
----------------------

---------------------- 5.7 SIMULATION

---------------------- Simulation is the imitation of some real thing, state of affairs or process.
The act of simulating something generally entails representing certain key
---------------------- characteristics or behaviours’ of a selected physical or abstract system.
----------------------

402 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

 Simulation is used in many contexts, including the modeling of natural Notes
systems or human systems in order to gain insight into their functioning.
Simulation can be used to show the eventual real effects of alternative conditions ----------------------
and courses of action. Simulation is also used when the real system cannot be
engaged. ----------------------

Characteristics of the process of simulation ----------------------

The following are the characteristics features of the process of simulation:- ----------------------
1. To being with, a given problem has to be clearly stated with explicit
----------------------
objectives.
2. In accordance with the defined problem & its objectives, an appropriate ----------------------
model has to be devised. ----------------------
3. It is necessary to verity the device model through repeated experimentation.
----------------------
4. The result of the experiments should be evaluated to ascertain the
appropriateness of the simulation process. ----------------------
5. The simulation model can be either mathematical, physical or a ----------------------
combination appropriately conceived.
----------------------
6. It is absolutely necessary to collect data pertaining to defined problem
before starting the process of simulation. ----------------------
7. The model developed should be capable of providing appropriate result ----------------------
for decision making.
8. A simulation model can be deterministic. In which case, the parameters ----------------------
are determined & constant. ----------------------
9. There may be cases where models may be of a stochastic type where
the parameter is subject to variation in a random manner. This would ----------------------
necessitate a number of iteration for identifying the exact nature of the ----------------------
model.
----------------------
Applications:
i. The process of simulation can be applied to a verity of problems that are ----------------------
subject to qualification & estimation.
----------------------
ii. It is a very useful tool that is popularly & reliably used for solving business
problems. ----------------------
iii. Its use extends to various aspects of military operations, strategic & ----------------------
tactical moves. It can be used in problems relating to police personnel
used for patrolling & in traffic operation. Also, problems involving the ----------------------
dispatch of hospital- vans & ambulances to various areas. ----------------------
iv. The technique of simulation can be advantageously used in inventory
control policies. ----------------------

v. In matters of financial planning, pertaining of capital budgeting & ----------------------

selection of portfolios, these procedures of simulation can be applied.
----------------------

Queuing Theory 403

 Notes vi. Computer simulation processes are used for studying the behaviour of
nuclear reactors during operation & accident simulation. By the use of
---------------------- this method, the design can be made ‘fail safe’.
---------------------- vii. Its application in decision making problem is of much significant
especially in avoiding unexpected risks. Computer software packages can
---------------------- also be evolved suitably.
---------------------- Merits of Simulation
i. Through the process of simulation it is the possible to overcome
----------------------
complication & complexities that may arise in certain problem, which
---------------------- require use of rigorous & excessive mathematical calculation.

---------------------- ii. In real problem, if the procedure of experimentation is adopted then

it involves costly risks which can be avoided by the use of simulation
---------------------- techniques.

---------------------- iii. The long term implication of managerial decision can be easily foreseen
by research analyst through the use of simulation.
---------------------- iv. It is always preferable to test, in an appropriate manner, a simulation
---------------------- solution prior to its acceptance as the best solution.
Demerits of Simulation
----------------------
i. It should be noted that the process of simulation may not guarantee a
---------------------- perfect optimal solution to problem. Obviously its methodology does not
ensure optimality.
----------------------
ii. It is applicable only if some data is provided. In other words, its basis
---------------------- rests on the assumption of ascertain system that can be fitted to a given
---------------------- situation.
iii. The procedure of simulation does not provide mathematically accurate
---------------------- result but only yields estimates based on certain suppositions.
---------------------- iv. In certain problem the process of simulation involves sampling error. This
can be avoided only if sample size is modified.
----------------------
v. It is use in certain problems may not prove to be economical.
----------------------
vi. Unless the concerned problem is amenable to random phenomena, it may
---------------------- not be possible to use of Monte Carlo simulation technique.
vii. The procedure of simulation aims at finding a solution to a problem.
----------------------
However such a solution may not be precise so as to be considered as the
---------------------- correct & final solution to a problem.

---------------------- Monte Carlo Simulation is used to study probabilistic simulations where the
given process has a random or chance component, a given problem is solved by
---------------------- simulating the original data with random number generators.

----------------------

----------------------

404 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

Solved Problem 1: Notes
A milk dairy’s records of sales of one liter milk packets during 100 days
----------------------
are as under:
Demand 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 ----------------------
Number of days 5 9 10 15 13 8 11 14 8 7
----------------------
Using the following random numbers simulate the demand for the first 15 days.
----------------------
Random 23 64 18 96 71 46 54 8 11 81 75 39 28 43 52
Solution: ----------------------

Table 1 ----------------------
Demand 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 ----------------------
Probability .05 .09 .10 .15 .13 .08 .11 .14 .08 .07
(n/100) ----------------------

Table 2 ----------------------

Demand Probability Cumulative Random Random ----------------------

Probability number Interval number
----------------------
8 .05 .05 00-04 -
9 .09 .14 05-13 8, 11 ----------------------
10 .10 .24 14-23 23, 18
----------------------
11 .15 .39 24-38 28
12 .13 .52 39-51 46, 39, 43 ----------------------
13 .08 .60 52-59 54, 52
----------------------
14 .11 .71 60-70 64
15 .14 .85 71-84 71, 81, 75 ----------------------
16 .08 .93 85-92 -
----------------------
17 .07 .100 93-100 96
The following is the schedule of simulated demand for the first 15 days, in the ----------------------
order of the given random numbers:
----------------------
Day 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Demand 10 14 10 17 15 12 13 9 9 15 15 12 11 12 13 ----------------------
Solved Problem 2: ----------------------
A shopkeeper keeps stock of popular brand of Biscuits. Previous data
----------------------
shows the daily demand pattern for the biscuits with associated probabilities as
given below: ----------------------
Daily Demand 0 5 10 15 20 25 ----------------------
Probability 0. 02 0. 08 0. 17 0. 53 0.15 0.05 ----------------------
Cumulative 0. 02 0. 10 0. 27 0. 80 0. 95 1.00
Probability ----------------------

----------------------

Queuing Theory 405

 Notes Use the following sequence of seven random numbers to estimate, i.e. to
simulate the demand for next five days and average demand per day.
----------------------
5, 10, 12, 6, 18, 9, 15
---------------------- Solution:
---------------------- 1. We have daily demand and we have cumulative frequency.

---------------------- 2. We will find random number intervals.

Daily Probability Cumulative Random Number
---------------------- Demand Probability Interval
---------------------- 0 0.02 0.02 0-1
5 0.08 0.10 2 - 09
---------------------- 10 0.17 0.27 10 - 26
15 0.53 0.80 27 - 79
---------------------- 20 0.15 0.95 80 - 94
25 0.05 1.00 95 - 99
----------------------
3. We have seven days demand and we will find random numbers and then
---------------------- average.
---------------------- Day Demand Random number interval Group ’s Demand
---------------------- 1 5 02 - 09 5
2 10 10 - 26 10
----------------------
3 12 10 - 26 10
---------------------- 4 6 02 - 09 5
---------------------- 5 18 10 - 26 10
6 9 02 - 09 5
----------------------
7 15 10 - 26 10
---------------------- TOTAL 55
---------------------- Average 55/ 7 7.8 = 8
Average Demand: 8 units
----------------------

---------------------- Check your Progress 4

---------------------- State True or False.
---------------------- 1. Monte Carlo Simulation is used to study probabilistic simulations.

----------------------
Summary
----------------------
●● In this unit we saw the Queuing theory and simulation.
----------------------
●● Queuing Theory is a collection of mathematical models of various
---------------------- queuing systems. It is used extensively to analyse production and service
processes exhibiting random variability in market demand (arrival times)
---------------------- and service times.

406 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

●● Simulation is the imitation of some real thing, state of affairs or process. Notes
The act of simulating something generally entails representing certain key
characteristics or behaviours’ of a selected physical or abstract system. ----------------------

----------------------
Keywords
----------------------
●● irst-In, First-Out (FIFO) OR First Come First Serve (FCFS): The
F
customers are serviced in the order of their entry so that the ones who join ----------------------
the first are served first.
----------------------
●● ast-In-first-Out (LIFO) OR Last Come First Serve (LCFS):
L
Sometimes, the customers are serviced in the reverse order of their entry ----------------------
so that the ones who join the last are served first.
----------------------
●● ervice in Random Order (SIRO): Under this rule customers are
S
selected for service at random, irrespective of their arrivals in the service ----------------------
system.
----------------------
●● riority Service: Under these rule customers are grouped in priority
P
classes on the basis of some attributes such as service time or urgency. ----------------------
●● M/M/C model: Multi server queue model. It is a generalisation of M/M/1. ----------------------
●● A Markov transition matrix: A square matrix describing the probabilities
of moving from one state to another in a dynamic system. ----------------------
●● Simulation: the imitation of some real thing, state of affairs or process. ----------------------

----------------------
Self-Assessment Questions
----------------------
1. Write a note on Simulation.
2. Describe various behavioural of arrivals. ----------------------
3. Give examples for different service configurations. ----------------------
4. Explain characteristics of a Queuing System.
----------------------
5. Modern Bakery keeps the stock of the popular brand of cake. Previous
experience indicates the daily demand as given below. ----------------------
Daily demand 0 10 20 30 40 50
----------------------
Probability 0.02 0.19 0.16 0.45 0.13 0.05
Estimate average balance stock, if the owner of the bakery decides to ----------------------
make 30 cakes every day. Use following random numbers: 47, 88, 15, 91,
----------------------
57, 67, 11, 54, 60, 89
----------------------
Answers to Check your Progress
----------------------
Check your Progress 1
----------------------
Fill in the blanks.
----------------------
1. The average number of customers in the queue waiting to get service is
known as Queue Length (Lq). ----------------------

Queuing Theory 407

 Notes Check your Progress 2
Multiple Choice Single Response.
----------------------
1. In a queuing model, λ = 4 hr. and µ = 8 hr. What will be the utilisation
---------------------- factor?
---------------------- iii. 0.5 hr.

---------------------- Check your Progress 3

State True or False.
----------------------
1. False
----------------------
Check your Progress 4
---------------------- State True or False.
---------------------- 1. True

----------------------
Suggested Reading
----------------------
1. Dhayagude, M.G. Statistical Methods and Quantitative Techniques.
---------------------- Himalaya Publications.
---------------------- 2. Gupta, S.C. Fundamentals of Statistics. Himalaya Publications.
3. Sharma, Kapil. Statistical Methods. Jaipur: ABD Publishers.
----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

408 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

Game Theory and Decision Theory
UNIT

6
Structure:

6.1 Introduction: Game Theory

6.2 Definitions
6.3 Characteristics of Game Theory
6.4 Strategy
6.5 Introduction to Decision Theory
6.6 Elements of an Effective Decision-Making Process
6.7 Decision Models
Summary
Keywords
Self-Assessment Questions
Answers to Check your Progress
Suggested Reading

Game Theory and Decision Theory 409

 Notes
Objectives
----------------------
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
----------------------
• Describe the concept of game theory
----------------------
• Name various game strategies
---------------------- • Explain why and what is decision theory
---------------------- • Enumerate the elements of decision making process

---------------------- • Detail out various decision models

----------------------
6.1 INTRODUCTION: GAME THEORY
----------------------
Competition is the watch word of modern life. We say that a competitive
---------------------- solution exits, if two or more individuals make decisions in a situation that
involves conflicting interests and in which the outcome is controlled by the
---------------------- decision of all the concerned parties. A competitive situation is called a game.
---------------------- The term game represents a conflict between two or more parties. A situation is
termed a game when it possesses the following properties.
----------------------
●● The number of competitors is finite.
---------------------- ●● There is conflict in interests between the participants.
---------------------- ●● Each of the participants has a finite set of possible courses of action.
●● he rules governing these choices are specified and known to all players.
T
---------------------- The game begins when each player chooses a single course of action from
---------------------- the list of course available to him.
●● The outcome of the game is affected by the choices made by all the players.
----------------------
●● he outcome for all specific set of choices, by all players, is known in
T
---------------------- advance and numerically defined.
The outcome of a game consists of a particular set of course of action
----------------------
undertaken by the competitors. Each outcome determine a set of payments
---------------------- (positive, negative or zero), one to each competitor.

---------------------- Game theory is a fascinating subject. We all know many entertaining

games, such as chess, poker, tic-tac-toe, bridge, baseball, computer games the
---------------------- list is quite varied and almost ends less. The competition between firms, the
conflict between management and labor, the fight to get bills through congress,
---------------------- the power of the judiciary and war and peace negotiations between countries
---------------------- and so on, all provide examples of games in action.
Games are characterised by a number of players or decision makers who
---------------------- interact, possibly threaten each other and form coalitions, take actions under
---------------------- uncertain conditions and finally receive some benefit or reward or possibly
some punishment or monetary loss. In this course, we study various models of
---------------------- games and create a theory or a structure of the phenomena that arise. In some

410 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

cases, we will be able to suggest what courses of action should be taken by the Notes
players. In others, we hope to be able to understand what is happening in order
to make better predictions about the future. ----------------------
In many practical, it is required to take decision in a situation where there ----------------------
are two (or more) opposite parties (or firms) with conflicting interests and the
action of one depends upon the action which the opponent takes. The outcome of ----------------------
the situation is controlled by the decisions of all the parties (or firms) involved.
----------------------
Such a situation is termed as a ‘competitive situation’. Many conflict situations
of this type are found in economics, social, military political problems. ----------------------
In all these competitive situations, one may assume that each opponent is
----------------------
going to act in some rational manner and will attempt to resolve the conflict of
interests in his favour. ----------------------
In 1928, John Von Neumann developed this branch of mathematics known
----------------------
as game theory, which is useful in handling many competitive situations. The
approach to competitive problems developed by John Von Neumann utilises ----------------------
the minimax principle which has its fundamental idea the minimisation of
maximum loss. This theory does not describe how the game should be played. ----------------------
It describes only the procedure and principle by which plays should be selected.
----------------------
A decision theory is therefore applicable of such competitive situations.
A competitive situation is called competitive game if it has the following ----------------------
properties. ----------------------
1. There are a finite number of competitors.
----------------------
2. Each competition has available to him a finite set of possible courses of
action. This list need not be same for each competitor. ----------------------
3. A play of the game results when each of the competitors chooses a single ----------------------
course of action from the list of courses available to him. The choices
are assumed to be made simultaneously, so that no competitor knows his ----------------------
opponents’ choices until he has decided his own course of action.
----------------------
4. The outcome of a play consists of the particular combination of courses
of action undertaken by the competitors. Each outcome determines a set ----------------------
of payments (positive, negative or zero), one to each competitor.
----------------------
In addition to the above assumptions, some following assumptions are
also kept in mind: ----------------------
(a) Complete relevant information is known to each competitor. ----------------------
(b) Each competitor attempts to maximise his gain or minimise loss. ----------------------
(c) The competitors act rationally and intelligently.
----------------------
(d) Each competitor makes individual decision without direct communication.
----------------------
Utility Theory: We therefore assume that each player receives a numerical
payoff that depends on the actions chosen by all the players. ----------------------

----------------------

Game Theory and Decision Theory 411

 Notes Suppose player 1 chooses a1 ∈ Ai, player 2 chooses a2 ∈ A2, etc. and player n
chooses an ∈ An.
----------------------
Then we denote the payoff to player j, for j = 1, 2, . . . , n, by fj (a1, a2, . . . , an)
---------------------- and call it the payoff function for player j.

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------
----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

---------------------- 6.2 DEFINITIONS

---------------------- ●● Game: A game is a formal description of a strategic situation.
---------------------- ●● Player: A player is an agent who makes decisions in a game.
●● Rationality: A player is said to be rational if he seeks to play in a manner
---------------------- which maximises his own payoff. It is often assumed that the rationality
---------------------- of all players is common knowledge.
●● wo person game: A game having only two players (or competitors) one
T
---------------------- opposing the other is called ‘two person game’.
---------------------- ●● n-person game: A game having more than two players (or competitors)
is called n-person game.
----------------------
●● Strategy: The decision rule by which a player (competitor) determines
---------------------- his course of action is called strategy.

----------------------

412 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

●● Pure strategy: If a player decides to use only one particular course of Notes
action during every play is called pure strategy.
●● Mixed strategy: If a player decides in advance to use all or some of ----------------------
his available courses of action in some fixed proportion is called mixed ----------------------
strategy.
●● Supporting strategy: The pure strategies which are used in a mixed ----------------------
strategy with non-zero probabilities are termed as supporting strategy. ----------------------
●● Play: A play of the game results when each player selects one of his
strategies. ----------------------
●● Pay-off: The outcome of playing the game is called pay-off. It is the ----------------------
net gain the strategy brings to the firm any given counter strategy of the
player. The net gain measured in terms of the objective of the firm. ----------------------
●● Two person zero sum (or rectangular game): A game with only two ----------------------
players in which the gain of one player equals the loss of the other player
is known as Two person zero sum. In such a game, interests of the two ----------------------
players are opposed so that the sum of their net gains is zero. If there are
----------------------
n players and sum of the game is zero, then it is called n-person zero sum
game. ----------------------
●● Pay-off matrix: In a two person zero sum game, the resulting gain, can
----------------------
easily be represented in the form of a matrix, called the pay-off matrix is
a table which represents how payments should be made at the end of the ----------------------
game.
----------------------
●● Moves: A point in a game of which, one of the players picks out an
alternative from some set of alternatives is called move. ----------------------
●● Finite game: A game is called finite game, if it has a finite number of
moves. ----------------------

●● aximin: A maximum element among the row minima (i.e. maximum

M ----------------------
element among the minimum elements selected for each row) is called
maximum. ----------------------
●● Minimax: A minimum elements among the column maxima (i.e. ----------------------
minimum element among the maximum elements selected for each
column) is called minimax. ----------------------
●● Value of the game: It is the maximum guaranteed gain to player A ----------------------
(maximising player) if both the players use their best strategies. The value
of the game is generally denoted by “v” and this value is unique. ----------------------
●● Fair game: If the value of game is zero then it is called a fair game. ----------------------
●● aximin-Minimax principle: The maximum of minimum gains is
M
----------------------
maximin value of the game and the corresponding strategy is the maximin
strategy. In a similar manner, the minimum of maximum losses will be ----------------------
called minimax value of the game and the corresponding strategy is the
minimax strategy. When the maximin value is equal to minimax value, ----------------------
we have the so-called maximin-minimax principle. It guarantees the best
----------------------
of the worst results.

Game Theory and Decision Theory 413

 Notes ●● Saddle point: A saddle point of a pay-off matrix is that position in the
matrix, where the maximum of the row minima equals the minimum of
---------------------- the column maxima.
A game of which
---------------------- max min aij = min max aij
---------------------- is called game with saddle point. This means that the game with saddle
point is that in which the players (competitors) use pure strategies (i.e.
---------------------- they choose same course of action throughout the game). The point of
intersection of their pure strategies used is called as saddle point. The
---------------------- gain at the saddle point is nothing but the value of the game.
----------------------
6.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF GAME THEORY
----------------------
1. There are finite numbers of participants or competitors. If the number of
---------------------- participants is 2, the game is called two-person game; for number greater
---------------------- than two, it is called n-person game.
2. Each participant has available to him a list of finite number of possible
---------------------- course of action. The list may not be same for each participant.
---------------------- 3. Each participant knows all the possible courses of action available to
others but does not know which of them is going to be chosen by them.
----------------------
4. A play is said to occur when each of the participants chooses one of the
---------------------- courses of action available to him. The choices are assumed to be made
simultaneously so that no participants know the choices made by others
----------------------
until he has decided his own.
---------------------- 5. Every combination of courses of action determines an outcome which
results in gains to the participants. The gain may be positive, negative or
----------------------
zero. Negative gain is called a loss.
---------------------- 6. The gain of a participant depends not only own actions but also those of
---------------------- them.
The gains (payoffs) for each and every play are fixed and specified in
---------------------- advance and are known to each player. Thus each player knows fully the
---------------------- information contained in the payoff matrix.
7. The players make individual decisions without direct communication.
----------------------

---------------------- Check your Progress 1

---------------------- State True or False.
---------------------- 1. Fair game has game value equal to zero.

---------------------- 2. The gain in the game theory cannot be negative.

----------------------

----------------------

414 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

6.4 STRATEGY Notes
In a game in strategic form, a strategy is one of the given possible actions ----------------------
of a player. In an extensive game, a strategy is a complete plan of choices, one
for each decision point of the player. There are two types of strategies. ----------------------
1. Pure Strategy: If a player plays only one particular course of action all ----------------------
the time then he is said to be adopting a pure strategy.
----------------------
2. Mixed Strategy: If a player follows more than one courses of action then
he follows a mixed strategy. Types of games: ----------------------
Pure Strategy Game ----------------------
Step 1: Write down pay off Matrix with maximising player’s strategies along
----------------------
the rows and the minimising player’s strategies along with the columns.
Step 2: Write down minimum element in each row (Row Minima) on its right. ----------------------
Identify the largest element among these elements and mark it with arrow. This
----------------------
principle of identifying the maximum element among the row minimas is called
‘Maximin’ (maximum of minimums). This indicates a conservative approach ----------------------
for the maximising player.
----------------------
Step 3: Write down maximum element in each row (column Maxima) and mark
the smallest element among them with an arrow. This principle of identifying the ----------------------
minimum element among the column maximas is called ‘Minimax’ (minimum
of maximums). This indicates a conservative approach for the minimising ----------------------
player. ----------------------
Step 4: If these two arrowed elements (maximin & minimax) are same, then the
element lying at the intersection of the corresponding row & column is called ----------------------
saddle point. ----------------------
Step 5: The strategies corresponding to the saddle point are the optimal
strategies for the two players. ----------------------

Step 6: If there are more than one saddle point then there are more than one ----------------------
solution.
----------------------
Step 7: If the arrowed elements maximin & minimax are not same then there
is no saddle point. And the value of the game lies between two values. This is a ----------------------
case of mixed strategy.
----------------------
Problem 1:
----------------------
Solve the following game to determine the optimal strategies for X & Y.
Also find the value of the game & payoff for player X. ----------------------
| 4 4 -5 6 | ----------------------
| -3 -4 -5 -2 |
----------------------
| 6 7 -8 -9 |
----------------------
| 7 9 -9 5 |
----------------------

Game Theory and Decision Theory 415

 Notes Solution: Write down
1. the row minima & maximin
----------------------
2. the column maxima & minimax
----------------------
Y Row Minima
---------------------- I II III IV
x I 4 4 -5 6 -5 MAXIMIN
---------------------- II -3 -4 -5 -2 -5
III 6 7 -8 -9 -9
----------------------
IV 7 9 -9 5 -9
---------------------- Column Maxima 7 9 -5 6
MINIMAX
---------------------- Saddle point will be I – II & I – III
---------------------- Thus it is a pure strategy game & player can stick to one strategy throughout.
---------------------- Mixed Strategy Game

---------------------- When for a given game, we do not get saddle point (maximin = minimax),
it is the case of mixed strategy game. Here, the players mix the different strategies
---------------------- with certain probabilities or proportions so as to optimise the expected pay-off.

---------------------- We use the Arithmetical Method to find the solution of a 2 × 2 game with
mixed strategy w/o saddle point as follows:
---------------------- Pay off Matrix
---------------------- B
---------------------- B1(q) B2(1-q)
A A1 (p) a11 a12
----------------------
A2 (1-p) a21 a22
----------------------
Step 1: Let p = Probability that A uses strategy A1 Let 1- p = Probability that A
---------------------- uses strategy A2
---------------------- Let q = Probability that B uses strategy B1 Let 1- q = Probability that B uses
strategy B2
----------------------
Step 2: For player A, p & 1- p should be such that he should have same pay offs
---------------------- in spite of B using B1 or B2

---------------------- Thus,
(i) Expected pay off to A when B uses B1 = Expected pay off to A when B uses
---------------------- B2
---------------------- a11 (p) + a21 (1 – p) = a12 (p) + a22 (1 – p)
---------------------- p = a22 - a21 / a11 + a22 - a21 - a12
(ii) Expected pay off to B when A uses A1 = Expected pay off to B when A uses
----------------------
A2
---------------------- a11 (q) + a21 (1 – q) = a21 (q) + a22 (1 – q)

416 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

 Same for q = a22 - a12 / a11 + a22 - a21 - a12 Notes
Step 3: Now the value of the game (for A) i.e.
----------------------
V = (Expected pay off to A when B uses B1) (Probability that B uses B1) +
----------------------
(Expected pay off to A when B uses B2) (Probability that B uses B2)
= [a11 (p) + a21 (1 – p)] q + [a12 (p) + a22 (1 – p)] (1- q) ----------------------

V = a11a22 – a21a12 / a11 + a22 – a21 - a12 ----------------------

----------------------
Check your Progress 2
----------------------
State True or False.
----------------------
1. In two person zero sum game, every player has an infinite strategy.
2. In a pure strategy, one particular action is repeated every time. ----------------------

----------------------
6.5 INTRODUCTION TO DECISION THEORY ----------------------
Decision theory is a systematic procedure to identify the best possible ----------------------
decision among the various available alternatives. The degree of certainty
ranges from completely certain to completely uncertain which also involves a ----------------------
mid-range that has risk factors.
----------------------
Decision theory is an interdisciplinary area of study that concerns
mathematicians, statisticians, economists, philosophers, managers, politicians, ----------------------
psychologists and anyone else interested in analyses of decisions and their
----------------------
consequences. The basic formalism of decision theory is the payoff table, which
maps mutually exclusive decisions to mutually exclusive states of nature. For ----------------------
example, “Decision X leads to Outcome Y”, “Decision Y leads to Outcome Z”
and so on. When the set of outcomes corresponding to any given decision is not ----------------------
known, we refer to this situation as decision under uncertainty, the field of study
----------------------
which dominates decision theory.
Terms associated with decision theory: ----------------------

●● Alternative decision: ----------------------

While taking or choosing a decision a decision maker have various ----------------------
decisions from which he has to choose one. Here all these decisions are
known as alternative decisions which take part in selection process. ----------------------
●● Pay-off decisions: ----------------------
It is a numeric value calculated from the combination of every possible
alternative decision. It is used in the selection of decision among the ----------------------
alternative decisions. ----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

Game Theory and Decision Theory 417

 Notes ●● State of nature:
The factors of possible future conditions generating from current or
---------------------- present decision making are known as state of nature.
---------------------- Steps of decision making process:
---------------------- Step 1: Identity and define a problem.
Step 2: List all possible states of nature (future events) which can occurs in the
----------------------
context of decision problem. Such events are not under the control of decision
---------------------- maker because they are erratic in nature.
Step 3: Express identity alternatives that are available to decision maker. The
----------------------
decision maker has control over these courses of action.
---------------------- Step 4: Express pay-offs
---------------------- Step 5: Apply an appropriate mathematical decision theory model to select the
best course of action from the given list on the basis of some criteria that results
---------------------- in optimal pay-off.
----------------------
6.6 ELEMENTS OF AN EFFECTIVE DECISION MAKING
---------------------- PROCESS
----------------------
According to Drucker, these are the 5 elements of an effective decision
---------------------- making process:
●● Element 1. Problem rationalisation
----------------------
●● Element 2. Boundary conditions (Objects to be achieved)
----------------------
●● Element 3. The right thing to do (Collection of data)
---------------------- ●● Element 4. Action
---------------------- ●● Element 5. Feedback
Here’s a quick explanation of the 5 elements of effective decision making:
----------------------
●● Element 1: Problem rationalisation: The clear rationalisation that the
---------------------- problem was generic and could only is solved through a decision that
establishes a rule or a principle. Know the problem you’re solving.
---------------------- (objectives to be achieved)
---------------------- ●● Element 2: Boundary conditions: The definition of the specifications
that the answer to the problem has to satisfy, that is, of the “boundary
---------------------- conditions.” Know your range of options that will still count as success.
---------------------- ●● Element 3: The Right Thing to Do: Before you decide what’s feasible,
first figure out what the right thing to do is. (collection of data, developing
---------------------- various alternatives & evaluation)
---------------------- ●● Element 4: Action: Turn decisions into action.

---------------------- ●● Element 5: Feedback: Get feedback on what’s working and what’s not.

----------------------

418 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

6.7 DECISION MODELS Notes
Types of decision making environment: ----------------------
The outcomes of decision making are always conditional by environment. ----------------------
These environments help in choosing the appropriate quantitative approach for
decision making. There are 3 types of decision making environment. ----------------------
[1] Decision making under uncertainty: ----------------------
In this type of decision making problem the decision maker no or very little
----------------------
knowledge about the various aspects of problem. The decision maker is unable
to specify the probabilities with which the various states of nature will occur. ----------------------
This is not the case of decision making under ignorance he takes the possible
----------------------
states of nature are known. Thus decision under uncertainty is taken even with
less information than decision under risk, e.g. investing money in mutual fund. ----------------------
This is an example of decision under uncertainty.
----------------------
There are several different action plans for making a decision under a situation
of uncertainty. ----------------------
1. Criterion of optimism (Maximax or Minimin): ----------------------
In this criterion decision maker ensures that the opportunity to achieve
the largest possible profit (Maximax) or lowest possible cost (Minimin) ----------------------
should not miss. The method is as follows: ----------------------
Locate the Maximax or Minimin pay-off values corresponding to each
alternative. ----------------------

Select an alternative with best anticipated pay-off values (that are going ----------------------
to be happen in future).
----------------------
2. Criterion of pessimism (Maximin or Minimax):
----------------------
In this criterion the decision maker ensures that he or she would earn no
less than some specific amount. Thus decision maker behaves conservative ----------------------
about future and anticipates the worst conditions.
----------------------
3. Equal probabilities criterion (Laplace criterion):
In this criterion each strategy (states of nature) is assign with equal ----------------------
probability and then the decision maker select the alternative decision ----------------------
which has maximum expected pay-off values.
----------------------
As the states of nature are mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive
the probability of each of these must be 1 / no. of states of nature. ----------------------
4. Coefficient of optimism criterion (Hurwicz criterion):
----------------------
This criterion represents that the decision making should not be done by
completely optimistic or completely pessimistic and it should be done by ----------------------
mixture of these two.
----------------------
Hurwicz introduce the coefficient of optimism to measure of optimism.
----------------------

Game Theory and Decision Theory 419

 Notes It is represented by which lies between 0 to 1. ranges from complete
pessimistic (0) to complete optimistic (1) attitude about future.
----------------------
5. Savage criteria (Regret criteria):
---------------------- It is based on opportunity loss concept. In this criterion the decision maker
select the course of action that minimises the maximum regrets. This is
----------------------
also known as minimax Regret criterion.
---------------------- Numerical on decision making theory
---------------------- 1.
States of nature
---------------------- Strategy N1 N2 N3
---------------------- Inflation Recession No. change
2000 1200 1500
---------------------- 3000 800 1000
2500 1000 1800
----------------------
Which strategy should be chosen on the basis of
----------------------
i) Pessimistic
---------------------- ii) Optimistic
---------------------- iii) Equally likely
iv) Regret criterion
----------------------
Solution:
---------------------- i. Pessimistic (Maximin criterion):
---------------------- States of nature A B C
N1 2000 3000 2500
---------------------- N2 1200 800 1000
N3 1500 1000 1800
---------------------- 1200 = max 800 1000
\ Company should adopt strategy A.
----------------------
ii. Optimistic (Maximax criterion):
----------------------
States of nature A B C
---------------------- N1 2000 3000 2500
N2 1200 800 1000
---------------------- N3 1500 1000 1800
2000 3000 = max 2500
---------------------- \ Company should adopt strategy B.
---------------------- iii. Equally likely (Laplace):

---------------------- Strategy Expected return Rs.

N1 + N2 + N3 * 1/ No. of states of nature.
---------------------- A (2000+1200+1500) * 1/3 = 1566.66
B (3000+1200+1500) * 1/3 = 1600
---------------------- C (2500+1000+1800) * 1/3 =1766.66
Maximum Return = 1766.66
----------------------
\ Company should adopt strategy C.

420 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

iv. Regret criterion: Notes
States of nature A B C
N1 3000 - 2000 = 1000 3000 - 3000 = 0 3000 - 2500 = 500 ----------------------
N2 1200 - 1200 = 0 1200 - 800 = 400 1200 - 100 = 200 ----------------------
N3 1800 - 1500 = 300 1800 - 1000 = 800 1800 - 1800 = 0
----------------------
1000 800 500 = min
Minimum regret is 500 ----------------------
\ Strategy C should be chosen.
----------------------
2. The following pay-off table for a particular venture has been prepared.
----------------------
Decision States of nature.
alternatives N1 N2 N3 N4 N5 ----------------------
D1 150 225 180 210 250
----------------------
D2 180 140 200 160 225
D3 220 185 195 190 180 ----------------------
D4 190 210 230 200 160
----------------------
Determine the optimal decision using
i. Maximin criterion ----------------------
ii. Minimax criterion ----------------------
iii. Maximax criterion
iv. Regret criterion ----------------------
v. Laplace criterion
vi. Hurwicz criterion ----------------------
Take α = 0.7 ----------------------
Solution: ----------------------
i) Maximin criterion
----------------------
D1 D2 D3 D4
N1 150 180 220 190 ----------------------
N2 225 140 185 210 ----------------------
N3 180 200 195 230
----------------------
N4 210 160 190 200
N5 250 225 180 160 ----------------------
Col min 150 140 180 160 ----------------------
ii) Minimax criterion:
----------------------
D1 D2 D3 D4
N1 150 180 220 190 ----------------------
N2 225 140 185 210 ----------------------
N3 180 200 195 230
----------------------
N4 210 160 190 200
N5 250 225 180 160 ----------------------
Col max 250 225 220 230
Game Theory and Decision Theory 421
 Notes iii) Maximax criterion:
D1 D2 D3 D4
----------------------
N1 150 180 220 190
---------------------- N2 225 140 185 210
---------------------- N3 180 200 195 230
N4 210 160 190 200
----------------------
N5 250 225 180 160
----------------------
Col max 250 225 220 230
---------------------- iv) Regret criterion:
---------------------- D1 D2 D3 D4
---------------------- N1 250 - 150 = 70 220 - 180 = 40 220 - 220 = 0 220 - 190 = 30
N2 225 - 225 = 0 225 - 140 = 85 225 - 185 = 40 225 - 210 = 15
----------------------
N3 230 - 180 = 50 230 - 200 = 30 230 - 195 = 35 230 - 230 = 0
---------------------- N4 210 - 210 = 0 210 - 160 = 50 210 - 190 = 20 210 - 200 = 10
---------------------- N5 250 - 250 = 0 250 - 225 = 25 250 - 180 = 70 250 - 160 = 90
regret 70 85 70 90
----------------------
Min regret is 70.
----------------------
v) Laplace criterion:
----------------------
D1 D2 D3 D4
---------------------- N1 150 180 220 190
---------------------- N2 225 140 185 210
N3 180 200 195 230
----------------------
N4 210 160 190 200
---------------------- N5 250 225 180 160
---------------------- Add of column 1015 905 870 990

---------------------- D1 = 1015 * 1/5 =203 max value.

D2 = 905 * 1/5 =181
----------------------
D3 = 870 *1/5 =174
----------------------
D4 = 990*1/5 =198
----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

----------------------

422 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

vi) Hurwicz criterion: Notes
n = α (max in column) + (1 - α) (min in column)
Where α = coefficient of optimistic ----------------------
1 - α = coefficient of pessimission
----------------------
D2 D3 D4
----------------------
N1 150 180 220 190
N2 225 140 185 210 ----------------------
N3 180 200 195 230 ----------------------
N4 210 160 190 200
----------------------
N5 250 225 180 160
250|150 225|140 220|180 230|160 ----------------------
Max|Min
----------------------
H1 = (0.7*250) + (0.3*150) = 220
----------------------
H2 = (0.7*225) + (0.3*140) = 199.5
----------------------
H3 = (0.7*220) + (0.3*180) = 208
H4 = (0.7*230) + (0.3*160) = 209 ----------------------
Maximum H = H1 =220 ----------------------
\ Company should adopt strategy. ----------------------
[2] Decision making under risk:
----------------------
In this case the decision maker has less than completes knowledge of the
consequence of every decision choice. ----------------------
It is the probabilistic decision situation in which more than one state ----------------------
of nature exists and the decision maker has sufficient information to assign
probability values to the likely occurrence of each of these states. ----------------------
Knowing the probability distribution of the states of nature. The best ----------------------
decision is to select that course of action which has best decision is to select
that course action which has largest expected pay off value. The expected pay ----------------------
off of an alternative is the sum of all possible pay off of that occurrence of that
----------------------
pay off, e.g. decision to invest in shares:
EMV (Expected Monitoring Value): ----------------------

Definition: EMV is the average value of a decision when it is repeated several ----------------------
times and is obtained by summing the pay offs for each course of action,
multiplied by the probabilities associated with each state of nature. ----------------------

Mathematically EMV is given by, ----------------------

EMV (course of action, Sj) = ∑mi Pij Pi ----------------------
m = no. of possible states of nature
----------------------
Pi = probability of occurrence of state of nature Ni
----------------------

Game Theory and Decision Theory 423

 Notes Pij = pay off associated with state of nature Ni and course of action Sj
Steps for calculating EMV:
----------------------
1. Construct a pay off matrix listing all possible courses of action and states
---------------------- of nature.
---------------------- 2. Enter the conditional pay off values associated with each possible
combination of course of action and state of nature along with the
---------------------- probabilities of the occurrence of each state of nature.
---------------------- 3. Calculate EMV for each course of action by multiplying the conditional
pay offs by the associated probabilities and adding these weighted values
---------------------- for each course of action.
---------------------- 4. Select the course of action that gives optional EMV.
---------------------- Solved Problem 1
The probability of demand for Lorries for hiring for any date in given
----------------------
district as follows:
---------------------- No. of Lorries demanded: 0 1 2 3 4
---------------------- Probability: 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.2

---------------------- Lorries have the fixed cost of Rs. 90 each day to keep the daily hire charges
Rs. 200. If the lorry hire company goal 4 Lorries what is the daily expectation?
---------------------- If the company is about to go into business and currently has no Lorries, how
many Lorries should it buy?
----------------------
Solution: pay off values (table):
----------------------
No. of Lorries 0 1 2 3 4
---------------------- demanded
Probability 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.2
---------------------- Pay off with 4 (200 *0)-(90*4)
(200 * 1) (200*3) - (200*3) - (200*3)
Lorries = -360 – (90 *4) = (90*4) = 40 (90*4) = -(90*4)
---------------------- -160 240 = 440
---------------------- Daily Expectation = (-360 *0.1) + (-160*0.2) + (40*0.3) + (240*0.2) + (440*0.2)
= 68
---------------------- Conditional pay offs:
---------------------- Demand of Probability Conditional pay off (N)
Lorries (S)
----------------------
0 1 2 3 4
---------------------- 0 0.1 0 -90 -180 -270 -360
1 0.2 0 110 20 -70 -160
---------------------- 2 0.3 0 110 220 130 40
3 0.2 0 110 220 330 240
---------------------- 4 0.2 0 110 220 330 440
MP (Marginal Profit) * no. of Lorries demanded –
----------------------
MC (Marginal Loss) * no. of Lorries not demanded
----------------------

424 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

MP = 200 – 90 =110 Notes
ML =90
110 s S N ----------------------
(110)s – 90 (N-S)
200s – 90N S<N (for getting the values in table above the diagonal). ----------------------

Expected payoffs: ----------------------

Demand of Probability Conditional pay off (N) ----------------------
Lorries (S)
0 1 2 3 4 ----------------------
0 0.1 0 -9 -18 -27 -36
----------------------
1 0.2 0 22 4 14 -32
2 0.3 0 33 66 39 12 ----------------------
3 0.2 0 22 44 66 48
4 0.2 0 22 44 66 88 ----------------------
EMV 0 90 140 130 80
----------------------
Maximum EMV corresponds to 2 Lorries.
\ Company should purchase 2 Lorries. ----------------------

Solved Problem 2 ----------------------

Strategies Probabilities ----------------------
0.1 0.2 0.4 0.3 ----------------------
S1 10 15 5 -5
S2 20 25 10 20 ----------------------
S3 5 - 10 15 15
S4 -5 5 20 10 ----------------------
Solution: ----------------------
EMV S1 = 0.1 × 10 + 0.2 × 15 + 0.4 × 5 + 0.3 × - 5 P = 1 + 3 + 2 % 1.5 P= 4.5
----------------------
EMV S1 = 0.1 × 20 + 0.2 × 25 + 0.4 × 10 + 0.3 × 20 P = 2 + 5 + 4 + 6 P= 17
----------------------
EMV S1 = 0.1 × 5 + 0.2 × -10 + 0.4 × 15 + 0.3 × 15 P = 0.5 = 2 + 6 + 4.5 P= 9
EMV S1 = 0.1 × - 5 + 0.2 × 5 + 0.4 × 20 + 0.3 × 10 P = - 0.5 + 1 + 8 + 3 P= 11.5 ----------------------

Max EMV is 17 corresponding to the strategy S2 ----------------------

[3] Decision making under certainty: ----------------------
Decision making under certainty arises when various outcomes of
----------------------
different courses of action can be predetermined.
In this case the decision maker has complete knowledge (perfect ----------------------
information) of consequences of every decision choice. So decision maker will ----------------------
select an alternative which gives the largest pay-off for the known future i.e.
state of nature. ----------------------
In this decision model only one possible state of nature exists. For ----------------------
example, the decision to purchase national savings certificate or deposit in
national savings in which the complete information about the future is known. ----------------------

Game Theory and Decision Theory 425

 Notes Because there is no doubt that government will pay the interest when it is due
and the principle of maturity.
----------------------
Check your Progress 3
----------------------

---------------------- Multiple Choice Single Response.

1. Investing money in Fixed Deposit is an example of which of the
----------------------
following decision environment?
---------------------- i. Decision making under uncertainty
---------------------- ii. Decision making under certainty
iii. Decision making under risk
----------------------
iv. None of these
---------------------- 2. In which of the following criterion is each states of nature assigned
with equal probability and then the decision maker selects the
----------------------
alternative decision, which has maximum expected pay-off values.
---------------------- i. Laplace criterion
---------------------- ii. Maximin criterion
iii. Hurwiz criterion
----------------------
iv. Savage criterion
----------------------

---------------------- Summary
---------------------- ●● ame theory is exciting because although the principles are simple, the
G
applications are far-reaching. Interdependent decisions are everywhere,
---------------------- potentially including almost any endeavour in which self-interested
---------------------- agents cooperate and/or compete. Probably the most interesting games
involve communication, because so many layers of strategy are possible.
---------------------- ●● ame theory can be used to design credible commitments, threats or
G
---------------------- promises or to assess propositions and statements offered by others.
●● Advanced concepts, such as brinkmanship and inflicting costs, can even
---------------------- be found at the heart of foreign policy and nuclear weapons strategies.
---------------------- ●● ecision theory is a systematic procedure to identify the best possible
D
decision among the various available alternatives.
----------------------
●● he degree of certainty ranges from completely certain to completely
T
---------------------- uncertain which also involves a mid-range that has risk factors.
●● We have studied three different types of decision making environment.
----------------------

---------------------- Keywords
---------------------- ●● Game theory: The formal study of conflict and cooperation.
---------------------- ●● Payoffs: Numerical values each player decides with the mathematical

426 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

 and philosophical justification with some assumption. Notes
●● Zero-sum: A game in strategic form is said to be zero-sum if the sum of
the payoffs to the players is zero. ----------------------
●● Nash equilibrium: A move replacing value and optimal strategy is the ----------------------
notion of a strategic equilibrium, also called Nash equilibrium.
----------------------
●● Strategy: One of the given possible actions of a player.
●● Decision theory: An interdisciplinary area of study that concerns with ----------------------
analyses of decisions and their consequences.
----------------------

Self-Assessment Questions ----------------------

1. What is game theory? List its characteristics. ----------------------

2. Write steps of mixed strategy game. ----------------------

3. Give the significance of Decision Analysis. What are the steps of decision ----------------------
making process?
----------------------
4. What is decision making under risk? Explain expected value criterion.
5. The research department of Hindustan lever has recommended the ----------------------
marketing department to launch the shampoo of three different types.
----------------------
The marketing manager has to decide one of the types of shampoo to
be launched under the following estimated pay-offs for various levels of ----------------------
sales.
----------------------
Types of Shampoo Estimated levels of sales (units)
Rs. 15,000 Rs. 10,000 Rs. 5,000 ----------------------
Egg Shampoo 30 10 10
Clinic Shampoo 40 15 5 ----------------------
Deluxe Shampoo 55 20 3 ----------------------
What will be the marketing manager’s decision?
----------------------
a) Maximin b) Minimax c) Maximax d) Laplace
----------------------
Answers to Check your Progress
----------------------
Check your Progress 1 ----------------------
State True or False.
----------------------
1. True
----------------------
2. False
Check your Progress 2 ----------------------
State True or False. ----------------------
1. False ----------------------
2. True
----------------------

Game Theory and Decision Theory 427

 Notes Check your Progress 3
Multiple Choice Single Response.
----------------------
1. Investing money in Fixed Deposit is an example of which of the following
---------------------- decision environment?
---------------------- ii. Decision making under certainty

---------------------- 2. In which of the following criterion is each states of nature assigned with
equal probability and then the decision maker selects the alternative
---------------------- decision, which has maximum expected pay-off values.

---------------------- i. Laplace criterion

----------------------
Suggested Reading
----------------------
1. Dhayagude, M.G. Statistical Methods and Quantitative Techniques.
---------------------- Himalaya Publications.

---------------------- 2. Gupta, Premkumar. Operations Research. S. Chand Publications.

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428 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

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Game Theory and Decision Theory 429

 Notes

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430 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods

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Game Theory and Decision Theory 431

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432 Research Methodology & Statistical Quantitative Methods