Republic of the Philippines to clump up near their home stars.

And because they're toward

Department of Education the outside of our solar system, their intense gravity
Region III – Central Luzon
SCHOOLS DIVISION OF CITY OF BALANGA conveniently catches wayward asteroids and comets, making
BATAAN NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL – SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL events like the one that killed the dinosaurs a rarity.
City of Balanga, Bataan
LECTURE in EARTH SCIENCE
Quarter 1 – Week 1
LECTURE in EARTH SCIENCE Explain that the Earth consists of four subsystems, across
Quarter 1 – Week 1 whose boundaries matter and energy flow
Describe the characteristics of Earth that are necessary to S11ES-Ib-4
support life
S11ES-Ia-b-3 Subsystems of Earth
What Makes Earth Suitable for Life? Lithosphere
The Moon The Lithosphere--contains all of the cold, hard solid land of
the planet's crust (surface), the semi-solid land underneath the
The Earth has a slight tilt and teeters which can cause drastic crust, and the liquid land near the center of the planet. The
shifts in climate over the course of thousands of years. But surface of the lithosphere is very uneven.
because of the moon's stabilizing effect on our orbit, our
climate is a lot steadier. And also, the moon causes the tides, The solid, semi-solid, and liquid land of the lithosphere form
and some experts assume life began in tidal pools. layers that are physically and chemically different. If someone
were to cut through Earth to its center, these layers would be
Stable rotation revealed like the layers of an onion. The outermost layer of the
lithosphere consists of loose soil rich in nutrients, oxygen, and
The regularity and frequency of day and night on this planet silicon. Beneath that layer lies a very thin, solid crust of
go far to prevent extreme temperatures and encourage life. oxygen and silicon. Next is a thick, semi-solid mantle of
oxygen, silicon, iron, and magnesium. Below that is a liquid
A magnetic field outer core of nickel and iron. At the center of Earth is a solid
inner core of nickel and iron.
Our planet is blessed with a strong, stable magnetic field,
which staves off the cosmic rays and solar flares that could Hydrosphere
―burn‖ the planet every now and then.
The Hydrosphere -- contains all the solid, liquid, and gaseous
Dynamic geology water of the planet. It ranges from 10 to 20 kilometers in
thickness. The hydrosphere extends from Earth's surface
The cloud of gas and dust that eventually coalesced into the downward several kilometers into the lithosphere and upward
Earth contained enough radioactive elements to keep the core about 12 kilometers into the atmosphere. A small portion of
of the planet churning merrily for billions of years. Without the water in the hydrosphere is fresh (non-salty). This water
that motion, there wouldn't be a magnetic field at all. flows as precipitation from the atmosphere down to Earth's
surface, as rivers and streams along Earth's surface, and as
Atmosphere groundwater beneath Earth's surface. Most of Earth's fresh
water, however, is frozen.
The importance of the ozone layer should also be considered.
Back in the very early days of life, plant-like organisms Ninety-seven percent of Earth's water is salty. The salty water
unknowingly made way for animal life by filling the collects indeep valleys along Earth's surface. These large
atmosphere with oxygen. That high-altitude layer of gas collections of salty water are referred to as oceans. The image
shielded early animals from lethal radiation. above depicts the different temperatures one would find on
oceans' surfaces. Water near the poles is very cold while water
Isolation near the equator is very warm. The differences in temperature
Venus and Mars are close to the Earth, but our solar system as cause water to change physical states. Extremely low
a whole is in the middle of nowhere. Because we're far from temperatures like those found at the poles cause water to
the major spiral arms of the Milky Way, we're in a lot less freeze into a solid such as a polar icecap, a glacier, or an
danger of encountering some greater star's gravitational pull iceberg. Extremely high temperatures like those found at the
(among other hazards). equator cause water to evaporate into a gas.
Long-lived sun Biosphere
Our sun is a yellow dwarf, a relatively rare type of star that's
both small and stable. It also has a long life, and probably The Biosphere --contains all the planet's living things. This
won't start to fizzle out for another five billion years or so. sphere includes all of the microorganisms, plants, and animals
Larger stars generally burn hotter and die sooner, while
of Earth. 

Within the biosphere, living things form
smaller stars have a tendency to spit out enormous plumes of
ecological communities based on the physical surroundings of
radiation.
an area. These communities are referred to as biomes. Deserts,
grasslands, and tropical rainforests are three of the many types
Plenty of time
of biomes that exist within the biosphere.
The sun has about five billion years left, and the Earth itself is
around four and a half billion years old. But life only arrived
in that last half-billion. We're here because our planet was
sturdy enough to last until the first signs of life appeared. Atmosphere

The Atmosphere--contains all the air in Earth's system. It

Gas-giant neighbors
extends from less than 1 m below the planet's surface to more
The sun and moon are great, but there's another large planet to
than 10,000 km above the planet's surface. The upper portion
help make Earth habitable: Jupiter. In general, gas giants tend
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of the atmosphere protects the organisms of the biosphere
from the sun's ultraviolet radiation. It also absorbs and emits
heat. When air temperature in the lower portion of this sphere
changes, weather occur. As air in the lower atmosphere is
heated or cooled, it moves around the planet. The result can be
as simple as a breeze or as complex as a tornado.

Interaction Between the Four Spheres

Changes that take place within an ecosystem are referred to as

events. Although the four systems have their individual
identities, there is important interaction between them.
Environmental scientists study the effects of events in one
sphere on the other spheres. There are ten possible types of
interactions that could occur within the earth system. Four of
these interactions are between the event and each of the 3
earth's spheres. The double-headed arrows indicate that the
cause and effect relationships of these interactions go in both
directions.

The event ―hydrosphere" refers to the effects of the event on

the hydrosphere, as well as the effects of the hydrosphere on
the event. For example, a volcanic eruption in the geosphere
may cause profound direct and indirect effects on the
hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere.

Source: https://www.space.com/5595-earth-special-compared-
planets.html

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 Republic of the Philippines
Department of Education Streak
Region III – Central Luzon
SCHOOLS DIVISION OF CITY OF BALANGA Color of a thin layer of the finely powdered mineral. A streak
BATAAN NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL – SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL is usually obtained by rubbing the mineral against a streak
City of Balanga, Bataan plate of unglazed porcelain, such as the back of a tile. The
streak of a non-metallic mineral is either colorless or very
light while metallic minerals have a dark streak.
LECTURE in EARTH SCIENCE
Quarter 1 – Week 2 Luster
Identify common rock-forming minerals using their Ability of a mineral to reflect, refract (bend) or absorb light
physical and chemical properties falling into its surface. Various terms are used to describe the
S11ES-IB- 5 general types of luster. These include dull, pearly, resinous,
silky, earthy, metallic, glassy or vitreous and brilliant or
Elements adamantine.
All materials on Earth are made up of elements. An element is Crystal form
a substance that cannot be changed by ordinary means into Significant because it provides a clue to the internal structure
any other substance. The smallest particle of an element that of the mineral. Most minerals are crystalline. Their atoms,
has all the properties of that element is called an atom. ions or molecules are arranged in definite patterns. Minerals
Ninety-two elements occur naturally on or in the Earth crystallize in six basic shapes: isometric or cubic,
(although others elements have been created in the laboratory). orthorhombic, tetragonal, monoclinic, hexagonal and triclinic.
Of the natural elements, a few very common ones compose
most of Earth’s air, water and solid material. Cleavage and fracture
Also indicate the structure of the mineral. Minerals are said
The three major classification of elements are metals, non- to have poor, fair, good, perfect or eminent cleavage. Fracture
metals and metalloids. Metals have a shiny luster, conduct reveal the true color of the mineral. Some types of fracture are
both heat and electricity readily and they reflect light. Most conchoidal, fibrous or splintery, irregular and earthy.
metals are malleable and ductile.
Hardness
Non-metals are usually poor conductors of heat and electricity. Its resistance to abrasion (scratching). Certain minerals are
They are brittle rather than malleable and ductile. A few used as standards of comparison for all others. The scale of
elements have some of the properties of both the metals and hardness, called Mohs’ scale, consists of ten minerals. These
non-metals. Such elements are called metalloids. range from talc, one of the softest minerals to diamond, the
hardest of all minerals.
The nucleus is the center of the atom and has a positive
electric charge. It is composed of protons, which are Specific gravity
electrically positive and neutrons, which have no electric The relative weights of various minerals can be judged by
charge. Surrounding the nucleus is a group of electrons, weighing or handling pieces of roughly the same size
having a negative charge. (hefting). A more precise method is to measure its specific
gravity. This is expressed as a number that tells how many
Compounds times heavier a given volume of the substance is than an equal
volume of water.
Elements exist under two conditions. They may be free or
they may be united chemically in chemical compounds. Special properties
Magnetism
In a mixture, substances are physically mingled. A solution is Electrical properties
a particular type of mixture. In solutions of some chemical Fluorescence
compounds, the particles, called molecules, are made up of Radioactivity
two or more atoms of elements. These atoms are chemically Temperature of fusion
combined in a fixed proportion by weight. Solutions of other Optical properties
compounds may consist of electrically charged particles,
smaller than molecules, called ions.
LECTURE in EARTH SCIENCE
Oxides, acids, bases and salts are four classes of compounds Quarter 1 – Week 2
which are often met in the study of rocks and minerals.
Identify the minerals important to society
S11ES-Ic-7
Oxides are compounds of elements that are combined with
oxygen alone. Acids are compounds which always contain A mineral is a natural substance with distinctive chemical and
hydrogen; their water solutions turn blue litmus paper to red. physical properties, composition, and atomic structure. The
definition of an economic mineral is broader, and includes
Bases are compounds which always contain a combination of minerals, metals, rocks and hydrocarbons (solid and liquid)
1 atom of oxygen and 1 atom of hydrogen, called the that are extracted from the earth by mining, quarrying and
hydroxide (OH) group. Salts are compounds of a metal and a pumping. Economic minerals are used in a wide range of
non-metal or a non-metallic group. applications related to construction, manufacturing, agriculture
and energy supply.
Properties of Minerals
Minerals are basic and essential raw materials in our daily
Color lives, and are vital for economic, social and technological
Most obvious property. The color of the freshly broken development.
surface of some minerals is a reliable clue to their
identification. The color of the surface tarnish of those
materials that have a metallic luster should also be taken into
account.
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 Mineral Uses
COPPER Copper is used for electrical conductors,
motors, appliances, piping and in metal
alloys.
GOLD Gold has many high tech applications
including computers and many scientific
instruments, is used in electrical conductors,
is used in the face shields of fire fighters to
reflect the heat of a fire. is used in building
windows for reflecting the heat from the sun,
medical and dental equipment, and jewelry.
ZINC ZnO is used to prevent Sunburn, zinc is used
for protective coatings for steel, casting
alloys and extensively in medicines.
NICKEL Nickel is primarily used to manufacture
stainless steel.
SILVER Silver is used in electrical conductors,
photography, chemical manufacturing, dental
and medical uses.
ALUMINUM Aluminum is used in electrical conductors,
ships, airplanes, doors, windows, roofing,
insulation, packaging, food processing,
domestic utensils.
IRON Iron is used in steel manufacturing, magnets,
medicines, biomedical research, paints,
printing inks, plastics, cosmetics, dyes. Iron
is used in volume, about 20 times more than
any other metal in our society.
BORAX Borax is used to make fiberglass, high
temperature glass, cleaning agents, ceramics,
wood preservatives, corrosion inhibitors and
fertilizers.
TITANIUM Titanium is used in paint manufacture as
pigments, and in plastic manufacture, as well
as many high strength, low weight metal
alloys.
TALC Talc is used in paper manufacture, in paint
manufacture and in plastics and the cosmetic
industry.
CLAY Used to make cement and concrete, which is
used to build roads, buildings, housing
foundations and even driveways.
COAL Used in steel making and to provide
electricity. For decades it was the lowest cost
electricity in the world (except for hydro
generated). However, now natural gas, solar
and wind are less expensive ways to generate
electric power. Slag (the residue left when
coal is burned) from coal power plants is
used for paving additives, for abrasives in
sandblasting and to manufacture roofing
materials.
PHOSPHATE Phosphate is used to produce phosphoric acid
for fertilizers, feed additives for livestock,
chemicals, and used in consumer home
products
POTASH Carbonate of potassium, is used in fertilizers,
medicines and the chemical industry.
RARE Planthanum, Cerium, Praseodymium,
EARTH Neodymium, Europium, etc., are used in
ELEMENTS petroleum refining, computers, televisions,
magnetic industry, metallurgical applications,
ceramics and lighting.
LITHIUM Lithium ore is currently primarily used to
produce lithium carbonate which is utilized
to manufacture auto batteries.

Source: https://www.nps.gov/subjects/geology/rocks-and-
minerals.htm

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 Republic of the Philippines stripping. This method of striping is common on flat land to
Department of Education extract the mineral over a large area.
Region III – Central Luzon
SCHOOLS DIVISION OF CITY OF BALANGA
BATAAN NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL – SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL Open-pit mining:
City of Balanga, Bataan
This type of mining involves the extraction of rock or minerals
from the earth by forming an open pit. This process differs
LECTURE in EARTH SCIENCE from the other method which requires digging into the earth.
Quarter 1 – Week 3 This method of mining is carried out where useful minerals or
Describe how ore minerals are found, mined and processed rocks are found near the surface. When the surface material
for human use covering the valuable material is relatively thin this kind of
S11ES-Ic-d-8 mining is more suitable.
Surface mining is a form of mining in which the soil and the Open cast mines are dug on benches which are usually four to
rock covering the mineral deposits are removed. It is the other sixty meter intervals and the machinery used depends on the
way of underground mining, in which the overlying rock is size of the area. The flat part of the wall is known as the bench
left behind, and the required mineral deposits are removed whereas the inclined portion of the sections is known as batter.
through shafts or tunnels. To prevent the damage from rock falls the walls of the pit has
to be dug on less than vertical angle. A crude, temporary road
Surface mining is basically employed when deposits of is usually found at the side of the pit for the movement of
commercially viable minerals or rock are found closer to the trucks carrying ore or waste rocks. The waste rocks are always
surface; that is, where overstrain (surface material covering piled up on the borders of the open pit. This waste dump is
the valuable deposit) is relatively very less or the material of arranged in rows and stepped to lower the degradation.
interest is structurally unsuitable for heavy handling or
tunneling (as would usually be the case for sand, cinder, and The next step is rehabilitation. This is the process by which
gravel). the land is returned to the original state after the process of
mining is done. Various processes are involved to bring it to
Where ever minerals occur deep below the earths crest or the the original state. Another way is an adaptive use of mines by
overburden is too thick or the mineral occurs as strands in hard which the mines are reused and they develop the closed open
rock, Underground mining methods are employed to extract pit mines into parks. The reclaimed mine sites are used for
the valuable mineral deposits. small economic activities which may also include dumping of
sludge waste etc.
Surface mines are naturally extended until either the valuable
deposit is exhausted, or the cost of de-cresting larger volumes Mountaintop removal:
of overburden makes further mining an uneconomic option to
shoulder. Another method involved in this category aims at mining the
summit or the long and narrow edge of the mountain. The
In most types of surface mining, heavy paraphernalia's such as main mineral extracted by this method is coal. Coal is mined
earthmovers are utilized. They 1st remove the overburden the by removing the land above the seams.
soil and rock above the deposit. Then followed by the huge
machines, such as dragline excavators, extract the mineral. The coal cannot be mined using simple machines. Explosives
are used to mine the coal and the excess coals are dumped in
It is a known fact that Mother Earth contributes largely to the the nearby valley. This method is less expensive and requires
wealth of the world. The mining takes place in those areas only a few employees. There is controversy as to whether the
where the growth of vegetation is very minimal or at times coal mining is safe as it is being removed from the mountain
does not exist due to the surface conditions. The most top. But the coal industry asserts that it is safer than the
important method used to extract the minerals from the earth underground mining. The environmental studies warn that this
is surface mining. It is surprising to notice that 70 percent of process can damage the environment and also the health of
the minerals extracted from the earth are through this process. human beings. Another positive impact of Mountain mining is
The basic material used for construction purposes like crushed that the reclaimed area is suitable for many purposes and the
rocks, sand and gravel is obtained through this method. flat terrain can support rapid development for human
population. However, the blasting of mountain top releases
After the discovery of certain kinds of mineral deposits in a large amount of dust and tiny materials into the air leading to
particular area a method has to be evaluated to extract these the pollution that could be a health hazard.
minerals. The selection is based on technical and
environmental aspects and surface mining is preferred to Dredging:
extract the minerals from the surface area. As compared to
underground mining this method of mining removes soil and This is a method by which underwater minerals are extracted.
rock overlying the mineral deposit. The equipment used for It is usually used to make waterways for boats and navigation
this process is always heavy such as earth movers, dragline canals for the passage of container ships to save time. The
excavators or bucket wheel excavators. mineral can be extracted from under water in cheap and
efficient way. Oil refining is done mainly by this method.
Types of surface mining

Strip mining:

This process involves the method of extracting the mineral by

removing soil and rock which are deposited on the
surface.Coal and Lignite are the two principle minerals that
are extracted through this method. This kind of mining can be
done when the mineral to be extracted almost near to the
surface.This process is divided into area stripping and contour

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 LECTURE in EARTH SCIENCE
Quarter 1 – Week 3 Petroleum
Describe how fossil fuels are formed
S11ES-Id-10 Petroleum, or crude oil, is the most extensively used fossil
fuel. Due to its value to mankind, it is also known as "black
gold." The word petroleum comes from the Latin words
Man’s fuel needs, since the olden times, have been met
"petro" (meaning rock) and "leum" (meaning oil).
through the use of fossil fuels. Fossil fuels, as its name
suggests, were formed from the organic remains of prehistoric
Petroleum mainly is used to fuel jets and automobiles. It also
plants and animals. They are responsible for much of the
is used to generate electricity, and its derivatives are utilized in
world’s electric power and total energy demands. Since 1900,
the medicine and plastic industries. As demand for oil is still
the world’s consumption of fossil fuels has nearly doubled
increasing, the average worldwide rate of oil field depletion is
every 20 years.
believed to be around 2.5 percent per year. The widespread
use of petroleum also has contributed to air and water
Fossil fuels comprise mainly of coal, oil and gas. These three
pollution.
were formed millions of years ago beneath the Earth’s surface
from the decomposed bodies of dead plants and animals. They
Coal
are foreseen to be in short supply in the future as man’s fuel
needs continue to grow at a fast rate.
Coal is the most abundant fossil fuel resource. It provides
about one-quarter of the total energy the world uses, and 40
Crude oil is also referred to as petroleum. Compared to coal,
percent of the electricity generated worldwide is powered by
this is easier to extract from the ground through the use of
coal. The steel industry also is greatly dependent upon this
pipes thereby making it less costly to transport from one place
fossil fuel. Like other depleting sources of global energy, coal
to another.
reserves are also on a steep decline. Moreover, coal is a
greenhouse gas nightmare.
Natural gas has other uses apart from being burned in power
plants to generate electricity. Many people also use it in their
Natural Gas
home heating systems to provide warm air during the cold
winter season.
Natural gas is comprised mostly of methane, although it also
contains ethane, propane and butane. It is a convenient and
efficient energy source. The major consumers of natural gas
Advantages of Fossil Fuels
are the residential, commercial and industrial sectors. It is also
used to generate electricity. Unlike other fossil fuels, natural
• A major advantage of fossil fuels is their capacity to generate
gas is cleaner and causes less pollution. Like other fossil fuels,
huge amounts of electricity in just a single location.
this resource is depleting rapidly.
• Fossil fuels are very easy to find.
• When coal is used in power plants, they are very cost
Orimulsion
effective. Coal is also in abundant supply.
• Transporting oil and gas to the power stations can be made
Orimulsion became the ―fourth fossil fuel‖ in the mid-1980s.
through the use of pipes making it an easy task.
It is derived from the bitumen that occurs naturally in large
• Power plants that utilize gas are very efficient.
reserves in the Orinoco oil belt in Venezuela. It is estimated
• Power stations that make use of fossil fuel can be
that there are more than 1.2 trillion barrels of bitumen
constructed in almost any location. This is possible as long as
available in reserves, an amount greater than 50 percent of the
large quantities of fuel can be easily brought to the power
world's estimated oil reserves.
plants.
Orimulsion has achieved growing recognition as an
Disadvantages of Fossil Fuels economically viable fuel for power generation. In countries
such as Canada, Denmark, Japan, Italy, Lithuania and China,
• Pollution is a major disadvantage of fossil fuels. This is
it is used as a commercial boiler fuel in power plants.
because they give off carbon dioxide when burned thereby
Orimulsion is the cost-effective choice when compared to
causing a greenhouse effect. This is also the main contributory
other fossil fuels used to generate electricity.
factor to the global warming experienced by the earth today.
• Coal also produces carbon dioxide when burned compared to
Future of Fossil Fuels
burning oil or gas. Additionally, it gives off sulphur dioxide, a
kind of gas that creates acid rain.
Fossil fuels are non-renewable sources of energy. As we are
• Environmentally, the mining of coal results in the destruction
excessively dependent on these, alternative forms of energy
of wide areas of land. Mining this fossil fuel is also difficult
need to be developed in order to deal with the imminent
and may endanger the lives of miners. Coal mining is
energy scarcity. These alternate sources of energy also need to
considered one of the most dangerous jobs in the world.
be more eco-friendly.
• Power stations that utilize coal need large amounts of fuel. In
other words, they not only need truckloads but trainloads of
Source:
coal on a regular basis to continue operating and generating
https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/education/info_activities/pdfs/
electricity. This only means that coal-fired power plants
Teacher_PSA_sphere_interactions.pdf
should have reserves of coal in a large area near the plant?s
location.
• Use of natural gas can cause unpleasant odors and some
problems especially with transportation.
• Use of crude oil causes pollution and poses environmental
hazards such as oil spills when oil tankers, for instance,
experience leaks or drown deep under the sea. Crude oil
contains toxic chemicals which cause air pollutants when
combusted.

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 Republic of the Philippines
Department of Education
Region III – Central Luzon
SCHOOLS DIVISION OF CITY OF BALANGA
BATAAN NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL – SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
City of Balanga, Bataan

LECTURE in EARTH SCIENCE

Quarter 1 – Week 4 The three basic designs for geothermal power plants: dry
Explain how heat from inside the Earth and from flowing steam, flash steam, and binary cycle. Image: U.S. Department
water is tapped as a source of energy for human use of Energy
S11ES-Ie-11
The hydropower resource
Geothermal energy
On Earth, water is constantly moved around in various states,
Geothermal energy comes from the heat within the earth. The a process known as the hydrologic cycle. Water evaporates
word "geothermal" comes from the Greek words geo, meaning from the oceans, forming into clouds, falling out as rain and
earth," and therme, meaning "heat." People around the world snow, gathering into streams and rivers, and flowing back to
use geothermal energy to produce electricity, to heat buildings the sea. All this movement provides an enormous opportunity
and greenhouses, and for other purposes. to harness useful energy.

The earth's core lies almost 4,000 miles beneath the earth's In order to generate electricity from the kinetic energy in
surface. The double-layered core is made up of very hot moving water, the water has to move with sufficient speed and
molten iron surrounding a solid iron center. Estimates of the volume to spin a propeller-like device called a turbine, which
temperature of the core range from 5,000 to 11,000 degrees in turn rotates a generator to generate electricity. Roughly
Fahrenheit (F). Heat is continuously produced within the earth speaking, one gallon of water per second falling one hundred
by the slow decay of radioactive particles that is natural in all feet can generate one kilowatt of electricity.
rocks.
To increase the volume of moving water, impoundments or
Surrounding the earth's core is the mantle, thought to be partly dams are used to collect the water. An opening in the dam uses
rock and partly magma. The mantle is about 1,800 miles thick. gravity to drop water down a pipe called a penstock. The
The outermost layer of the earth, the insulating crust, is not moving water causes the turbine to spin, which causes
one continuous sheet of rock, like the shell of an egg, but is magnets inside a generator to rotate and create electricity.
broken into pieces called plates. These slabs of continents and
ocean floor drift apart and push against each other at the rate There are a variety of types of turbines used at hydropower
of about one inch per year in a process called continental drift. facilities, and their use depends on the amount of hydraulic
Magma (molten rock) may come quite close to the surface head (vertical distance between the dam and the turbine) at the
where the crust has been thinned, faulted, or fractured by plate plant. The most common are Kaplan, Francis, and Pelton
tectonics. When this near-surface heat is transferred to water, a wheel designs. Some of these designs, called reaction and
usable form of geother- energy is created. impulse wheels, use not just the kinetic force of the moving
water but also the water pressure.
Geothermal energy is called a renewable energy source
because the water is replenished by rainfall, and the heat is The Kaplan turbine is similar to a boat propeller, with a runner
continuously produced by the earth. (the turning part of a turbine) that has three to six blades, and
can provide up to 400 MW of power. The Kaplan turbine is
How geothermal energy is captured differentiated from other kinds of hydropower turbines
because its performance can be improved by changing the
Geothermal springs for power plants. Currently, the most pitch of the blades. The Francis turbine has a runner with nine
common way of capturing the energy from geothermal sources or more fixed vanes. In this turbine design, which can be up to
is to tap into naturally occurring "hydrothermal convection" 800 MW in size, the runner blades direct the water so that it
systems, where cooler water seeps into Earth's crust, is heated moves in an axial flow. The Pelton turbine consists of a set of
up, and then rises to the surface. Once this heated water is specially shaped buckets that are mounted on the outside of a
forced to the surface, it is a relatively simple matter to capture circular disc, making it look similar to a water wheel. Pelton
that steam and use it to drive electric generators. Geothermal turbines are typically used in high hydraulic head sites and can
power plants drill their own holes into the rock to more be as large as 200 MW.
effectively capture the steam.
Hydropower can also be generated without a dam, through a
There are three basic designs for geothermal power plants, all process known as run-of-the-river. In this case, the volume
of which pull hot water and steam from the ground, use it, and and speed of water is not augmented by a dam. Instead, a run-
then return it as warm water to prolong the life of the heat of-river project spins the turbine blades by capturing the
source. In the simplest design, known as dry steam, the steam kinetic energy of the moving water in the river. Hydropower
goes directly through the turbine, then into a condenser where projects that have dams can control when electricity is
the steam is condensed into water. In a second approach, very generated because the dams can control the timing and flow of
hot water is depressurized or "flashed" into steam which can the water reaching the turbines. Therefore these projects can
then be used to drive the turbine. choose to generate power when it is most needed and most
valuable to the grid. Because run-of-river projects do not store
In the third approach, called a binary cycle system, the hot water behind dams, they have much less ability to control the
water is passed through a heat exchanger, where it heats a amount and timing of when electricity is generated.
second liquid—such as isobutane—in a closed loop. Isobutane
boils at a lower temperature than water, so it is more easily Another type of hydropower technology is called pumped
converted into steam to run the turbine. storage. In a pumped storage plant, water is pumped from a
lower reservoir to a higher reservoir during off-peak times
when electricity is relatively cheap, using electricity generated
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from other types of energy sources. Pumping the water uphill volume, are the exception. They are located in a hospitable
creates the potential to generate hydropower later on. When region, which is heavily populated. The Great Lakes Basin is
the hydropower power is needed, it is released back into the home to 33 million people. The Canadian cities of Toronto,
lower reservoir through turbines. Inevitably, some power is Hamilton, Ontario, St. Catharines, Niagara, Oshawa, Windsor,
lost, but pumped storage systems can be up to 80 percent and Barrie, and the United States cities of Duluth, Milwaukee,
efficient. There is currently more than 90 GW of pumped Chicago, Gary, Detroit, Cleveland, Buffalo, and Rochester, are
storage capacity worldwide. The need to create storage all located on shores of the Great Lakes.
resources to capture and store for later use the generation from
high penetrations of variable renewable energy (e.g. wind and Although the total volume of groundwater is known to be
solar) could increase interest in building new pumped storage much greater than that of river runoff, a large proportion of
projects. this groundwater is saline and should therefore be classified
with the saline water above. There is also a lot of fossil
LECTURE in EARTH SCIENCE groundwater in arid regions that has never been renewed for
Quarter 1 – Week 4 thousands of years; this must not be seen as renewable water.
Identify the various water resources on Earth However, fresh groundwater is of great value, especially in
S11ES-If-g-15 arid countries such as India. Its distribution is broadly similar
to that of surface river water, but it is easier to store in hot and
The water distribution on earth shows that most water in the dry climates because groundwater storages are much more
Earth's atmosphere and crust comes from the world ocean's shielded from evaporation than are dams. In countries such as
saline seawater, while freshwater accounts for only 2.5% of Yemen, groundwater from erratic rainfall during the rainy
the total. Because the oceans that cover roughly 71% of the season is the major source of irrigation water.
area of the Earth reflect blue light, the Earth appears blue from
space, and is often referred to as the blue planet and the Pale Because groundwater recharge is much more difficult to
Blue Dot. An estimated 1.5 to 11 times the amount of water in accurately measure than surface runoff, groundwater is not
the oceans may be found hundreds of miles deep within the generally used in areas where even fairly limited levels of
Earth's interior, although not in liquid form. surface water are available. Even today, estimates of total
groundwater recharge vary greatly for the same region
The oceanic crust is young, thin and dense, with none of the depending on what source is used, and cases where fossil
rocks within it dating from any older than the breakup of groundwater is exploited beyond the recharge rate (including
Pangaea. Because water is much denser than any gas, this the Ogallala Aquifer) are very frequent and almost always not
means that water will flow into the "depressions" formed as a seriously considered when they were first developed.
result of the high density of oceanic crust. (On a planet like
Venus, with no water, the depressions appear to form a vast Source: https://www.wikipedia.org.
plain above which rise plateaux). Since the low density rocks
of the continental crust contain large quantities of easily
eroded salts of the alkali and alkaline earth metals, salt has,
over billions of years, accumulated in the oceans as a result of
evaporation returning the fresh water to land as rain and snow.
As a result, the vast bulk of the water on Earth is regarded as
saline or salt water, with an average salinity of 35‰ (or 3.5%,
roughly equivalent to 34 grams of salts in 1 kg of seawater),
though this varies slightly according to the amount of runoff
received from surrounding land. In all, water from oceans and
marginal seas, saline groundwater and water from saline
closed lakes amount to over 97% of the water on Earth,
though no closed lake stores a globally significant amount of
water. Saline groundwater is seldom considered except when
evaluating water quality in arid regions.

The remainder of the Earth's water constitutes the planet's

fresh water resource. Typically, fresh water is defined as water
with a salinity of less than 1 percent that of the oceans - i.e.
below around 0.35‰. Water with a salinity between this level
and 1‰ is typically referred to as marginal water because it is
marginal for many uses by humans and animals. The ratio of
salt water to fresh water on Earth is around 40 to 1.

The planet's fresh water is also very unevenly distributed.

Although in warm periods such as the Mesozoic and
Paleogene when there were no glaciers anywhere on the planet
all fresh water was found in rivers and streams, today most
fresh water exists in the form of ice, snow, groundwater and
soil moisture, with only 0.3% in liquid form on the surface. Of
the liquid surface fresh water, 87% is contained in lakes, 11%
in swamps, and only 2% in rivers. Small quantities of water
also exist in the atmosphere and in living beings. Of these
sources, only river water is generally valuable.

Most lakes are in very inhospitable regions such as the glacial

lakes of Canada, Lake Baikal in Russia, Lake Khövsgöl in
Mongolia, and the African Great Lakes. The North American
Great Lakes, which contain 21% of the world's fresh water by

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 Republic of the Philippines level of the rivers and may cause flooding. The soil can also
Department of Education fill up lakes and reservoirs.
Region III – Central Luzon
SCHOOLS DIVISION OF CITY OF BALANGA
BATAAN NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL – SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL Mining
City of Balanga, Bataan
Some methods of mining cause soil loss. For example, the
digging of strip mines and open-pit mines involves the
LECTURE in EARTH SCIENCE removal of plants and soil from the surface of the ground.
Quarter 1 – Week 5
Identify Human Activities, such as Farming, Construction By exposing rocks and minerals to the air and to rainwater,
of Structures, and Waste Disposal that Affect the Quality these forms of mining speed up the rate of chemical
and Quantity of Soils weathering. In mining operations that expose sulfide minerals,
S11ES-Ih-17 the increased chemical weathering causes a type of pollution
known as acid drainage. Abandoned mines can fill with
Soil helps sustain life on Earth—including your life. You rainwater. Sulfide minerals react with the air and the water to
already know that soil supports the growth of plants, which in produce sulfuric acid. Then the acid water drains from the
turn supply food for animals. Therefore, soil provides you mines, polluting the soil in surrounding areas.
with nearly all the food you eat. But that’s not all. Many other
items you use, such as cotton clothing and medicines, come
from plants. Lumber in your home comes from trees. Even the LECTURE in EARTH SCIENCE
oxygen you breathe comes from plants.
Quarter 1 – Week 5
Give Ways of Conserving and Protecting the Soil for
Besides supporting the growth of plants, soil plays other life-
Future Generations
sustaining roles. Soil helps purify, or clean, water as it drains S11ES-Ih-i-18
through the ground and into rivers, lakes, and oceans.
Decomposers in soil also help recycle nutrients by breaking Soil conservation is very important, because soil can be
down the remains of plants and animals, releasing nutrients difficult or impossible to replace once it has been lost. Soil
that living plants use to grow. In addition, soil provides a takes a very long time to form. A soil with well-developed
home for a variety of living things, from tiny one-celled horizons may take hundreds of thousands of years to form!
organisms to small mammals. Most soil conservation methods are designed to hold soil in
place and keep it fertile. Below are descriptions of a few of the
Farming many soil conservation methods that are used by farmers
around the world.
Farming is very important to society because almost all of the
world’s food is grown on farms. Over the 10,000 years Crop rotation is the practice of planting different crops on the
humans have been farming, people have continually improved same field in different years or growing seasons. Grain crops,
their farming methods. However, farming has some harmful such as wheat, use up a lot of the nitrogen—a necessary plant
effects and can lead to soil loss. nutrient—in the soil. The roots of bean crops, such as
soybeans, contain bacteria that restore nitrogen to the soil. By
Farmers often add nutrients to soil in the form of organic or rotating these crops, farmers can help maintain soil fertility.
artificial fertilizers to make their crops grow better. However,
some fertilizers can make it difficult for microorganisms in the Conservation tillage includes several methods of reducing the
soil to produce nutrients naturally. Fertilizers also add to water number of times fields are tilled, or plowed, in a year. The less
pollution when rainwater draining from fields carries the soil is disturbed by plowing, the less likely it is to be washed
excess nutrients to rivers, lakes, and oceans. or blown away. In one method of conservation tillage, fields
are not plowed at all. The remains of harvested crops are
Over time, many farming practices lead to the loss of soil. All simply left on the fields to cover and protect the soil. New
over the world, farmers clear trees and other plants and plow seeds are planted in narrow bands of soil.
up the soil to plant crops. Without its natural plant cover, the
soil is more exposed to rain and wind and is therefore more Terraces are flat, steplike areas built on a hillside to hold
likely to get washed or blown away. American farmers lose rainwater and prevent it from running downhill. Crops are
about five metric tons of soil for each metric ton of grain they planted on the flat tops of the terraces.
produce. In many other parts of the world, the losses are even
higher. Contour plowing is the practice of plowing along the curves,
or contours, of a slope. Contour plowing helps channel
Another problem is overgrazing. Overgrazing occurs when rainwater so that it does not run straight downhill, carrying
farm animals eat large amounts of the land cover. Overgrazing away soil with it.
destroys natural vegetation and causes the soil to wash or blow
away more easily. In many dry regions of the world, A soil conservation method called strip-cropping is often
overgrazing and the clearing of land for farming have led to combined with contour plowing. Strips of grasses, shrubs, or
desertification. is the expansion of desert conditions in areas other plants are planted between bands of a grain crop along
where the natural plant cover has been destroyed. the contour of a slope. These strips of plants also help slow the
runoff of water.
Construction and Development
Windbreaks are rows of trees planted between fields to
To make roads, houses, shopping malls, and other buildings, ―break,‖ or reduce, the force of winds that can carry off soil.
people need to dig up the soil. Some of the soil at construction
sites washes or blows away because its protective plant cover
has been removed. The soil that is washed or blown away ends
up in nearby low-lying areas, in rivers and streams, or in
downstream lakes or reservoirs. This soil can cause problems
by making rivers and lakes muddy and harming the organisms
that live in them. The buildup of soil on riverbeds raises the
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 LECTURE in EARTH SCIENCE They include everyday items like food debris, used plastic
Quarter 1 – Week 6 bags, soda cans and plastic water bottles, broken furniture,
Describe how people generate different types of waste as grass clippings, product packaging, broken home appliances
they make use of various materials and resources in and clothing.
everyday life
S11ES-Ii-19 Medical/Clinical sources of waste:

Types of waste Medical/clinical waste, normally refers to waste produced

from health care facilities, such as hospitals, clinics, surgical
Generally, waste could be liquid or solid waste. Both of them theaters, veterinary hospitals and labs. They tend to be
could be hazardous. Liquid and solid waste types can also be classified as hazard waste rather than general waste. Items in
grouped into organic, re-usable and recyclable waste. this group include surgical items, pharmaceuticals, blood,
Let us see some details below: body parts, wound dressing materials, needles and syringes

Liquid type: Agricultural sources of waste:

Waste can come in non-solid form. Some solid waste can also Typically, this is waste generated by agricultural activities.
be converted to a liquid waste form for disposal. It includes These include horticulture, fruit growing, seed growing,
point source and non-point source discharges such as storm livestock breeding, market gardens and seedling nurseries.
water and wastewater. Examples of liquid waste include wash Waste items in this group include empty pesticide containers,
water from homes, liquids used for cleaning in industries and old silage wrap, out of date medicines and wormers, used tires,
waste detergents. surplus milk, cocoa pods and corn husks.

Solid type: End-of-life Automobiles:

Solid waste predominantly, is any garbage, refuse or rubbish When cars are all old and not working again, where do they
that we make in our homes and other places. These include old end up? Many people just leave them to rust in the fields, but
car tires, old newspapers, broken furniture and even food there is a better way to deal with them. In many cities, these
waste. They may include any waste that is non-liquid. vehicles are sent to the plant, where all the removable parts are
taken out for recycling. The rest is flattened up and shredded
Hazardous type: into peices for recycling. The last bits that cannot be used
again is sent to a landfill.
Hazardous or harmful waste are those that potentially threaten
public health or the environment. Such waste could be Industrial sources of waste:
inflammable (can easily catch fire), reactive (can easily
explode), corrosive (can easily eat through metal) or toxic Since the industrial revolution, the rise in the number of
(poisonous to human and animals). In many countries, it is industries manufacturing glass, leather, textile, food,
required by law to involve the appropriate authority to electronics, plastic and metal products has significantly
supervise the disposal of such hazardous waste. Examples contributed to waste production. Take a look at the things in
include fire extinguishers, old propane tanks, pesticides, your home, every item there was probably manufactured and
mercury-containing equipment (e.g, thermostats) and lamps possibly, waste was produced as a result.
(e.g. fluorescent bulbs) and batteries.
Construction/demolition sources of waste:
Organic type:
Construction waste is that resulting from the construction of
Organic waste comes from plants or animals sources. roads and building. Sometimes old buildings and structures are
Commonly, they include food waste, fruit and vegetable peels, pulled down (demolished) to make space for new ones. This is
flower trimmings and even dog poop can be classified as particularly common in old cities that are modernizing. This is
organic waste. They are biodegradable (this means they are called demolition waste.
easily broken down by other organisms over time and turned
into manure). Many people turn their organic waste into Waste items include concrete debris, wood, earth, huge
compost and use them in their gardens. package boxes and plastics from the building materials and the
like.
Recyclable type:
Electronic sources of waste:
Recycling is processing used materials (waste) into new,
useful products. This is done to reduce the use of raw This is waste from electronic and electrical devices. Think of
materials that would have been used. Waste that can be DVD and music players, TV, Telephones, computers, vacuum
potentially recycled is termed "Recyclable waste". Aluminum cleaners and all the other electrical stuff in your home. These
products (like soda, milk and tomato cans), Plastics (grocery are also called e-waste, e-scrap, or waste electrical and
shopping bags, plastic bottles), Glass products (like wine and electronic equipment (WEEE)
beer bottles, broken glass), Paper products (used envelopes,
newspapers and magazines, cardboard boxes) can be recycled Some e-waste (like TV) contains lead, mercury, cadmium, and
and fall into this category. brominated flame retardants. These are harmful to humans and
the environment. It is therefore important that the right
Sources of waste authorities ensure the proper disposal of such waste.

Municipal sources of waste:

This includes trash or garbage from households, schools,

offices, market places, restaurants and other public places.

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 LECTURE in EARTH SCIENCE Direct dumping of untreated waste in rivers, seas, and lakes
Quarter 1 – Week 7 results in the accumulation of toxic substances in the food
Explain how different types of waste affect people’s health chain through the plants and animals that feed on it.
and the environment
S11ES-Ii-j-20 Disposal of hospital and other medical waste requires special
attention since this can create major health hazards. This waste
Health impacts of solid waste generated from the hospitals, health care centres, medical
laboratories, and research centres such as discarded syringe
Modernization and progress has had its share of disadvantages needles, bandages, swabs, plasters, and other types of
and one of the main aspects of concern is the pollution it is infectious waste are often disposed with the regular non-
causing to the earth – be it land, air, and water. With increase infectious waste.
in the global population and the rising demand for food and
other essentials, there has been a rise in the amount of waste Waste treatment and disposal sites can also create health
being generated daily by each household. This waste is hazards for the neighbourhood. Improperly operated
ultimately thrown into municipal waste collection centres from incineration plants cause air pollution and improperly
where it is collected by the area municipalities to be further managed and designed landfills attract all types of insects and
thrown into the landfills and dumps. However, either due to rodents that spread disease. Ideally these sites should be
resource crunch or inefficient infrastructure, not all of this located at a safe distance from all human settlement. Landfill
waste gets collected and transported to the final dumpsites. If sites should be well lined and walled to ensure that there is no
at this stage the management and disposal is improperly done, leakage into the nearby ground water sources.
it can cause serious impacts on health and problems to the
surrounding environment. Recycling too carries health risks if proper precautions are not
taken. Workers working with waste containing chemical and
Waste that is not properly managed, especially excreta and metals may experience toxic exposure. Disposal of health-care
other liquid and solid waste from households and the wastes require special attention since it can create major health
community, are a serious health hazard and lead to the spread hazards, such as Hepatitis B and C, through wounds caused by
of infectious diseases. Unattended waste lying around attracts discarded syringes. Rag pickers and others who are involved
flies, rats, and other creatures that in turn spread disease. in scavenging in the waste dumps for items that can be
Normally it is the wet waste that decomposes and releases a recycled, may sustain injuries and come into direct contact
bad odour. This leads to unhygienic conditions and thereby to with these infectious items.
a rise in the health problems. The plague outbreak in Surat is a
good example of a city suffering due to the callous attitude of
the local body in maintaining cleanliness in the city. Plastic
waste is another cause for ill health. Thus excessive solid
waste that is generated should be controlled by taking certain
preventive measures.

The group at risk from the unscientific disposal of solid waste

include – the population in areas where there is no proper
waste disposal method, especially the pre-school children;
waste workers; and workers in facilities producing toxic and
infectious material. Other high-risk group include population
living close to a waste dump and those, whose water supply
has become contaminated either due to waste dumping or
leakage from landfill sites. Uncollected solid waste also
increases risk of injury, and infection.

In particular, organic domestic waste poses a serious threat,

since they ferment, creating conditions favourable to the
survival and growth of microbial pathogens. Direct handling
of solid waste can result in various types of infectious and
chronic diseases with the waste workers and the rag pickers
being the most vulnerable.

Exposure to hazardous waste can affect human health,

children being more vulnerable to these pollutants. In fact,
direct exposure can lead to diseases through chemical
exposure as the release of chemical waste into the
environment leads to chemical poisoning. Many studies have
been carried out in various parts of the world to establish a
connection between health and hazardous waste.

Waste from agriculture and industries can also cause serious

health risks. Other than this, co-disposal of industrial
hazardous waste with municipal waste can expose people to
chemical and radioactive hazards. Uncollected solid waste can
also obstruct storm water runoff, resulting in the forming of
stagnant water bodies that become the breeding ground of
disease. Waste dumped near a water source also causes
contamination of the water body or the ground water source.

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